MEDNARODNA REVIJA
ZA
JAVNO UPRAVO
International Public Administration Review
Univerza v Ljubljani Fakulteta za upravo
Letnik 15, številka 2, junij 2017 Volume 15, Number 2, June 2017
ISSN 2335-3414 (printed ed.) ISSN 2385-9717 (on-line ed.)
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo je znanstvena revija, ki združuje različne discipline, povezane z javno upravo. Obravnava teoretična in praktična vprašanja ter rešitve s področja javne uprave, upoštevajoč upravne, pravne, ekonomske, organizacijske in informacijske vidike delovanja in razvoja javne uprave.
The International Public Administration Review's mission is to inform the expert public about theoretical and practical issues and solutions in the field of public administration, the present key trends in public administration development both globally and in Slovenia, and to inform readers of major events, consultations, meetings and publications related to public administration.
izdajatelj / publisher
Fakulteta za upravo Univerze v Ljubljani / Faculty of Administration, University of Ljubjana naslov uredništva / address of editorial board
Fakulteta za Upravo Univerze v Ljubljani Gosarjeva 5, SI-1000 Ljubljana tel.: +386 (0)1 5805-500 faks: +386 (0)1 5805-521 e-pošta / e-mail: mrju@fu.uni-lj.si
spletna stran / website: http://www.fu.uni-lj.si/zalozba/mednarodna-revija-za-javno-upravo/
odgovorna urednica / editor
Stanka Setnikar Cankar
uredniški odbor / editorial board
Aleksander Aristovnik, Manica Danko, Mitja Dečman, Nevenka Hrovatin, Maja Klun, Polonca Kovač, Alenka Kuhelj, Anamarija Leben, Primož Pevcin, Rajko Pirnat, Iztok Rakar, Janez Stare, Metka Tekavčič, Ljupčo Todorovski, Mirko Vintar mednarodni uredniški odbor / international editorial board
Jon Aarum ANDERSEN (Örebro University, Sweden), Stephen BAILEY (Glasgow Caledonian University, Great Britain), Helena BLAŽIC (Ekonomski fakultet Rijeka, Sveučilište u Rijeci, Croatia), Robert B. DENHARDT (University of Southern California, USA), Mirjana DRAKULIC (Fakultet organizacionih nauka, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Serbia), Jürgen HARBICH (München, Germany), Calin HINTEA (Faculty of Political, Administrative and Communication Sciences, Babes Bolyai University, ClujNapoca, Romania), Gyorgy JENEI (Budapesti Corvinus Egyetem, Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary), Theo P.W.M. van der KROGT (EAPAA, European Association for Public Administration Accreditation, The Netherlands), Kveta KUBATOVA (University of Economics Prague, The Czech Republic), Margaret LINEHAN (Cork Institute of Technology, The Republic of Ireland), Paolo MANCINI (University of Perugia, Italy), Tankiso MOLOI (University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa), Alka OBADiC (Faculty of Economics and Business, Zagreb, Croatia), Katarina OTT (Institut za javne financije, Zagreb, Croatia), Mirko PEJANOVIC (Fakultet političkih nauka Sarajevo, Univerzitet u Sarajevu, Bosnia and Herzegovina), Heinrich REINERMANN (Deutsche Hochschule für Verwaltungswissenschaft, Speyer, Germany), Walter SCHERRER (Economics Institute, University of Salzburg, Austria), Željko ŠEVIC (Glasgow Caledonian University, Great Britain), John TAYLOR (Glasgow Caledonian University, Great Britain), Neda VITEZlC (Ekonomski fakultet Rijeka, Sveučilište u Rijeci, Croatia), Jacques ZILLER (Università di Pavia, Facoltà di Scienze Politiche, Italy)
tehnično uredništvo / tehnical editor
Nataša Svržnjak oblikovanje / design
Branka Smodiš prelom / text design
Anamarija Leben lektoriranje / editing
Prevajalska agencija Julija Dean Zagorac s. p.
tisk / print
Demat d. o. o. ISSN
2335-3414 (printed ed.) 2385-9717 (on-line ed.) naklada / edition
50 izvodov / copies
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo je indeksirana v mednarodnih bazah / The International Public Administration Review is indexed and abstracted in
-	CSA-Worldwide Political Science Abstracts
-	CSA PAIS International (Public Affairs Information Service)
-	ECONLIT
-	EBSCO Publishing
-	EGPA - PA@BABEL
-	ERIH PLUS
-	IBSS - International Bibliography of the Social Sciences
-	PROQUEST
-	IPSA - International Political Science Abstracts
-	SSRN - Social Science Research Network
Revija je članica CrossRef / The journal is a CrossReff member
http://www.crossref.org/
Vsi članki v Mednarodni reviji za javno upravo so recenzirani. / All articles are peer-reviewed.
Revija izhaja trikrat letno, ena številka je tematska, dvojna. / The journal is published three times a year, one issue is thematic as a special double issue.
E-izdaja revije je prosto dostopna na / E-edition is available at
http://www.fu.uni-lj.si/zalozba/mednarodna-revija-za-javno-upravo/arhiv-stevilk/
Več informacij o naročnini na tiskano izdajo na / More information about subscription to printed edition at
http://www.fu.uni-lj.si/zalozba/mednarodna-revija-za-javno-upravo/narocilnica/
Uredniška politika je dostopna na / Editorial Policy is available at
http://www.fu.uni-lj.si/zalozba/mednarodna-revija-za-javno-upravo/
Ponatis in razmnoževanje brez pisnega dovoljenja založnika nista dovoljena. / No portion of the contents may be reproduced in any form without written permission from the publisher.
Izdajanje revije finančno podpira Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost RS (ARRS).
vsebina / contents
Stanka Setnikar Cankar 7 Uvodnik / Editorial
Mitja Dečman
11 A Model of Digital Inequality in the Knowledge Society: The Case of Slovenia
38 Model digitalne neenakosti v družbi znanja: primer Slovenije
1.01 Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek
Sonja Belac, Katarina Košmrlj, Mirko Markič 41 Organizacijska kultura v izbrani pravni osebi javnega sektorja
59 Organisational Culture in Selected Legal Entity in Public Sector
1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek/ Original scientific article
Tankiso Moloi
79 A Review of Risk Management Planning and Reporting in South Africa's Public Institutions
91 Pregled načrtovanja in poročanja o obvladovanju tveganj v javnih institucijah Južne Afrike
1.01 Original scientific article / Izvirni znanstveni članek
Dobruša Lipovž, Melita Moretti 93 Analiza kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu
119 Analysis of Professional Training in Business Digitalisation at a Selected Public Institute
1.02 Pregledni znanstveni članek/Review article
Anton Olaj
145 Pomisleki in dileme o normativnem okviru instituta pomilostitve
156 Scruples and Dilemmas of the Institute of Clemency Regulatory Framework
1.02 Pregledni znanstveni članek/Review article
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 1S, št. 2/2Q17 5
Uvodnik
Spoštovani,
v novi številki Mednarodne revije za javno upravo boste med drugim lahko prebrali prispevek, v katerem avtorji nadaljujejo razpravo o organizacijski in upravni kulturi v povezavi s pristopi v javni upravi, z managementom sprememb in strateškim managementom v organizacijah javne uprave. Empirični del razišče obstoječo in želeno organizacijsko kulturo ter obstoj odpora do sprememb v izbrani organizaciji javne uprave in podaja predloge za morebitno izboljšanje,
Zanimiva je kvantitativna analiza kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu. Analiza je pokazala, da se pričakovana kakovost usposabljanja na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu statistično značilno razlikuje od dejanske zaznane kakovosti. Istočasno avtorji navedejo, da je dejavnik »zanesljivost izvajalca in predavatelja« pozitivno povezan z zadovoljstvom udeležencev teh usposabljanj.
Članek opozarja na potrebo po kakovosti izobraževanja na vseh ravneh, Današnja družba zahteva dinamične zaposlene, ki so sposobni ustvarjati ideje, jih razvijati in udejanjati, se odzivati na spremenjene okoliščine in se učiti na napakah. Hkrati svet učenja in študija mladih postaja vse bolj kompleksen in drugačen od tradicionalnega poučevanja na vseh stopnjah izobraževanja. To izhodišče nas pripelje do vprašanja filozofije edukacije, ki predstavlja eno od najpomembnejših komponent vsakega edukacijskega sistema, saj osmišlja odločitve in delovanje ter vpliva na vse elemente edukacijskega procesa. Z zgodovinskega vidika so edukacijske filozofije vedno odsevale socialne, ekonomske in politične vidike družbe, saj želijo izboljšati edukacijski proces in dosežke diplomantov, ustvariti boljše in boljproduktivne državljane ter vplivati na razvoj družbe.
Ker je kakovost poučevanja eden od najpomembnejših dejavnikov učenja v šolah na vseh stopnjah izobraževanja, se ni dovolj ukvarjati le z vprašanji, kaj morajo učitelji delati, temveč tudi s tem, kaj zares počnejo in zakaj je tako. Znanje torej ni neka objektivna, izmerljiva danost, zapisana v študijskih načrtih, ki jo učitelj prenaša slušateljem, temveč rezultat osebne in socialne konstrukcije, pri čemer je kakovost procesa izredno pomembna za kakovost rezultata. Koristi takega učenja je mogoče odkriti šele, ko vrednotenje zajema tudi uporabo znanja in meri kakovost razmišljanja.
V procesu ugotavljanja in zagotavljanja kakovosti na področju izobraževanja imata pomembno vlogo tako proces samoevalvacije kot tudi proces zunanje evalvacije. Obe obliki evalvacije se dopolnjujeta. Če se o procesih samoevalvacije v slovenskem šolstvu vsaj pogovarjamo, pa procesi zunanje evalvacije še nimajo podpore. Tudi avtorji raziskave o upravni kulturi v Sloveniji
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 1S, št. 2/2Q17 7
in izbranih državah EU so ugotovili prisotnost tako tradicionalnih vrednot in vrednot nove kulture kot tudi strah in odpor do sprememb. Zato bo treba še v večji meri vplivati na odločevalce, da sledijo dobrim zgledom iz tujine in pravočasno uvedejo spremembe tudi v slovenski javni sektor,
Odgovorna urednica MRJU Prof. dr. Stanka Setnikar Cankar
8 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 15, No. 2/2017
Editorial
Dear reader,
The new issue of the International Public Administration Review includes a paper in which authors continue the discussion on organisational and administrative culture in relation to approaches in public administration, with change and strategic management in public administration organisations. The empirical part explores the existing and the desired organisational culture and the presence of reluctance for change in the chosen public administration organisation and provides proposals for eventual improvements,
It provides an interesting quantitative analysis of the quality of professional training in digitalisation of operations in the chosen public institute. The analysis has shown that the anticipated quality of training in digitalisation of operations in the chosen public institute shows a statistically significant difference from the actual perceived quality. The authors further note that the factor of "reliability of the provider and lecturer" shows a positive correlation with the satisfaction of the participants of these training courses.
The article points out the need for high-quality training at all levels. Today's society requires dynamic employees, who are able to generate ideas, develop and realise them, react to changed circumstances and learn from their mistakes. At the same time, the youth's world of learning and studying is becoming increasingly complex and different than traditional teaching at all levels of education. This starting point brings us to the issue of philosophy of education, which represents one of the fundamental components of each educational system, as it gives meaning to decisions and actions and affects all elements of the educational process. From the historic point of view, educational philosophies have always reflected the social, economic, and political aspects of a society, as they aim to improve the educational process and graduate achievements, shape better and more productive citizens and affect the development of the society.
As quality of education is one of the most important factors of learning in schools at all levels of education, it is not enough to only address what teachers should do but also what they actually do and why they do it. Knowledge is not an objective and quantifiable feature, which is recorded in study plans and which the teacher passes on to the students. Instead, it is the result of a personal and social construction, whereby the quality of the process is exceptionally important for the quality of the result. The benefits of such learning can only be discovered once knowledge assessment also includes the application of knowledge and measures the quality of thinking.
In the process of establishing and ensuring quality in education, an important role is played by both the self-assessment and the external assessment
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 1S, št. 2/2Q17 9
process. The two forms of assessment complement each other. If self-assessment processes are at least being discussed in the Slovene educational arena, external assessment processes have yet to find support. The authors of the study on administrative culture in Slovenia and chosen EU Member States also established the presence of traditional values and the values of a new culture, as well as fear of and reluctance to change. It is therefore required to influence decision-makers even more, so that they will follow best practices from abroad and introduce changes also to the Slovene public sector on time,
Editor-in-Chief of the international Public Administration Review Prof. Stanka Setnikar Cankar, PhD
10 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 15, No. 2/2017
DOI: 10.17573/ipar.2017.2.01
1.01 Original scientific article
A Model of Digital Inequality in the Knowledge Society: The Case of Slovenia
Mitja Decman
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Administration; Ljubljana, Slovenia
mitja.decman@fu.uni-lj.si
ABSTRACT
The knowledge society defines information technology (IT) as the crucial factor in accessing knowledge today. At the same time, knowledge itself represents the precondition for using technology. This paradox is linked with the concept of digital inequality, which examines the difference between people in society and includes various levels, such as physical access to technology, possession of the skills to use it, social and cultural influences, and relations between and within these levels. Although the phenomenon of digital inequality is at least two decades old, it has an important role even today. The following paper discusses the notion of digital inequality and links it to information technology access and use in the society. Using the results of 1568 questionnaires completed by a representative sample of Slovenian citizens in 2016, it develops a five-level model that indicates the factors influencing the reasons for the inequalities. The results show that the survey misses the top two levels of the model, but indicate that gender differences are diminishing while income differences significantly influence internet availability, digital skills, and IT use. The results suggest changes in policies that countries should implement to achieve digital inclusion for everyone and consequently the highest possible use of IT and the benefits for society that come with it.
Keywords: digital inequality, knowledge society, information society, digital divide, Slovenia
JEL: O33
1 Introduction
Although some authors mark the beginning of the discussion on the information society with the Bangemann Report (Bangemann et al., 1994), the term itself does appear much earlier (Edelstein, Bowes & Harsel, 1978). The introduction of information technology progressed from occurrences in more closed environments in the era of automatisation to the era of informatisation and the spread of personal computers, first appearing in private and subsequently in the public sector, finally becoming a common part of society at large. This expansion and the subsequent convergence
Decman, M. (2017). A model of digital inequality in the knowledge society: The case 11 of Slovenia. International Public Administration Review, 15(2), 11-39.
Mitja Decman
of information and communication technology (ICT) continued in the era of the internet and the World Wide Web. Through the digital transformation, the environment developed to the current state, where the internet practically dictates life and enables things that were possible only in science-fiction movies in the past (Kymalainen, 2016).
The activities of today's society are converging in the direction of non-stop use of information technology (IT) or the constant and silent presence of technology in the 'silent' background, such as the internet of things, big data processing, etc. But society is not homogeneous in this sense. Just as there were differences within the societies of the past, these inequalities persist today in the so-called information society (Yu, 2011), even in the developed and democratic world. This inequality is expressed as digital inequality, which is shown to be a consequence of differences in society and between its residents, and is also the cause of these differences. It is exactly for this reason that we need to think about it today, because the convergence of digital technologies, where 'digital by default' is the mainstream, makes the importance of this issue even greater (Andreasson, 2015, p. 270). This concern is even greater in a global sense, as digital inequalities are connected to the social inequalities of the world. Although knowledge is like light, 'weightless and intangible, it can easily travel the world, enlightening the lives of people everywhere' (World Bank, 1999), many parts of the world are still living in the dark exactly due to digital inequalities,
This paper is focused on today's information society, more specifically on Slovenia, whose current information society status is presented through an analysis of empirical data. Firstly, in the theoretical part we outline the background of digital inequality, discuss the research in this field, and suggest a model of digital inequality. We agree with Misuraca, Codagnone & Rossel (2013) that existing models of digital inequality research lack impact measurements and cannot explain the persistent state of digital inequality along with the obvious advancement of technology and its usage. In the following chapter, we link the topic of digital inequality to the current situation in Slovenia and the strategies that the county is implementing while developing its information society. The fourth chapter includes an empirical research report and an analysis of data from the surveys, using different statistical methods to correlate measured items and detect influencing factors that divide users into different, unequal, groups. In the discussion section, we argue that the results show a situation valid for many developed countries, The influence of gender is diminishing, but the impact of socio-economic status is persistent and significant. We also argue that the suggested model needs to be empirically tested, but we predict that the results would provide a holistic picture of digital inequalities, especially the impact thereof, and would as well provide information to policy-makers to enable them to take the right steps to an all-inclusive information society.
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2 Theoretical Background
The information society started developing in the nineties, when information technology and the emerging internet started to penetrate the wider social environment from the academic and private sectors (Van Dijk & Hacker, 2003). At the same time, the moment coincided with other social, economic, and cultural transformations (Castells, 2011). Ambassadors such as Bangemann and Gore saw the information society as the next serious shift of human society (Bangemann et al, 1994; Loader, 1998, p. 150). The OECD (2010) defined the information society in terms of a conceptual model of the relationship between supply and demand, where the supply side is represented by the IT sector of suppliers, with a clear influence on productivity and GDP, while the demand side is actualised through the use of IT and e-services by citizens and the public and private sectors. Webster (2014, p. 10) saw the information society through a technological, economic, occupational, spatial, and cultural prism, sharing the conviction that quantitative changes in information are bringing about this qualitatively new sort of social system. Misuraca et al. (2013) claim that the information society emerged out of IT use in the realm of firms and then became broadly pervasive in the whole of society, with such use being focussed on the socio-economic impacts. While the private sector is primarily oriented towards monetary measures of IT expenditure, the information society includes the availability, access, adoption, usage, and impact of IT on society as a whole (Misuraca et al., 2013).
Some authors orient their discussion towards the term knowledge society, trying to stress that IT is the fundamental source of knowledge (Karpov, 2017) and 'chiselled' into a social system in such a manner that it represents the foundation of its stability (Stehr, 2007). Knowledge is the key good and power of the individual and causes a revolutionary reshaping of society (Mehmood, Rehman & Haider Rizvi, 2014). At the same time, Duff (2013, p. 174) stresses that many theorists equate the information society with the knowledge society, although knowledge is an upgrade or a higher-level entity than information and they should not be treated as synonyms.
We can agree that knowledge is the power of today's society and the individuals within it. Gaining knowledge depends on the availability of IT and the capability of individuals to use it, which influences their material outcome in the end. Van Dijk (2012) goes even further and claims that the final material state is in fact the beginning and therefore a condition to access ever-new technology and knowledge. While in todays developed world almost anyone can afford at least basic access to the internet, a device to use it on, and has some basic digital skills, there is a much smaller proportion of those who can afford the newest and fastest devices and tools and the highest level of broadband available. These are usually the ones who use the internet in a manner that has a high impact on their material status.
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 15, št. 2/2017 13
Mitja Decman
So-called digitally literate individuals are the crucial element of the knowledge society. These citizens can communicate digitally, use digital sources, are innovative, and create new knowledge and solutions. The idea of a successful information and knowledge society therefore entails ensuring the digital inclusion of each and every individual and consequently his or her welfare, But as Wessles et al. claim (2016), the real transformation to a knowledge society has not yet happened,
2.1	Digital Inequality
Descriptions of the inequality of an individual, organisation, or even a geographic area in the knowledge society is often termed the digital divide, digital inequality, information divide, information poverty, or even knowledge gap (Yu, 2011). Robinson (2012), for example, defines digital inequality as a wider phenomenon compared to the digital divide. The digital divide, as an important parameter of the knowledge society, focuses on differences in the access to and use of information technology and e-services (Servaes & Oyedemi, 2016, p. 27). The phenomenon covers the areas of the private sector, the public sector, and citizens. Tilly (1998) explains it as an inequality as regards resource distribution in a society as the result of competition between pairs of social categories, such as male-female, educated-uneducated, old-young, rich-poor, etc. Some authors define the characteristics of the digital divide as those that separate today's society from the industrial society of the past (Sparks, 2013). According to the OECD definition, the digital divide is the gap between individuals, households, organisations, or geographical areas with different socio-economic levels considering access to information communication technology and use of the internet for different activities (OECD, 2011). Today, some researchers add the aspect of 'motivation to use IT' to the concept of the digital divide (Van Dijk, 2012).
The first researchers of the digital divide focused primarily on the level of unequal access to technology, particularly the internet, and its use (DiMaggio, Hargittai, Celeste & Shafer, 2004). But the concept developed subsequently with the addition of levels such as the inequality of digital skills and literacy together with psychological and socio-cultural limitations and differences (DiMaggio et al., 2004; van Deursen & Van Dijk, 2011; Van Dijk & Hacker, 2003).
2.2	The Levels of Digital Inequality
From the viewpoint of the first level of digital inequality (Figure 1), i.e. unequal access to information technology and the internet, researchers have understood the divide literally as a border between those that have and those that have not, set in the direction of technological determinism (Gunkel, 2003). The first studies on the digital divide showed that access to technology is lower for women, the rural population, older generations, and those with less knowledge and income, which applied to the developed parts of Northern and Western Europe even at the beginning of the 21st century (Van Dijk,
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2005). Even in the United States around the year 2008, 53% of individuals in households with less than USD 30,000 of annual income, 63% of the rural population, 44% of individuals with only lower education, and 35% of those age 65 or older used the internet only occasionally (PEW, 2008). On the other hand, newer studies have shown that households in developed countries with fast broadband access have a greater chance of increasing household income (Rohman & Bohlin, 2013). In OECD countries, a 10 percentage point increase in broadband penetration can increase GDP growth by 0.9% to 1.5% (Czernich, Falck, Kretschmer & Woessmann, 2011). The International Telecommunications Union (ITU), located in Geneva, Switzerland, reports that a huge obstacle to broadband access to the internet is the economic status of the individual (International Telecommunications Union, 2016). The ITU's goal is for the world to achieve a state where the cost of broadband service would be no more than 5% of the average monthly income in developing countries by 2020. In other words, this means that one would have to work 1.5 days each month to cover one's internet subscription, which is still significant, Nonetheless, the research of Weiss et al. (2016) showed that in the countries where the level of income and education is higher, the cost of accessing the internet is also more accessible. Finally, it has been determined that in the developed world access to the internet no longer represents a major obstacle and that we are approaching an era where people will refuse to have internet access only because they want it that way (Van Dijk, 2012).
Figure 1. The digital inequality model (3+2) and its types of influences
Influencing 1	Personal	1 Status (i.e. education,
parameters |	(i.e. gender, age)	1 employment)
Online connectivity (availability)
Digital skills v (skills)
Online \ activities
■0 (use)
Social and	\ Materjal
\ cdtui-a1	\ itai capital
© (impact)	/© <impact>
Source: Author
The second important level of digital inequality (Figure 1) is that of digital skills and knowledge. Van Deursen, Helsper, and Eynon (2016) classified these skills as operational and navigation information, and social, creative, and mobile skills. Schradie (2011) proved in her research that inadequate access to technology and access to the internet (or low speed internet access) can indirectly influence the development of digital skills, where a lack of these skills can then further widen the gap and cause lower participation in the internet environment. In addition, digital skills are important for more reasons than just the use of IT and the internet. Witte and Mannon (2010, p. 113) proved that more competent users can easily move from one website to another and are able to take advantage of more useful and advanced
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Mitja Decman
possibilities, which makes the concept of digital inequality parallel to the social class inequality of Max Weber. By direct use and execution of beneficial tasks, these users have an even greater advantage in the private and professional environment. As regards the public sector, users with more developed digital skills express higher satisfaction with e-government services (Ebbers, Jansen & van Deursen, 2016). With the increased convergence of IT in the future, we can expect that digital skills will become a vital element of modern society and mark the position of an individual within society (van Deursen & Van Dijk, 2011).
