18 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers 1 Received: 19th April 2021; revised: 4th January 2022; accepted: 7th January 2022 The Effect of Entrepreneurial Education and Culture on Entrepreneurial Intention Hiba KAYED, Amro AL-MADADHA, Abdelraheem ABUALBASAL Princess Sumaya University for Technology, Department of Business Administration, Amman, Jordan, hiba.kayed96@gmail.com, a.almadadha@psut.edu.jo, a.abualbasal@psut.edu.jo Background/Purpose: Entrepreneurial education can have a positive effect on entrepreneurial intention of univer- sity students, yet universities in Jordan still do not direct their attention to invest in Entrepreneurial education. This study aims to investigate the effect of entrepreneurial education and Culture on entrepreneurial intention through psychological empowerment of university students. Methodology: A questionnaire was distributed to a sample of 220 university students in Jordan who take any course in entrepreneurship. Data were analysed and hypotheses were tested through Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Results: The analysis of the study showed that; entrepreneurial education has a significant influence on psycho- logical empowerment, psychological empowerment has a significant influence on entrepreneurial intentions, culture has a significant influence on psychological empowerment, entrepreneurial education has a significant influence on entrepreneurial intention and culture has a significant influence on entrepreneurial intention. The results of the study answer the calls of previous research to examine the role of culture and psychological empowerment in entrepre- neurial education to affect entrepreneurial intention. Conclusion: Universities in Jordan should focus more on entrepreneurial education by psychologically empowering students to increase their intentions towards entrepreneurship. This study contributes to the existing literature by providing a better understanding of the relationship between entrepreneurial education and entrepreneurial intention through culture and psychological empowerment. Keywords: Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurial education, Entrepreneurial intention, Culture, Psychological empow- erment DOI: 10.2478/orga-2022-0002 1 Introduction New venture’s creation plays a vital role in global economies since it decreases unemployment levels and provides revenue for countries. Henceforth, the degree to which a country has the capability to perform innovatively is related to the presence of entrepreneurial activity (Piper- opoulos, 2012). Worldwide there is an increasing problem of unemployment for graduating students as it has been shown that entrepreneurship can be the strategic option to solve this problem. Recently, Entrepreneurship has prov- en to be a crucial element of revolution of the brand-new international economy especially during the challenges of high unemployment rates which lead economies especially students to engage more in entrepreneurial activities (An- war & Abdullah, 2021). It is important to focus on entrepreneurial education for university students since it provides them with the needed knowledge and skills and encourage them to change their beliefs and attitudes towards starting their own businesses by giving them the needed knowledge and skills to become entrepreneurs (Raposo & do Paço, 2011). Entrepreneur- ship has proved to be a solution for economic downturns, especially the current COVID-19 crisis that the world is facing which calls for increasing the concern of entrepre- neurial education and creating the entrepreneurship mind- set for students (Maritz et al., 2020). Furthermore, focusing on encouraging and psycholog- ically empowering individuals are important elements to reach entrepreneurial intentions, by eliminating direct and 19 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers indirect obstacles which include the intangible obstacles inside individuals to make them feel conscious of their abilities, overcome barriers and have intentions to become entrepreneurs (Bratnicki et al., 2007). Referring to previous studies (Drost & Mcguire, 2011; Shahab et al., 2019) as the researchers developed frameworks for entrepreneurial education and entrepre- neurial intention by addressing the role of self-efficacy in enhancing intentions. Also, the study of Harun and Mark (2014) focused on highlighting the role of national cul- ture to examine its effect on students’ entrepreneurial in- tentions. Consequently, Jordan is considered a small and developing Middle Eastern country with limited resourc- es and a high number of graduate students, as well as a high rate of unemployment, which has risen from 18.7% in 2018 to 19.2% in 2019 due to the high migration rates from sanctioned countries like Syria. Also, rising to 24.7 percent in 2020 due to the pandemic (Mugableh, 2020). Likewise, the discussion to reform high education in Jor- dan is prospering as it takes into consideration the need for the market by transferring knowledge among universities and industries. Nonetheless, the concept of entrepreneurial education is still considered a new concept in developing countries (Sandri, 2016). Which calls for the necessity to examine it in the context of the current study. To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, none of the previous studies took into consideration the role of psy- chological empowerment that focuses on increasing the internal inspiration for individuals to investigate its rela- tionship between entrepreneurial education and entrepre- neurial intention of university students. Therefore, and in the light of these gaps, the study aims to address the role of culture and psychological empowerment to highlight their effect on entrepreneurial intention. 