U^INKOVITOST AKTIVNIH IN PASIVNIH
METOD MOTORI^NEGA U^ENJA ZA
STABILNOST DINAMI^NIH STEREOTIPOV
PRI PRED-[OLSKIH OTROCIH
13 Bala, G., Hamza, I. (2001). Efficiency of active and passive verbalisation methods of motor learning for the… KinSI 7(1–2), 13–18
Abstract
Active and passive verbalisation, as well as standard
(control) methods of motor learning of gymnastic floor
exercises and compositions, were applied on a sam-
ple of three groups of pre-school children. Motor lear-
ning was practised one hour weekly during two
months and after that the children had a two-month
rest period. The measurements were performed twi-
ce, the first time after the experiment and the second
time after the break. The results of the research sho-
wed that the motor abilities of the children had no
significant influence on the quality of exercise and
composition learning, but that the general motor abi-
lity had a significant influence on the stability of dyna-
mic stereotypes. On the basis of the results of the ca-
nonical discriminant and regression analysis, it was
confirmed that the active verbalisation group had the
best success in learning and memorising, i.e. the most
stable dynamic stereotypes. The passive verbalisation
group came second and the control group had the
poorest results. 
Key words: active and passive verbalisation, motor lear-
ning, dynamic stereotype, pre-school age
Izvle~ek
Aktivna in pasivna verbalizacija ter obi~ajne (kontrol-
ne) metode motori~nega u~enja talnih gimnasti~nih
vaj in sestav so bile preizku{ene na treh skupinah
pred{olskih otrok. Motori~no u~enje je bilo izvajano
dva meseca, po eno uro na teden, potem je sledilo
dva meseca odmora. Meritve so bile izvedene dva-
krat, prvi~ po koncu eksperimenta in drugi~ po odmo-
ru. Rezultati ka`ejo, da motori~ne sposobnosti niso
imele zna~ilnega vpliva na u~enje vaj in sestav, splo-
{na motori~na sposobnost pa je imela zna~ilen vpliv
na stabilnost dinami~nih stereotipov. Rezultati kano-
ni~ne diskriminantne in multiple regresijske analize
so potrdili, da je imela skupina aktivne verbalizacije
najve~ uspeha pri motori~nem u~enju in pomnjenju,
torej najbolj stabilne dinami~ne stereotipe. Skupina
pasivne verbalizacije je bila druga, kontrolna skupina
pa je imela najslab{e rezultate.
Klju~ne besede: aktivna in pasivna verbalizacija, mo-
tori~no u~enje, dinami~ni stereotip, pred{olski otroci
EFFICIENCY OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
VERBALISATION METHODS OF MOTOR
LEARNING FOR THE STABILITY OF
DYNAMIC STEREOTYPES OF PRE-SCHOOL
CHILDREN
Gustav Bala,
Istvan Hamza
(Received: 8.09.2000 - Accepted: 27.06.2001)
Contact address
Istvan Hamza
Semmelweis University – Faculty of Physical Education and Sport
Sciences
XII. Alkotas ut. 44
H-1123 Budapest
Hungary
Phone: +487-9200/1281
E-mail: Hamza@mail.hupe.hu

INTRODUCTION
The most important period of human life for motor
learning and stability of the acquired dynamic ste-
reotypes is between the age of three and ten. In later
period of life motor learning is considerably harder
and with a much lower degree of efficiency (Singer,
1972). The kindergarten is the first institutional form
of education in a child’s life, where the learning of
motor skills should be carried out under the control
of experts (Arnheim, & Pestolesi, 1973). But someti-
mes the experts need help in selecting ways of lear-
ning motor (movement) skills.
One way to improve the teaching of motor skills and
motor behaviour is by using verbal pre-training and
verbalisation during the training. The teachers supply
simple and picturesque word labels to help remind
the children of what to do while executing the tasks.
These word labels can be realised in different songs,
which identify steps in the sequence simply and di-
rectly, and they make preparation for practice and
learning the movement skills much easier. The use of
verbal labels and such verbalisation should be simple,
direct and describing the movement or position the
teacher wants the children to learn. The verbalisation
could be active (children speak or sing loudly the ap-
propriate word labels and songs during exercising) or
passive (listening to a tape with appropriate word la-
bels, songs and descriptions of exercises in a relaxed
position)(Hamza, 1999).