The third level of digital inequality (Figure 1) focuses on the benefits of digital inclusions based on internet access and possession of digital skills, excluding socio-cultural and material impacts. Schradie's (2011) research reports that consistent and frequent online access does lead to higher productive usage regarding all activities. While many users might have a similar or even equal environment as to internet access and levels of digital skills, the way they use them might differ. Even 'digital natives', as the young population born into the environment of the internet is often called, achieve different things while being online. Hargittai (2010) claims that people develop only those skills that they need to use the internet within their fields of interest, stressing the relationship between the type of use and the socio-economic status of the individual. Similarly, Capgemini (2016) detected that in Great Britain the digital skills of youth are inadequate for the jobs awaiting them since their use and corresponding usage are not appropriate for those environments. Beside personal interest, reasons can also be found in the social and cultural factors of individuals and society. In their research, Brandtzsg, Heim & Karahasanovic (2011) separated the study participants into different groups according to their type of usage, namely non-users, sporadic users, entertainment users, instrumental users, and advanced users, and showed a significant correlation with the predictors of age, gender, and number of household members. Studies have shown that a positive correlation exists between the level of general internet use and the level of use of specific internet services, e.g. use of e-government services (Fernandez-i-Marin, 2011). And finally, not every citizen wants to use IT and the internet. Not only are there those who do not need it, but also those who consciously reject it and use no such services,
The two highest levels of the model focus on the impact of digital exclusion or inclusion. These can be cultural-social or material. Digital inclusion can, for example, give an individual an advantage when competing for a job and changing his or her social status from unemployed to employed in that sense, Already in 2003, Van Dijk and Hacker (2003) ascertained that 'in the information and network society, relative differences in getting information and lines of communication become decisive for one's position in society, more than in every society in history before.' This is then also related to the individual's material situation. Evangelista, Guerrieri & Meliciani (2014) describe this economic impact of ICT in the composite indicator of 'empowerment of an
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individual' in day-to-day life in key social and economic domains. Morganti et al. (2014) claim that the maximum economic impact of the information society can only be achieved through a holistic set of policies ranging from telecoms and computing, to the adoption of the internet and e-commerce. A Eurostat analysis shows that the digitally literate will also have a higher chance of becoming experts in the areas related to or dependant on IT and therefore are a workforce group for which demand has been growing since 2006 at a rate of 3% annually (Eurostat, 2016). And Sparks (2013) concludes that serious online activities increase the social and cultural capital of the user, which can be linked to an increase in material capital. Sadly, empirical research on this level is rare and even the most well known indexes of the information society lack this kind of measurement and analysis,
2.3 Information Society Indexes - Digital Inequality Gap Detection
Through the years of development of the information society different indexes and benchmarking systems have appeared to analyse, promote, and encourage the use of IT and the internet, on the national and international levels. In Europe, one of the first was the so-called e-Europe benchmarking, which subsequently developed into the DESI Index. Another important international index is the Network Readiness Index (NRI) (World Economic Forum, 2016). The Network Readiness Index sets a final grade between 0 and 7, but countries have been achieving levels between 2.2 and 6 in recent years. The Index is composed of four categories, namely the Environment sub-dimension (countries achieve scores between 2.6 and 6), the Readiness sub-dimension (countries achieve scores between 1.9 and 6.6), the Usage sub-dimension (countries achieve scores between 2.1 and 6), and the Impact sub-dimension (countries achieve scores between 2.1 and 6.1). Differences in the indexes of individual states show huge gaps between most developed countries and those lagging behind. The latest report stressed that digital technologies are the basis of innovation in the digital revolution era and that the most innovative countries have a high level of IT adoption in businesses. The report confirms the rapidly growing digital population, which demands more than business can offer and more than governments are offering through different e-services.
Another index is provided by the International Telecommunication Union, which is a special agency of the United Nations in charge of information and telecommunications technology. In its report in 2016 (International Telecommunication Union, 2016) it shows a regional gap where the percentage of internet users in developing countries is 40.1%, while in the developed countries the percentage is 81%. The report stresses that mobile phone coverage is now nearly ubiquitous, with an estimated 95% of the global population enjoying phone coverage, with 53% of the global population having advanced mobile broadband networks (LTE) available. In many countries, mobile broadband prices are lower than fixed broadband
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prices. But digital inequality is here to stay for a while, since half of the world's population still does not use the internet and gender differences are still significant,
The European Union created the Digital Economy and Society Index - DESI -to evaluate the state of EU countries in the area of the digital economy and digital society. The DESI Index is composed of five areas: Connectivity, Human Capital/Digital Skills, Use of the Internet by Citizens, the Integration of Digital Technology by Businesses, and Digital Public Services (European Commission, 2017). It enables an evaluation of the countries' state of affairs in this area, shows the areas of possible improvements, and evaluates achievements over time (indicators are fixed and standardised; therefore, they enable comparisons between Member States or groups of Member States),
Nevertheless,the researchers established (Evangelista et al., 2014) that indexes of different national or international agencies analyse too heterogeneous, non-standardised, and often inadequate data to conduct an adequate analysis of digital inequality. In the area of e-government benchmarking, critics warn that e-government indexes mostly measure the offer or ex-ante existence of websites and services in all countries and environments, without focusing on specifics (Bannister, 2007; Misuraca et al., 2013; Whitmore, 2012). They propose the obligatory measurement of the use of online services or online procedures as a supplement to user surveys, which is achieved to a smaller degree by the DESI Index. The latest models, such as eGEP and eGEP2.0 (Savoldelli, Misuraca & Codagnone, 2013), on the other hand, have not been widely accepted although they are focused exactly on the measurement of e-government impacts (impact assessment models).
3 The Information Society of Slovenia
Slovenia realised the potential of IT at the end of the 1990s and in the year 2000 adopted a law that equalised electronic and paper documents and signatures and opened the path to e-business, e-government, and the information society. However, at the same time it was determined that digital inequality exists in Slovenia, as in many other places in the world, depending on social status and education (Robinson et al., 2015).
Slovenia is a country with low and dispersed population density in the majority of its territory. Urban areas (163 communities or 3% of all communities) cover just 4% of the territory of Slovenia, but host 45% of the population. Over the years, Slovenia has developed and upgraded the information technology infrastructure and access thereto. Today, telecommunications, road, railway, and electricity companies manage a good network backbone with optical fibres. The coverage of the mobile broadband signal is increasing and the minimisation of white areas has successfully included the upgrade to LTE and 4G networks. Nonetheless, according to the data of the Agency for Communication Networks and Services of the Republic of Slovenia (2017),
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only 29.7% of the population had fixed broadband access in 2016, equal to 74.9% of households. Both indexes are below the EU average. Countries such as Germany, the Netherlands, and Denmark had more than 80% of households connected to fixed broadband internet in 2010. Nevertheless, Slovenia is ranked in the upper half of countries in terms of internet penetration. In the latest Networked Readiness Index report of 2016, the World Economic Forum (2016) ranked Slovenia in 37th place out of 139 countries. With an index of 4.7 out of 6, it lags behind the best by a significant amount. Focusing on the index subcategories, it is ranked quite high in the Readiness sub-dimension (25th place) and the Impact sub-dimension (37 th place), but lower in the Environment sub-dimension (45th place) and Usage sub-dimension (42nd place). Considering the digital inequality area within the Readiness sub-dimension, it has a better rank for Skills (21st place) and Infrastructure and Digital Content (24th place), but a low 60th rank for Affordability. The best places in terms of affordability are in Asian countries with low GDP; nonetheless once can find reasonably priced internet access in Austria, Finland, and the USA. The latest developments on the Slovenian market show that market competition, primarily on the mobile data market, may reduce prices considerably. Another obstacle in Slovenia is the bad political and regulatory environment (67th place) and the very low use of e-government services (86th place), incorporating the importance of ICTs into the Government's vision for the future, the Government's success in ICT promotion, and the Government's Online Service Index. The European-level DESI Index 2017 ranks Slovenia in 17th place out of 28 countries, which is the same rank as in 2014. Again, the lowest score was for the Internet Use sub-dimension (23rd place), since the level of different online services is low, including e-banking and online shopping. The digital skills of the Slovenian population are ranked approximately 15th best in Europe,
The future plans and strategies of Slovenia are described in the Development Strategy for the Information Society until 2020 (Government of the Republic of Slovenia, 2016a). As stated in the Strategy, although Slovenia adopted some legislation, strategies, action plans, and projects related to exploiting developmental opportunities, including the potential of ICT and the internet, these were insufficiently revolutionary or fast enough to develop the information society on a full scale. The current first goal of this strategy is to upgrade and develop an adequate infrastructure to guarantee a fast internet connection to all citizens. According to Slovenia's Next-Generation Broadband Network Development Plan until 2020 (Government of the Republic of Slovenia, 2016b), 96% of households in Slovenia will have at least a 100 Mb/s internet connection by 2020, and the other 4% at least 30 Mb/s. Using European funding for the development of the countryside, it will provide the rural population and business with faster internet access,
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4 Empirical Research - the Case of Slovenia 4.1 Methodology
The questionnaire used in this paper is a part of the Community Survey on ICT Usage in Households and by Individuals conducted by the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia as part of pan- European research. The results of the survey are also used for the already-mentioned pan-European DESI Index. The yearly questionnaire includes questions that are included in the survey every year (or every second year) and used to track the development of a more general area, and questions that focus on a specific topic, defined by the current needs of the country's policies. In the year 2014 the focus was on the usage of cloud services, in 2015 on e-shopping, in 2016 on the submission and protection of personal data on the internet, and in 2017 on the usage of digital certificates and online services that use them. Most of the questions are targeted at users who are between 10 and 74 years of age and used the internet in the previous 3 months (or in some cases in the last 12 months).
Although most of the questions are defined by the European Commission and Eurostat and are also based on the OECD model for measuring the information society, the real question is whether they map the characteristics or levels of digital inequality. The indexes of information society development in the EU show constant progress over the last five years, including the level of internet availability and number of internet users, but there is still no solid proof that this influences changes in society or not. Researchers are trying to find reasons in unsuitable models, the inadequate impacts shown by such indexes, or the inappropriate data gathered thereby (Misuraca et al., 2013). We believe that these questions can be linked to the issues of digital inequality but do not provide a holistic picture.
The questionnaire generates 161 independent variables, excluding demographics. Most of the variables are binary, i.e. dichotomous, which lowers the range of possible statistical analysis or in some cases demands the reshaping of the variables. Therefore, the following analysis includes the basic statistical analysis, including the analyses of dependency between the individual measured variables and demographic variables. The results are focused on users that used the internet in the previous 3 months (N = 1138) since we would like to focus on the inequalities between the existing users of the internet, having in mind that Slovenia is a developed country with high internet availability (fixed and mobile). Out of 1568 survey respondents we therefore excluded those that never used the internet (n = 389) or used it more than 12 month ago or 3 to 12 month ago (N = 28, N = 13, respectively). Nevertheless, it was determined that among those respondents who do not use the internet, 13.5% do have access in their household, but it is used by other members of the household. Among those who do not have any household access (N = 212), 73.1% of them stated that they do not need it.
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4.2 Results and Analysis
The results show that users connect to the internet primarily through smart phones (70.7%), followed by laptop (69.5%) and desktop (57.4%) computers, while only 29.7% use tablet computers to connect to the internet. Although we discuss only those users that use the internet regularly, we also focused on inequalities depending on gender, age, and household income level between users and non-users of the internet (the first level of the model, see Figure 1). A significant association between internet use and gender does not exist. This was checked using a Mann-Whitney U test (U = 160215, z = -.466, asymptotic p = .641, the distribution for both genders being visually similar). A chi-squared test of homogeneity was used to test the differences in terms of household income class. Significant differences were confirmed between users and non-users, as in the lowest household income class only 47.2% were users, while in the highest household income class 92.6% were users (Table 1). Also significant, but in the reverse order, was the relation between usage and age, where in the oldest age class only 33.8% were internet users compared to 97.9% in the youngest class (Table 2). It is important to note that within the working population group aged 55-65 only 54.4% use the internet.
Table 1. The percentage of internet users with statistically significant differences between household income classes (average net monthly income considered)
Variable	p value	Class 1 -€900 or less	Class 2 -€901-1300	Class 3 -€1301-1700	Class 4 -€1701-2100	Class 5 -more than €2100
Internet users	p < .001	47.2% a	68.3% b	83.4% c	92.3% c,d	92.6% d
Note: Groups with the same subscript letter are not significantly different.
Source: Author
Table 2. The percentage of internet users with statistically significant differences
between age classes
Variable	p value	25 years or less	26-35	36-45	46-55	56-65	66 or more
Internet users	p < .001	97.9%	99.1%	92.8%	79.7%	54.4%	33.8%
Note: Groups with the same subscript letter are not significantly different.
Source: Author
The main focus of our research was on users of the internet. At the inequality level of digital skills (the second level of the model, see Figure 1) the questionnaire included two groups of questions. In the first group, the questions are directly related to the skills of specific software-related activities in the sense of 'Have you used a software application for ... ?', while in the second category they are indirectly related to skills in the sense of service use, e.g. 'Have you played/watched/paid for, etc.,?'. Since we were unable to pose these questions, we do have a criticism regarding them. The questions used in this survey have an issue as to the notion of those who actually use
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and those who have the knowledge to use it but do not. Namely, positive answers to the 'usage questions' do not detect those respondents who can use but did not (in the previous three-month period). In this sense, we can report the following levels of usage among respondents (Figure 2):
•	The highest percentage of use, and therefore knowledge to perform such activities, was quite understandably shown for e-mail, followed by finding online information on goods and services and reading online news, newspapers, or magazines. These services are easy to use and require a low level of digital skills as well.
•	The lowest level of usage was detected for technically demanding activities of content creation (websites, blogs) that demand a higher level of digital skills, the use of online payment systems such as PayPal, showing a possible issue of trust, and the use of online forms to arrange appointments with a general practitioner. The latter result is explainable by the fact that online forms in this context are rare in Slovenia and e-health services are a very new trend in Slovenia since the recently established e-health system is still in development.
Figure 2. Percentage of users carrying out a specific activity on the internet in the
previous three months (N =1138)
Creating websles or Hogs 4.5^	95.5%
SubmMng online forms lor an appoinmenl vith general pracxbner s.sH	94.2%
Use payment atcourrs (e.g. PayPal) 11.i%\	3E.3%
Making an appointment w*h a general prac ¡doner via a website 12.7% I	37.3%
Wa'ching videoon-demarvd from commercial serwces 17.5% I	32 5%
Selllngolgoodsorseruces 21.5% I	73.5%
Playing or downloading games 23.5% I	76.5%
Watching interne:-streamed TV 31.4%	I 5S.6%
Stone doc u men:s p c: u res or other fies on internet 31.6%	I 5B.4%
Uploading self-created conten: :o be shared 32.0%	I 68.0%
Telephoning over internet/making video calk 41.4%	I 53.6%
Using internet banking	46.1% I	53.9% I
Lls:ening to muse (e.g. web radio, muse streaming)	4S-Q% I	52.0% I
Participating n social networks	48.9% I	51.1% I
Using services related to:ravel	49.0% I	51.0% I
Warching video con:en: from sharing serwees	61.6%	I 33.4%	I
Seeking healh-related nforma:bn	64.4%	I 35 6%	I
Reading online news/newspaper/newmagazines	79.3%	I 20 7% I
Findi rvg info on goods anservices	85.0%	I 15.0% I
Sending / receiung e-mails	S7.Q%	113.0% I
0%	20% 40%	60% SO% 100%
□ Yes □ N o
Source: Author
The data on users' activities entailing use of a specific software application show that respondents use and know how to use word processing software the most and presentation software the least, which in some ways corresponds
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to an average user's needs in his or her personal or professional life. The level of code writing or programming is very low, thus representing a demanding task for an average user. Considering operational computer skills, most users manage simple skills such as transferring files between devices, but rarely (dare) to change system or software settings (Table 3).
Table 3. Percentage of users carrying out specific activities based on digital skills.
Transferring files between computers or other devices	Installing software or applications (apps)	Changing the settings of any software	Copying or moving files or folders	Using word processing software	Creating presentations or documents with text, pictures, charts, etc.	Using spreadsheet software	Using software to edit photos, video or audio files	Writing code in a programming language
62.9%	40.6%	26.7%	68.1%	70.2%	54.5%	38.6%	41.7%	6.8%
Source: Author
Especially interesting results were found in the area of public sector services (including the services of libraries, schools, universities, municipalities, healthcare centres, etc.), where 53.1% of respondents visited websites (this does not concern online applications, forms, or the use of digital signatures). This is only 5% more than those who use online banking, which from a technological point of view is a much more demanding service and, regarding trust, a more critical service. On the other hand, online banking is, of course, a more useful service in everyday life. Only 37.7% of users download official public sector web forms, and only 27.5% submit these forms online. In this case, we suspect that this mainly concerns public administration forms since forms related to health institutions, libraries, or other institutions do not exist online to such an extent or these services need a personal approach (a physical exam, a physical book). Of those users who do not use online official forms (N = 881 or 77.4%), only 27.5% had been in a situation where they had to submit a form (physically or electronically). The most common reason for not submitting such in electronic form was technical since 40.5% of users claim that they did not do so because they do not have a digital certificate or because of the trouble using it (Table 4).
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Table 4. The reasons for not submitting completed forms to public authority
websites
No such website service available	Lack of skills or knowledge	Concerns about protection and security of personal data	Lack of or problems with electronic signature or electronic ID/ certificate	Another person did it on my behalf	Other reason
14.9%	13.6%	21.9%	40.5%	9.9%	24.4%
Source: Author
We further analysed the impact of different demographic parameters on digital inequality. In order to determine inequalities between males and females, we used a Chi-square test for association (using a 2x2 contingency matrix) and satisfied the assumptions by ensuring the independence of observations, variables that are measured at the categorical level, and that all cells of the table have an expected count greater than five. The results show a statistically significant association between gender and:
• (activity carried out)
•	sending/receiving e-mails - X2(1) = 4.505, p = .034, weak association
-	p = -.063 (men carry out this activity less than women - 84.8% vs. 89.2%), p = .034;
•	seeking health-related information - X2(1) = 32.944, p< .001, moderate association - p = -.170 (men carry out this activity less than women - 56.1% vs. 72.4%), p < .001;
•	making an appointment with a general practitioner via a website -X2(1) = 4.925, p = .026, weak association - p = -.066 (men carry out this activity less than women - 10.5% vs. 14.9%), p = .026;
•	selling of goods or services - X2(1) = 13.239, p < .001, weakly moderate association - p = .108 (men carry out this activity more than women - 26% vs. 17.2%), p < .001;
•	playing or downloading games - X2(1) = 12.608, p < .001, weakly moderate association - p = .105 (men carry out this activity more than women - 28% vs. 19.1%), p < .001;
•	creating websites or blogs - X2(1) = 5.072, p = .024, weak association
-	p = .067 (men carry out this activity more than women - 5.9% vs. 3.1%), p = .024;
•	using payment accounts (e.g. PayPal) - X2(1) = 6.360, p = .012, weak association - p = .075 (men carry out this activity more than women
-	13.5% vs. 8.8%), p = .012;
•	watching internet-streamed TV from TV broadcasters -X2(1) = 5.901, p = .015, weak association - p = .015 (men carry out this activity more than women - 34.8% vs. 28.1%), p = .015;
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• (software skills)
•	installing software or applications (apps) - X2(1) = 13.768, p < .001, weakly moderate association - p = .110 (men carry out this activity more than women - 46.5% vs. 35.7%), p < .001;
•	changing the settings of any software - X2(1) = 28.068, p < .001, moderate association - p = .157 (men carry out this activity more than women - 34% vs. 20.1%), p < .001;
•	using presentation software - X2(1) = 4.209, p = .040, weak association - p = -.061 (men carry out this activity less than women - 36% vs. 41.9%), p = .040;
•	writing code in a programming language - X2(1) = 23.251, p < .001, moderate association - p = .143 (men carry out this activity more than women - 10.5% vs. 3.3%), p < .001.
The second common parameter of digital inequality is based on monthly household income. This dependence was tested with a chi-square test of homogeneity. The assumptions of the test are tenable since we have one dependent variable that is measured at the dichotomous level, one independent variable that has three or more categorical and independent groups, independence of observations, a large enough sample (N = 921), and all cells of the 2 x C table have an expected count greater than or equal to five. The results show a statistically significant difference based on monthly household income groups and almost all measured items. The variables of selling goods or services; participating in social networks; playing or downloading games; using advanced functions of spreadsheet software; and writing code in a programming language did not show statistically significant differences. All other measured variables showed statistically significant differences between groups when applying a pairwise comparison (Group 1 -€900 or less, Group 2- €901-1300 , Group 3 - €1301-1700, Group 4 - €1701-2100, Group 5 - more than €2100 average net monthly household income)1, Post hoc analysis involved pairwise comparisons applying a z-test of two proportions with a Bonferroni correction (shown in Table 5). For example, a statistically significant difference in proportions, p < .001, of a higher level of desktop computer use with Group 5 (68.4%) was detected in comparison to Group 1 (45.4%) and Group 2 (49.2%).
1 The groups were of unequal sizes.
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Table 5. Percentage of 'Yes' responses for statistically significant differences between household income groups
Variable	p value	Group 1 -€900 or less	Group 2 -€901-1300	Group 3 -€1301-1700	Group 4 -€1701-2100	Group 5 -more than €2100
Using the internet on a desktop computer	p < .001	45.4% a	49.2% a	58.0% a,b	57.1% a,b	68.4% b
Using the internet on a laptop or notebook	p < .001	60.0% a	61.6% a	64.4% a	73.8% a,b	82.8% b
Using the internet on a tablet	p < .001	20.0% ab	21.1% b	23.9% a,b	34.5% a,c	43.2% c
Using the internet on a mobile or smart phone	p < .001	63.8% a	67.0% a	63.3% a	74.4% a,b	80.8% b
Sending / receiving e-mails	p < .001	73.1% a	80.0% a,b	86.7% b,c	92.9% c	94.4% c
Using internet banking	p < .001	30.0% a	40.0% a,b	47.3% b	47.6% b	65.6% c
Finding info on goods and services	p < .001	81.5% a	77.3% a	84.0% a,b	85.7% a,b	92.0% b
Seeking health-related information	p = .003	58.5% a	56.8% a	68.6% a,b	64.3% a,b	72.8% b
Making an appointment with a general practitioner via a website	p < .001	10.8%	4.3% b	14.4% a	12.5% a,b	18.4% a
Submitting online forms for an appointment with a general practitioner	p = .031	3.8% a,b	2.2% b	6.9% a,b	6.5% a,b	9.2% a
Reading online news / newspapers / news magazines	p = .018	74.6% a	76.8% a	75.5% a	83.3% a	85.6% a
Telephoning over the internet / making video calls	p = .004	40.0% a,b	36.2% b	34.0% b	42.3% a,b	50.8% a
Uploading self-created content to be shared	p < .001	26.2% a	28.6% a	27.1% a	33.3% a,b	43.2% b
Using services related to travel	p < .001	30.8% a	38.9% a,b	49.5% b	48.8% b	69.2% c
Listening to music	p < .001	36.9% a	43.8% a	47.3% a,b	52.4% a,b	59.6% c
Creating websites or blogs	p < .001	3.1% a	2.2% a	2.7% a	7.1% a	7.6% a
Using payment accounts to pay for goods or services	p < .001	9.2% a,b	8.6% b	6.4% b	13.7% a,b	18.8% a
Watching internet-streamed TV	p < .001	17.7% a	22.2% a,b	29.8% a,b	34.5% a,b	45.6% c
Watching video-on-demand from commercial services	p = .012	10.0% a	15.1% a,b	16.0% a,b	19.6% a,b	23.6% b
Watching video content from sharing services	p < .001	55.4% a	53.0% a	55.3% a	64.9% a,b	70.8% b
Using cloud storage space on the internet	p < .001	22.3% a	21.1% a	26.1% a	42.9% b	48.4% b
Obtaining information from public sector websites	p < .001	43.3% a,b	38.6% b	48.7% a,b	56.5% a	72.8% c
Downloading official forms from public sector websites	p < .001	23.9% a,b	21.7% b	39.8% c	38.7% a,c	59.2% d
Submitting completed forms from public sector websites	p < .001	7.5% a	10.6% a,b	20.9% bc	22.6% c	42.8% d
Transferring files between computers or other devices	p < .001	48.5% a	49.7% a	57.1% a	72.0% b	81.2% b
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Variable	p value	Group 1 -€900 or less	Group 2 -€901-1300	Group 3 -€1301-1700	Group 4 -€1701-2100	Group 5 -more than €2100
Installing software or applications (apps)	p < .001	31.3% a	27.5% a	34.6% a,b	47.6% bc	59.6% c
Changing the settings of any software	p < .001	16.4% a	15.9% a	20.9% a,b	33.3% b,c	41.6% c
Copying or moving files or folders	p < .001	58.2% a	58.2% a	60.2% a	76.2% b	84.0% b
Using word processing software	p < .001	55.2% a	59.3% a	61.8% a	77.4% b	86.4% b
Using spreadsheet software	p < .001	41.0% a	42.9% a	49.2% a,b	58.9% b	74.0% c
Creating presentations or multi-object documents	p < .001	24.6% a	24.3% a	33.0% a,b	47.0% bc	56.8% c
Using software to edit photos, video or audio files	p < .001	25.4% a	29.1% a	38.7% a,b	48.2% bc	56.0% c
Note: Values with the same subscript letter are not significantly different.
Source: Author
Another important parameter in digital inequality research is age. It is quite obvious that young digital natives can handle the technology better than the older generations, but the question is which technology and to what extent. We conducted a point-biserial correlation to estimate the strength of the linear relationship between a pair of variables, one of them being age, with the other being a measured variable. We only report the results for those variables (others were left out of this part of our analysis) that satisfy the following assumptions:
•	each tested pair have one variable that is continuous (age), with the other being dichotomous (natural dichotomy),
•	the continuous variable has no significant outliers in either group of the dichotomous variable as assessed by the inspection of a boxplot2; they might have outliers that are neither data entry nor measurement errors, nor unusual values, and represent small but explainable personal situations of individuals, therefore they were kept in the analysis of the data3,
•	each case has values for both paired variables,
•	the variance of the continuous variable in each group of the dichotomous variable is equal (Levene's test for the equality of variances, p < .005), and
2	We conducted an additional test by removing the outliers, but gained similar results.
3	Outliers (values greater than 1.5 box-lengths from the edge of the boxplot box) were detected in 7 variables and 13 respondents, all of them very young or very old, showing that some older individuals might be just more IT savvy and some younger individuals reject IT for some reason. For example, 3 respondents (aged 58, 59, and 66) program, 1 respondent (aged 73) installs application(s), 1 respondent (aged 73) uses online storage (the cloud), 2 respondents (aged 65 and 67) create websites or write blogs, 5 respondents (aged 20, 22 and 23) do not use a smartphone, 2 respondents (aged 73 and 74) play online games, and 1 respondent (aged 73) uses social networks.