2 Literature Review The present research is based on multiple theories, first of all, drawing on the bases that Entrepreneurship is based on the Economic Theory which emphasizes that entrepre- neurial activity can be comprehended through the abilities of humans that donate in the achievements and sustainabil- ity of economies (Casson & Casson, 2014). Additionally, psychological empowerment which is derived from the social exchange theory as it contains the real interactions between individuals focusing on the elements that affect the process of human interactions. Similarly, the entrepreneurial education process includes interactions among professors and students to increase stu- dent’s awareness and knowledge about the process to initi- ate their own businesses (Bae, Qian, Miao, & Fiet, 2014). In the 1970’s Geert Hofstede published his cultur- al model, and it is considered a turning point concept, a beginning, a base theory that assists in constructing the examination of cross-cultural theory, and one of the best models that explained the behaviour of individuals (Si- vakumar & Nakata, 2001). It has been shown that culture has an impact on the psychological development of indi- viduals (Hofstede & Bond, 1984). In return, the intention of individuals towards Entrepreneurship varies across dif- ferent societies due to the different aspect of culture that distinguishes each country from other countries around the world (Urban & Ratsimanetrimanana, 2015). Based on the previously mentioned theories, specifi- cally the social exchange theory as it has been the focus of conducting the research model because in the process of entrepreneurial education for university students the pro- fessor interacts with these students and share knowledge with them in order to generate intentions towards entre- preneurship. Also, interactions with students and psycho- logically empower them can be affected by the beliefs and values generated form their culture, which also includes interactions between individuals in the same society to exchange views, thoughts, and norms that can affect de- veloping entrepreneurial intentions and lead to actions of actual start-ups. 2.1 Entrepreneurial Education Entrepreneurial education is known as the process of informing and educating students to build their capabilities in order to initiate their own business (Lackéus, 2017). It contains any educational or informational course about the activities of entrepreneurship that aim to increase student’s awareness and knowledge about the process to initiate their own businesses. As it increases student’s entrepreneurial abilities and influences their entrepreneurial perceptions (Bae et al., 2014). As it has been shown that an individual, specifically a student, needs to have a solid background concerning entrepreneurial education in order to execute entrepreneurship in a professional manner reducing risks. Entrepreneurial education in universities need to include up to date courses and practical experience to generate their intentions toward becoming entrepreneurs (Alshe- bamia et al., 2020). In Jordan, the governmental policies modified the educational schemes to enhance student’s abilities, crea- tivity, and innovativeness. Nevertheless, in Jordanian uni- versities there is a lack of a suitable educational offering and subjects that guides the mentality of entrepreneurship (Mehtap, 2014). Moreover, universities in Jordan do not only teach some courses of entrepreneurship, but eight of them have entrepreneurship and innovation centers inside the campus, such as Princess Sumaya University for Technology (PSUT), Al Yarmouk University, and the Hashemite University. On the other hand, none of the universities have a department for entrepreneurship nor an undergraduate degree concerning entrepreneurship. It has been shown that teaching the skills of entrepreneur- ship and taking advantage of entrepreneurial education at 20 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers early stages such as schools is low in Jordan, as entrepre- neurship is self-taught by individuals and often done after graduation. Lastly, entrepreneurial education in Jordan is considered adequate but more efforts need to be executed in the processes of implementing entrepreneurial educa- tion (Alakaleek, 2019). 2.2 Psychological Empowerment It is known as creating and communicating power of influencing the beliefs and attitudes of individuals (Iqbal et al., 2020). It is known as the process of increasing the in- ternal inspiration for individuals by identifying some cog- nitive factors that reflect the way people view their duties in the job they perform. These cognitions include mean- ing, competence, self- determination, and impact (Zhu et al.,2012). Meaning is known as the extent to which an individual perceives his work as valuable (Zhu et al., 2012). Com- petence expresses the consciousness which the individu- al has that he/ she can achieve a mission efficiently and effectively (Siegall & Gardner, 2000). Self-Determination is the degree to which a person has the autonomy to ac- complish missions according to his own direction (Avolio et al.,2004). The last dimension of psychological empow- erment is Impact, it is known as the belief of a person that the work he accomplishes has a vital and crucial transfor- mation by influencing and making a difference in the job he/ she performs and in the results of the organization he works in (Spreitzer et al., 1999). 2.3 Culture Organizational culture is a fundamental element of any organization as it represents the behaviors, mutual visions, and values that participate in creating the environment of an organization (Warrick, 2017). While national cul- ture which is the focus of this study, is known as the way individuals in a specific culture speak, dress, think, and have norms and beliefs (Kaur and Chawla, 2016). Another definition reflects culture as a form of programming the minds of members, which differentiates individuals across societies (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2010). Culture of socie- ties is considered a vital factor of entrepreneurial activities locally, since it impacts standards, morals and thoughts, thus emphasizing appropriateness of behaviours for indi- viduals in the society (Lortie et al., 2019). Moreover, dif- ferences in cultures have been highlighted clearly in the cultural model of Geert Hofstede as he conducted a study in the IBM company, implemented the analysis around 40 nations, and came up with cultural dimensions (Wu, 2006). Hofstede classified culture into different dimensions such as Power Distance, Collectivism vs Individualism, Mas- culinity vs Femininity, Uncertainty Avoidance and Long- Term vs Short- Term Orientation (Vershinina et al., 2017). The reason for choosing the three dimensions in the study is that as represented in figure 1 which shows that uncertainty avoidance scores 65 which shows that Jordan has high uncertainty avoidance, long- term orientation is 16 which shows that Jordan has short-term orientation and masculinity is 45 which indicates that Jordan is a feminine culture. Figure 1: Hofstede’s insight Jordan (Source: www.hofstede-insights.com) In this study the dimensions that have been chosen from the cultural model of Hofstede are (uncertainty avoidance, Masculinity vs Femininity, long-term vs short- term orientation) referring to figure 1 depending on the scores of each dimension. As shown that in Jordan people have a high level of uncertainty avoidance, likewise soci- eties that have a high level of uncertainty avoidance, have less tendency for entrepreneurship behaviour and a lower probability of individuals to be independently employed (Yukongdi & Lopa, 2017). As showing that Jordan is a feminine culture where in feminine cultures individuals appreciate the superiority of life and focus more on relations as they tend to have persistence, shared authorization, accomplishment, and team building so that they are more capable of collecting resources and building networks (Hofstede, 2019). 