The verbalisation method is linked with a form of vi-
sual imagery (mental practice). The experience of us-
ing imagery is similar to sensory experiences like se-
eing, feeling, and hearing. Imagery usually involves
more than just the visual sense under the influence of
verbal labels and entire verbalisation during motor
learning. With practice, the children can develop the
ability, not only to see the imagined movement skills,
but also to »hear« and »feel» them. Feeling may inc-
lude the sensation of touching, muscular tensions and
forces, and the body’s orientation in space, and in
that way improve much more the entire motor beha-
viour of children, including motor learning (Christina,
& Corcos, 1988).
In this research it was assumed that physical exerci-
sing linked with active and passive verbalisation shor-
tens the learning time and improves the quality of
exercising, which is opposite to learning based only
on physical exercising (Hannaford, 1995). That is be-
cause of better understanding of the logical relations
and emphasis on the main details in exercises and
compositions during motor learning. Beside that, it
was also assumed that such learning would create
more stable dynamic stereotypes during exercising.
When more senses are involved in the learning pro-
cess, we can expect more efficient and durable re-
sults.
The problem of this research was to analyse the effi-
ciency of the active and passive method of verbalisa-
tion during the learning process, as well as the for-
med dynamic stereotype stability of performing
gymnastic floor compositions with different comple-
xities.
The basic purpose of this research was to enable cons-
cious and active participation of pre-school children
in the education process, using relatively new peda-
gogical methods and forms of teaching. All this should
result in more stable stereotypes of exercising and mo-
tor actions, which would make physical education in
the kindergarten more efficient.
METHODS
The sample of subjects
The sample of subjects, 5–7 years of age, was selec-
ted from the kindergartens in Budapest (Hungary).
The sample was divided into three groups: 1) experi-
mental group which learned gymnastic exercises and
compositions by the active verbalisation method, and
consisted of 20 children; 2) experimental group which
learned gymnastic exercises and compositions by the
passive verbalisation method and consisted of 20 chil-
dren; 3) control group which learned the same exer-
cises and compositions by the regular method (only by
physical exercising) and consisted of 40 children. In
all the groups the proportion between girls and boys
was 0.5-0.5.
The sample of gymnastic floor compositions
and motor tests
Three short and one longer (24 units) gymnastic floor
compositions were created. The first three composi-
tions focused on the quality of performing and the
forth one on the speed of learning. The exercise and
composition evaluations were performed according
to a special code of points by three referees.
The first composition consisted of the following exer-
cises: from a rear stand: jump to a straddle position
with arms sideways; forward lean (2s); forward roll to
a sitting position with stretched legs and arms behind
the body; »candle« (2s); rolling forward to a squatting
position; straight stand and scale position (2s) and rear
stand.
The second composition consisted of the following
exercises: from a rear stand: squatting position; back-
ward roll to the shins; jump to a squatting position;
stand up to a rear stand, arabesque (2s); a rear stand.
The third composition: from a rear stand: jump to a
straddle position with the arms sideways; forward lean
(2s); straddle forward rolling (hands between the legs);
jump up into a rear stand, arms circle backwards.
The fourth composition: from the first till the eighth
unit: motions with arms and legs during complete-
14 Bala, G., Hamza, I. (2001). Efficiency of active and passive verbalisation methods of motor learning for the… KinSI 7(1–2), 13–18

body movements; from the ninth till sixteenth unit:
balance positions; from seventeenth till twenty-fourth
unit: rhythm changes during exercising.
It was assumed that motor abilities would influence
the quality of performance and the duration of me-
morised exercises and compositions in different ways.
For that reason, motor abilities were tested before the
experiment, according to a model which was estab-
lished for children, as well as on the results obtained
by Slemin (Kobjakov, 1976). According to that model,
manifestations of the following potential motor abili-
ties were tested:
1) balance – by a vestibular stability test (Slemin-test),
2) explosive strength (power) – by Sargent’s test with
a vertical jump,
3) flexibility – by pelvic girdle flexibility,
4) arm co-ordination – by Slemin umbrella test 1,
5) leg co-ordination – by Slemin umbrella test 2 and
6) general strength – by handgrip.
Short descriptions of the motor tests:
1) Vestibular stability test (Slemin-test). The child sat,
with covered eyes, in an arm-chair, which turned
round six times, and then stood up and leant
against a wall for 2s and walked 4m along a straight
line. The result was the maximal difference bet-
ween the walked line and the guide-line.