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• the continuous variable is normally distributed in each group of the dichotomous variable based on inspection of the Q-Q plots,
The results of the point-biserial correlation carried out regarding age and engagement show a few significant differences (data are the mean ± the standard deviation), as presented in Table 6, For explanatory purposes, we describe the first row as a statistically significant correlation between age and laptop usage, rpb(38) = ,144, p < ,001, with participants using a laptop computer being at a younger average age than non-users (40,55 ± 14,14 versus 45,13 ± 15,15), Laptop usage accounted for 2,1% of the variability in age,
Table 6. Statistically significant correlations between age and measured dependent variables using the point-biserial correlation method. Other variables do not pass the
assumptions of this method.
Variable	p value*	N Yes	o ■Z.	M ± St.dev. Yes	M ± St.dev. No		p value
Using the internet on a laptop or notebook	p= .065	791	347	40.55 ± 14.14	45.13 ± 15.15	0.144	<.001
Finding info on goods and services	p= .383	969	169	41.32 ± 14.44	45.54 ± 15.05	0.103	.001
Reading online news / newspapers / news magazines	p= .326	902	236	41.41 ± 14.46	43.98 ± 14.99	0.071	.016
Telephoning over the internet / making video calls	p= .994	471	667	37.54 ± 14.27	45.06 ± 14.03	0.254	<.001
Uploading self-created content to be shared	p= .874	364	774	36.93 ± 14.26	44.30 ± 14.17	0.236	<.001
Participating in social networks	p= .879	556	582	35.59 ± 13.31	48.02 ± 13.13	0.426	<.001
Playing or downloading games	p= .277	267	871	35.69 ± 14.11	43.86 ± 14.22	0.237	<.001
Listening to music (e.g. web radio, music streaming)	p= .284	546	592	37.35 ± 13.7	46.18 ± 14.13	0.302	<.001
Submitting completed forms from public sector web sites	p= .055	257	881	40.07 ± 13.68	42.49 ± 14.83	0.069	.020
Transferring files between computers or other devices	p= .927	722	416	38.53 ± 13.93	47.88 ± 13.84	0.308	<.001
Copying or moving files or folders	p=.251	782	356	38.91 ± 14.12	48.61 ± 13.4	0.308	<.001
Using word processing software	p=.233	805	333	39.62 ± 14.38	47.57 ± 13.59	0.248	<.001
Creating presentations or multi-object documents	p=.231	444	694	35.83 ± 13.46	45.85 ± 13.96	0.335	<.001
Using advanced functions of spreadsheet software	p=.393	470	155	38.30 ± 13.46	41.03 ± 14.31	0.086	.031
The p value of Leven's test for the equality of variances for engagement scores for Yes/No answers, Statistically significant coefficient value, * Sig, (2-tailed) value of the Pearson Correlation table of the point-biserial correlation coefficient, rpb
Source: Author


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5 Discussion
The topic of digital inequality is more important today than it has ever been in the past. In the digital convergence of today's society, information technology is one of the key parameters of social inclusion, innovation, and progress. Empirical research has even shown that digital inclusion can change individuals' lives (Broadbent & Papadopoulos, 2013). In this paper, we focused on three levels of digital inequality. The basic level of digital inequality, i.e. internet access, has been the most known and discussed level for decades and remains significant even today. In most of the developed world, nearly 100% internet coverage exists today (Slovenia plans to achieve this by 2020), thus gradually removing the obstacle to internet access (World Economic Forum, 2016). Nevertheless, availability does not mean use, which is influenced today mainly by income factors (the data from the global NRI Index 2016 shows a statistically significantly strong correlation between the income group of the country and the percentage of individuals using the internet in that country (/"(141) = .877, p < .001). Although we can see that devices and internet access are becoming cheaper every day, today's business and personal environment demand different access channels, a number of different devices (mobile and fixed), and various software. Within households, each member demands his or her own device (not like a TV was used in the past), using them simultaneously and for different internet services, therefore demanding fast broadband connections. Nonetheless, with the advancement of internet speed and the reduced prices of broadband access, the idea of universal internet access has become a given (in some countries, even a constitutional right). So the more crucial issues stem from the higher levels of digital inequality. The results of our empirical research show that internet use in Slovenia is below the EU average, but still high on the global scale. We detected no statistically significant divide as regards the aspect of gender, but determined that household income is an issue that persists in Slovenia, with households in the highest class having almost double the number of internet users compared to the lowest income class, thus showing similar results as other researchers (Rohman & Bohlin, 2013; Weiss et al., 2016).
In today's development of computers, smart phones, and the corresponding applications, a great deal of attention is devoted to the simplicity of devices and user experience. But this technology is much more complex compared to the technologies of the past, such as radio, television, or typewriters, and the demand as to a certain level of digital skills causes a second level of inequality. Digital skills are therefore essential since digital inclusion improves individuals' communication potential and information gathering, and leads to a higher level of self-esteem (Broadbent & Papadopoulos, 2013). Anderson (2008) goes even further in proving that digital skills and literacy are linked to the knowledge that is the foundation of the knowledge society of today. Our results show that users develop skills for the services they are interested in, but at the same time indicate skill obstacles e.g. as regards using digital
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signatures. Significant gender differences map with the existing general social gender differences, but show more situations where women have fewer digital skills and use IT less compared to men. This might also relate to the concept of men being more technical than women in general, as described by Van Dijk (2012). A digital gender gap is noted also by the International Telecommunication Union, which found a smaller gap not favouring women in the developed world (2.3%), but which is wider in the developing world (7.6%) (International Telecommunication Union, 2016). We must also stress the inequalities that arise from one's cultural-social background and income, In all cases where significant income group differences were detected, higher household income groups showed a higher level of digital skills. White and Selwyn (2013) also determined that individuals from higher socio-economic classes show higher levels of digital skills primarily due to the better internet accessibility options linked to financial resources. Considering age differences, the results showed that non-users of specific online services or those without specific digital skills are on average older than users (except for the submission of online forms for making an appointment with a general practitioner). The highest differences in favour of younger persons concerned the usage of presentation software, digital skills for moving data between devices, and copying/moving files and folders. Research also shows that digital natives are more IT savvy and outdo the older generations, but lack the more advanced skills (informational and strategic skills) (Van Dijk, 2012). We must, however, agree with Van Dijk (2012) that the reported digital skills inequality is measured based on the self-generated opinion of the respondents, which is not realistic and often different from the results of real skill test that are sometimes performed in parallel with surveys.
The third level of digital inequality discussed is level of IT use. Gangadharani and Byrum (2012) define meaningful use of the internet as a key success element of digital inclusion. The question is what is meaningful use. For each individual user this may be something different and at the same time is mostly dependant on his or her general or other needs and the surrounding socio-cultural environment. In our research, we found differences influenced by age and social characteristics. In general, all statistically significant differences showed that higher income groups had a higher level of internet use. In comparing 'the poorest with the richest', the latter stand out as regards money management (online banking services) and spending (online travel services), on one hand, and much higher use of e-government forms and services, on the other (i.e. they are able to take advantage of their skills when more demanding technology, such as digital signatures, is required). Considering age, the highest differences in favour of the younger generations concerned social network participation and listening to music online.
Finally, indexes and models that attempt to describe the third level of digital inequality, i.e. the use level, very often miss the crucial element, i.e. the impact. We agree with Misuraca et al. (2013) that because of inadequate
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measurement models it is not possible to thoroughly evaluate digital inequality and its impact on society. This 'imperfection' can also be noted in our research questionnaire and European benchmarking models, such as the DESI Index. These models need to be extended in such a manner that would include socio-economic impact measures of digital inclusion. While many indexes are intended to show digital inequality, they do not show the reasons for such nor the impacts thereof. Therefore, it is only logical that the states and institutions that conduct such measurements should include such additional indexes. It is only with comprehensive models that they would be able to efficiently set and direct their strategies and policy in the direction of universal digital inclusion and equality. Therefore, our proposed model includes 4th and 5th levels of inequality that should be measured in order to gain a holistic view of the problem. The indexes are still to be defined.
We can conclude our discussion by agreeing with the Digital Slovenia 2020 strategy that it is only by removing the identified gaps in digital accessibility, skills, and level of IT use that it will be possible to guarantee the full scope of digital services to all citizens, and thus positively influence their lives. Nonetheless, it has to be stressed that these activities addressing digital inequality would only enable a narrowing of the digital gap per se. It is only a synergy of strategies and policies on the digital and socio-economical level that would ensure positive results in a country or more broadly. Most of the research, including this study, show a significant relationship and even co-dependence regarding the mentioned areas.
Limitations
This empirical research was based on an existing questionnaire and therefore could not be adapted to the particular needs thereof. The proposed model, based on five levels of digital inequality, was therefore not tested and is a 'work in progress'. Future research in this area should focus on the use of information technology in relation to general life events and activities in the direction toward improving the life of individuals and households. In such a manner, the right policies and strategies could be implemented in terms of general inclusion and technology convergence.
As the research sample constitutes a representative sample of one country, namely Slovenia, the results are a reflection of the situation in one country only. To obtain more generally valid results, additional countries would have to be included in the future research.
6 Conclusion
This paper and its analysis focus on the research of digital inequality, suggesting a five-level model of digital inequality in the theoretical section. The empirical section presents the current situation as regards Slovenian households and contributes to an understanding of digital inequality
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in the modern society of a developed country. The results concerning individuals and households are important since they enable linking and comparison to other important research studies in the area of digital inequality that focus on a similar population and less on the working or business environment (Sparks, 2013). The results showed the impact of various social parameters, including age, gender, and household income. As regards gender, the results correlate with the results of other researchers (White & Selwyn, 2013; Yates, Kirby & Lockley, 2015), which have all found diminishing gender differences as to digital inequality in the developed world. Our results do show some significant differences that could be explained by some general Western society parameters. Males are more likely to play games, watch TV, and write code. On the other hand, women are more likely to search for health-related information on the internet and communicate by e-mail. At the same time, the differences considering age are somehow also self-explanatory. The younger population shows enthusiasm for communication technology and services, the adult working-age population for financial and other life-event services, and the older population for health-related and leisure services, Considering the impact of age, some researchers also claim that even with the aging (and of course 'renewal') of the population, these aspects do not change much (Van Deursen et al., 2016). What remains critical and crucial is the finding that inequalities are caused by social or financial reasons. Due to the proven relationship between socio-economic status and digital inequality (Weiss et al., 2016), mainly the state and its politicians must work towards achieving a smaller economic divide in such a manner that those who need more are provided more. We also agree with Sparks (2013) that research in the field of digital inequality is needed in the future since it coexists with and even deepens socio-economic inequality, which hinders the progress of society as such,
The results show that more needs to be done to ensure that Slovenia and its population will reap the benefits of the knowledge society. Digital inequality is still present and Slovenia continues to achieve low scores on different international rankings, which can be explained by its inadequate investment in efforts, political will, and financial resources in this area. At the same time, this entails a failure of the previous and existing digital strategies and the policies of this and previous Governments. Nevertheless, the question remains whether digital inclusion itself does not in fact create a new social gap as to inequality, which will be a key problem or challenge as regards the future challenge of ensuring universal internet availability and its socioeconomic imapct (Nguyen, 2012). Therefore, the next step for Slovenia is to initiate a nationwide campaign to increase digital skills, including a change in formal education programmes from primary school onwards, and digital lifelong learning initiatives. As stressed by Evangelista et al. (2014), who carried out wide-ranging research amongst numerous European countries, digital inclusion will enable growth, decrease unemployment, and help narrow the gap between the more favoured and marginal parts of modern society.
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7 Acknowledgment
The dataset and the source thereof were provided by the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. The results and conclusions are not those of the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia or any of the national statistical or other authorities whose data have been used,
Mitja Decman, PhD, works as an assistant professor at the informatics department of University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Administration where he successfully supplements pedagogical activities with research and at the same time works or leads projects at the Faculty of Public Administration, on the Slovenian or European level. His research field that started with a focus on software and hardware development on his graduate and masters studies at the Faculty of Computer Science is expanding into new areas of informatics, information system development, e-government and in the last years into the area of security of e-business, digital signatures, long-term digital preservation and the aspects of authenticity. He is the author and coauthor of many papers from abovementioned fields, lecturer at seminars and workshops within the Faculty of Administration and outside of it.
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POVZETEK
1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek
Model digitalne neenakosti v družbi znanja: primer Slovenije
Družbaznanja,kinadgrajujepojeminformacijske družbe,pojmujeinformacijsko tehnologijo (IT) kot tisto, ki je za uporabnika ključna pri dostopu do znanja, hkrati pa uporabnik določeno znanje potrebuje za uporabo tehnologije same, Paradoks povezujemo tudi s pojmom digitalne neenakosti, ki analizira razlike med ljudmi in zaobjema različne ravni, kot so fizični dostop do tehnologije, veščine za uporabo tehnologije in sociološke in kulturne dejavnike ter vplive med in znotraj teh ravni, Čeprav je fenomen digitalne neenakosti star že najmanj dve desetletji, je opazen tudi danes, Digitalna neenakost se kaže predvsem v spolu, ekonomskem statusu in letih, Hkrati pa neenakost lahko opredelimo po različnih ravneh, V članku je predlagan model 5ih ravni digitalne neenakosti, analizirane pa so prve tri, Zaradi uporabe obstoječega vprašalnika iz raziskave Statističnega urada Republike Slovenije zadnjih dveh ravni nismo mogli analizirati, vendar ugotavljamo, da imajo podobne težave raziskovalci tudi drugje, Opažamo, da v zadnjem desetletju počasi narašča zavedanje, da digitalna neenakost ni samo razlikovanje tistih, ki dostopa do interneta ali znanja uporabe interneta nimajo oziroma imajo, temveč da je danes pomembno razlikovanje med tistimi, ki znajo internet s pridom izkoristiti in tistimi, ki jim to ne uspe, Različni indeksi razvitosti družbe znanja ugotavljajo stanje družbe in pripadajočo digitalno neenakost, tako na globalni ravni kot tudi znotraj manjših okolij, Ugotavljamo, da se tudi ti indeksi premalo pogosto navezujejo na politike in strategije, ki naj bi stanje izboljševale, kar privede do neustreznih korakov reševanja digitalne neenakosti,
Pričujoči članek na podlagi analize 1568 vprašalnikov reprezentativnega vzorca prebivalcev Slovenije, pridobljenega od Statističnega urada Republike Slovenije, prikazuje stanje v Sloveniji v letu 2016 in rezultate povezuje s smernicami strategij, ki jih mora ali pa jih razvija Slovenija s ciljem zmanjšati digitalni razkorak v družbi in se v bližnji prihodnosti enačiti z najboljšimi v Evropi in svetu, Raziskava ugotavlja, da je ključen parameter digitalne neenakosti ekonomski status uporabnika, a hkrati opozarja, da mnogi sistemi merjenja niso postavljeni tako, da bi lahko odkrivali ključne izzive digitalne neenakosti, Rezultati kažejo, da Slovenija na ravni družbe znanja zagotovo potrebuje več, Digitalna neenakost je še vedno prisotna, predvsem pa Slovenija ne dosega dobrih rezultatov v mednarodnih indeksih, kar pomeni tudi in predvsem neučinkovitost strategij te in preteklih vlad, Zato je naslednji korak Slovenije izvajanje velikega števila aktivnosti na področju povečevanju digitalnih veščin in usposabljanju tako najmlajših znotraj šolskega formalnega izobraževanja kot odraslih skozi vseživljenjsko učenje, Zato bo, kot je zapisano
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A Model of Digital Inequality in the Knowledge Society: The Case of Slovenia
v strategiji Digitalna Slovenija 2020, le z odpravo ugotovljenih vrzeli pri digitalni dostopnosti, pismenosti in veščinah ter uporabi mogoče zagotoviti, da bodo vsem državljanom v polnosti dostopne storitve, ki jih digitalna družba omogoča, ter da le-ti tako postanejo sooblikovalci razvoja digitalne družbe,
Vendar je treba poudariti, da so to vseeno le aktivnosti, ki predvsem neposredno naslavljajo digitalne neenakosti, a premalo upoštevajo socialno neenakost per se. Ugotavljamo, da bo le sinergija strategijna digitalnih področjih s strategijami splošnega izboljšanja socialnega in kulturnega stanja v državi dosegla učinke. Večina zadnjih raziskav, vključno s pričujočo, namreč kažejo kritično povezanost in soodvisnost omenjenih področij,
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 15, št. 2/2017 39
DOI: 10.17573/ipar.2017.2.02
1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek
Organizacijska kultura v izbrani pravni osebi javnega sektorja
Sonja Belac
Agencija Republike Slovenije za javnopravne evidence in storitve; Ljubljana, Slovenija
sonja.belac@ajpes.si Katarina Košmrlj
Univerza na Primorskem, Fakulteta za management; Koper, Slovenija katarina.kosmrlj@fm-kp.si
Mirko Markič
Univerza na Primorskem, Fakulteta za management; Koper, Slovenija mirko.markic@fm-kp.si
IZVLEČEK
Raziskava postavlja v ospredje problematiko organizacijske in upravne kulture v povezavi s pristopi v javni upravi, z managementom sprememb in s strateškim managementom v organizacijah javne uprave. Empirični del razišče obstoječo in želeno organizacijsko kulturo ter obstoj odpora do sprememb v izbrani organizaciji javne uprave in podaja predloge za morebitno izboljšanje. Podatki in informacije so bile pridobljene z uporabo OCAI vprašalnika Camerona in Quinna, ki sta jim bili dodani še dve vprašanji za ugotavljanje odpora do sprememb. Rezultati analize kažejo, da je prevladujoči tip organizacijske kulture v izbrani organizaciji kultura hierarhije in da bi si zaposleni v bodoče želeli prevladujoče organizacijske kulture tipa klan v vseh njenih vidikih. Iz raziskave tudi izhaja, da zaposleni dojemajo organizacijsko kulturo v vseh organizacijskih enotah enako in da so statistične razlike v dojemanju organizacijske kulture med vodstvenim kadrom in ostalimi zaposlenimi le v organizacijski kulturi tipa hierarhije. Izidi raziskave obenem kažejo prisotnost odpora do sprememb. Stanje v organizaciji se sklada tudi s sliko javne uprave v evropskem okolju, kjer so prisotne tako tradicionalne vrednote in vrednote nove kulture, kot tudi strah in odpor do sprememb.
Ključne besede: javna uprava, OCAI vprašalnik, odnos do sprememb, organizacijska kultura, pristopi v javni upravi, želena organizacijska kultura
JEL: M14
Belac, S. Košmrij, K., & Markič, M. (2017). Organizacijska kultura v izbrani pravni osebi javnega sektorja [Organisational culture in selected legal entity in public sector].
International Public Administration Review, 15(2), 41-78.
41
Sonja Belac, Katarina Košmrij, Mirko Markič
1	Uvod
V	pričujočem prispevku predstavljamo rezultate raziskave o dojemanju organizacijske kulture in ugotavljanju obstoja odpora do sprememb v izbrani organizaciji javne uprave - Agenciji Republike Slovenije za javnopravne evidence in storitve (v nadaljevanju AJPES). AJPES si zavzema postati vodilna nacionalna institucija, ki zbira in zagotavlja podatke ter informacije za pregledno nacionalno in evropsko poslovno okolje. Med pomembnejše javne storitve, ki jih izvajajo v AJPES, sodijo: registracija poslovnih subjektov in vodenje Poslovnega registra Slovenije in drugih registrov; zbiranje, obdelovanje in objavljanje letnih poročil ter statistično raziskovanje in zbiranje podatkov. V AJPES nudijo poleg javnih storitev tudi tržne storitve, med katere sodi izdelava različnih vrst bonitetnih informacijo poslovnih subjektih, zagotavljanje zbirke finančnih podatkov in kazalnikov ter izvajanje večstranskega pobota medsebojnih obveznosti med poslovnimi subjekti,
Ker je poslovno okolje razgibano in vselej spreminjajoče se, nas je v raziskavi zanimalo, kakšna je prevladujoča organizacijska kultura v AJPES, kakšna je želena organizacijska kultura in kakšen je odnos zaposlenih do uvajanja sprememb. Z raziskavo smo tudi želeli ugotoviti, če med posameznimi organizacijskimi enotami AJPES obstajajo razlike v organizacijski kulturi in če jo vodstveni sodelavci dojemajo drugače od njihovih podrejenih. Za zbiranje podatkov smo uporabili preverjeni vprašalnik avtorjev Camerona-Quinna, ki smo mu dodali dve vprašanji. Anketiranje smo izvedli na populaciji vseh zaposlenih.
V	nadaljevanju prispevka predstavljamo teoretična izhodišča in rezultate iz opravljenih raziskav o organizacijski kulturi v javni upravi. Sledi predstavitev metodološkega pristopa in rezultatov raziskave z razpravo. Prispevek zaključujemo v sklepnem poglavju z orisom identificiranih razlogov za rezultate in s podrobnejšim pojasnilom rezultatov glede na poznavanje obravnavane teme raziskave. Vse informacije, pridobljene iz teoretičnega in empiričnega dela raziskave, smo povezali v sklepna spoznanja, ki so nam služila kot osnova za izdelavo predloga za izboljšanje organizacijske kulture v izbrani pravni osebi javnega sektorja in služijo tudi drugim organizacijam v javni upravi za uspešnejše obvladovanje organizacijske kulture.
2	Organizacijska kultura v javni upravi
Organizacijska kultura ni homogen pojem, na kar nakazujejo tudi številne definicije organizacijske kulture. Med najboljsplošno sprejetimi in najpogosteje citiranimi definicijami organizacijske kulture je definicija Edgarja Scheina (Kavčič, 2008, str. 13-14), čigar delo pa je doslej najcelovitejši poskus obravnave organizacijske kulture (Mesner Andolšek, 1995, str. 109). Po Scheinu je organizacijska kultura vzorec skupnih temeljnih predpostavk, ki jih je neka skupina iznašla, odkrila ali razvila, ko se je učila spopadati s težavami zunanje adaptacije in notranje integracije, ki so se tako obnesle, da so postale veljavne in
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zato jih skupina prenaša na nove člane kot pravi način zaznavanja, razmišljanja in čutenja pri obvladovanju teh težav (1984, str. 3). Podobno kot Schein tudi večina ostalih preučevalcev organizacijske kulture to obravnava v plasteh, v čebulni obliki, kjer jedro predstavlja nekaj globokega, skritega, implicitnega, neverbalnega, težko spremenljivega in se projicira v zunanjih plasteh, ki so vedno bolj vidne, eksplicitne, površinske, lažje spremenljive, le da različni avtorji posamezne sestavine uvrščajo različno po plasteh (Guldenmund, 2010, str. 1472-1474). Kljub različnim pogledom na organizacijsko kulturo v zadnjih tridesetih letih pa Giorgi, Lockwood in Glynn (2015, str. 1-54) razkrivajo, da obstaja pet osnovnih pogledov oziroma modelov, konceptov ali pojmovanj, kaj organizacijska kultura je, in sicer je organizacijska kultura pojmovana kot vrednote, zgodbe, okvirji, orodja in kot kategorije. Glede na različno opredeljevanje vsebine organizacijske kulture s strani velikega števila avtorjev in dolgega časovnega obdobja proučevanja pojava je nastalo tudi mnogo klasifikacij oziroma tipologij organizacijskih kultur kot poskus poenostavitve in oblikovanja homogenih skupin organizacijskih kultur (Kavčič, 2008, str. 63).
Eden najpogosteje uporabljenih modelov obravnave vrednot (Malbašic, 2015, str. 11) je tipologija, ki sta jo Cameron in Quinn imenovala Model konkurenčnih vrednot (ang. The Competing Values Framework - CVF) (Cameron & Quinn, 2006, str. 31). Cameron in Quinn sta zasnovala tipologijo na kontinuumu dveh razsežnosti: od prožnosti in samostojnosti do stabilnosti in obvladovanja ter od notranjega okolja in integriranja do zunanjega okolja in diferenciranja, Ti dve dimenziji skupaj tvorita štiri kvadrante, kjer so združeni posamezni dejavniki uspešnosti oziroma lastnosti, ki jih ljudje vrednotijo za pomembne oziroma temeljne podmene, vrednote ipd. pri delovanju organizacije. Glede na to, da so si vrednote nasprotujoče po kontinuumu posamezne razsežnosti in diagonalno, sta avtorja model poimenovala za Model konkurenčnih vrednot. Vsak kvadrant predstavlja posamezen tip organizacijske kulture, ki sta jih avtorja poimenovala klan ali skupina, adhokracija, hierarhija in tržišče. Poimenovanje izhaja iz proučevanj različnih avtorjev o usklajenosti vrednot z različnimi vrstami organizacij, model pa se sklada tudi z dimenzijami v kognitivnih mapah, ki so jih nekateri avtorji razvili za pojasnjevanje delovanja možganov, telesa in obnašanja ljudi.