21 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers According to long-term orientation, Jordan is as short- term oriented culture that tends to have constancy, they are attached to traditions, and focus on the present and past events rather than planning for the future as they are less likely to devote enough time for entrepreneurial activities (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2010). 2.4 Entrepreneurial Intention Intention means the extent that an individual creates an assessment towards a specific behaviour, likewise the higher the level of positivity regarding the consequences of initiating a start-up, the higher the favourability of ex- ecuting the action (Joensuu-Salo et al., 2015). Moreover, entrepreneurial intention is the unquestionable indicator for entrepreneurship action, also comprehending the en- trepreneurial intentions permits instructors, mentors, and decision-makers to have a transparent view of the way an intention can be created and the extent to which the values, insights, and motivations of novel business creators can influence their intention to actually initiate a new venture (Wang et al., 2011). It is important to concentrate on entre- preneurial intentions since it is the predictor and indicator of one’s actual behaviours of entrepreneurship, so as when an individual has an intention to become an entrepreneur it is more likely that he will perform a positive perception about that behaviour and form an actual business. Hence, comprehending the entrepreneurial intentions of students helps in predicting and gives more validation to the up- coming entrepreneurial actions, because when Intention increases, the probability that an action will occur increas- es (Joensuu-Salo et al., 2015). 2.5 Research Model According to the previously mentioned models, the study of Harun and Mark (2014) suggested that further research is needed in the area of entrepreneurial educa- tion, Psychology, and culture. Also, the study of Drost & Mcguire (2011) suggested further studying of entrepre- neurial education with psychological factors and self-ef- ficacy through conducting further quantitative analysis including Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and Con- firmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Which is used to test if the data is consistent with the hypotheses used by the re- searcher. It is also used as a validation of the construct and to evaluate measurements. CFA is considered as powerful evidence of the convergent validity and the discriminant validity. Convergent validity refers to the extent to which several items that make up a construct are related. For a construct to meet convergent validity, all the items should have path coefficients that are greater than 0.6, if unstand- ardized, and 0.4, if standardised (Schumacker & Lomax, 2016). On the other hand, discriminant validity determines the extent of correlation between two or more constructs, and the maximum tolerable covariance is 0.85 (Heck & Thomas, 2015; Loehlin & Beaujean, 2017). Therefore, the researcher integrated the models and in- cluded psychological empowerment in the entrepreneurial education process to address its effect on entrepreneurial intention and culture as an independent variable to have the following model structure shown in Figure 2. Figure 2: Research Model (Source: Developed by the researcher) 22 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers 2.6 Entrepreneurial Education and Psychological Empowerment Entrepreneurial education has a major effect on the be- liefs and values that students have towards entrepreneur- ship since it is an influential and efficient way that delivers an important knowledge base for individuals’ development and enhancing their psychological abilities (Lashgarara et al, 2014). Moreover, entrepreneurial education motivates individuals to become entrepreneurs, as students acquire knowledge and have a better understanding of entrepre- neurship as a future career. This understanding can impact the entrepreneurial intention of individuals (Yukongdi & Lopa, 2017). The process of educating students about en- trepreneurship does not include only giving them instruc- tions about how to track businesses, but also it provides them with a complete system which gives students the power and development to become innovative and seize openings, as a result, improve the economic situation in their countries (Mehtap, 2014). Therefore, it is hypothe- sized: H1: There is a significant relationship between Entre- preneurial education and Psychological empowerment. 2.7 Culture and Psychological Empowerment Psychological empowerment process depends on in- dividual’s interpretation and the way he/she builds values and thoughts since an individual executes additional cog- nitive interpretation that exceeds the interpretation of real- ities. Nevertheless, some individuals might have a feeling that they are not empowered due to their way of interpret- ing facts such as they might have a feeling that they cannot do a task, or the work they do is not valuable, they do not have the freedom to accomplish tasks their own way so that they are afraid to take risks (Focka et al., 2011). To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, as the previ- ous studies did not consider the relationship between cul- ture and psychological empowerment, it has been conclud- ed by the researcher that; when cultures have a low level of uncertainty avoidance they tend to take risks and deal with ambiguous situations so that they can be more psy- chologically empowered, in masculine societies where in- dividuals give worth to competition and accomplishments tend to have a higher level of psychological empowerment and cultures who have long-term orientation look at the fu- ture and have long-term planning and have solid attitudes toward work which makes them more psychologically em- powered. Therefore, it is hypothesized that: H2: There is a significant relationship between Culture and Psychological empowerment. 