2) Sargent’s test with a vertical jump. The child jum-
ped down from a box and linked a vertical jump
to reach a table with the hand. The table had a
scale in cm and the result was the difference bet-
ween the jump-reach and the standing-reach of
the child.
3) Pelvic girdle flexibility. The child stood with the
back against the wall with two tables with scales of
180 degrees and lifted the left or right leg side-
ways. The result was average of four performances
expressed in degrees.
4) Slemin umbrella test 1. The child stood face
against a wall with two tables with the scales of
30, 45, 90 and 135 degrees, and lifted the arms si-
deways in every position. After that, the child
stood with the back against the wall and lifted the
arms sideways in the same memorized positions.
The result was the sum of the differences in de-
grees.
5) Slemin umbrella test 2. The child stood against the
wall with two tables with the scales of 30 degrees,
and lifted the left and right leg sideways. The re-
sult was the difference between the lifted and 30
degree positions.
6) Hand grip. The child gripped a child dynamome-
ter with left and right hand in a standing position.
The result was the average between the grips of
both hands.
The children who used the passive verbalisation met-
hod, which consisted of learning a song with the text
in order to memorise exercises and compositions, li-
stened to a tape with songs and descriptions of exer-
cises and compositions in a relaxed position for 5 mi-
nutes before the end of physical education class. The
exercises for muscle contraction and relaxation were
incorporated into a game in the main part of the class.
The active verbalisation method consisted of the fol-
lowing: a song would be learned by heart and then
the exercises and compositions were demonstrated.
During the demonstration and performance of all
gymnastic material, the children spoke out the text
linked to every detail of the exercise. The text is in
Hungarian, with suitable and melodic words, so the
author considered that it was senseless to translate the
appropriate text into another language, because the
translation could caricature the meanings of the text,
which is in the function of the learning process.
Children in the control group learned the gymnastic
exercises and compositions in the regular way, with a
teacher’s explanation and demonstration. After that
the children started exercising.
The experiment was performed for two months, du-
ring regular physical education classes for all three
groups. At the end of the second month, three refe-
rees evaluated the performance of the exercises and
compositions. After the evaluation, the children had
a two-month break. During the break the children
didn’t perform gymnastic compositions, and at the
end of the break the same referees evaluated the
compositions again. At the same time the second mo-
tor testing was performed, using the same tests as at
the beginning of the experiment.
Data analysis
In order to determine the differences between the
three groups of children in motor variable space, ca-
nonical discriminant analysis was applied. In order to
examine the significance of the influence of the analy-
sed motor abilities on the performance success of
gymnastic compositions after the two-month motor
learning, as well as the quantitative and qualitative
memorising of gymnastic materials after the two-
month pause, regression analysis was used.
RESULTS
In motor learning of gymnastic exercises and compo-
sitions by way of active and passive verbalisation met-
hods, a significant and positive influence of the chil-
dren’s motor abilities could be expected on the
quality of performance and on the speed of learning
these compositions. If that were correct, then such a
finding would rather decrease the value of the verba-
15 Bala, G., Hamza, I. (2001). Efficiency of active and passive verbalisation methods of motor learning for the… KinSI 7(1–2), 13–18

lisation method effects. Because of this, analyses that
took care of the interaction between motor abilities
and achieved results in learning and performing the
gymnastic compositions, as well as their memorisa-
tion, were used. It should be mentioned, that at the
initial testing of motor abilities the differences bet-
ween the three groups of children were not statisti-
cally significant (Table 1).
From Table 2 we can see that only the first discrimi-
nant function was statistically significant (Q=.00) in
the initial analysis. It explained about 80.5% of the
differences between the three groups of children in
the analysed variable space. The structure of the dis-
criminant factor (function) was composed of all four
variables that evaluated the quality and speed of lear-
ning the floor exercises, and the variable to estimate
vestibular stability. Based on such a structure, the fac-
tor could be defined as «The learning speed and per-
formance exactness of gymnastic compositions on the
floor«.
According to the position of the group centroids on
the first discriminant factor, it could be concluded that
the group which used the active verbalisation met-
hod was significantly the most successful in learning
speed and performing exactness of gymnastic com-
positions on the floor. Less successful children were in
the group which learned by way of passive verbalisa-
tion method, and least successful children were in the
control group. It is very important to point out that
there were no significant contributions by motor abi-
lities to the structure of the first discriminant factor
and that the motor abilities were rather homogenous
in all three groups of children.