Kulturo hierarhije je s svojimi značilnostmi primerno opisal Max Weber. Gre za organizacijo, za katero je značilno zelo strukturirano in formalizirano notranje okolje, kjer postopki določajo delovanje ljudi. Voditelji so dobri in učinkoviti usklajevalci in organizatorji. Pomembno je, da organizacija gladko deluje. Dolgoročna usmeritev je stabilnost in učinkovitost. Organizacijo povezujejo predpisi in pravila. Značilna je brezosebnost in specializacija. Pomembna merila so učinkovitost, pravočasnost, zanesljivost, nizki stroški. Skrb za sodelavce se kaže v varnosti zaposlitve in napovedljivosti.
Kultura trga je značilna za organizacijo, ki je usmerjena na družbeno okolje in zunanje udeležence ter menjalna razmerja. Ljudje so prepričani, da družbeno okolje ni dobrohotno. Organizacija je naravnana na izide in naloge. Ljudje
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tekmujejo in so usmerjeni k smotrom in ciljem, zavzemajo se za ugled in uspeh organizacije. Voditelji so zahtevni, trdi in tekmovalni. Organizacije povezuje zavezanost k zmagovanju. Dolgoročno sta pomembni konkurenčno delovanje in doseganje smotrov in merljivih ciljev. Uspeh določa tržni delež in prodiranje na trg, pomembno je imeti vodilno vlogo na trgu in produktivnost.
Za kulturo klana oziroma skupine velja, da je organizacija prijazno delovno okolje, kjer se udeleženci počutijo kot v družini in si delijo dobro in zlo. Zanjo je značilno, da so vodje mentorji in starševsko pokroviteljski ter spodbujevalci sodelovanja, organizacijske predanosti in lojalnosti. Pomembna je pripadnost in tradicija ter zavzetost ljudi. Dolgoročno je pomemben razvojljudi, povezovanje in moralno delovanje. Uspešnost je odvisna od organizacijske klime in skrbi za ljudi. Poglavitna sta timsko delo, sodelovanje in soglasje. Zunanji udeleženci organizacije so v vlogi partnerjev.
Kultura adhokracije1 je značilna za dinamično organizacijo s podjetniškim duhom in kreativnim poslovnim okoljem. Že sama beseda ad hoc implicira nekajtrenutnega, dinamičnega, specifičnega. Sodelavci se izpostavljajo in sprejemajo tveganje. Voditelji so vizionarji, inovativni in pripravljeni na tveganja, ljudi spodbujajo k samostojnosti in prevzemanju pobud. Organizacijo povezuje zavezanost k poskušanju in inovacijam. Pomembno je biti prvi, tako v znanju kot pri izdelkih in storitvah. Pripravljenost na spremembe in sprejemanje izzivov je pomembna. Dolgoročna usmeritev sta rast in doseganje novih zmožnosti. Uspešnost je osvajanje novih, posebnih izdelkov in storitev (Cameron & Quinn, 2006, 36-45).
Vsi štirje tipi organizacijske kulture so vredni in potrebni. Nobeden ni boljši ali slabši od drugega (Cameron & Quinn, 2006, str. 80), kljub temu da skoraj vedno en ali dva tipa organizacijske kulture prevladujeta v vsaki organizaciji. Prisotnost različnih organizacijskih kultur pripomore k uravnoteženosti vrednot.
Tipologija Camerona in Quinna in tipologija vladovanja izhajata iz iste osnove. Obema je skupno to, da temeljita na enakih, uveljavljenih in sprejetih shemah, ki organizirajo načine, kako ljudje razmišljajo, njihove vrednote in podmene ter načine, kako procesirajo informacije (Cameron & Quinn, 2006, str. 33; Spinuzzi, 2015, str. 140-147). Sheme so uporabne na različnih nivojih, tako na nivoju posameznika, na nivoju organizacije, kot tudi na višjem nivoju, nivoju posamezne nacionalne javne uprave.
V prevladujočem sistemskem pristopu avtorji obravnavajo organizacijo kot organizacijski sistem, sestavljen iz podsistemov več hierarhičnih ravni in vključen na ustrezni hierarhični ravni v višje sisteme. Tudi organizacijsko kulturo je mogoče poimenovati kot sistem, ki obsega več podsistemov (subkultur),
1 Beseda adhokracija izvira iz latinske fraze ad hoc 'posebej za ta namen' in grške besede kratein 'vladati'. Termin je prvi uporabil Warren Bennis v knjigi The Temporary Society leta 1968, koncept pa je naprej razvil Henry Mintzberg. Pojem adhokracija opredeljuje fleksibilno, dinamično, organizacijsko strukturo, nasprotno hierarhični ter temelji na združevanju moči in znanja v multidisciplinarnih timih.
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po drugi strani pa je organizacijska kultura podsistem kulture okolja, saj je organizacija, bodisi pridobitna, bodisi nepridobitna, podsistem družbenega okolja (Tavčar, 2000, str. 44-85). Upravna kultura je tako kultura upravnega sistema oziroma javne uprave in je tesno prepletena z družbeno, s politično in z organizacijsko kulturo (Brezovšek & Haček, 2004, str. 5). Upravna kultura ima najrazličnejše oblike oziroma poudarke, npr. legalistični ali birokratski, podjetniški ali managerski in participativni (Brezovšek, 2004, str. 11). Gre za upravno kulturo glede na prevladujoč pristop v javni upravi. Zanimivo je tudi pojmovanje subkulture v upravni kulturi. Kultura posamezne organizacije v javni upravi tako predstavlja subkulturo upravne kulture (Bačlija, 2012, str, 16). Pristopi, paradigme so se v zadnjih 30 letih spreminjali tako, da je klasično javno upravo spreminjal reformni val novega javnega managementa, tega pa spodriva reformni val novega pristopa, čemur je sledila tudi sprememba upravne kulture, kjer tradicionalne vrednote spodrivajo vrednote nove kulture. Kljub temu pa v večini držav najdemo značilnosti vseh treh pristopov (Bovaird & Loffler, 2005, str. 22).
Reforme v organizacijah javne uprave so odvisne tudi od prevladujočega pristopa v teoriji in praksi javne uprave. Tradicionalni pristop je od 80. let prejšnjega stoletja spodrival novi javni management (ang. New Public Management - NPM) (Vanebo & Anderson, 2014, str. 9-22). Za njegovo ime še ni soglasja med različnimi avtorji, čeprav v literaturi zasledimo različne izraze: nova javna služba (ang. new public service) (Bryson, Crosby & Bloomberg, 2014, str. 445), vseobsežno/celovito upravljanje (ang. whole-of-government) (Huerta Melchor, 2008, str. 10), novo upravljanje (ang. new governance), dobro upravljanje (ang. good governance) in druge (Djokic & Duh, 2016, 732744). Javni management ima pomembno vlogo pri oblikovanju in vodenju omrežij, skrbi za skupno uspešnost, družbeno odgovornost (Tomaževič, 2010, str. 59-78) in delovanje sistema (Brezovšek & Bačlija, 2010, str. 97-121). Ne glede na vrsto reforme se organizacije v javni upravi spreminjajo predvsem na podlagi posodobljenega managementa javne uprave, tako da se tradicionalne vrednote spreminjajo v vrednote nove organizacijske kulture (Pagon, Banutai & Bizjak, 2008, str. 9) in organizacijskega vzdušja (Jordan, Miglič & Marič, 2016, str. 71).
2.1 Spreminjanje organizacijske kulture
Sprememba organizacijske kulture kot sistema vrednot, načina razmišljanja, stilov vodenja, paradigem, pristopov k razreševanju težav je ključ za uspeh sprememb, reform in prilagoditve v vedno bolj turbulentnem družbenem okolju (Schein, 1992, str. 14). Tako v Sloveniji kot v svetu so bile opravljene raziskave, ki so pokazale pomen usklajenosti individualnih in organizacijskih vrednot, smotrov in ciljev za uspešnost organizacije, npr. v Sloveniji raziskava Direktorji uspešnih slovenskih gospodarskih organizacij avtorja Kavčiča (2008, str. 45). Povezanost organizacijske kulture in uspešnosti organizacije je ena najpogostejših tem, s katero so se ukvarjali različni avtorji (Biloslavo,
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Sonja Belac, Katarina Košmrij, Mirko Markič
2007,	str. 29-56). V tuji literaturi in virih so navedena kot najodmevnejša in managementu priljubljena dela avtorjev Deala in Kennedyja, Petersa in Watermana ter Collinsa in Porrasa (Barney, 1986, str. 656; Schein, 1990, str, 109; De Waal, 2008, str. 1; Kavčič, 2008, str. 8).
Huerta Melchor (2008, str. 4-7) navaja, da naj bi bil osrednji fokus reforme organizacij v javni upravi na organizacijski kulturi, saj so tradicionalne vrednote, prepričanja, prioritete, rutine in predvsem miselnost v organizacijah javne upravi na veliki preizkušnji. V organizacijah javne uprave naj bi bile prisotne tako tradicionalne vrednote kot vrednote nove organizacijske kulture, kot tudi strah in odpor do sprememb. Ugotavljajo, da je tradicionalne vrednote možno nadomestiti z vrednotami nove organizacijske kulture (Pagon et al.,
2008,	str. 11-28). Proučevanje vrednot je v javni upravi pomembno tako v empiriji (npr. starejši raziskavi OECD iz leta 2000 Building Public Trust in Trust in Government), kot za nastanek konceptov oziroma tipologij vrednot v javni upravi ter pristopov proučevanja le-te (Brezovšek & Črnčec, 2010, str. 83-87).
2.2 Pregled obstoječih raziskav
Raziskovanje organizacijske kulture je priljubljena tema raziskovanja, vendar je identificiranih del o organizacijski kulturi v nepridobitnih organizacijah, javnem sektorju in javni upravi malo, takih, v katerih se avtorji ukvarjajo z upravno kulturo, pa še manj. Ravno tako je malo raziskav, kjer bi bil uporabljen za ugotavljanje organizacijske kulture uveljavljen standardiziran OCAI vprašalnik Camerona in Quinna. Ta obsega šest sklopov in se nanaša na: temeljne značilnosti delovnega okolja, voditeljstvo v organizaciji, način ravnanja s sodelavci, vezi v organizaciji, strateške poudarke ter sodila za uspešnost (Kmetec, 2014; Lučič, 2014; Županek 2015).
Po pregledu strokovne literature in virov smo ugotovili, da so raziskave s področja organizacijske kulture v javni upravi redke (podobno ugotavlja tudi Šinigoj (2016)).
Jereb (2005) je ugotavljala, kako je organizacijska kultura vplivala na kakovost storitev v Upravi Republike Slovenije za javna plačila (v nadaljevanju UJP). Ugotovila je, da na kakovost storitev v UJP posredno vplivajo vse dimenzije organizacijske klime in da izboljšanje organizacijske kulture omogoča doseganje višje kakovosti dela, storitev in zadovoljstva strank. Organizacijska kultura, ki je usmerjena k zadovoljevanju potreb uporabnikov, posredno vpliva na večjo kakovost storitev. V nalogi navaja tudi, da so spremembe in reforme javne uprave ter organizacijska kultura tesno povezani. S spreminjanjem upravnega sistema se spreminja organizacijska kultura in obratno. Pravi, da je uspešnost organizacije posledica organizacijske kulture, organizacijske klime in vodenja.
V letu 2008 je nastala raziskava Leadership Competencies of Successful Change Management, ki je zajela 284 managerjev javne uprave iz 27 držav članic
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Organizacijska kultura v izbrani pravni osebi javnega sektorja
Evropske unije in Evropske komisije. Ugotavljalo se je, v kolikšni meri so v javni upravi prisotne tradicionalne vrednote, vrednote nove organizacijske kulture ter strah in odpor do sprememb. Zaključki raziskave kažejo, da so v javni upravi prisotne tako tradicionalne vrednote kot vrednote nove organizacijske kulture, kot tudi strah in odpor do sprememb. Rezultati poudarjajo pomen implementacije vrednot nove organizacijske kulture v javno upravo in kažejo na to, da je mogoče tradicionalne vrednote nadomestiti z vrednotami nove organizacijske kulture (Pagon et al., 2008, str. 11-28),
Skinder Savic (2013) je ugotavljala značilnosti organizacijske kulture v splošnih bolnišnicah v Sloveniji ter predstavila dejavnike, ki vplivajo na zadovoljstvo zdravnikov in medicinskih sester na delovnem mestu v bolnišnicah. Rezultati iz raziskave so pokazali, da v splošnih bolnišnicah prevladuje organizacijska kultura tipa hierarhija, zaposleni pa si v največji meri želijo organizacijske kulture tipa skupina.
Šinigoj (2016) je v svoji raziskavi v izbrani organizaciji državne uprave ugotavljal značilnosti organizacijske kulture in vodenja ter kako se le-te skladajo s temeljnimi načeli novega javnega managementa. Rezultati raziskave so pokazali, da v izbrani organizaciji prevladuje hierarhičen tip organizacijske kulture, katerega značilnosti se razhajajo z idejami, izraženimi v temeljnih načelih novega javnega managementa, in da predstavlja organizacijska kultura pomembno oviro pri uveljavitvi teh načel. Ugotovil je tudi, da si zaposleni želijo organizacijske kulture tipa klan.
V organizaciji javne uprave, ki je bila predmet naših raziskovanj, v AJPES, je bila doslej izvedena le ena raziskava z obravnavanjem organizacijske kulture, in sicer pred 14 leti (Skok, 2004) v obdobju po ustanovitvi AJPES. Avtorica je podatke za empirični del raziskave pridobila z vprašalnikom, ki se je opiral na vprašalnik avtorice Judith R. Gordon iz dela Organizational Behavior iz leta 1996. Naloga je bila izvedena brez statistične obdelave in se je omejila na obravnavo le ene izpostave, zaključki pa so bili vprašljivo posplošeni na celotno organizacijo. Ugotovila je, da je v takratnem AJPES prevladovala organizacijska kultura nalog, da so najpomembnejši dejavniki oblikovanja organizacijske kulture zaposleni in management in da je bila takratna opredelitev vizije, poslanstva in strategije po njenem mnenju delno definirana.
Na podlagi sistematičnega pregleda teoretičnih izhodišč o organizaciji, managementu in organizacijski kulturi ter spoznanj iz empiričnih raziskav s področja organizacijske kulture, predvsem organizacijske kulture v javni upravi, smo ugotovili, da je tematika aktualna ter družbeno koristna. Ugotovili smo, da je bilo v javnem sektorju in javni upravi opravljenih malo raziskav o upravni kulturi oziroma organizacijski kulturi v upravnih organizacijah. Na ta način smo identificirali raziskovalno vrzel - znanj o prevladujoči in želeni organizacijski kulturi v izbrani pravni osebi javnega prava ni. To vrzel smo zapolnili z našo raziskavo, ki bo s svojimi ugotovitvami prispevala k nadgraditvi znanj v upravno-organizacijski znanosti. Namen naše raziskave je bil ugotoviti
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obstoječo in želeno organizacijsko kulturo in prisotnosti odpora do sprememb v izbrani organizaciji javne uprave ter podati predloge za njeno morebitno izboljšanje,
3 3 Raziskava v izbrani organizaciji javne uprave
3.1	Metode raziskovanja in analize
V raziskavi smo v osnovi uporabili kvantitativno metodo, kot jo opisujejo Easterby-Smith, Thorpe in Lowe (2005, str. 169). Za pridobivanje podatkov in informacijsmo uporabili že uveljavljen standardiziran OCAI vprašalnik, ki temelji na tipologiji Modela konkurenčnih vrednot (ang. The Competing Values Framework - CVF), na podlagi katere sta avtorja določila štiri glavne tipe organizacijskih kultur (Cameron & Quinn, 2006, str. 31). Za ugotavljanje odpora do sprememb smo k vprašalniku dodali dve vprašanji, oblikovani glede na izhodišča v Huerta Melchor (2008, str. 16-20) in v Pagon idr. (2008 in 2011). Vprašanji sta se glasili: »V kolikšni meri čutite odpor do sprememb?« in »Označite vzroke za odpor do sprememb.« Obe vprašanji sta bili zaprtega tipa,
Na podlagi teoretičnih izhodišč, namena in ciljev smo formirali naslednje hipoteze:
H1: Prevladujoči tip organizacijske kulture je kultura hierarhije,
H2: Organizacijska kultura je enaka v vseh organizacijskih enotah.
H3: Dojemanje organizacijske kulture vodij je statistično značilno drugačno
od dojemanja ostalih zaposlenih, H4: Zaposleni ne čutijo odpora do sprememb.
Vse podatke, pridobljene z anketo, smo ustrezno uredili in obdelali. Najprej smo z metodami opisne statistike preverili lastnosti vzorca in opravili osnovne analize, s katerimi smo določili prevladujočo in želeno organizacijsko kulturo ter odpor do sprememb. Razlike med zaznano obstoječo in želeno organizacijsko kulturo skupno in po posameznih vidikih oziroma vsebinskih področjih organizacijske kulture smo preverili s t-testom za odvisne vzorce. Hipoteze smo preverili z metodami multivariatne analize: z analizo variance in t-testom za neodvisne vzorce smo preverili razlike v organizacijski kulturi za posamezne organizacijske enote in pa razlike med vodji in ostalimi zaposlenimi. Za obdelavo podatkov smo uporabili programsko opremo SPSS in MS Office Excel.
3.2	Raziskovana populacija
Na dan 31. 12. 2015 je bilo na AJPES v 13 organizacijskih enotah, v centrali in 12 izpostavah v večjih krajih Slovenije zaposlenih 233 delavcev za določen in nedoločen čas, od teh 95,6 % v javni službi in 4,4 % v tržni dejavnosti.
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Žensk je bilo78,12 %, 21,88 % pa moških. Povprečna starost zaposlenega je bila 47 let, 45 % od vseh zaposlenih je bilo starih od 40 do 49 let, 34 % od 50 do 59 let, 18 % od 29 do 39 let in 3 % so imeli nad 60 let. Izobrazbena struktura kaže, da je 15 % zaposlenih imelo srednješolsko izobrazbo, 13 % višješolsko, 27 % visokošolsko, 44 % pa univerzitetno ali podiplomsko izobrazbo (AJPES, 2016). Po Pravilniku o notranji organiziranosti in sistematizaciji delovnih mest v AJPES vodstvo AJPES sestavljajo direktor, namestnik direktorja in dva področna sekretarja. Sektorje, službe, izpostave in nekatere oddelke vodijo področni sekretarji ali področni podsekretarji, teh je 32, ostale oddelke pa drugi uslužbenci po pooblastilu direktorja, teh je 13. Zaposlenih na strokovno tehničnih mestih je 66, ostali, razen direktorja in njegovega namestnika, pa so sodelavci, ki opravljajo naloge javne službe AJPES oziroma so na delovnih mestih vodje finančno-računovodske, pravne in kadrovske službe ter službe za informacijske sisteme (AJPES, 2015). V anketiranje smo vključili vse zaposlene sodelavce izbrane organizacije javne uprave - AJPES,
3.3 Rezultati
Vprašalnik je bil z dovoljenjem vodstva posredovan vsem 233 zaposlenim AJPES bodisi po navadni pošti, bodisi po elektronski pošti ali pa jim je bil osebno dostavljen. Anketiranje je trajalo en mesec, od 18. 1. 2016 do 19. 2. 2016. Med tem časom smo zaposlene spodbujali k oddaji vprašalnikov. Prejeli smo 102 izpolnjena vprašalnika iz vseh trinajstih organizacijskih enot, med temi je bil eden nepravilno izpolnjen, tako da smo v nadaljnji obravnavi upoštevali 101 vprašalnik, kar predstavlja 43,35 % celotne populacije. Med respondenti je bilo 77 % žensk in 23 % moških, v 67,67 % starih od 36 do 55 let, kar ustreza sliki celotne populacije. Vodilni zaposleni so v vzorcu zastopani v 16,83 % ter so v vzorcu prisotni v vseh organizacijskih enotah z izjemo ene izpostave. Kljub temu, da je struktura vzorca podobna strukturi populacije, zaradi nenaključnosti vzorca rezultatov raziskave ne moremo posplošiti na populacijo. Ravno tako v raziskavi nismo ugotavljali vpliva določenih demografskih spremenljivk - starosti in spola na izide raziskave.
3.3.1 Trenutno in želeno stanje organizacijske kulture
Ugotavljali smo razlike med oceno organizacijske kulture o trenutnem stanju in želeno organizacijsko kulturo. Razlike smo preverjali s t-testom za odvisne vzorce (ang. Paired-samples t-test). Med percepcijo obstoječe organizacijske kulture in želeno organizacijsko kulturo smo ugotovili statistično značilne razlike pri vseh štirih tipih organizacijskih kultur, in sicer:
• organizacijska kultura tipa klan: anketirane osebe si v prihodnje želijo bistveno več organizacijske kulture tipa klan - razlika je 15,56 (vse, kar se razlikuje za 10 in več točk, je po Cameronu in Quinnu pomembno odstopanje (2006, str. 74)) (t = -11,24; sig. = 0,00);
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•	organizacijska kultura tipa adhokracija: anketirane osebe si v prihodnje želijo več inovativnosti, dinamičnosti, ustvarjalnosti in podjetnosti in so pripravljene v ta namen prevzeti več tveganja (t = -4,17; sig. = 0,00);
•	organizacijska kultura tipa trg: anketirane osebe si v prihodnosti želijo občutno manj usmerjenosti na izid in agresivnosti vodstva; tekmovalnost, visoke zahteve in dosežki naj ne bodo na prvem mestu (t = 8,80; sig. = 0,00);
•	organizacijska kultura tipa hierarhija: anketirane osebe si v prihodnje želijo manjnadzora, formaliziranosti in strukturiranosti (t = 7,22; sig. = 0,00).
Profil organizacijske kulture AJPES (slika 1) je primerljiv tudi s profilom kulture organizacij v javni upravi, ki sta ga predstavila Cameron in Quinn, kjer prevladuje organizacijska kultura tipa hierarhije, organizacijska kultura tipa klan in tipa trg sta zastopani v manjši meri, najmanj pa je prisotna organizacijska kultura tipa adhokracije.
Slika 1. Obstoječa in želena organizacijska kultura v AJPES - skupni izid
Iz rezultatov osnovne analize je mogoče ugotoviti, da je prevladujoči tip organizacijske kulture v AJPES organizacijska kultura tipa hierarhije (vrednost = 36,86), sledijo organizacijska kultura tipa klana ali skupine (vrednost = 23,92), tipa trga (vrednost = 23,78) in tipa adhokracije (vrednost = 15,29). Zaradi navedenega hipotezo H1 potrdimo,
3.3.2 Organizacijska kultura med organizacijskimi enotami
ANOVA nam pokaže (tabela 1), da ni značilnih razlik v dojemanju organizacijske kulture med organizacijskimi enotami (vse vrednosti sig. nad 0,05).
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Klan
Obstoječa organizacijska kultura--Želena organizacijska kultura
Vir: Belac (2016, str. 63)
Organizacijska kultura v izbrani pravni osebi javnega sektorja
Tabela 1. Razlike v dojemanju organizacijske kulture med organizacijskimi enotami
Tip organizacijske kulture		Kvadrat povprečja	df	F	sig.
klan	med skupinami	243,35	12	1,09	,38
	v skupinah	224,37	87		
adhokracija	med skupinami	34,17	12	,54	,88
	v skupinah	63,25	87		
trg	med skupinami	147,68	12	1,07	,40
	v skupinah	138,39	87		
hierarhija	med skupinami	168,98	12	1,07	,39
	v skupinah	157,48	87		
Vir: Belac (2016, str. 120)
Vzrok za take rezultate je tudi majhno število odgovorov po posameznih organizacijskih enotah. Iz navedenega sledi, da smo H2 potrdili.
3.3.3	Organizacijska kultura med različnimi kategorijami zaposlenih
Za preverjanje ničelne hipoteze smo opravili t-test za neodvisna vzorca (ang. Independent Samples T-test). Pred tem smo upoštevali rezultate za preizkus enakosti varianc in šele nato rezultate za preizkus enakosti povprečij. Na osnovi Levenovega testa za enakost varianc smo ugotovili, da sta varianci odvisne spremenljivke na vzorcu enaki za vse tipe organizacijskih kultur z izjemo organizacijske kulture tipa klan.
Značilne razlike med skupinama smo ugotovili le v primeru relativne ocene organizacijske kulture tipa hierarhija (sig. = 0,02). Pri ostalih tipih kultur razlik med skupinama nismo zaznali: klan (sig. = 0,10), adhokracija (sig. = 0,40) in trg (sig. = 0,58). Navedeno pomeni, da je dojemanje organizacijske kulture vodij statistično značilno drugačno od dojemanja ostalih zaposlenih, le kar se tiče organizacijske kulture tipa hierarhija, tako da hipoteze H3 ne moremo potrditi.