2.8 Psychological Empowerment and Entrepreneurial Intentions All organizations must inspire individuals to think and act in an innovative way, encourage them to experience creativity in solving dilemmas that might face them, and motivate them to take risks. Moreover, psychological em- powerment has a vital role in encouraging individuals to comprehend their innovative ideas and initiatives. As a re- sult, psychologically empowered individuals have a higher level of innovation and creativity (Bratnicki et al.,2007). It is important to highlight the positive impact of develop- ing and internally empowering individuals (Ertürk, 2012). Likewise, when individuals feel that they have the capabil- ity of pursuing tasks successfully, their intention towards pursuing that task increases (Shahab et al.,2019). There- fore, it is hypothesized that: H3: There is a significant relationship between Psy- chological empowerment and Entrepreneurial intentions. 2.9 Entrepreneurial Education and Entrepreneurial Intention One of the major tools that can boost behaviours of individuals toward entrepreneurship is entrepreneurial education, as it has a strong relationship with increasing intentions. entrepreneurial education provides a variety of information to leverage behaviours of individuals and has a strong impact on student’s tendency to initiate a business. (Hattab, 2014). Entrepreneurial education can also affect the attitudes and beliefs of students, as a result, affecting their entrepreneurial intention and inspire them to become entrepreneurs (Piperopoulos, 2012). It has been shown that students who take entrepreneurial courses, have more self-efficacy than other students who do not take cours- es concerning entrepreneurship, therefore the possibility of having entrepreneurial intention is higher (Sun et al., 2017). Therefore, it is hypothesized that: H4: There is a significant relationship between Entre- preneurial education and Entrepreneurial intention. 2.10 Culture and Entrepreneurial Intention It is crucial to consider culture when discussing entre- preneurial intentions and actions because culture shapes the values, beliefs, and behaviours of individuals about the concept of entrepreneurship. Additionally, culture can en- hance or prevent individuals from having entrepreneurial intentions or conducting entrepreneurial actions in their societies, as it is considered one of the most important factors for entrepreneurs, favourable cultural conditions can influence entrepreneurial intentions (Morrison, 2000; 23 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers Sajjad, Shafi, & Dad, 2012). According to Hofstede’s cul- tural dimensions, cultures with a low uncertainty avoid- ance tend to have more entrepreneurship activities, cul- tures with high masculinity have more entrepreneurship, and cultures that are long-term oriented have higher levels of entrepreneurial activity (Urban and Ratsimanetrimana- na, 2015). Therefore, it is hypothesized that: H5: There is a significant relationship between Culture and Entrepreneurial intention 3 Research Methodology 3.1 Research Approach The deductive approach has been used as the present research tends to examine existing theories and test them, since the deductive approach focuses on a previous and well-established theory to develop hypotheses by following a route from the generic theory to a specified state (Ryan, 2018). This research used already existing theories such as Hofstede’s cultural theory, Psychological Empowerment through the social exchange theory and Entrepreneurship through the economic theory and built hypotheses based on the prior research and knowledge, also the hypotheses have been tested and conclusions have been derived based on testing processes and experimental analysis. 3.2 Research Choice and Data Collection Method The current research used the quantitative approach since it is used for testing theories using the deductive method by having an existing theory, develop and explain hypotheses related to this theory it also emphasizes that the researcher and the research are separate from each other so that the researcher must examine the theory by having no impact on this theory. Moreover, the quantitative method is “experimental” which emphasizes generating hypotheses and research questions, testing them, and verify surround- ing situations to avoid inadequate and unsuitable results (Slevitch, 2011). According to the data collection method, this research used the survey method by distributing questionnaires on- line by using google forms and traditionally by distributing questionnaires to a non-probability convenient sample of 220 university students from 15 different universities in Jordan. The sample focused on students who study entre- preneurship, took or are taking any course related to entre- preneurship. 3.3 Survey Design The survey was designed to include items for the constructs of the model, the items were taken from pre- viously available scales such as entrepreneurial education which combined two scales taken from (Walter & Block, 2016; Souitaris et al., 2007). The scale of psychological empowerment with its four dimensions (meaning, impact, self-determination, and competence) was taken from (Sp- reitzer, 1995). entrepreneurial intention scale was taken from (Linan et al., 2011). And the scale of culture was taken from (Yoo, Donthu & Lenartowicz, 2011). As they created the scale to measure culture at the individual level derived from Hofstede’s scale. The survey included for- ty-two items that measure the variables and four items that include demographics such as the educational level, expe- rience level, gender, and age. The questionnaire used the five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Furthermore, respondents were asked to fill out the survey either online or by distributing the printed questionnaire to them by going to universities and asking them to fill the printed questionnaire and collect them back. 3.4 Reliability Reliability covers important measurements such as errors of measurements, reliability, and consistency. It confirms that the instrument of measuring does not con- tain errors and it provides the same results, also when the measurement error is low, the reliability becomes higher (Scholtes, Terwee, & Poolman, 2018). The reliability of each scale used is as presented in Table 1: Scale Cronbach Alpha Entrepreneurial Education (α = 0.81), (α = 0.88) Psychological Empowerment Ranging from (α = 0.83 to α = 0.87) Entrepreneurial Intention (α = 0.87) Culture Ranging from (α = 0.74 to α = 0.91) Table 1: Survey Design and Scales 24 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers 3.5 Validity The validity of content is known as the degree by which measurements reflect a precise field of information. It is also known as the way by