Table 3 shows the situation after the two-month pau-
se, when the memorised compositions were re-exa-
mined. The results of discriminant analysis showed
that both discriminant functions were statistically sig-
nificant in describing the differences between the
three groups of children. Interaction of the used va-
riables created a structure in which the gymnastic
compositions and vestibular stability significantly do-
minated. It explained the differences between three
groups of children with 82.3%. As the quality of the
performance of gymnastic compositions was evalua-
16 Bala, G., Hamza, I. (2001). Efficiency of active and passive verbalisation methods of motor learning for the… KinSI 7(1–2), 13–18
Function λ % CR Wilks’ λ
χ2
Q
1 .26 86.79 .45 .76 19.95 .07
2 .04 13.21 .19 .96 2.87 .72
Centroid
V a r i a b l e F1 F2 Group F1 F2
Vestibular stability (balance) -.44 -.07 Active verb. -.27 .32
Sargent’s test (power) .37 -.06 Passive verb. -.68 -.21
Pelvic girdle flexibility (flexibility) .24 .13 Control .48 -.06
Slemin umbrella test 1 (arm co-ordination) .42 .70
Slemin umbrella test 2 (leg co-ordination) .48 -.55
Hand grip (general strength) .35 -.40
Table 1. Canonical discriminant analysis of motor tests before the experiment
Function λ % CR Wilks’ λχ
2
Q
1 .724 80.5 .65 .493 51.22 .00
2 .175 19.5 .39 .851 11.72 .23
V a r i a b l e Structure Group Centroid
First gym. composition -.66 Active verb. -1.166
Second gym. composition -.57 Passive verb. -.418
Third gym. composition -.42 Control .792
Forth gym. composition .39
Vestibular stability  (balance) .31
Pelvic girdle flexibility (flexibility) .22
Hand grip (general strength) .11
Slemin umbrella test 1 (arm co-ordination) -.20
Sargent’s test (power) .19
Slemin umbrella test 2 (leg co-ordination) .10
Table 2. Canonical discriminant analysis at initial testing

ted, as well as the presence of mistakes after the two-
month pause, the first discriminant factor could be
named »Stability of dynamic stereotypes on the floor«.
On the basis of magnitudes and directions of the
group centroids on this factor, it could be concluded
that the group of children who learned the exercises
and compositions by way of active verbalisation met-
hod had statistically significantly the most stable dyna-
mic stereotypes; in other words, those children recal-
led the exercises and compositions best. This proved
that the active verbalisation method was the most suc-
cessful one. The control group of children showed the
poorest results.
The second discriminant factor could be named »In-
tensity of motor unit excitation«, as it was significantly
defined only by the variables for estimating explosive
strength (power) and strength of hand grip. On this
factor, the best results were shown by the children
from the group on which the passive verbalisation
method was applied, and the poorest results by chil-
dren from the group who learned by way of the acti-
ve verbalisation method.
At the initial testing and evaluation there was no evi-
dence of a statistically significant influence of motor
abilities on the quality and speed of gymnastic exer-
cises and composition learning. After the analysis of
the motor and gymnastic variables at final testing and
evaluation, the presence of the influence of motor va-
riables on the quality of performance and stability of
performance and stability of created dynamic ste-
reotypes after two-month pause was noticed. For that
reason the regression analyses were reapplied to ev-
ery gymnastic composition on the floor. The main re-
sults of those analyses are in table 4.