3.3.4	Odpor do sprememb
Iz tabele 2 je razvidno, da 18,81 % vprašanih ni odgovorilo na vprašanje, v kakšni meri čutijo odpor do sprememb. Manjkajočih vrednosti nismo posebej analizirali. Na nizek delež veljavnih odgovorov je lahko vplivala kočljivost vprašanja, zato ni nujno, da so odgovori pokazatelj dejanskega stanja v organizaciji. Na to nas napeljuje ugotovitev, da so praktično vsi anketiranci odgovarjali na vprašanje o razlogih za odpor do sprememb (94,05 % anketiranih je podalo odgovore).
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Tabela 2. Zaznavanje odpora do sprememb
		Frekvenca	%	%
	ne čutim	27	26,74	32,93
	neznatno čutim	32	31,68	39,02
Veljavno	čutim	17	16,83	20,73
	čutim močneje	4	3,96	4,88
	izredno čutim	2	1,98	2,44
	skupno	82	81,19	100,0
Brez podatka	- 9	19	18,81	
Skupaj	101	100,0		
Vir: Belac (2016, str. 70)
32,93 % tistih, ki so odgovorili na vprašanje, ne čuti odpora do sprememb, 67,07 % pa ga čutita (39,02 % neznatno; 20,73 % čuti; 4,88 % čuti močneje in 2,44 % izredno čuti odpor do sprememb). Ker večina zaposlenih izraža, da čutijo odpor do sprememb, H4 ne potrdimo,
4 Diskusija in zaključek
Namen naše raziskave je bil ugotoviti obstoječo in želeno organizacijsko kulturo in prisotnosti odpora do sprememb v izbrani organizaciji javne uprave ter podati predloge za njeno morebitno izboljšanje. V raziskavi smo na skupini 233 zaposlenih v izbrani organizaciji javne uprave (AJPES) ugotovili obstoječo in želeno organizacijsko kulturo, raziskali, če sodelavci na vodstvenih položajih dojemajo različno organizacijsko kulturo od ostalih zaposlenih ter ugotovili, da v AJPES zaposleni čutijo odpor do sprememb. Raziskavo smo izvedli z uporabo vprašalnika OCAI Camerona in Quinna (2006, str. 26-28), ki smo mu dodali dve vprašanji za ugotavljanje odpora do sprememb po Huerta Melchor (2008, str. 16-20) in Pagon et al., (2008 in 2011).
V AJPES imajo opredeljeno politiko organizacije - vizijo, poslanstvo, smotre in cilje ter strategijo v skladu z interesi in vrednotami pomembnih udeležencev in v skladu z nacionalno politiko, s strategijo razvoja javne uprave in z nacionalnimi predpisi (AJPES, 2014, str. 8-9), kar ambiciozno tudi uresničujejo. Da v AJPES gojijo dober odnos z zaposlenimi, se zavzemajo za partnerski odnos z državo ter profesionalen odnos do vseh deležnikov, ki temelji na medsebojnem spoštovanju ter realnih finančnih in zakonskih podlagah (AJPES, 2016, str. 7), je potrdil prejem Slovenske nagrade za družbeno odgovornost Horus 2016 (kot vodilne slovenske nagrade s področja uravnotežene in inovativne družbene odgovornosti) za strateško celovitost pravne osebe (IRDO, 2016).
Pestrost vrednot, ki jih gojijo, je tudi posledica tega, da se AJPES, poleg nudenja javnih storitev, uveljavlja tudi na trgu. Posledično se to zrcali obenem v prisotnosti različnih tipov organizacijskih kultur, kjer pa vseeno prednjači tip organizacijske kulture hierarhije. Iz rezultatov analize je razvidno, da bi si zaposleni v bodoče želeli prevladujoče organizacijske kulture tipa klan v vseh njenih vidikih oziroma vsebinskih področjih: v temeljnih značilnostih delovnega
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okolja, voditeljstvu v organizaciji, načinu ravnanja s sodelavci, v vezeh v organizaciji, v strateških poudarkih ter v sodilih za uspešnost. Usklajenost vseh atributov organizacijske kulture dokazano vodi k večji uspešnosti organizacije. Želijo si manj organizacijske kulture tipa hierarhija in trg ter več adhokracije. Iz raziskave izhaja, da zaposleni dojemajo organizacijsko kulturo v vseh organizacijskih enotah enako in da so statistične razlike v dojemanju organizacijske kulture med vodstvenim kadrom in ostalimi zaposlenimi le pri organizacijski kulturi tipa hierarhija. Izidi iz raziskave kažejo tudi prisotnost odpora do sprememb. Stanje v AJPES se sklada tudi s sliko, ki jo razkriva raziskava Leadership Competencies of Successful Change Management, Njeni zaključki namreč kažejo, da so v javni upravi prisotne tako tradicionalne vrednote in vrednote nove kulture, kot tudi strah in odpor do sprememb (Pagon et al., 2008, str. 11-28).
Tipični profil organizacijske kulture v javni upravi po Cameronu in Quinnu, kjer prevladuje organizacijska kultura tipa hierarhije, pa se ne ujema s prevladujočim novim pristopom v javni upravi, kjer naj bi bile v ospredju vrednote odgovornosti, odprtosti, preglednosti, učinkovitosti, uspešnosti, voditeljstva in managerske kulture (Pagon et al. 2011, str. 2) ter množica demokratičnih in ustavnih pravic (Bryson et al., 2014, str. 446). Sicer pa tipologija konkurenčnih vrednot razkriva sobivanje različnih vrednot, kultur v posamezni organizaciji in omogoča tudi presojo o jakosti posamezne kulture ali pa o uravnoteženosti kultur.
4.1 Omejitve raziskave
Raziskava ima tudi nekaj omejitev. Organizacijska kultura je samo eden izmed možnih dejavnikov, ki vpliva na uspešnost organizacije. Izbrali smo tipologijo Camerona in Quinna za preverjanje organizacijske kulture, čeprav obstajajo tudi druge, kot npr. Hofstede, Schein ipd. Obstoječo in želeno organizacijsko kulturo smo določili statistično, avtorja vprašalnika Cameron in Quinn pa poudarjata (2006, str. 87-140), da je pri določanju dejanske in želene organizacijske kulture potrebno soglasje vseh delavcev, kar je tudi ključnega pomena za pričetek spreminjanja organizacijske kulture in zmanjšanja odpora do sprememb. Pri izbiri statističnih metod obdelave podatkov bi bila primernejša diskriminantna analiza s hkratnim primerjanjem vseh posameznih tipov kultur in njenih vsebinskih področij. Ta metoda analize je zahtevnejša in manj poznana, avtorji podobnih raziskav je večinoma ne uporabljajo in se večinoma poslužujejo metod, uporabljenih v tem prispevku. Možen je strah anketirancev pred prepoznavnostjo pri anketiranju po demografskih vprašanjih zaradi majhnosti posameznih organizacijskih enot, ki je posledično lahko vplival na njihovo odkritost pri odgovarjanju na vprašalnik in na število izpolnjenih anket kljub anonimnosti v postopku anketiranja in analize.
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4.2 Smernice za izboljšanje organizacijske kulture in nadaljnje raziskovanje
Na podlagi izidov raziskave smo zasnovali teoretične in praktične smernice za izboljšanje organizacijske kulture v AJPES. Predlagamo vztrajanje pri dobrih praksah pri vodenju kadrovske politike organizacije (anketiranci so namreč ocenili, da za način ravnanja s sodelavci že sedaj veljajo značilnosti organizacijske kulture tipa klan) in njeno dopolnitev s predlaganimi usmeritvami po posameznih vidikih organizacijske kulture ob konkretizaciji in realizaciji predlogov. Za spremembo organizacijske kulture predlagamo uporabo šestih korakov, ki jih opisujeta Cameron in Quinn ob razvijanju in zagotavljanju spremembam podpornega okolja in pripravljenosti na spremembe. Za zmanjšanje odpora do sprememb predlagamo zagotavljanje uspešne komunikacije z zaposlenimi z večjo seznanjenostjo zaposlenih o spremembah in njihovo večjo vključenostjo v proces spreminjanja,
Izidi iz naše raziskave s področja organizacijske kulture in odpora do sprememb prinašajo izzive za nadaljnje raziskovanje, in sicer v organizacijah državne uprave, organizacijah lokalne samouprave in nosilcih javnih pooblastil in izvajalcih javnih služb ter skupno za javno upravo (s čimer bi tudi ugotovili, v kakšni meri so prisotne tradicionalne vrednote, vrednote nove kulture ter strah in odpor do sprememb). Predlagamo periodično izvajanje raziskav zaradi možnosti ugotavljanja približevanja vrednotam novega pristopa oziroma načelom dobrega upravljanja, ki so zapisani v Politiki napredka in kakovosti sodobne javne uprave,
Zanimivo bi bilo tudi proučevanje organizacijske kulture z vidika subkulture v javni upravi, saj kultura posamezne organizacije v javni upravi predstavlja subkulturo upravne kulture (Bačlija, 2012, str. 16),
Nadaljnje raziskave bi bile tudi možne z uporabo enake metode raziskovanja oziroma uporabo vprašalnika OCAI, saj upravno kulturo, tipe vladovanja in pristopevjavni upravi razvrščamo na podlagienakih uveljavljenih miselnih shem, kot to velja za Model konkurenčnih vrednot (pa vendar bi bilo tudi to trditev potrebno podkrepiti z več dokazi in bi bila zato lahko predmet raziskovanja), s čimer bi omogočili primerljivost na vseh ravneh. Koristna bi bila tudi raziskava o vplivu organizacijske kulture na izbrane finančne in nefinančne kazalnike uspešnosti organizacije v javni upravi. V bodočem raziskovanju organizacijske kulture je mogoče uporabiti druge vprašalnike, kot so npr. Organizational Culture Inventory - OCI avtorjev Cooke in Lafferty, Denison Organizational Scale - DOCS avtorja Denison, Organizational Description Questionnaire - ODQ avtorjev Bass in Avolio, Time-At-Work Questionnaire avtorjev Schriber in Gutek, Person-Organization Fit Scale avtorjev Bretz in Hudje, Competing Value Scale avtorjev Meyer, Hecht, Gill in Toplonytsky (Zakrajšek & Žuntar, 2012, str. 2-17) in primerjati izide. Raziskave s področja organizacijske kulture in odpora do sprememb v organizacijah javne uprave je možno nadaljevati tudi v tujini ter primerjati izide z izidi domačih organizacij.
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Raziskovalni program št. P5-0049 je sofinancirala Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije iz državnega proračuna.
Mag. Sonja Belac je specialistka podiplomskega specialističnega programa Management v evropskem okolju ter magistrica podiplomskega znanstvenega magistrskega programa Management Univerze na Primorskem, Fakultete za management. Magistrirala je na temo organizacijske kulture v organizaciji javne uprave - Agenciji Republike Slovenije za javnopravne evidence in storitve, kjer je zaposlena od leta 2007. Ima šestnajst let delovnih izkušenj v javni upravi, od tega pet let v organizaciji lokalne samouprave, eno leto v dejavnosti izobraževanja in eno leto v gospodarski družbi v proizvodni dejavnosti.
Katarina Košmrlj je diplomirala iz komunikologije na Fakulteti za družbene vede Univerze v Ljubljani, kjer je zdaj doktorska študentka statistike. Na Fakulteti za management Univerze na Primorskem dela kot asistentka za področje statistike in metodologije ter sodeluje kot raziskovalka pri projektih s področja kakovosti in evalvacij v visokem šolstvu, managementa v izobraževanju in inovacijskih procesov.
Dr. Mirko Markič je doktoriral na Fakulteti za organizacijske vede Univerze v Mariboru s področja organizacijskih ved na temo inoviranja. Po dvanajstih letih delovanja v gospodarstvu se je zaposlil na Fakulteti za management Univerze na Primorskem. Je redni profesor za področje managementa in znanstveni svetnik ter vodja ali član 17 raziskovalnih projektov in projektov z gospodarstvom. Njegova bibliografija obsega več kot 550 enot s področja upravnih in organizacijskih ved ter javnega zdravstva (varstva pri delu).
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Malbašic, I. (2015). Vpliv uravnoteženih organizacijskih vrednot na poslovanje (doktorska disertacija). Ekonomsko-poslovna fakulteta Univerze v Mariboru.
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Vanebo, J. O., & Anderson, J. A. (2014). Principles of public management in Scandinavian countries: A theoretical assessment. International Public Administration Review, 72(1), 9-22. doi: 10.17573/ipar.2014.1.a01 Zakrajšek, T., & Žuntar, S. (2012. Izbrani vprašalniki za uporabo na področju psihologije dela in organizacije. Organizacijska kultura. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta. Županek, M. (2015). Vpliv komunikacije na organizacijsko kulturo podjetja Henkel Maribor d.o.o. (magistrsko delo). Ekonomsko-poslovna fakulteta Univerze v Mariboru.
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DOI: 10.17573/ipar.2017.2.02	1.01 Original scientific article
Organisational Culture in Selected Legal Entity in Public Sector
Sonja Belac
The Agency of the Republic of Slovenia for Public Legal Records and Related Services; Ljubljana, Slovenija
sonja.belac@ajpes.si Katarina Košmrlj
The University of Primorska, the Faculty of Management,;Koper, Slovenija katarina.kosmrlj@fm-kp.si
Mirko Markič
The University of Primorska, the Faculty of Management; Koper, Slovenija mirko.markic@fm-kp.si
ABSTRACT
The research focuses on the organisational and administrative culture in relation to the approaches to public administration, strategic and change management in the public administration organisations. The purpose of the research is to empirically determine the type of present and desired organisational culture, to establish the presence of resistance to change in the selected public organisation, and to design proposals for the improvement of its organisational culture. Data and information were collected using the OCAI questionnaire - Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument developed by Cameron and Quinn in addition of two questions referring to the resistance to change. The results of the survey revealed that AJPES is dominated by a hierarchy culture and that in the opinion of employees, the organisation's preferred or future culture should be a clan culture type in all its aspects. The results also showed that the perception of organisational culture is the same in all organizational units and different regarding managers and other employees referring to the hierarchy culture. Moreover, the results revealed the presence of resistance to change. This is congruent with the European environment where traditional values, new cultural values, as well as fear and resistance to change can be seen as components of organisational culture in public administration organisations.
Keywords: approach to public administration, attitude towards change, desired organisational culture, OCAI questionnaire, public administration, typology of organisational culture
JEL: M14
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1	Introduction
This paper presents the results of our research about perception of organisational culture and obvious resistance to change in the selected public sector organisation: the Agency of the Republic of Slovenia for Public Legal Records and Related Services (hereinafter AJPES). AJPES strives to become a leading national institution collecting and providing data and information for a transparent national and European business environment. More important public services performed by AJPES include: registration of business entities, keeping of Slovenian Business Register and other registries; collection, processing and publication of annual reports, statistical research, and data collection. Besides public services, AJPES provides commercial services, too. These include a variety of credit rating information on business entities, providing collection of financial data and indicators, as well as performing multilateral set-off of liabilities between business entities,
As the business environment is dynamic and constantly changing, preferred aims of our research are to describe the predominant organisational culture in AJPES, to check what the desired organisational culture is, and to determine employees' attitude to changes to be implemented. Through the research, we also wanted to establish the existence of differences in organisational culture between particular organisational units, and to check if management executives perceive them differently than their subordinates, With regard to data collection, we used verified OCAI questionnaire by Cameron and Quinn, with an addition of two questions, The survey has been conducted on the entire population of employees,
The theoretical background and results of performed surveys about organisational culture in public administration are presented below, These are followed by the presentation of methodological approach and research results with the discussion, The paper ends with the concluding chapter that describes the identified reasons for the results and a more detailed explanation of results against the familiarity with the considered research subject. All information obtained from the theoretical and empiric parts of the research are included in the final findings, We used them as a basis in the preparation of our proposal for organisational culture improvement in the selected public sector entity, which can also be useful to other public administration organisations for more successful organisational culture management.
2	Organisational Culture in Public Administration
According to numerous definitions, organisational culture is not a homogeneous concept, One of the widely most accepted definitions of organisational culture, which is also among the most quoted ones, is the definition by Edgar Schein (Kavčič, 2008, pp, 13-14), and its work is the most comprehensive attempt of consideration of organisational culture
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(Mesner Andolšek, 1995, p. 109). According to Schein, organisational culture is a sample of all fundamental assumptions invented, discovered or developed by a group while learning to address the difficulties of external adaptation and internal integration. These assumptions had such an effect that they became valid; hence, considering them as a good way of detecting, reflecting on and overcoming these differences, the group transfers them to the new members (1984, p. 3). Like Schein, most of other researchers interested in organisational culture contemplate this concept in an 'onion-like' structure - in several layers. Here, the nucleus represents something deep, hidden, implicit, non-verbal, and resistant to changes as well as projected to external layers that are increasingly visible, explicit, superficial and prone to changes; yet, different authors classify particular components by layers in different manners (Guldenmund, 2010, pp. 1472-1474). Despite different perspectives on organisational cultures in last thirty years, Giorgi, Lockwood, and Glynn (2015, pp. 1-54) discovered that there were five basic aspects, i.e. models, concepts or conceptions about what organisational culture is. Indeed, organisational culture is conceived as values, stories, frames, tools, and as categories. Given that numerous authors defined the organisational culture differently, and considering extended timespan in which the phenomenon was examined, many classifications or typologies have been established. These are the product of attempts to simplify and create homogenous groups of organisational culture (Kavčič, 2008, p. 63).
One of the most frequently used models of value consideration (Malbašic, 2015, p. 11) is the typology that Cameron and Quinn denominated as the Competing Values Framework - CVF (Cameron & Quinn, 2006, p. 31). Cameron and Quinn based the typology on the continuum of two dimensions: from the flexibility and independence to the stability and mastery, and from the internal environment and integration to the external environment and differentiation. These two dimensions together create four quadrants that integrate particular factors of effectiveness, i.e. qualities that people consider as important or fundamental prerequisites, values, etc. for organisation operation. Given the opposition among the values according to the continuum of a particular dimension and diagonally, the authors named that model Competing Values Framework. Each quadrant represents a particular type of organisational culture denominated by authors as clan or group, adhocracy, hierarchy and market. The denomination is based on the research performed by different authors about how values are adapted to different types of organisations, whereas the model matches the dimensions in cognitive maps developed by some authors to explain functioning of brain, body and human behaviour.
Max Weber provided an appropriate description of hierarchy culture, including its characteristics. According to this description, in this organisation, the internal environment is very structured and formalised, where actions determine human behaviour. Leaders are good and efficient coordinators
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and organisers. Smooth operation of an organisation is important. Long-term orientation is stability and efficiency. Organisation is connected by regulations and rules. Impersonality and specialisation are significant. Important criteria are efficiency, timeliness, reliability and low costs. Care for employees reflects in employment security and predictability,
Market culture is significant for the organisation with the orientation towards social environment, external stakeholders and exchange relations. People are convinced that social environment is not benevolent. Organisation is results and tasks oriented. People compete and are purpose- and goal-oriented. They strive for the organisation's reputation and success. Leaders are demanding, strict and competitive. Organisations are connected by the commitment to win. Competitive activity, as well as aims and measureable goal achievement, are important on a long-term basis. Market share and market penetration are set by success. It is important to have productivity and leadership role on the market,
Concerning the clan/groupculture, organisation is afriendly work environment, where the participants feel like part of the family and share the good and the bad. For this culture, it is significant that the leaders are mentors with a parental and protective attitude, who promote cooperation, organisational commitment and loyalty. Devotion, tradition, and endeavour of people are important. People's development, connecting and moral action are important on a long-term basis. The effectiveness depends on organisational climate and care for people. Teamwork, cooperation and consensus are the most important. External stakeholders of the organisation act as partners.
Adhocracy culture1 is significant for the dynamic organisation with entrepreneurial spirit and creative business environment. The term ad hoc itself implies something right now, dynamic, and specific. Co-workers expose themselves and accept the risks. Leaders are visionaries, innovative and ready to risk. They also encourage people to be independent and take initiatives. Organisation is connected by the commitment to efforts and innovations. It is important to be the first, both in knowledge and in products and services. It is important to be ready for change and accept challenges. Long-term orientation includes growth and achieving new capabilities. Effectiveness is the introduction of new, special products and services (Cameron & Quinn 2006, pp. 36-45).
All four types of organisational culture are valuable and needed. None among them is better or worse (Cameron & Quinn 2006, 80) than the rest, despite usually one or two types of organisational culture being predominant in
1 The word adhocracy originates from Latin expression ad hoc, which means 'specifically for this purpose', and Greek word kratein, which means 'to govern?. The first who used the term was Warren Bennis in the book The temporary society in 1968, and the first who developed the concept was Henry Mintzberg. The concept adhocracy defines flexible and dynamic organisational structure, against the hierarchical structure, and it is based on joining forces and knowledge in multidisciplinary teams.
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each organisation. The presence of different organisational cultures benefits balance of values.
Cameron and Quinn's typology and typology of governance stem from the same basis. Both are based on the equal, established and accepted schemes that organise ways of thinking, their values and prerequisites, as well as the way people process information (Cameron & Quinn, 2006, p. 33; Spinuzzi, 2015, pp. 140-147). Schemes are useful on different levels: on the level of the individual, on the level of the organisation, as well as on the higher level - the level of a particular national public administration.
In the predominant system approach, authors consider the organisation as an organisational system that is comprised of subsystems of several hierarchical levels and is included in higher systems on the appropriate hierarchical level, Organisational culture can also be denominated as a system including more subsystems (subcultures). On the other hand, organisational culture is a subsystem of environment culture, as both profit and non-profit organisations are subsystems of social environment (Tavčar, 2000, pp. 44-85). Administrative culture is the culture of administrative system, i.e. public administration, and it is closely intertwined with social, political and organisational culture (Brezovšek & Haček, 2004, p. 5). Administrative culture has a variety of forms or emphases, e.g. legalistic or bureaucratic, entrepreneurial or managerial, and participative (Brezovšek, 2004, p. 11). This is administrative culture considering the predominant approach to public administration. Conception of subculture in administrative culture is interesting, too. Culture of a particular organisation in public administration therefore is a subculture of administrative culture (Bačlija, 2012, p. 16). The approaches and paradigms have been changing in recent 30 years in the following way: the established public administration was changed by a wave of reforms of new public management, which was ousted by the new approach wave of reforms, followed also by the change in administrative culture, where traditional values oust the values of new culture. In spite of that, the characteristics of all three approaches can be found in most countries (Bovaird & Loffler, 2005, p. 22).
Reforms in public administration organisations depend also on the predominant approach in public administration theory and practice. Since the 1980s, New Public Management - NPM (Vanebo & Anderson, 2014, pp. 9-22) has ousted the traditional approach. Numerous authors still cannot agree about its denomination, although different expressions can be found in the literature: new public service (Bryson, Crosby, & Bloomberg, 2014, p. 445), whole-of-government (Huerta Melchor, 2008, p. 10), new governance, good governance and others (Djokic & Duh, 2016, pp. 732-744). Public management plays an important role in network forming and management; it takes care of overall effectiveness, social responsibility (Tomaževič, 2010, pp. 59-78) and system operation (Brezovšek & Bačlija, 2010, pp. 97-121). Regardless of the reform type, public administration organisations change mostly on the basis of renewed public administration management, so the traditional values
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are transformed into the values of new organisational culture (Pagon, Banutai, & Bizjak, 2008, p. 9) and values of organisational atmosphere (Jordan, Miglič, & Marič, 2016, p. 71).
2.1	Changes of Organisational Culture
Changes of organisational culture as a system of values, way of thinking, leadership styles, paradigms and approaches to problem solving are the key for the success of changes, reforms and adaptation in an increasingly turbulent social environment (Schein, 1992, p. 14). Studies that indicated the importance of balance between individual and organisational values, aims and goals to achieve the effectiveness of organisation were conducted in Slovenia and abroad. For instance, in Slovenia, author Kavčič conducted the research about directors of successful Slovenian commercial organisations, 'Direktorji uspešnih slovenskih gospodarskih organizacij' (2008, p. 45). The connection between organisational culture and organisation's effectiveness is one of the most frequent topics considered by numerous authors (Biloslavo, 2007, pp. 29-56). Foreign literature and sources indicate that the works of authors Deal and Kennedy, Peters and Waterman, and Collins and Porras are the most visible and well-received in management (Barney, 1986, p. 656; Schein, 1990, p. 109; De Waal, 2008, p. 1; Kavčič, 2008, p. 8).