which studies can be consid- ered as means that represent the world and the area of in- formation being studied (Newman, Lim, & Pineda, 2013). In this research, the validity of the content was tested by distributing the questionnaire to professors to make sure that it is easily comprehended by university students. Furthermore, construct validity was used in this re- search which is known as the degree by which conclusions and findings are derived out of the operationalization in the research based on theories and constructs. It is impor- tant to assess construct validity, because by the absence of construct validity, researchers will not be able to predict and confirm the findings, the test results of theories might be inaccurate, and the hypotheses could be rejected due to error in measurements rather than being rejected due to the inadequate theory (Bagozzi, Yi, & Phillips, 1991). Face validity is known as the extent by which recip- ients create judgment for whether the items appropriate- ly measure what they intend to measure (Hardestya & Beardenb, 2004). The items of the questionnaire have been reviewed subjectively, to make sure that they correspond with what the research aims to test. 4 Data Analysis 4.1 Demographic Analysis The respondents of this research have been chosen on the bases of being an appropriate sample with non-obser- vation to make sure their response will remain the same by using questionnaire to eliminate bias in the results. Table 2 presents the results of the demographic analysis: Table 2: Demographics Gender Age Educational Level Experience Level Female 54.55% 18-24 89.5% Undergraduate studies 65.5% Students 73.2% Male 45.45% 25 - 34 9.1% Bachelor’s degree 23.2% Employed 18.6% 35 - 44 1.4% Masters’ degree 11.4% Self-Employed 8.2% 4.2 Reliability Analysis For the study to be considered reliable, it is imperative to test for the reliability of the constructs to find the re- lationship between these constructs. Beaujean (2017) rec- ommend the use of the Cronbach’s alpha for the determi- nation of reliability. Therefore, in this study, reliability has been checked by testing the Cronbach Alpha for each scale of the constructs used in the model as shown in the Table 3: Table 3: Reliability Testing Construct Cronbach’s Alpha N of Items Entrepreneurial Education (EE) 0.915 9 Psychological Empowerment (PE) 0.907 8 Entrepreneurial Intentions (EI) 0.899 6 Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) 0.861 5 Masculinity (MS) 0.868 4 Long-term Orientation (LO) 0.856 6 25 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers From the foregoing, it is evident that none of the re- liability statistics were less than the required minimum threshold of 0.70 and according to Pallant (2013), this confirms that all the constructs used in this study were in- ternally consistent, that is, reliable. 4.3 Descriptive Analysis This section evaluates the perceptions of the respond- ents for each construct. This was done using both meas- ures of central tendency and measures of dispersion, by measuring the mean and the standard deviation. A 5-point Likert scale was used to measure the perceptions by the respondents for each item, with 1 being strongly disagree and 5 being strongly agree. The results (Table 4) show that on aggregate, the con- struct with the highest mean statistic rating was Psycho- logical Empowerment followed by entrepreneurial edu- cation. The third highest rated item was entrepreneurial intentions. On the other hand, of the four constructs, the least rated was culture. While two of the sub-constructs for culture had relatively high mean statistics, uncertainty avoidance and long-term orientation. As a result, Mascu- linity was rated negatively by respondents which indicates they tend to be more feminine. Table 4: Summary Statistics – Aggregate Ratings Construct Mean SD Skew Kurt Entrepreneurial Education (EE) 3.567 .830 -1.243 1.370 Psychological Empow- erment (PE) 3.688 .723 -1.404 2.961 Entrepreneurial Intentions (EI) 3.457 .950 -.802 .101 Culture (CL). 3.315 .635 -.586 1.794 Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) 3.761 .810 -.910 1.328 Masculinity (MS) 2.759 1.091 -.080 -1.103 Long-term Orientation (LO) 3.424 .845 -.921 .814 4.4 Structural Equation Modelling Upon exploring the constructs that had been validated for the study, this section seeks to test the research hypoth- eses that addressed the key research objectives. Since the research constructs were made up of several items, this meant that the study involved the use of latent variables (Byrne, 2012). According to Hancock and Muel- ler (2013), while multiple linear regression can be applied, in this instance, it was not robust for latent variable mod- elling since the scholars argued that Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was the optimal test to use. Narayanan (2012), further argue that the use of multiple regression poses challenges in that it forces variables to be aggregat- ed, thereby failing to account of the individual item effects, which is handled in Structural Equation Modelling. In this regard, the researcher considered the use of Structural Equation Modelling for the testing of the research hypoth- eses above. Nevertheless, the Covariance-Based SEM (CB- SEM) was used in this study due to Byrne (2016) notes that CB- SEM is optimal for sample sizes greater than 200, while VB-SEM is optimal for sample sizes less than 200. Re- garding the multivariate normality, according to Kline (2016) and Hair et al. (2017), for the multivariate normal- ity assumption to be met the multivariate kurtosis must be greater than 7.0, and the critical ratio must be greater than 1.96. And from the outcome, the multivariate kurtosis was 325.243, while the critical ratio was 43.747. In this regard, because the sample size used in this study was 220>200 and that the multivariate normality assumption was met, CB-SEM was done using IBM SPSS Amos v26. The re- sults from the structural equation modelling are presented in Figure 3. In order to test the developed model of the study, the researcher used Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) to test the presented hypotheses. 