The results suggest that there was a statistically signi-
ficant influence of motor abilities on all four criterion
variables (gymnastic compositions) (Q=.01). The mo-
tor variable for estimating vestibular stability was the
most important and positive in all realisation of the
gymnastic compositions on the floor. In the perfor-
mance of the second and third gymnastic composi-
tion, flexibility of the pelvic girdle had a significant
and positive role. The other motor variables didn’t inf-
luence statistically significantly the realisation of the
17 Bala, G., Hamza, I. (2001). Efficiency of active and passive verbalisation methods of motor learning for the… KinSI 7(1–2), 13–18
Function λ % CR Wilks’ λχ
2
Q
1 1.579 82.3 .78 .289 89.88 .00
2 .340 17.7 .50 .746 21.20 .01
V a r i a b l e Structure Centroid
F1 F2 Group F1 F2
Forth gym. Composition .66 .13 Active verb. -1.50 -.71
Third gym. Composition -.51 .05 Passive verb. -.94 .89
Vestibular stability  (balance) .47 -.16 Control 1.22 -.01
Second gym. Composition -.46 -.22
First gym. composition .42 .06
Sargent’s test (power) .03 .48
Hand grip (general strength) .12 .46
Pelvic girdle flexibility (flexibility) .06 -.24
Slemin umbrella test 1 (arm co-ordination) .01 -.16
Slemin umbrella test 2 (leg co-ordination) .06 .06
Table 3. Canonical discriminant analysis at final testing
V A R I A B L E 1
st
composition 2
nd
composition 3
rd
composition 4
th
composition
β q β q β q β q
Vestibular stability test -.41 .00 -.41 .00 -.40 .00 .35 .00
Explosive strength .11 .29 .16 .11 .11 .25 .02 .84
Pelvic girdle flexibility .18 .08 .29 .00 .32 .00 -.04 .73
Arm co-ordination -.05 .65 -.09 .40 .07 .50 .12 .30
Leg co-ordination -.06 .57 -.03 .80 -.08 .44 .12 .30
General strength -.07 .52 .00 .96 .05 .60 .03 .81
Q = .00 Q = .00 Q = .00 Q = .01
Table 4. Influence of motor abilities on the stability of dynamic stereotypes

exercises and compositions on the floor after the two-
month pause.
DISCUSSION
The group which used the active verbalisation method
was significantly the most successful in learning speed
and performance exactness of gymnastic composi-
tions on the floor, less successful children were in the
group which learned by way of the passive verbalisa-
tion method, and least successful children were in the
control group. The active verbalisation method crea-
ted the situation where the children developed the
ability to involve more senses (auditory, imagery, tac-
tile, muscular tensions and forces). In this way they
developed better body’s orientation in space and ba-
lance, which were very important abilities in perfor-
ming the floor compositions. It is very important to
point out, that at the end of motor learning there were
no significant contributions by motor abilities to the
effects of the learning process. The children develop
their motor skills and the necessary motor abilities
mutually, but it is very difficult to define the participa-
tion of every single factor in the result of motor test (Pi-
{ot, 1997).
The results of the research showed that the group of
children who learned the exercises and compositions
by way of the active verbalisation method had stati-
stically significantly the most stable dynamic stereoty-
pes and they recalled the exercises and compositions
best. This proved that the active verbalisation method
could be use to retain motor performance of pre-
school children. That means that by using the active
verbalisation method the teachers could improve
short-term and long-term memories. They also could
create situations when learning and performing mo-
tor skills helped the children to:  rehearse and repeat
what they see, hear, and practice; group and recode
information to enhance memory; broaden their mo-
tor experience. All that lead to the way of achieving
the goal where short- and long-term memory interact
in a co-operative way. 
The fact that there was a statistically significant inf-
luence of motor abilities on all four criterion variab-
les (gymnastic compositions) means that for small chil-
dren the general motor ability is very important for
memorising and realisation of learned compositions
on the floor. In other words, there is a statistically sig-
nificant influence of the general motor factor on the
stability of dynamic structures. A better general mo-
tor factor will create better and more stable dynamic
stereotypes, which will retain their quality even after
longer pauses, with fewer mistakes in their realisation.
That the motor variable for estimating vestibular sta-
bility had the most important influence on all four cri-
terion variables (gymnastic compositions on the floor)
was an expected result, because the compositions
were performed with restricted locomotion in a limi-
ted space on the floor. In such performance the posi-
tion of arms, legs, as well as the position of trunk, in
relation to the vertical body axis, had a very important
role. Every deviation from the axis should be symme-
tric and balanced and the vestibular system, with re-
ference to the vestibular stability of children during
exercising on floor, is responsible for this. The impor-
tance of flexibility of the pelvic girdle showed that the
children with good pelvic girdle flexibility, with longer
amplitudes and extended legs, executed better and
nicer exercises in the compositions.
CONCLUSIONS
According to obtained results in the research, it can
be concluded that the applied active verbalisation
method of gymnastic exercise and composition lear-
ning showed the best results. It was proven that the
children who learned by way of active verbalisation
were aware of the tasks, which had a controlled and
active influence on motor learning. The structure of
every composition was determined by words, by the
order of exercises in the composition and the rhythm
of the performance. All this resulted in a much better
execution technique. By using the active verbalisa-
tion method, the correct motor performance of the
exercises became better and more stable, and in an
indirect way the mistakes were eliminated. Consci-
ous and willing verbalisation accelerated motor lear-
ning and improved the memorising and the stability
of the formed dynamic stereotypes during the motor
learning process, respectively.
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