According to Huerta Melchor (2008, pp. 4-7), the central focus of organisational reforms in public administration should be on organisational culture, because traditional values, convictions, priorities, routines and, above all, the mentality in public administration organisations are facing a major test. It is supposed that both traditional values and values of the new organisational culture, as well as the fear and resistance to change, should be present in organisations of public administration. He concluded that it is possible to replace traditional values with the values of new organisational culture (Pagon et al., 2008, pp. 11-28). In public administration, the consideration of values is important both from the empirical point of view (e.g. older studies of OECD from 2000 Building Public Trust and Trust in Government) and for the creation of concepts or typologies of values in public administration and approaches in its consideration (Brezovšek & Črnčec, 2010, pp. 83-87),
2.2	An Overview of the Existing Studies
Organisational culture research is a frequently considered topic. Yet, there are not many identified works about organisational culture in non-profit organisations, public sector and public administration, while the number of works about administrative culture is even scarcer. The number of studies that apply the established and standardised OCAI questionnaire by Cameron and Quinn to determine organisational culture is also limited. The OCAI questionnaire includes six sets of questions, namely: fundamental characteristics of work environment, organisational leadership, management
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of employees, organisational glue, strategic emphasis and criteria for success (Kmetec, 2014; Lučič, 2014; Županek, 2015).
Upon reviewing relevant literature and sources, we conclude that studies in the field of organisational culture in public administration are scarce (Šinigoj (2016) too had a similar conclusion),
Jereb (2005) examined the impact of organisational culture on the quality of services in Public Payments Administration of the Republic of Slovenia (Uprava Republike Slovenije za javna plačila, hereafter UJP). She concluded that all dimensions of organisational climate had indirectly affected the quality of services in UJP. In addition, she found that improvement of organisational culture could help to render higher quality of work, services and, consequently, to achieve clients' satisfaction. Organisational culture oriented to meet users' needs indirectly increases the quality of services. In her paper, she also indicates that the changes and reforms in public administration are closely connected with the organisational culture. With the change in administration system, organisational culture changes too, and vice versa. According to Jereb, the effectiveness of an organisation is a consequence of organisational culture, organisational climate and leadership.
In 2008, the research Leadership Competencies of Successful Change Management was conducted. The research included 284 public administration managers from 27 Member States of the European Union and European Commission, The aim of the research was to verify to which extent traditional values, values of the organisational culture, as well as the fear and resistance to change were present in the public administration. Research conclusions indicate that traditional values, values of the new organisational culture, as well as the fear and resistance to change are present in public administration, Results emphasise the importance of implementation of the new values of organisational culture in public administration and indicate that it is possible to replace the traditional values with the values of the new organisational culture (Pagon et al., 2008, pp. 11-28).
Skinder Savic (2013) examined the characteristics of organisational culture in Slovene general hospitals and described the factors that influence satisfaction of physicians and nurses at their workplaces in hospitals. Research results indicated that the hierarchy type of organisational culture is predominant in general hospitals, while the employees mostly prefer the organisational culture of the group type.
In his research, Šinigoj (2016) examined the characteristics of organisational culture and leadership in a selected organisation of public administration. He also researched the compatibility between them and fundamental principles of the new public management. Research results indicated that the hierarchy type of organisational culture is predominant in the selected organisation. The characteristics of this type differ from the ideas expressed
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through the principles of the new public management. In addition, the results also indicated that organisational culture is an important obstacle for the implementation of these principles. Sinigoj also concluded that employees prefer organisational culture of the clan type.
In the organisation of public administration, which is the subject of our research, i.e. in AJPES, only one research about organisational culture so far has been conducted 14 years ago (Skok, 2004), in the period after the AJPES had been established. The author obtained the data for the empirical part of the research by the use of the questionnaire that was based on the questionnaire by the author Judith R. Gordon in her paper Organizational Behavior, published in 1996. The task was performed without statistical treatment and was limited only to a single branch, while conclusions were questionably generalised to the entire organisation. She concluded that in the then AJPES, the organisational culture of tasks was predominant, and that the most important factors of organisational culture were employees and management. According to her opinion, the definition of vision, mission and strategy was only partial.
Based on the systematic overview of theoretical background regarding organisation, management and organisational culture as well as on conclusions from empirical studies about organisational culture, mostly the organisational culture in public administration, we have concluded that this subject is well-accepted and useful for the society. According to our conclusions, only a few studies about administrative culture, i.e. organisational culture in administrative organisation, were conducted in the public sector and public administration.
In this way, we identified a research gap: there is no knowledge about predominant and desired organisational culture in the selected legal person governed by public law. We bridged this gap with our research, the aim of which is to help with its conclusions in further development of knowledge in administrative and organisational science. The purpose of our research was to determine the existing and desired organisational culture and the presence of resistance to change in the selected organisation of public administration, and to provide suggestions for its potential improvement.
3 Research in the Selected Organisation of Public Administration
3.1 Methods of Research and Analysis
In the research, we used the quantitative method as described by Easterby-Smith, Thorpe, & Lowe (2005, p. 169). To obtain data and information, we used already established and standardised OCAI questionnaire that is based on the methodology of the Competing Values Framework - CVF. Following this methodology, the authors set four main types of organisational culture
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(Cameron & Quinn, 2006, p. 31). To determine the resistance to change, we added two questions to the questionnaire. These are set according to the theoretical background in the work of Huerta Melchor (2008, pp. 16-20) and Pagon et al. (2008 and 2011). The questions were as follows: 'To which extent you feel the resistance to change?' and 'Indicate the causes for resistance to change.' Both questions were of the closed type.
Based on the theoretical background, purpose and goals, we formulate the following hypotheses:
H1: The predominant type of organisational culture is the hierarchy culture.
H2: Organisational culture is the same in all organisational units. H3: As far as the perception of leaders' organisational culture is concerned, there are statistically significant differences compared to the perception of other employees. H4: Employees do not feel resistance to change.
All data obtained in the survey were appropriately organised and processed. Firstly, by the use of methods of descriptive statistics, we verified the sample properties and performed the basic analyses to determine predominant and desired organisational culture, and the resistance to change. Differences between the identified existing and desired organisational culture were verified also according to particular aspects, i.e. substantive areas of organisational culture, using the Paired-Samples T-test. Hypotheses were verified by the use of multivariate analysis methods: the differences in organisational culture for particular organisational units and the differences between managers and other employees were verified through the variance analysis and Paired-Samples T-test. For data processing, we used software SPSS and MS Office Excel.
3.2 Study Population
As of 31 December 2015, AJPES had 233 permanent and temporary employees (95.6% in public service and 4.4% in commercial activity) in 13 organisational units, i.e. in the central office and 12 branches in larger cities of Slovenia. The share of women was 78.12%, while 21.88% were men. The mean age of employees was 47 years; 45% among all employees were between 40 and 49 years old, 34% between 50 and 59 years, 18% between 29 and 39 years, and 3% were more than 60 years old. Educational structure indicates that 15% of employees completed secondary education, 13% of them had post-secondary education, 27% higher education, and 44% had university or postgraduate education (AJPES, 2016). According to the Rules on Internal Organisation and Job Classification in AJPES, AJPES management is comprised of the Director, Deputy Director and two Sectoral Secretaries. Sectors, services, branches and some departments are managed by 32 sectoral secretaries or sectoral
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sub-secretaries, while other departments are managed by other 13 employees under authorisation of the Director. There are 66 job positions occupied by professional and technical staff. Excluding the Director and its Deputy, the remaining personnel is comprised of employees who perform the tasks of AJPES public service, i.e. who occupy job positions of the Head of Finance and Accounting Service, Legal and Personnel Service, and Service for Information Systems (AJPES, 2015). All employees from the selected public administration organisation - AJPES were included in the survey.
3.3 Results
Granted the approval of the management, the questionnaire was forwarded to 233 employees of AJPES via post, by e-mail, and to some employees it was delivered by hand. The survey lasted on month: from 18 January 2016 to 19 February 2016. During that period, we encouraged employees to return the questionnaire. We received 102 completed questionnaires from all thirteen organisational units. One of them was completed incorrectly, so in further processing, we took into consideration 101 questionnaires, which is 43.35% of the entire population. There were 77% of women and 23% of men among respondents, and 67.67% were between 36 and 55 years old, which matches to the structure of the entire population. Management personnel share in the sample was 16.83%, and they were present in all organisational units of the sample, with the exception of one branch. Although the structure of the sample is similar to the population structure, due to the lack of randomness of the sample, the research results cannot be generalised to the population. In addition, the influence of particular demographic variables (e.g. age and gender) on the research results was not included in the research.
3.3.1 Current and Desired Organisational Culture
The differences between the current and desired organisational culture were subject of our research. We verified these differences through the Paired-Samples T-test. In the perception of the existing and desired organisational culture, we found statistically significant differences regarding all four organisational culture types:
•	the clan type: respondents substantially prefer this type of organisational culture in the future - the difference is 15.56 (according to Cameron and Quinn, any difference exceeding 10 points is considered as important deviation (2006, 74)) (t = -11.24; sig. = 0.00);
•	the adhocracy type: respondents prefer more innovativeness, dynamism, creativity and entrepreneurship in the future, and, therefore, are ready to assume more risks (t = -4.17; sig. = 0.00);
•	the market type: respondents prefer substantially less result-orientation and management's aggressiveness; competitiveness, high demands and achievements should not be in the forefront (t = 8.80; sig. = 0.00);
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• the hierarchy type: respondents prefer less supervision, formalities and structure (t = 7.22; sig. = 0.00).
The profile of the organisational culture in AJPES (Figure 1) can be compared also to the profile of the organisational culture in public administration, as described by Cameron and Quinn. In this profile, the predominant is the hierarchy type of organisational culture; the clan type and the market type of organisational culture are present to a lesser extent, followed by the adhocracy type of organisational culture,
Figure 1. The existing and desired organisational culture in AJPES - the overall
results
Source: Belac (2016, p. 63)
Based on the results of the basic analysis, it can be concluded that the predominant type of the organisational culture in AJPES is the hierarchy type (value = 36.86), followed by the clan or group type (value = 23.92), market type (value = 23.78) and adhocracy type (value = 15.29). Taking into consideration abovementioned facts, we can confirm the hypothesis H1.
3.3.2 Organisational Culture among Organisational Units
ANOVA indicates (Table 1) that there are no significant differences in the perception of organisational culture among organisational units (all values sig. are over 0.05).
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Table 1. Differences in perception of organisational culture among organisational
units
The type of organisational culture		Kvadrat povprečja	df	F	sig.
clan	between groups	243.35	12	1.09	.38
	within groups	224.37	87		
adhokracy	between groups	34.17	12	.54	.88
	within groups	63.25	87		
market	between groups	147.68	12	1.07	.40
	within groups	138.39	87		
hierarchy	between groups	168.98	12	1.07	.39
	within groups	157.48	87		
Vir: Belac (2016, p. 120)
The cause for such results is also the limited number of answers per particular organisational unit. Based on the abovementioned, we confirm the hypothesis H2.
3.3.3	Organisational Culture among Different Categories of Employees
To verify the null hypotheses, we conducted the Independent Samples T-test. Prior to this, we took into consideration the results of the test of equality of variances, and only after that, the results of the equality of mean values. Based on the Levene's test for the equality of variances, we concluded that the variances of dependent variable for the sample are equal for all types of organisational cultures, with the exception of the clan type.
We have found significant differences between groups only in the case of relative assessment of the hierarchy type of organisational culture (sig. = 0.02). In other types of culture, we have not found any differences between groups: clan (sig. = 0.10), adhocracy (sig. = 0.40) and market (sig. = 0.58). The abovementioned implies that there are statistically significant differences between managers' perception of organisational culture compared to the perception of other employees, but only in the hierarchy type of organisational culture. Hence, we cannot confirm the hypotheses H3.
3.3.4	Resistance to Change
Based on Table 2, it is evident that 18.81% of respondents did not provide the answer to the question to which extent they feel the resistance to change. Missing values were not the subject of special analysis. The low share of valid answers could be the result of the delicacy of the question. Hence, it does not mean that the answers indicate the actual situation in the organisation. We based such conclusion on the fact that practically all respondents answered the question about the reasons for resistance to change (94.05% of respondents did provide the answers).
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Table 2. Identification of resistance to change
		Frequency	%	%
Valid	I do not feel it.	27	26.74	32.93
	I feel it, but it is insignificant.	32	31.68	39.02
	I feel it.	17	16.83	20.73
	I feel it significantly.	4	3.96	4.88
	I feel it very notably.	2	1.98	2.44
	Total	82	81.19	100.0
No data	- 9	19	18.81	
Total	101	100.0		
Vir: Belac (2016, p. 70)
A total of 32.93% of respondents who answered the question do not feel the resistance to change, while 67.07% do feel it (39.02% feel it insignificantly, 20.73% feel it, 4.88% feel it significantly, and 2.44 % feel a very notable resistance to change). As most of employees indicated that they do feel resistance to change, we cannot confirm the hypothesis H4.
4 Discussion and Conclusion
The purpose of our research was to determine the existing and desired organisational culture and the presence of resistance to change in the selected organisation of public administration, and to provide suggestions for its potential improvement. In the research based on 233 employees from the selected organisation of public administration (AJPES), we have determined the existing and the desired organisational culture, examined the differences in the perception of organisational culture between managers and other employees, and found that AJPES employees feel resistance to change. The research was conducted by the use of the questionnaire OCAI by Cameron and Quinn (2006, pp. 26-28), with the addition of two questions to identify the resistance to change according to Huerta Melchor (2008, p. 16-20) and Pagon et al. (2008 and 2011).
AJPES has its own policy of organisation, which is also being accomplished very ambitiously: vision, mission, purposes and goals, as well as the strategy in accordance with interests and values of important stakeholders, and with the national policy, and the strategy of the public administration development and national regulations (AJPES, 2014, pp. 8-9). AJPES won the Slovenian award for social responsibility Horus 2016 (as the leading Slovenian award in the field of balanced and innovative social responsibility) for strategic integrity as legal entity (IRDO, 2016). This is an additional confirmation that AJPES maintains good relations with employees, and strives for partnership relations with the state and professional relations with all stakeholders,
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which are established on the basis of mutual respect and realistic financial and legal goals (AJPES, 2016, p. 7).
The diversity of values involved is also the consequence of the fact that the AJPES itself is well established on the market, besides offering public services, Consequently, this is reflected in the presence of different organisational culture types; yet, among them, the hierarchy type of organisational culture is predominant. Based on the results of our analysis, it is evident that employees would prefer the clan type of organisational culture to be predominant in all organisational aspects, i.e. substantive areas: fundamental characteristics of work environment, organisational leadership, management of employees, organisational glue, strategic emphasis and criteria for success, It is proven that the coordination of all attributes of organisational culture leads to increased organisation's effectiveness, The employees prefer less hierarchy and market type of organisational culture, and more adhocracy. The research indicates that employees from all organisational units perceive the organisational culture the same way, and that statistically significant differences in organisational culture perception are evident between management personnel and other employees only at the hierarchy type of organisational culture, Research results also identified resistance to change, The situation in AJPES matches the image provided by the research entitled Leadership Competencies of Successful Change Management. That is to say, conclusions from this research indicate that traditional values, values of new organisational culture as well as fear and resistance to change are present in public administration (Pagon et al., 2008, pp. 11-28).
According to Cameron and Quinn, the typical profile of organisational culture in public administration, in which the hierarchy type of organisational culture predominates, does not match with the new approach to public administration. In such an approach, the focus is on the values of responsibility, openness, transparency, efficiency, effectiveness, leadership and managerial culture (Pagon et al. 2011, p. 2) as well as on the range of democratic and constitutional rights (Bryson et al., 2014, p. 446). However, the typology of competitive values reveals the coexistence of different values and cultures in a particular organisation and enables the assessment of strength of a particular culture, or perhaps of balance among cultures.
4.1 Limitations of the Research
The research has also some limitations. Organisational culture is only one among potential factors that influence organisation's effectiveness, We chose Cameron and Quinn's typology to verify the organisational culture, although there are also others, such as Hofstede's, Schein's, etc. The existing and desired organisational culture was determined statistically, while the authors of the questionnaire, Cameron and Quinn, emphasise (2006, pp. 87-140) that the agreement of all employees is required for the determination of the actual and desired organisational culture. This is also of key importance for
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the beginning of the change in organisational culture and for the reduction of resistance to change. Regarding the selection of statistical methods of data processing, the discriminant analysis with simultaneous comparison of all particular culture types and substantive areas of the culture would be more appropriate, perhaps. This analysis method is more demanding and less known; the authors of similar studies mostly avoid it and predominantly use the methods applied in this research. It is possible that the respondents were afraid to be identified in the survey based on demographic data due to the limited size of particular organisational units, which consequently could influence their exposure when completing the questionnaire; this also affected the number of completed surveys, despite the anonymity in the survey and analysis process.
4.2 Guidelines for Organisational Culture Improvement and Further Research
Based on our research results, we formulated theoretical and practical guidelines for the improvement of organisational culture in AJPES. We suggest persistence in good practices, in the implementation of staff policy of the organisation (in other words, the respondents assessed that the characteristics of the clan type of organisational culture are already established in the management of employees) and its complementation with suggested orientations considering particular aspects of organisational culture, when it comes to the concretisation and implementation of proposals. For the change of organisational culture, we recommend the use of six steps, as described by Cameron and Quinn, in the development and provision of changes to the support environment, and in the readiness for change. To reduce resistance to change, we suggest enabling successful communication with employees, which should include better informing of employees about changes and their increased participation in the process of changing.
Results of our research about organisational culture and resistance to change imply the challenges for further research in public administration organisations, organisations of local self-government, bearers of public authority, public service operator and, overall, in public administration. In this way, we could conclude to which extent traditional values, values of the new organisational culture and resistance to change are present. We suggest conducting research periodically in order to determine the approximation to the values of the new approach, i.e. principles of good management laid down in the policy of progress and quality of contemporary public administration.
Furthermore, it would be interesting to examine the organisational culture from the perspective of subculture in public administration, as the culture of a particular organisation in public administration means the subculture of the administrative culture (Bačlija, 2012, p. 16).
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In addition, it would be possible to conduct further research applying the same research method, i.e. the use of questionnaire OCAI, since the classification of administrative culture, governance types and approaches to public administration is based on the same established mental schemes, as applicable in the Competing Values Framework. Yet, this statement should be corroborated with several proofs; therefore, it can also be the subject of research. Such an approach would enable the comparison on all levels. The research on organisational culture influence on selected financial and non-financial effectiveness indicators of an organisation in public administration would also be useful. In future research of organisational culture, it is possible to apply also other questionnaires, such as Organizational Culture Inventory -OCI by authors Cooke and Lafferty, Denison Organizational Scale - DOCS by Denison, Organizational Description Questionnaire - ODQ by authors Bass and Avolio, Time-At-Work Questionnaire by authors Schriber and Gutek, Person-Organization Fit Scale by authors Bretz and Hudje, Competing Value Scale by authors Meyer, Hecht, Gill, and Toplonytsky (Zakrajsek & Zuntar, 2012, pp. 2-17), and to compare the results. Furthermore, it is possible to continue the research on organisational culture and resistance abroad, and then to compare the results with the results of national organisations.
The research programme no. P5-0049 was co-financed by the Slovenian
Research Agency from the state budget.
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Sonja Belac, MA, is specialised in the management in European environments. She holds an MA in Management at the Faculty of Management, University of Primorska. She received her MA in the subject of organisational culture in the organisation of public administration - the Agency of the Republic of Slovenia for Public Legal Records and Related Services, where she has been employed since 2007. She has sixteen years of working experience in public administration, out of which she worked five years in the organisation of local self-government, one year in education, and one year in a company from the production sector.
Katarina Kosmrlj graduated in Communicology at the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana, where she is currently a PhD student in Statistics. She works at the Faculty of Management at the University of Primorska as Assistant for the subject of statistics and methodology. She also cooperates as a researcher in projects about quality and evaluation in higher education, education management and projects about innovation processes.
Mirko Markic, PhD, obtained a PhD at the Faculty of Organizational Sciences at the University of Maribor, in the field of organisational sciences, in the subject of innovations. After twelve years of gaining experience in economy sector, he was employed at the Faculty of Management at the University of Primorska. He is Full Professor for the subject of management, scientific counsellor and manager or member at 17 research projects in relation to economy. Its bibliography consists of more than 550 titles of works in the subject of administrative and organisational sciences, as well as in the subject of public health (safety at work).
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Skinder Savic, K. (2013). Organizacijska kultura v splošnih bolnišnicah in njena povezanost z zadovoljstvom zaposlenih na delovnem mestu (master thesis). Koper: Univerza na Primorskem, Fakulteta za management.
Skok, O. (2004). Organizacijska kultura - dejavnik poslovne uspešnosti in učinkovitosti v AJPES (diploma). Višja strokovna šola Maribor.
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Šinigoj, A. (2016). Vloga organizacijske kulture pri uveljavljanju koncepta novega javnega managementa - študija primera (master thesis). Koper: Univerza na Primorskem, Fakulteta za management.
Tavčar, I. M. (2000). Kulture, etika in olika managementa. Kranj: Moderna organizacija.
Tomaževič, N. (2010). Družbena odgovornost in upravljalno-ravnalni proces kot podlaga za odličnost v javni upravi. Uprava, 5(4), 59-78.
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Sonja Belac, Katarina Košmrij, Mirko Markič
Vanebo, J. O., & Anderson, J. A. (2014). Principles of public management in Scandinavian countries: A theoretical assessment. International Public Administration Review, 72(1), 9-22. doi: 10.17573/ipar.2014.1.a01 Zakrajšek, T., & Žuntar, S. (2012. Izbrani vprašalniki za uporabo na področju psihologije dela in organizacije. Organizacijska kultura. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta. Županek, M. (2015). Vpliv komunikacije na organizacijsko kulturo podjetja Henkel Maribor d.o.o. (master thesis). Ekonomsko-poslovna fakulteta Univerze v Mariboru.
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DOI: 10.17573/ipar.2017.2.03
1.01 Original scientific article
A Review of Risk Management Planning and Reporting in South Africa's Public Institutions
Tankiso Moloi
University of Johannesburg, Department of Accountancy; Johannesburg,
Republic of South Africa
tankisomoloi@webmail.co.za
ABSTRACT
This exploratory work attempts to review the risk management planning and reporting practices applied in South Africa's public institutions by defining variables that were deemed indicators of risk management planning and reporting practices, namely: the timing of the institutions' strategic and combined assurance planning, documentation and active management of risks appearing in strategic risk registers and operational risk registers and the availability of risk management software (including its nature and usefulness).
The results point to the fact that there is confusion regarding the timing of both strategic and combined assurance planning sessions. Some institutions conduct these in the preceding year, whereas others appear to be conducting these during the year of implementation. Results further suggest that the practice of implementing combined assurance has not yet been embedded in the majority of public institutions, pointing to uncoordinated assurance activities that could lead to 'assurance fatigue'. Results further point to the fact that there are still public institutions that are unable to prepare the strategic and operational risk registers. This raises the question of how these risks are managed if they have not been measured and documented.
Keywords: enterprise risk management, risk planning, risk reporting, public institutions JEL: M4
1 Introduction
According to Berg (2010), in recent years there has been significant growth in the area of risk management. As such, risk management is now being 'implemented in many large as well as small and medium sized industries', Berg (2010) continues by highlighting the fact that the implementation of risk management has also extended to 'governmental organisations, research institutes and hospitals which are all now introducing risk management to some extent'.
Moloi, T. (2017). A review of risk management planning and reporting in South 79 Africa's public institutions. International Public Administration Review, 15(2), 79-92.
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Ennouri (2013) suggests that the significant growth in risk management has largely been driven by events such as 'violent incidents, health crises and natural disasters' that have severely affected the industry. In this regard, Ennouri (2013) cites incidents such as the Japanese earthquake and Tsunami, the semi-conductor plant fire that caused Ericson to lose millions of Euros, the loss of the DRAM order by Apple as well as the explosion at the Texas City Refinery that is owned by the British Petroleum Company,
After reviewing recent advances in risk management, Aven (2016) indicates that 'risk assessment and risk management are established as a scientific field and provide important contributions in supporting decision-making in practice'. The idea that risk management provides an important contribution in supporting decision making is also underscored in the King IV Report on Corporate Governance for South Africa (loD, 2016). In underscoring the fact that risk should be an integral part of decision making and the execution of duties, principle 11 of the King IV Report on Corporate Governance for South Africa (IoD, 2016) emphasises that the 'governing body should govern risk in a way that supports the organisation in setting and achieving its strategic objectives' (IoD, 2016).
There is consistency between Berg's (2010) observation that risk management has also extended to 'governmental organisations, research institutes and hospitals which are all now introducing risk management to some extent' and the recent developments in the South African public space on the subject of risk. In 2010, the South African government introduced the Public Sector Risk Management Framework (PSRMF) to make risk management an integral part of financial management. Accordingly, the main aim of the PSRMF is 'to assist accounting officers to maintain an efficient and effective system of internal controls in public service institutions through the process of identifying, assessing and managing risks' (National Treasury, 2010).
It observed that the South African case is comparable to that of the United Kingdom (UK). In the case of the UK, Palermo (2014) argued that development of a risk management agenda has been fostered by central government guidance. To support this argument, Palermo (2014) points to guides on risk management such as those issued by NAO (2000), the Audit Commission (2001) and the HM Treasury (2004) as cases in point.