26 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers Figure 3: Structural Equation Model 27 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers Table 5: Path Coefficients Beta S.E. C.R. P R2 Psychological Empowerment <---Entrepreneurial education .429 .066 6.552 .000 .688 Psychological Empowerment <---Culture .685 .247 4.637 .000 .629 Entrepreneurial Intention <--- Culture .208 .299 2.098 .036 .274 Entrepreneurial Intention <--- Entrepreneurial Education .402 .104 3.788 .000 .353 Entrepreneurial Intention <--- Psychological Empowerment .131 .172 1.997 .045 .654 R 2 .654 From the results (Table 5), it is shown that the beta coefficient for all the hypotheses is positive and p value is less than 0.05. Which indicates that all hypotheses were confirmed; the researcher confirmed that entrepreneurial education had a statistically significant positive effect on psychological empowerment since beta coefficient was 0.429 and (p = 0.000), psychological empowerment had a statistically significant positive effect on entrepreneurial intentions as beta coefficient was 0.131 and (p = 0.045), there is a statistically significant positive relationship be- tween culture and psychological empowerment since the beta coefficient was 0.685 and (p = 0.000), entrepreneurial education had a statistically significant positive effect on entrepreneurial intention as the beta coefficient was 0.402 and (p = 0.000), finally the researcher confirmed that there was a statistically significant relationship between culture and entrepreneurial intention since the beta coefficient was 0.208 and (p = 0.036). The r-square statistic for the link between entrepre- neurial education and psychological empowerment was 0.688, and this meant that 68.8% of the variation in the dependent variable was explained by the independent vari- able, the r-square for the relationship between psychologi- cal empowerment and entrepreneurial intention was 0.654 which meant that 65.4% of the variation in entrepreneurial intention is explained by psychological empowerment. For culture and psychological empowerment, the r-square was 0.629, suggesting a total variance explanation of 62.9%. R-square for entrepreneurial education and entrepreneurial intention was 0.353 which meant that 35.3% of the var- iation in entrepreneurial intention is explained by entre- preneurial education. Finally, culture explained just 27.4% of the variation in entrepreneurial intention. Overall, the r-square statistic was 0.654, and this meant that 65.4% of the variation in the dependent variable was explained by the independent variables. This being a high statistic, which means that the variables considered for this study explained the greatest variance and that the residual var- iance unexplained was as a result of factors beyond the scope of this study. 5 Discussion 5.1 Theoretical Implications The current study contributes to existing research by adding psychological empowerment with its four dimen- sions in the entrepreneurial education process to highlight its effect on entrepreneurial intentions of university stu- dents in Jordan. It is also among the first to link culture as an independent variable with psychological empower- ment using Hofstede’s cultural model to address its effect on entrepreneurial intentions of students, contributing in increasing the awareness of universities and instructors in educating and empowering students as they will increase their interest and invest more in preparing students that are knowledgeable and capable of establishing their own businesses, as a result, the study will contribute in helping Jordan to enhance its economy through entrepreneurship. Five hypotheses were generated to inspect the relationship between variables. This study is an extension to previous studies, as it answers the call of researchers (Anlesinya et al., 2019; Sharma, 2018) as they suggested to study the psychological factor and culture in other contexts and in different nations. This study answers the call of (Drost & Mcguire, 2011; Harun and Mark, 2014). As they suggested focusing on the psychological factor and culture in the process of en- trepreneurial education. Furthermore, this study is the first to add psychological empowerment in the entrepreneurial education process, it is also the first to use culture follow- ing one of the most prevalent cultural models (Hofstede’s cultural model) that provided a better understanding of the 28 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers way individuals behave and how they differ from one cul- ture to another (De Mooij & Hofstede, 2010). By linking culture with psychological empowerment to examine its effect on entrepreneurial intentions of university students. The study provides a complete comprehensive model to combine psychological empowerment and culture as an expansion to the previous studies. It is also the leading study to combine psychological empowerment and culture to examine their effect on entre- preneurial intention in Jordan. Outcomes of this study reveal that culture has a posi- tive effect on psychological empowerment and a positive effect on entrepreneurial intention, as it provides an answer to the suggestion of Harun and Mark (2014) as they sug- gested that the studies of entrepreneurial education should consider culture. Their study has examined the role of some independent variables chief among them is country culture, but without adding psychological empowerment. Also, their study was conducted in four countries (Ameri- ca, China, Belgium, and Turkey). Moreover, other studies (e.g. Anlesinya, Adepoju & Richter, 2019) highlighted the relationship between culture and women’s entrepreneurial intention in the African context specifically in Ghana. As the research suggested to study culture in a different con- text. Though, the current research investigated the effect of culture on entrepreneurial intentions by adding psycholog- ical empowerment and applied it in the Jordanian context. Additionally, the outcomes of the current study un- derline the generalization of the effect of psychological empowerment in a Middle Eastern country (Jordan). Al- though, the previous study of Drost and Mcguire (2011) showed consistent find- ings regarding the relationship between entrepreneurial education and entrepreneurial intention through self-effi- cacy in western cultures. The study of Sharma (2018) focused on studying the effect of culture and Gender on entrepreneurship intentions and was conducted in India, as it suggested for future stud- ies to include the national culture of a specific country to examine its effect on entrepreneurial actions. Correspond- ingly, to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, there were no studies that focused on linking psychological empower- ment with its four dimensions in the entrepreneurial educa- tion process, to examine its effect on entrepreneurial inten- tions of university students within the Jordanian context. 5.2 Practical Implications The model of the current study is developed to exam- ine the effect of entrepreneurial education on entrepreneur- ial intentions as much research are available in this area. To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, the current re- search aims to fill the gaps of the preceding research, as it is an addition to the previous literature by adding psycho- logical empowerment and culture to examine their effect on entrepreneurial intentions. Also, this research is applied to university students in Jordan. Therefore, the developed model of the current research contributes to assist academ- ic entities specifically universities. Entrepreneurial education in Jordan can be improved by adding psychological empowerment to the process, as it has been shown from the findings of the current study that using psychological empowerment in the process of en- trepreneurial education can affect student’s entrepreneurial intentions positively. This suggests that universities and instructors of entrepreneurship courses can focus on in- ternally inspiring and motivating students to make them feel that they have the ability to establish their own busi- ness by training and giving them the freedom to establish business ideas, as it will have a greater impact on their decision of becoming entrepreneurs, rather than focusing only on providing them with theoretical information and knowledge about entrepreneurship. This can be done by conducting training for instructors to change their teaching way by increasing their abilities in empowering and inter- nally inspiring students to motivate them and increase their entrepreneurial intentions. Moreover, by practicing psychological empowerment in the education process, this will affect the cultural back- grounds of students, making them change their beliefs, atti- tudes and decrease the high level of uncertainty avoidance, making them more empowered and capable of establishing their start-ups. This study contributes to changing society’s culture by inspiring the future generation of students and encourage them to take the risk by having creative busi- ness ideas and initiating their start-ups. Furthermore, when entrepreneurial education in Jordan is enhanced by internally inspiring students, this will en- courage them to have their businesses and to choose entre- preneurship as their future profession, rather than focusing on the theoretical side of entrepreneurial education by fo- cusing on providing them with information and knowledge while the student will still hold the same cultural beliefs. Also, it is important to have entrepreneurship under- graduate major as it has many benefits such as providing realistic experiences for students to initiate their business, having a larger number of opportunities, students will learn skills and gain knowledge about the entrepreneuri- al process, and increasing the opportunity and intentions of students to become entrepreneurs (Oosterbeek, et al., 2010). At the same time connecting the entrepreneurship department in universities in Jordan with entrepreneurial incubators in order to provide students with practical ex- perience to expand their knowledge and intentions to start their business. When universities focus on psychological empower- ment in educating students about entrepreneurship, this will increase their intentions of establishing their own businesses, as a result, this will contribute in enhancing the economic situation of Jordan. Due to the reason that 29 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers start-ups play a vital role in developing the economic sit- uation of a country by decreasing unemployment rate and increasing competition in the market by encouraging crea- tivity (Mesnard and Ravallion, 2006). 6 Limitations There are some limitations to this research. First of all, the study has a cross-sectional design that limited the op- portunity to fully comprehend the behaviour of students. It is suggested for future studies to adopt the longitudinal research design to better comprehend the changing inten- tional behaviour of university students. Second of all, the COVID-19 crisis limited the time for the researcher to collect data, as the Government has issued the decision of closing universities which restricted the ability to visit uni- versities to distribute the questionnaire face-to-face as it took more time to collect the data online. Third, the study was conducted in Jordan only. Future studies can validate the model of the study by applying it in other countries in the Middle East such as Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey. Forth, the study focused on entrepreneurial intentions of students and did not investigate the elements beyond the intention, as it is recommended for future studies to add other dependent variables for the model such as start-up action to better understand what’s beyond the intentions of students. Fifth, the small sample size, it is recommend- ed for future studies to have a bigger sample size. Finally, the study used only three dimensions of Hofstede’s model. Future studies can use the whole five dimensions of Hof- stede’s cultural model to better understand the effect of cultural dimensions, as this study used only three of the dimensions. 7 Conclusion Entrepreneurial education is the crucial element now- adays that can differentiate the entrepreneurial behavior of students as it can positively affect their entrepreneurial intention. Admitting to the fact that everyone is living in a society that has its own cultural beliefs and values that contributes to shape the attitudes of individuals, it has been shown that culture can affect the entrepreneurial intention of students. Consequently, to encourage students to have entrepreneurial intentions, an important factor that this study has shed the light on is psychological empowerment by using it in the process of educating students about en- trepreneurship to motivate them and shape their intentions toward entrepreneurship as it also can be affected by their cultural surroundings. The current study aimed to highlight the factors that contribute to shape entrepreneurial intention of students in Jordan by constructing a model to examine the effect of entrepreneurial education and culture on entrepreneurial intentions considering the role of psychological empow- erment. It has been shown that educating students about entrepreneurship by internally motivating them can posi- tively affect influencing their intentions towards entrepre- neurship, the study also highlighted the role of culture in affecting the process of psychologically empowering stu- dents also shaping entrepreneurial intentions. 