Having emphasised the comparability, it would seem that public institutions in South Africa have not been able to maintain efficient and effective internal controls as envisaged by the PSRFM. This contention is a continuous theme in the Auditor General of South Africa reports where, on an on-going basis, it is consistently highlighted that the majority of South Africa's public institutions fail to maintain efficient and effective systems of internal controls. The reports from the Auditor General of South Africa point to the inability of the majority of these institutions to gain control over irregular expenditure, fruitless and
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wasteful expenditure and unauthorised expenditure (Auditor General South Africa (AGSA), 2013, 2014a, 2014b, 2015a, 2015b, 2016).
In light of the developments in the South African public institutions space, it was deemed an opportune time to review the risk management planning and reporting practices applied in South Africa's public institutions. To achieve this objective, the paper defined five variables that were deemed indicators of risk management planning and reporting practices, namely: the timing of the institutions' strategic and combined assurance planning, the documentation and active management of risks appearing in strategic risk registers and operational risk registers and the availability of risk management software (including its nature and usefulness).
The main limitation of this paper is that it focused only on South African public institutions, namely: the National Government Departments (NGDs), Provincial Government Departments (PGDs), Municipalities (local government) and Public Entities. Furthermore, another limitation of this study was that the focus was on one of the assurance providers, which is the risk management unit. Finally, only one hundred public institutions responded to the questionnaire. The results should be interpreted in this context.
This paper's contribution relates to the fact that until now the risk management discipline, particularly in South Africa's public institutions, has not yet been widely studied in the literature. This paper is demarcated as follows: Section 2 briefly outlines a review of the related literature. This is followed by the research process in Section 3. In Section 4, the obtained results are presented and interpreted. Section 5 then provides conclusions and recommendations.
2 Brief Overview of Related Literature
Academic literature in regard to risk management, particularly in the public sector, is scarce; this is particularly the case in the South African context. From analysing the existing South African literature on risk management in the public sector, it was found that it has largely confined itself to analysing existing data, i.e. secondary data. Academic literature on risk management in South Africa has primarily focused on answering questions regarding risk management processes and systems by analysing integrated/ annual reports as well as institutional websites (see amongst others Coetzee & Lubbe, 2013; Vergotine, 2012; Moloi, 2016a, 2016b; Siswana, 2007).
It is argued here that this has had the effect of discounting the element of people. In essence, the weaknesses in the internal controls process, as highlighted in the Auditor General of South Africa's reports, have not necessarily been investigated and explored using data that has been directly extracted from a primary source, i.e. those that are directly involved in the process of risk management on a day-to-day basis in public institutions.
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Contrary to the South African case, in the international setting, academic literature on risk management in the public sector has been on the rise. In this regard, the literature has focused on both secondary and primary datasets. In essence, the literature has focused on people, systems and processes (see amongst others Domokos, Nyéki, Jakovác, Németh, & Hatvani, 2015; Braig, Gebre, & Sellgren, 2011; Palermo, 2014; Asenova, Bailey, & McCann, 2014; Leung, 2008; Lawlor, 2002; Smith & McCloskey, 1998; Baldry, 1998; Vincent, 1996).
The brief review of international literature presented above shows that three angles have been explored in regard to risk management, namely; people, processes and systems. As such, conclusions from this literature regarding the weaknesses of a risk management programme are not connected only to the processes and systems. It is also recognised that people can cause the processes and systems to malfunction. Furthermore, the international literature has examined a variety of data, including primary and secondary data, in order to understand and provide a considered view in regard to risk management.
3 Research Process
The main objective of this paper was stated earlier as follows: to review the risk management and reporting practices applied in South Africa's public institutions. To achieve this objective, the paper defined five variables that were deemed indicators of risk management planning and reporting practices, namely: the timing of the institutions' strategic and combined assurance planning, documentation and active management of risks appearing in strategic risk registers and operational risk registers and the availability of risk management software (including its nature and usefulness).
As such, a questionnaire covering these variables was developed and inserted into a broader questionnaire that was sent to the public institutions (CROs). This paper reports on responses relating to the risk management planning and reporting practices applied in South Africa's public institutions.
The detailed questionnaire, which included a section on risk management planning and reporting practices applied in South Africa's public institutions, was administered through emails via the Office of the Accountant General to National and Provincial Government Departments, Public Entities and Municipalities (Government Institutions). To supplement the data collection process, the Office of the Accountant General distributed the questionnaire for completion at the Chief Risk Officers Forum, which takes place biannually (i.e. Twice per annum for National and Provincial Government Departments and twice per annum for Public Entities).
One hundred (100) responses were received through this process, as follows; twelve (12) responses from National Government Departments (NGDs),
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forty two (42) responses from Public Entities, thirty (30) responses from Provincial Government Departments (PGDs) and sixteen responses from (16) Municipalities.
4 Research Findings and Interpretation
This Section now presents and discusses the obtained results. Subsection 4.1 to Subsection 4.7 as well as Table 1 to Table 7 present and discuss the findings on strategic planning, combined assurance planning, strategic and operational risk registers, availability and type of risk management as well as the perceived usefulness of risk management software.
4.1 Findings on Strategic Planning
Respondents were asked to indicate the timing of their strategic planning. Table 1 below shows the obtained results. Eighteen (18) surveyed institutions indicated that they conduct their strategic planning in the fourth quarter of the year, fourteen (14) indicated that they conduct their strategic planning in the third quarter of the year, twelve (12) indicated that they conduct their strategic planning in the second quarter of the year and eleven (11) institutions indicated that they conduct their strategic planning in the first quarter of the year.
It can be assumed that those conducting strategic planning in the third and fourth quarter of the year are conducting/ reviewing the strategy for the following year. It is concerning that there are some institutions that carry out strategic planning sessions during the year of implementation, i.e. those conducting their planning in the first and second quarter of the year.
Table 1. Strategic planning
Timing of strategic planning	Timing	National government departments	Public entities	Provincial departments	Municipalities	Total
	First quarter	1	4	5	1	11
	Second quarter	1	3	1	7	12
	Third quarter	2	7	4	1	14
	Fourth quarter	5	5	6	2	18
	Other	1	1	5	3	10
4.2 Findings on Combined Assurance Planning
Respondents were asked to state the timing of their combined assurance planning. Ideally, when the risk planning process is approved, the combined assurance process should also be approved. Approving all assurance processes
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would aid the institution through coordination of assurance activities, i.e. assurance providers within the institution would be aware of what other assurance providers are engaged with. It could also assist with avoidance of 'assurance fatigue',
The results presented in Table 2 below indicate that the majority of the surveyed institutions seem to be unsure as to when the combined assurance planning process takes place. This is apparent in their responses, as the majority of them did not indicate the quarter. It could be that the combined assurance process has not yet been embedded in the surveyed institutions' processes.
Table 2. Combined assurance planning
Timing of combined assurance planning	Timing	National government departments	Public entities	Provincial departments	Municipalities	Total
	First quarter	1	2	3	0	6
	Second quarter	0	6	3	3	12
	Third quarter	1	1	0	1	3
	Fourth quarter	1	0	1	0	2
	Other	0	5	8	4	17
4.3 Findings on Strategic Risk Registers
Following a strategic risk assessment that would identify all strategic risks, institutions are expected to document all of those strategic risks and actively manage these so as to improve their chance of achieving their stated objectives.
Table 3 below presents the results related to the strategic risk register. The obtained results indicate that the majority of surveyed institutions do have strategic risk registers in place. Two (2) Municipalities and one Public Entity indicated that they did not have strategic risk registers. In this regard, it can be assumed that those institutions have not conducted strategic risk assessments. The lack of strategic risk registers may result in failure to achieve their objectives, as they may not have gone through a rigorous process of identifying potential threats to their strategy.
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Table 3. Strategic risk registers
Strategic Risk Register	Option	National government departments	Public entities	Provincial departments	Municipalities	Total
	Yes	12	41	29	14	96
	No	0	1	0	2	3
4.4 Findings on Operational Risk Registers
In a similar manner to strategic risk registers, it is argued here that failure to prevent operational risks from occurring will lead to an inability to achieve strategic milestones. Table 4 shows that the majority of surveyed institutions do have operational risk registers in place. Seven institutions indicated that they did not have operational risk registers, i.e. four (4) Public Entities and three (3) PGDs.
Table 4. Operational risk registers
		t s		s	s ie	
Operational Risi Registers	Option	National governme departmen	Public entities	Provincial departmen	al o. ici ni u M	Total
	Yes	12	38	26	16	92
	No	0	4	3	0	7
4.5 Findings on Risk Management Software
Risk management is a tedious process that involves a significant amount of information. As such, most institutions invest in risk management software that aids risk professionals in capturing, analysing and aggregating risk information.
In this regard, respondents were asked to indicate whether their institution has invested in risk management software. The results presented in Table 5 below indicate that the majority of surveyed institutions do not have risk management software. Of the surveyed institutions, thirty four (34) indicated that they had risk management software,
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Table 5. Risk management software
Risk management tool (Risk computer software)	Option	National government departments	Public entities	Provincial departments	Municipalities	Total
	Yes	4	18	8	4	34
	No	8	24	21	12	65
4.6 Findings on Type of Risk Management Software
In conjunction with Table 5, respondents were also asked to indicate the type of risk management software that they have deployed in their risk management process. Table 6 below indicates that the surveyed institutions utilise a range of software, including Barn owl (twelve institutions), Cura (eleven institutions) and Excel (six institutions),
Table 6. Type of risk management software
Name of software tool	Type	National government departments	Public entities	Provincial departments	Municipalities	Total
	Barn owl	2	3	6	1	12
	Cura	1	9	1	0	11
	Excel	1	3	2	0	6
	Other	0	4	1	2	7
4.7 Findings Regarding CROs' Perception on the Value of Risk Management Software
For those institutions that had indicated that they had deployed risk management software, CROs were requested to indicate whether or not the risk management software that has been procured adds value in their risk management process. In this regard, forty two (42) CROs indicated that that the procured risk management software enabled them to do risk management better. Nineteen (19) CROs indicated that there was no value in the procured risk management software,
The fact that a significant number of CROs indicated that there was no value derived from the procured risk management software points to the weaknesses regarding the involvement of a specialist in the procurement of tools that they apply, During the procurement process, risk specialists should examine the tools presented by service providers to determine whether or not these meet the needs.
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The discussions above centred around interpretation of the responses obtained. To give context to these results, the paper postulated reasons why certain practices had not been adhered to or applied. The following Section draws conclusions and offers recommendations,
Table 7. Value in risk management software
In the CRO's experience, does the risk management tool add value (does it enable the	Option	National government departments	State-owned entities	Provincial departments	Municipalities	Total
CRO to do risk management better)?	Yes	6	20	9	7	42
	No	1	6	8	4	19
5 Conclusion
This paper attempted to review the risk management planning and reporting practices applied in South Africa's public institutions. Five variables were utilised as indicators of risk management planning and reporting practices, namely; the timing of the institutions' strategic and combined assurance planning, documentation and active management of risks appearing in strategic risk registers and operational risk registers and the availability of risk management software (including its nature and usefulness),
There appears to be confusion regarding the timing of both strategic and combined assurance planning sessions. Some institutions conduct these in the preceding year, whereas others appear to be conducting these during the year of implementation. With regard to combined assurance planning, the results suggest that the practice of implementing combined assurance planning has not yet been embedded in the surveyed institutions' processes. It is recommended that the institutions embed this process, as it can aid with the coordination of assurance activities, i.e. assurance providers within the institution will be aware of what other assurance providers are engaged with, and thus assist with the avoidance of 'assurance fatigue'.
With regard to the strategic and operational risk registers, the majority of respondents indicated that they had these in place. Regarding those institutions that have not prepared and do not actively manage risks through strategic and operational risk registers, there is concern that those institutions may fail to achieve their objectives, as they may not have gone through a rigorous process of identifying potential threats to their strategy. A follow up review by the National Treasury could be undertaken with the CROs of these institutions to determine the reasons for their inability to prepare their strategic and operational risk registers.
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With regard to the risk software applied by public service institutions, the results indicated that the majority of the surveyed institutions did not have risk management software. This paper argued that the process of collecting and analysing risk management information is tedious and also involves a significant amount of information. For risk professionals to produce credible risk information that is useful, these institutions would have to invest in risk management software to aid risk professionals in capturing, analysing and aggregating risk information.
Regarding those institutions that had procured and deployed risk management software, it was observed that there was a range of software in deployment, including Barn owl (twelve institutions), Cura (eleven institutions) and Excel (six institutions). It is concerning that a significant number of public institution CROs indicated that there was no value derived from the procured risk management system. This affirmation points to the weaknesses regarding the involvement of a specialist in the procurement of tools that they apply, This paper recommends that during the procurement process risk specialists should be given an opportunity to examine the tools presented by service providers in order to determine whether or not these meet the needs.
Tankiso Moloi, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Accountancy at the University of Johannesburg. He has written and reviewed several articles on corporate governance and risk management in South Africa.
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Moloi, T. (2016a). Key mechanisms of risk management in South Africa's national government departments: The Public Sector Risk Management Framework and the King III benchmark. International Public Administration Review, 74(2-3), 37-52. doi: 10.17573/ipar.2016.2-3.02
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1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek
Pregled načrtovanja in poročanja o obvladovanju tveganj v javnih institucijah Južne Afrike
V	preteklih letih se je povečala uporaba discipline obvladovanja tveganja, Javne ustanove pri tem ne zaostajajo, na primer Berg (2010) ugotavlja, da se je obvladovanje tveganja razširilo na »vladne organizacije, raziskovalne inštitute in bolnišnice, ki sedaj do določene mere uvajajo obvladovanje tveganja«,
Južna Afrika sledi svojim mednarodnim partnerjem. V zvezi s tem je vlada Južne Afrike preko Državne zakladnice uvedla Okvir za upravljanje tveganj v javnem sektorju (PSRMF), s katerim je obvladovanje tveganj postalo sestavni del finančnega upravljanja. Treba je omeniti, da je Zakladnica PSRMF uvedla v letu, v katerem Berg (2010) ugotavlja, da se je upravljanje tveganja razširilo na »vladne organizacije, raziskovalne inštitute in bolnišnice«,
Ko je bil PSRMF uveden, je bilo navedeno, da bo v postopku prepoznavanja, ocenjevanja in upravljanja tveganj pomagal računovodjem pri ohranjanju učinkovitega in uspešnega sistema internega nadzora v institucijah javnih služb. S to drzno trditvijo je bilo pričakovano, da se bo sistem notranjega nadzora izboljšal,
V	trenutnem stanju se zdi, da javne institucije v Južni Afriki niso uspele vzdrževati učinkovitega in uspešnega notranjega nadzora, ki ga je predvidel PSRFM. Ta trditev je ponavljajoča se tema v poročilih generalnega revizorja Južne Afrike, ki nenehno poudarja, da večina javnih institucij Južne Afrike ne zmore ohranjati učinkovitega in uspešnega sistema notranjega nadzora,
To raziskovalno delo je bilo namenjeno pregledovanju praks načrtovanja in poročanja o upravljanju tveganj, ki so v uporabi v javnih institucijah v Južni Afriki, z opredelitvijo petih spremenljivk, ki so se štele kot približek načrtovanja in poročanja o upravljanju tveganja, in sicer: časovni razpored načrtovanja strateških in kombiniranih zagotovil institucij, dokumentacija in aktivno upravljanje tveganj, ki se pojavljajo v registrih strateških tveganj in registrih operativnih tveganj, ter razpoložljivost programske opreme upravljanja tveganj (vključno z njeno naravo in koristnostjo),
Glavna omejitev tega dela je, da se osredotoča na javne inštitucije Južne Afrike, in sicer na; državne vladne oddelke (NGD-je), deželne vladne oddelke (PGD-je), občine (lokalno vlado) in javne subjekte, Poleg tega je dodatna omejitev te študije, da se osredotoča na enega od ponudnikov zagotovil, torej na enoto za obvladovanje tveganj, Kot zadnje je na vprašalnik odgovorilo sto javnih institucij, Rezultate je torej treba razlagati v tem kontekstu,
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Pridobljeni rezultati kažejo na dejstvo, da obstaja zmeda glede časovnega načrta tako strateških kot tudi kombiniranih zagotovil. Nekatere institucije so to uvedle v preteklem letu, za nekatere pa se zdi, da to uvajajo v letu izvedbe. Rezultati tudi kažejo, da praksa izvajanja kombiniranih zagotovil še ni bila vključena v večino vladnih institucij, kar kaže na neusklajene dejavnosti zagotavljanja, ki bi lahko pripeljale do »utrujenosti zagotovil«. Rezultati tudi kažejo na dejstvo, da še obstajajo javne ustanove, ki še zmerajne morejo pripraviti registrov strateških in operativnih tveganj. To postavlja vprašanje, kako se ta tveganja upravljajo, če niso bila izmerjena in dokumentirana,
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DOI: 10.17573/ipar.2017.2.04
1.02 Pregledni znanstveni članek
Analiza kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu
Dobruša Lipovž
Zavod za pokojninsko in invalidsko zavarovanje; Ljubljana, Slovenija dobrusa.lipovz@zpiz.si
Melita Moretti
Univerza v Ljubljani; Slovenija melita.moretti@amis.net
IZVLEČEK
Kvantitativno analizo kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu smo izvedli s pomočjo merskega instrumenta SERVQUAL, s katerim smo merili udeleženčeva pričakovanja in njihove zaznave kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja, in sicer s pomočjo petih razsežnosti: zunanje podobe, zanesljivosti, odzivnosti, zaupanja in pozornosti. Analiza je pokazala, da se pričakovana kakovost usposabljanja na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu statistično značilno razlikuje od dejanske zaznane kakovosti ter da je dejavnik zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj »zanesljivost izvajalca in predavatelja« pozitivno povezan z zadovoljstvom udeležencev teh usposabljanj. Rezultati analize bodo lahko v pomoč upravljalcem človeških virov in managementu v izbranem javnem zavodu in v drugih organizacijah, kakor tudi raziskovalcem, saj lahko ti na osnovi ugotovitev te raziskave ter dodatno zbranih podatkov izpeljejo dodatne analize.
Ključne besede: usposabljanje, znanje, kakovost, digitalizacija poslovanja, javni zavod JEL: M53
1 Uvod
Živimo v družbi znanja, v družbi nenehnih sprememb, med katere uvrščamo npr. nove informacijske in ostale tehnološke tehnologije ter vrsto političnih, socialnih, ekoloških in gospodarskih sprememb (Drucker, 2007; Evans, 2014). Zaposleni najbi sledili temu razvoju - vseživljenjsko usposabljanje je tako stalnica razvoja vsakega posameznika in tudi organizacije, v kateri je posameznik zaposlen (Černetič, 2006). Te spremembe danes in tudi v prihodnje spreminjajo navade in odnos posameznikov ter tudi organizacij -
Lipovž, D., & Moretti, M. (2017). Analiza kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu [Analysis of professional 93 training in business digitalisation at a selected public institute]. International Public Administration Review, 15(2), 93-144.
Dobruša Lipovž, Melita Moretti
razvija se novo, bolj odgovorno vedenje (Aguinis & Glavas, 2012; Martínez, Pérez & Bosque, 2013; Buslovich & Searcy, 2014).
Pomembno vlogo pri uspešnosti organizacij (profitnih in neprofitnih) igrajo tudi neopredmetena sredstva organizacije. Številni teoretiki in raziskovalci so mnenja, da je vlogo znanja treba upoštevati kot osnovni element organizacije, njen razvoj, spodbujanje in prilagajanje pa so bistvenega pomena za trajnostni razvoj organizacij (Ortas & Moneva, 2011; Wright & McMahan, 2011). Za potrebe pridobivanja znanja v organizaciji te za svoje zaposlene organizirajo različna strokovna usposabljanja (Ortas & Moneva, 2011; Medina, 2017). Ta se osredotočajo na kratkoročne in s trenutnimi spremembami skladne dopolnitve znanja in veščin, njihov obseg usposabljanj pa je skladen s potrebami po znanju v posamezni organizaciji (Dermol, 2010).
Analizirali smo kakovost strokovnih usposabljanj v izbranem javnem zavodu, in sicer na področju digitalizacije njihovega poslovanja - upravljanja z dokumentarnim gradivom. Upravljanje z dokumentarnim gradivom je eden izmed temeljev sodobnega upravnega poslovanja, je temeljni proces vsakega upravnega organa, kadar na podlagi javnih pooblastil opravlja upravne naloge, Ko bo projekt upravljanja z dokumentarnim gradivom v celoti začel delovati v temeljni dejavnosti 2017, bo omogočeno učinkovito brezpapirno poslovanje izbranega javnega zavoda, transparentnost in sledljivost dokumentov, upravljanje z zadevami in subjekti ter vodenje evidence o dokumentarnem gradivu v celoti z informacijskim sistemom in prilagoditvami novim tehnološkim zahtevam (ZPIZ, 2016). Vse to zahteva sodobne informacijske vire (zaposlene, poslovne partnerje, dokumentacijske podatke, podatkovne baze, programsko opremo, strojno opremo, sistem za neprekinjeno napajanje, poslovne prostore ipd.) (Likar & Trček, 2012). Posebno pozornost je treba nameniti tudi ranljivosti (slabosti) informacijskega sistema, ki jo lahko izrabi ena ali več groženj, med katere štejemo razne varnostne grožnje (npr. vdiralce v sisteme s pisanjem programskih virusov, nezadovoljne zaposlene, naravne nesreče, okvare programske in strojne opreme), fluktuacijo zaposlenih in odtujitve določenih informacijskih virov (Anderle, 2012). Tako brez kakovostnega managementa varnosti informacijskega sistema ne gre več - v organizaciji je treba vzpostaviti ustrezno varnostno politiko, zaposlene pa usposabljati o njihovih dolžnostih pri varovanju informacij in delu s temi informacijami in posodobitvami informacijskega sistema.
Za merjenje kakovosti storitev se uporabljajo različni modeli, s katerimi lahko merimo uporabnikova pričakovanja in zaznavamo kakovost storitev. Pri izvedbi raziskave smo uporabili model SERVQUAL (Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry, 1988) - raziskali smo pet razsežnosti kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj, in sicer: zanesljivost, zaupanje, zunanjo podobo izvajanja usposabljanj, pozornost in odzivnost izvajanja storitev strokovnih usposabljanj.
Na osnovi opisanega in pregleda do sedaj opravljenih raziskav v Sloveniji smo ugotovili, da v javnih zavodih empiričnih raziskav s področja kakovosti
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strokovnih usposabljanj po modelu SERQUAL ni bilo. V tem smo zaznali raziskovalno vrzel, zato menimo, da je to problematiko smiselno raziskovati.
Cilj prispevka je, prvič, predstaviti značilnosti kakovostnih usposabljanjin zadovoljstvo udeležencev usposabljanjna splošno, in drugič, obravnavati izsledke kvantitativne raziskave, ki smo jo izvedli v februarju 2016 na naključnem vzorcu udeležencev strokovnih usposabljanjs področja digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu.
2 Strokovna usposabljanja
Pomen strokovnih usposabljanj je povezan spreminjajočo se vlogo človeških virov v organizaciji (Pena & Villasalero, 2010; Ubeda-Garcia, Marco-Lajara, Sabater & Garcia-Lillo, 2013). Organizacije zaradi večje potrebe po novem znanju, prilagoditvi ravni usposobljenosti zaposlenih (novo zaposlenih v primerjavi z do sedaj zaposlenimi) zaradi povečanja produktivnosti, ustvarjalnosti in inovativnosti zaposlenih organizirajo različna strokovna usposabljanja za svoje zaposlene (Ortas & Moneva, 2011; Medina, 2017).
Strokovna usposabljanja lahko gledamo z več perspektiv:
•	Strokovna usposabljanja lahko vidimo kot sredstvo organizacije, s katerimi se vpliva na posameznika znotrajorganizacije (na njegov značaj, tekmovalnost, sistem vrednost, stališča ipd.) (Ferraz & Gallardo-Vazquez, 2016),
•	Strokovna usposabljanja se lahko pojmujejo kot proces razvoja, izboljšanja delovnih mest, vedenj in stališč zaposlenih (Paauwe, 2009; Wright & McMahan, 2011),
•	Strokovna usposabljanja lahko štejemo kot sredstvo za zmanjševanje razlik med tistim, kaj lahko zaposleni ponudijo glede na svoje izkušnje in spretnost in glede na razlike med zahtevami delovnega mesta (Mata, Guenagia & Rodriguez, 2006),
•	Strokovna usposabljanja lahko imenujemo proces prilagajanja in poklicnega usmerjanja zaposlenih, ki omogoča spremembe v organizaciji, s tem pa se poveča potencial organizacije (Winters, Meijers, Kuijpers & Baert, 2009; Nguyen, Truong & Buyens, 2010).
Poudarjamo pa, da se učinkovitost strokovnih usposabljanj lahko meri le s stalnostjo teh usposabljanj v daljšem časovnem obdobju, saj morajo zaposleni, z namenom boljše učinkovitosti, stalno pridobivati nova znanja in spretnosti (Collier, Green, Young-Bae & Peirson, 2011).