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Rela- tionships between Transformational and Active Trans- actional Leadership and Followers’ Organizational Identification: The Role of Psychological Empower- ment. Leadership and Organizational Identification, 13(3), 186-212. https://doi.org/10.21818/001c.17899 Hiba Kayed holds a master’s degree in Business En- trepreneurship from Princess Sumaya University for Technology. (PSUT). Worked as a teaching assistant at (PSUT) for two years. Her B.Sc. in E-marketing and social media from (PSUT). Currently working in the busi- ness and e-commerce field. Hiba’s research focuses on entrepreneurship, Culture, management, marketing, and empowerment. Amro Al-Madadha holds a PhD in Management from Cardiff Metropolitan University – United Kingdom, he holds an MBA from New York Institute of Technology. His B.Sc. in Banking Management from Hashemite University Currently, Dr Al-Madadha teaches at Princess Sumaya University for Technology (PSUT) and Amro’s research focuses on leadership, empowerment, creativity, organizational behavior and human resource management. His research has been published at several international journals. Abdelraheem Abualbasal is an Associate Professor at the King Talal School of Business Technology at Princess Sumaya University. He also has served as the dean of the King Talal School of Business Technology; Under his leadership, the business school became the first Business school in Jordan to achieve AACSB accreditation. Dr. Abualbasal is actively engaged in the entrepreneurship ecosystem in Jordan and the region. He is also the Managing Director of Global Entrepreneurship Jordan network (GEN) and has served as the Executive Director of Queen Rania Center for Entrepreneurship. Vpliv podjetniške izobrazbe in kulture na podjetniško namero Ozadje/Namen: Podjetniško izobraževanje lahko pozitivno vpliva na podjetniške namere študentov. Vendar univer- ze v Jordaniji še vedno ne usmerjajo pozornosti k vlaganju v podjetniško izobraževanje. Namen te študije je raziskati vpliv podjetniške izobrazbe in kulture na podjetniško namero s pomočjo psihološkega opolnomočenja študentov. Metodologija: Vprašalnik je bil razdeljen vzorcu 220 univerzitetnih študentov v Jordaniji, ki obiskujejo predavanja iz katerega koli predmeta iz podjetništva. Podatki so bili analizirani in hipoteze preizkušene z modeliranjem strukturnih enačb (SEM) z uporabo Statističnega paketa za družbene vede (SPSS). Rezultati: Analiza študije je pokazala, da; podjetniško izobraževanje pomembno vpliva na psihološko opolnomoče- nje, psihološko opolnomočenje pomembno vpliva na podjetniške namere, kultura pomembno vpliva na psihološko opolnomočenje, podjetniška izobrazba pomembno vpliva na podjetniško namero in kultura pomembno vpliva na podjetniške namere. Rezultati študije so odziv na predloge v prejšnjih raziskavah, da bi preučili vlogo kulture in psihološkega opolnomočenja v podjetniškem izobraževanju pri vplivu na podjetniško namero. Zaključek: Univerze v Jordaniji bi se morale bolj osredotočiti na podjetniško izobraževanje s psihološkim opolnomo - čenjem študentov, da povečajo svoje namere do podjetništva. Ta študija prispeva k obstoječi literaturi z zagotavlja- njem boljšega razumevanja razmerja med podjetniško izobrazbo in podjetniškimi namerami s kulturo in psihološkim opolnomočenjem. Ključne besede: Podjetništvo, Podjetniško izobraževanje, Podjetniška namera, Kultura, Psihološko opolnomočenje 33 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers Appendix: List of Measurement Items EE1-Entrepreneurship program helped me develop my sense of initiative—a sort of entrepreneurial attitude. EE2- Entrepreneurship program helped me to better understand the role of entrepreneurs in society. EE3- Entrepreneurship program made me interested to become an entrepreneur. EE4- Entrepreneurship program gave me skills and know-how that enable me to run a business. EE5- Entrepreneurship program creates my understanding of the attitudes, values, motivations of an entrepreneur (why do entrepreneurs act). EE 6- Entrepreneurship program creates my understanding of the action one needs to take in order to start a business (what needs to be done). EE 7- Entrepreneurship program creates my understanding of the practical management abilities and skills in order to start a new venture (how does one starts a business). EE 8- Entrepreneurship program creates my abilities to create networks (who do you need to need to know). EE 9- Entrepreneurship program creates my ability to identify an opportunity (when to act). Psychological empowerment Meaning M1-The work I do is very important to me. M2-My work activities are personally meaningful to me. M3-The work I do is meaningful to me. Competence C1- I am self-assured about my capabilities to perform my work activities. C2-I have mastered the skills necessary for my job. Self-Determination SD1 -I have significant autonomy in determining how I do my job. SD2 -I can decide on my own how to go about doing my work. SD3-I have considerable opportunity for independence and freedom in how I do my job. Impact IM1-My impact on what happens in my department is large. IM2-I have a great deal of control over what happens in my department. IM3-I have significant influence over what happens in my department. Entrepreneurial Intention EI1 -I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur. EI2 -I will make every effort to start and run my own business. EI3 -I do not have serious doubts about ever starting my own business. EI4 -I am determined to create a business venture in the future. EI5- My professional goal is to be an entrepreneur. EI6 -I have high intention of starting a business. Culture Uncertainty avoidance UA1 -For me it is important to have instructions spelled out in detail so that I always know what I’m expected to do. UA2 - For me it is important to closely follow instructions and procedures. UA3 - For me rules and regulations are important because they inform me of what is expected of me. 34 Organizacija, V olume 55 Issue 1, February 2022 Research Papers UA4- For me standardized work procedures are helpful. UA5 - For me instructions for operations are important. Masculinity MAS1 - For me it is more important for men to have a professional career than it is for women. MAS2 -For me men usually solve problems with logical analysis; women usually solve problems with intuition. MAS3 -For me solving difficult problems usually requires an active, forcible approach, which is typical of men. MAS 4 - For me there are some jobs that a man can always do better than a woman. Long-term orientation LO1- I go on strongly in spite of disagreement (Persistence). LO2- I have Personal steadiness and stability. LO3- I do Long-term planning. LO4 -I give up today’s fun for success in the future. LO5- I work hard for success in the future