Strokovna usposabljanja so za posameznika pomembna v vseh življenjskih obdobjih, predvsem zaradi njihovih učinkov dela in boljše zaposljivosti (ILO, 2009) - (1) zgolj zaposleni z dovolj znanja lahko dosežejo visoko zastavljene cilje organizacije in (2) samo zaposleni z znanjem lahko ubranijo organizacije pred agresivnimi strategijami na trgu. Tako morajo biti v organizacijah razvite
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različne strategije na področju človeških virov. Raziskava Úbeda-García idr, (2013) je pokazala, da so politike strokovnih usposabljanj odvisne od strateške usmeritve organizacije,
Usmerjenost strokovnih usposabljanj je odvisna tudi od razvojne faze organizacije - v času rasti organizacije so primerna usposabljanja z jasnim motivacijskim načrtom za promocijo organizacije - v času vzdrževanja oz, preživetja organizacije so primerna usposabljanja za izboljšanje kakovosti dela, procesov in postopkov, medtem ko v fazi zatona organizacije usposabljanja zgubljajo na pomenu (Buller & McEvoy, 2012; Ferraz & Gallardo-Vazquez, 2016), Torej, strokovna usposabljanja so organizaciji dolgoročna naložba, vendar le, če je sistem ugotavljanja potreb po usposabljanju in izvedba usposabljanj na dovolj visoki ravni kakovosti (Wieland Handy, 2008; Gomezelj Omerzel, 2010), Dermol (2010, str, 50) med dimenzije kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj šteje: »Sistematičnost v izvedbi procesov usposabljanj, prepoznavanje in upoštevanje učnih potreb; postavljanje jasnih učnih ciljev; uporaba metod poučevanja, ki ustrezajo zastavljenim ciljem in učnim vsebinam; relevantnost vsebin usposabljanj in ovrednotenje usposabljanj«,
Pri razvoju in implementaciji strategy's področja človeških virov ima management v organizaciji odločilno vlogo (Blewitt, 2014; Dodds, Laguna-Celis & Thompson, 2014) - uspeh programov strokovnih usposabljanj je odvisen od podpore managementa (raziskave Devos et al,, 2007; Wieland Handy, 2008; Moretti & Markič,2015), od podpore sodelavcev (glej raziskave Holton, Hsin-Chih, & Naquin, 2003; Wieland Handy, 2008; Moretti & Markič 2015), ter od spodbud glede prenosa znanja v prakso (npr, povišanje osebnega dohodka in druge nagrade), ki spodbujajo zaposlene k uporabi novih znanj v praksi (glej raziskave Holton et al,, 2003; Wieland Handy, 2008; Moretti & Markič 2015),
Zaradi specifičnih lastnosti storitev, tudi storitev s področja izvedbe strokovnih usposabljanj, je kakovost izvedbe strokovnih usposabljanj težko ovrednotiti - uporabniki storitev opredeljujejo kakovost z drugega vidika, kot jo opredeljujejo izvajalci storitev - kakovost storitev, tudi kakovost izvedbe strokovnih usposabljanjlahko merimo s stališča uporabnikov/udeležencev in s stališča ponudnikov/izvajalcev te storitve (Podbrežnik & Bojnec, 2013), Parasuraman, Zeithaml in Berry (1985, str, 41-50) so v osemdesetih letih razvili model vrzeli zaznane kakovosti storitev, kjer je kakovost storitve opredeljena kot »razlika med pričakovanji uporabnika in njegovim zaznavanjem izvedene storitve« (Podbrežnik & Bojnec, 2013, str, 3), Osnova za merjenje zaznane kakovosti storitev je merilni inštrument SERVQUAL, kjer se kakovost storitev meri s petimi razsežnostmi kakovosti storitev: (1) otipljivost (fizične sestavine storitev) (angl, tangibles), (2) zanesljivost (angl, reliability), (3) odzivnost (angl, responsiveness), zaupanje (angl, assurance), in (5) pozornost (angl, attentiveness) (Parasuraman et al,, 1985; 1988), Merilni inštrument SERVQUAL je sestavljen iz dveh delov (pričakovanja in zaznana kakovost), vsakega sestavlja 22 trditev, s katerimi se pojasni teh pet
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razsežnosti kakovosti storitev. Oceno kakovosti storitev se poda na naslednji način (Parasuraman et al., 1985; 1988):
•	V primeru, da je razlika med zaznano kakovostjo storitev in pričakovanji pozitivna, pomeni, da je kakovost storitev izvedena nad pričakovanji;
•	V primeru, da razlike med zaznano kakovostjo storitev in pričakovanji ni, pomeni, da je kakovost storitev izpolnila pričakovanja;
•	V primeru, da je razlika med zaznano kakovostjo storitev in pričakovanji negativna, pomeni, da je kakovost storitev izvedena pod pričakovanji,
Ladhari (2009) je izvedel pregled uporabe merilnega instrumenta SERVQUAL - na osnovi številnih raziskav, ki so bile izvedene do tega obdobja, je ugotovil, da je to najboljše orodje za merjenje zaznane kakovosti storitev. Kakovost storitev so z merilnim inštrumentom SERVQUAL merili tudi številni raziskovalci po letu 2009 (raziskave Udo, Bagchi & Kirs, 2011; Lee & Kim, 2012; Podbrežnik & Bojnec, 2013; Yousapronpaiboon, 2014; Pradela, 2015; Liu et al. 2015; Lampič, 2016; Hamari, Hanner & Koivisto, 2017 itd.).
Ugotavljamo, da je kakovost, tudi kakovost izvedbe strokovnih usposabljanj, povezana z zadovoljstvom udeležencev usposabljanj (Schermerhorn, 2013; Dermol, 2010) - če kakovost storitev izpolnjuje pričakovanja ali jih celo preseže, so uporabniki teh storitev zadovoljni. Tudi Oliver (2010, str. 8) meni, da je zadovoljstvo uporabnikov »odziv na neko izpolnitev ali neizpolnitev. Je njegova sodba o tem, ali je značilnost storitve ali pa sama storitev dosegla (ali dosega) želeni nivo izpolnitve ali ne«.
Pri analizi strokovnih usposabljanjna področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu, smo se osredotočili na to, kako so kakovost ocenjevali udeleženci teh usposabljanj. Ti so ocenjevali kakovost strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja ocenjevali z naslednjimi razsežnostmi:
•	Zunanja podoba (urejenost in profesionalnost predavatelja, primernost opreme, prostora in inventarja);
•	Zanesljivost (izvedba usposabljanja v obljubljenem roku, primerno gradivo, primerna tehnična oprema in zanesljivost predavatelja);
•	Odzivnost (izvedba po terminskem planu, odzivnost predavatelja);
•	Zaupanje (vljudnost in zaupanje predavatelja, zaupanje izvajalca usposabljanj);
•	Pozornost (ustreznost urnika usposabljanj, pozornost predavatelja do udeležencev).
Udeleženci so tako na vsako trditev iz posamezne razsežnosti odgovarjali dvakrat: (1) s prvim delom smo merili pričakovanja oz. pomembnost teh usposabljanj; (2) z drugim delom smo merili zaznavanje udeležencev o teh usposabljanjih.
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3 Raziskava
Namen raziskave je analizirati kakovost strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu v Sloveniji. Za dosego namena smo si zastavili dve hipotezi, in sicer:
H1: Pričakovana kakovost usposabljanja na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu se statistično značilno razlikuje od dejanske zaznane kakovosti. H2: Obstaja statistično značilna povezanost med oceno zadovoljstva udeležencev strokovnih usposabljanjna področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu in skupnimi dejavniki zaznane kakovosti teh usposabljanj.
3.1 Metodologija
Empirični del je temeljil na kvantitativni metodologiji raziskovanja. Podatke in informacije smo pridobili s pomočjo vprašalnika SERVQUAL (Parasuraman et. al., 1988), ki je bil sestavljen iz treh delov, in sicer:
•	Prvi del: splošni demografski podatki anketiranih oseb.
•	Drugi del: trditve s področja ugotavljanja pričakovanjudeležencev strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja.
•	Tretji del: trditve s področja ugotavljanja zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanjna področju digitalizacije poslovanja, skupna ocena zadovoljstva teh usposabljanj.
Anketirani so stopnjo strinjanja (drugi in tretji del vprašalnika) podali na petstopenjski Likertovi lestvici, razen pri vprašanju, ki je povezano s skupno oceno pomembnosti posameznih dimenzij kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja, kjer so anketirani med te dimenzije razdelili 100 točk. Pred izvedbo anketiranja smo vprašalnik preizkusili s pomočjo sedmih oseb iz vzorca.
Od uprave izbranega javnega zavoda smo pridobili soglasje za izvedbo raziskave. Kot tehniko anketiranja smo uporabili anketiranje po elektronski pošti, dostop do vprašalnika pa je bil preko službe za razvojkadrov in upravljanja poslovnih procesov izbranega javnega zavoda posredovan vsem udeležencem strokovnih usposabljanj.
Zanesljivost vprašalnika smo potrdili s Cronbach a = 0,950.
Pri analizi podatkov smo uporabili naslednje metode analize podatkov: osnovno statistično analizo (povprečje - M; standardni odklon - SD; frekvence - f; odstotek frekvenc - f %), T test dvojic (angl. Paired-Samples T Test), faktorsko analizo (uporabili smo metodo Principal axis factoring in pravokotno rotacijo faktorjev Varimax) in regresijsko analizo (uporabili smo metodo Stepwise).
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3.2 Ciljna skupina raziskovanja
V raziskavo smo vključili udeležence strokovnih usposabljanjs področja digitalizacije poslovanja v letu 2015. V izbranem javnem zavodu je bilo na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v letu 2015 izvedenih 16 usposabljanj (predstavitve in delavnice, neposredno povezane z vodenjem postopka z brezpapirnim poslovanjem; predavanja o varstvu osebnih podatkov, s poudarkom na delu s stranko), usposabljanj se je udeležilo 584 zaposlenih,
Tabela 1. Demografski podatki anketiranih oseb
Karakteristike	Deskriptor	f	f %
Spol	Ženski	108	82,4
	Moški	23	17,6
Starost	Minimalna starost	23	
	Maksimalna starost	59	
	Povprečna starost	43,78	
Organizacijska enota	Centrala zavoda	4	3,1
	Sektor	6	4,6
	Območna enota	115	87,8
	Oddelek	6	4,6
Delovno mesto	Vodja organizacijske enote (direktor sektorja, vodja službe, vodja oddelka)	20	15,3
	Strokovni delavec, ki rešuje upravne zadeve	95	72,5
	Pisarniški delavec (skenerist, evidentičar, pripravljalec dokumentacije)	16	12,2
Delovne izkušnje	do 5 let	4	3,1
	nad 5 do 15 let	40	30,5
	nad 15 do 25 let	39	29,8
	nad 25 do 35 let	46	35,1
	nad 35 let	2	1,5
Čas zaposlitve	do 5 let	7	5,3
	nad 5 do 15 let	57	43,5
	nad 15 do 25 let	36	27,5
	nad 25 do 35 let	28	21,4
	več kot 35 let	3	2,3
Izobrazba	Srednješolska izobrazba	19	14,5
	Višješolska izobrazba	25	19,1
	Visokošolska strokovna/univerzitetna izobrazba	73	55,7
	Specialistična/strokovni magisterij	10	7,6
Skupaj		131	100,0
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Vrnjenih smo prejeli 131 popolnoma rešenih vprašalnikov (22,4 % odzivnost), Ženske so izpolnile 108 vprašalnikov (82,4 %), moški 23 vprašalnike (17,6 %), Minimalna starost anketirane osebe je 23 let, maksimalna 59 let, Največ anketiranih (87,8 %) delo opravlja v posameznih območnih enotah izbranega javnega zavoda, in sicer kot strokovni delavec, ki rešuje upravne zadeve (72,5 % anketiranih), ima nad 25 do 35 let delovnih izkušenj (35,1 % anketiranih), v izbranem javnem zavodu so zaposleni od 5 do 15 let (43,5 % anketiranih) ter imajo končano visokošolsko strokovno/univerzitetno izobrazbo (55,7 % anketiranih), Ostali podatki so razvidni v Tabeli 1,
3.3 Osnovne statistične analize
3.3.1 Ocena pričakovanja udeleženca strokovnih usposabljanj s področja digitalizacije poslovanja
Na postavljene trditve s področja pričakovanja udeleženca strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja so anketirani odgovarjali na petstopenjski Likertovi lestvici (1 - nikakor ni pomembno; 5 - zelo je pomembno).
Anketirani so pri dimenziji kakovosti usposabljanj»zunanja podoba« v povprečju, kot najbolj pomembno ocenili sodobno tehnično opremo (M = 4,36; SD = 0,68), najmanj pomembno pa urejenost izvajalca (M = 3,90; SD = 0,80) -Tabela 2.
Tabela 2. Ocena pričakovanja udeleženca usposabljanj - zunanja podoba
Spremenljivke	M	SD
Izvajalec mora imeti sodobno tehnično opremo (premično platno, belo tablo, projektor, računalnik ipd,)	4,36	0,68
Izvajalec mora biti profesionalno-družben (objektiven, formalen)	4,29	0,67
Izvajalec mora imeti primerne urejene prostore in vzdrževan inventar (mize, stoli, osvetlitev prostora itd.)	4,18	0,78
Izvajalec mora biti primerno urejen	3,90	0,80
Pri dimenziji kakovosti usposabljanj »zanesljivost«, so anketirani v povprečju kot najbolj pomembno ocenili, da mora izvajalec podati snov brez napak (M = 4,41; SD = 0,58), kot najmanj pomembno pa, da mora izvajalec peljati usposabljanja v obljubljenih rokih (M = 4,12; SD = 0,65) - Tabela 3,
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Tabela 3. Ocena pričakovanja udeleženca usposabljanj - zanesljivost
Spremenljivke	M	SD
Izvajalec mora odpredavati snov brez napak.	4,41	0,58
Prostori, v katerih se izvajajo usposabljanja morajo biti pripravljeni po dogovoru.	4,37	0,68
Gradivo mora biti urejeno, vsebovati mora vse sestavine usposabljanj in to brez slovničnih napak.	4,36	0,59
Tehnična oprema mora delovati brez napak.	4,31	0,57
Izvajalec mora izvesti usposabljanja v obljubljenih rokih.	4,12	0,65
Pri dimenziji kakovosti usposabljanj »odzivnost«, so anketirani v povprečju kot najbolj pomembno ocenili, da mora izvajalec odpraviti probleme/težave, ki se pojavijo med usposabljanjem čim prej (M = 4,36; SD = 0,62), kot najmanj pomembno pa, da mora izvajalec pred začetkom usposabljanj podati terminski plan predavanj in se ga dosledno držati (urnik) (M = 4,10; SD = 0,67) - Tabela 4.
Tabela 4. Ocena pričakovanja udeleženca usposabljanj - odzivnost
Spremenljivke	M	SD
Izvajalec mora rešiti probleme/težave, ki se pojavijo med usposabljanjem čim prej.	4,36	0,62
Izvajalec mora prisluhniti željam udeležencem in poiskati ustrezno rešitev.	4,36	0,62
Izvajalec mora odgovarjati na vprašanja udeležencev hitro in popolno.	4,26	0,60
Izvajalec mora pred začetkom usposabljanj podati terminski plan predavanj in se ga dosledno držati (urnik).	4,10	0,67
Pri dimenziji kakovosti usposabljanj »zaupanje«, so anketirani v povprečju kot najboljpomembno ocenili ustrezno znanje predavatelja z obravnavanega področja (M = 4,69; SD = 0,56), kot najmanj pomembna jim je prijaznost in ustrežljivost predavatelja (M = 4,09; SD = 0,67) - Tabela 5.
Tabela 5. Ocena pričakovanja udeleženca usposabljanj - zaupanje
Spremenljivke	M	SD
Predavatelj mora imeti ustrezna znanja z obravnavanega področja.	4,69	0,56
Vedenje predavatelja mora vzbujati zaupanje.	4,28	0,69
Izvajalec usposabljanj mora vzbujati zaupanje.	4,26	0,65
Predavatelj mora biti do udeleženca usposabljanj vljuden.	4,20	0,60
Predavatelj mora biti prijazen in ustrežljiv.	4,09	0,67
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Anketirani so pri dimenziji kakovosti usposabljanj »pozornost« v povprečju kot najbolj pomembno ocenili, da mora predavatelj biti pozoren ter razumeti potrebe in želje udeležencev usposabljanj (M = 4,28), kot najmanj pomembna jim je ravnanje predavatelja v dobro udeleženca (M = 4,13) - Tabela 6.
Tabela 6. Ocena pričakovanja udeleženca usposabljanj - pozornost
Spremenljivke	M	SD
Predavatelj mora biti pozoren ter razumeti potrebe in želje udeležencev usposabljanj.	4,28	0,59
Predavatelj si mora vzeti čas za udeleženca usposabljanj.	4,24	0,63
Urnik usposabljanj mora biti ustrezen.	4,16	0,61
Predavatelj mora vedno ravnati v dobro udeleženca.	4,13	0,73
3.3.2 Pomembnost posameznih dimenzij kakovosti usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja
Pomembnost posameznih dimenzijkakovosti usposabljanjna področju digitalizacije poslovanja, kot so: zunanja podoba (urejenost prostorov, sodobna tehnična oprema, urejenost predavatelja, urejeno gradivo), zanesljivost (zanesljivo, natančno in v dogovorjenem roku opravljena storitev usposabljanja), odzivnost (pripravljenost pri reševanju eventualnih nastalih problemov, hitra odzivnost predavatelja na prošnje udeležencev usposabljanj s področja obravnavane tematike), zaupanje (znanje in vljudnost predavateljev, ki vzbujajo zaupanje) in pozornost (prijaznost, skrb in pozornost do vsakega udeleženca usposabljanj), so anketirani ocenjevali na način, da so med posameznimi zgoraj omenjenimi dimenzijami razdelili 100 točk.
Tabela 7. Ocena pomembnosti petih dimenzij kakovosti usposabljanj na področju
digitalizacije poslovanja
	Min	Max	M
Odzivnost (pripravljenost pri reševanju eventualnih nastalih problemov, hitra odzivnost predavatelja na prošnje udeležencev usposabljanj s področja obravnavane tematike)	1	90	28,67
Zaupanje (znanje in vljudnost predavateljev, ki vzbujajo zaupanje)	0	80	20,98
Zanesljivost (zanesljivo, natančno in v dogovorjenem roku opravljena storitev usposabljanja)	2	90	20,82
Zunanja podoba (urejenost prostorov, sodobna tehnična oprema, urejenost predavatelja, urejeno gradivo	0	95	15,31
Pozornost (prijaznost, skrb in pozornost do vsakega udeleženca usposabljanj)	0	80	15,22
Anketirani so kot najbolj pomembno ocenili dimenzijo »odzivnost« (M = 28,67/100), najmanjpomembno pa dimenzijo »pozornost« (M = 15,22/100) - Tabela 7. Ugotovili smo, da je udeležencem usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu najbolj
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pomembna pripravljenost izvajalca reševati eventualne nastale težave ter njegova hitra odzivnost na prošnje udeležencev usposabljanjs področja obravnavane tematike.
3.3.3 Ocena zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu
Anketirani so stopnjo strinjanja s postavljenimi trditvami s področja zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanjna področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu izrazili po Likertovi lestvici od 1 (nikakor se ne strinjam) do 5 (popolnoma se strinjam).
Anketirani so se v povprečju najboljstrinjali s trditvijo, da je predavatelj primerno urejen (M = 4,07; SD = 0,69), najmanjpa s trditvijo o primerno urejenih prostorih in primerno vzdrževanem inventarju (M = 3,81; SD = 0,86) -Tabela 8 (dimenzija zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj »zunanja podoba«),
Tabela 8. Ocena zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu - zunanja podoba
Spremenljivke	M	SD
Predavatelj je bil primerno urejen.	4,07	0,69
Predavatelj je bil profesionalno-družben (objektiven, formalen).	3,98	0,77
Izvajalec je uporabljal sodobno tehnično opremo (premično platno, belo tablo, projektor, računalnik ipd,),	3,83	0,86
Primerno urejeni prostori in primerno vzdrževan inventar (npr, mize, stoli, osvetlitev prostora),	3,81	0,86
Anketirani so se v povprečju najbolj strinjali s trditvijo, da je izvajalec izvedel usposabljanja v obljubljenih rokih (M = 3,85; SD = 0,71), najmanj z trditvijo, da je tehnična oprema delovala brez napak (M = 3,43; SD = 0,98) - Tabela 9 (dimenzija zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj »zanesljivost«),
Tabela 9. Ocena zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu - zanesljivost
Spremenljivke	M	SD
Izvajalec je izvedel usposabljanja v obljubljenih rokih.	3,85	0,71
Prostori, v katerih so se izvajala usposabljanja, so bila pripravljena po dogovoru.	3,85	0,75
Predavatelj je podal snov brez napak.	3,70	0,74
Gradivo je bilo urejeno, vsebovalo je vse sestavine usposabljanj ter bilo brez slovničnih napak,	3,67	0,83
Tehnična oprema je delovala brez napak,	3,43	0,98
Anketirani so se v povprečju najbolj strinjali s trditvijo, da je izvajalec pred začetkom usposabljanj podal terminski plan predavanj in se ga tudi dosledno
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držal (M = 3,85; SD = 0,68), najmanj s trditvijo, da je predavatelj čim prej reševal probleme/težave, ki so se pojavile med usposabljanjem (M = 3,79; SD = 0,69) -Tabela 10 (dimenzija zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj »odzivnost«),
Tabela 10. Ocena zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu - odzivnost
Spremenljivke	M	SD
Izvajalec je pred začetkom usposabljanj podal terminski plan predavanj in se ga tudi dosledno držal (urnik),	3,85	0,68
Predavatelj je prisluhnil željam udeležencem in poiskati ustrezno rešitev,	3,82	0,67
Predavatelj je odgovarjal na vprašanja udeležencev hitro in popolno,	3,81	0,70
Predavatelj je čim prej reševal probleme/težave, ki so se pojavile med usposabljanjem,	3,79	0,69
Anketirani so se v povprečju najbolj strinjali s trditvijo, da je bil predavatelj do vsakega udeleženca usposabljanj vljuden (M = 4,05; SD = 0,61), najmanj s trditvijo, da je vedenje predavatelja vzbujalo zaupanje (M = 3,85; SD = 0,68) -Tabela 11 (dimenzija zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj »zaupanje«),
Tabela 11. Ocena zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu - zaupanje
Spremenljivke	M	SD
Predavatelj je bil do vsakega udeleženca usposabljanj vljuden,	4,05	0,61
Predavatelj je imel ustrezna znanja z obravnavanega področja,	3,99	0,63
Predavatelj je bil prijazen in ustrežljiv,	3,97	0,67
Izvajalec usposabljanj je vzbujal zaupanje,	3,86	0,69
Vedenje predavatelja je vzbujalo zaupanje,	3,85	0,68
Anketirani so se v povprečju najbolj strinjali s trditvijo, da je predavatelj vedno ravnal v dobro udeleženca (M=3,85; SD=0,71), najmanj pa s trditvijo, da si je predavatelj vzel čas za vsakega udeleženca usposabljanj (M=3,69; SD=0,83) -Tabela 12 (dimenzija zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj »pozornost«),
Tabela 12. Ocena zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu - pozornost
Spremenljivke	M	SD
Predavatelj je vedno ravnal v dobro udeleženca,	3,85	0,71
Urnik usposabljanj je bil ustrezen,	3,84	0,68
Predavatelj je bil pozoren ter razumel potrebe in želje udeležencev usposabljanj,	3,77	0,72
Predavatelj si je vzel čas za vsakega udeleženca usposabljanj,	3,69	0,83
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3.3.4 Skupna ocena zadovoljstva s strokovnimi usposabljanji v izbranem javnem zavodu
Anketirani so podali skupno oceno zadovoljstva strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu (oceno zadovoljstva po Likertovi lestvici od 1 (zelo nezadovoljen) do 5 (zelo zadovoljen)). Ugotavljam, da so anketirani v povprečju zadovoljni s strokovnimi usposabljanji na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu (M = 3,60; SD = 0,78).
Največ anketiranih se je na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu udeležilo usposabljanjna področju upravljanja dokumentarnega gradiva (UDG) (77,9 % anketiranih) in zakona o upravnem postopku (ZUP) (74,8 % anketiranih) - Slika 1.
Slika 1. Udeležba na strokovnih usposabljanjih na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu v letu 2015
Največ anketiranih (57,3 %) je bilo zelo zadovoljnih z usposabljanji na področju UDG - Slika 2.
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Slika 2. Področje strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja, s katerim so anketirani bili najbolj zadovoljni
Največ anketiranih (57,3 %) je bilo najmanjzadovoljnih z usposabljanji s področja ZUP - Slika 3.
Slika 3. Področje strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja, s katerim so anketirani najmanj zadovoljni
Izobraževanje izven zavoda	| 12,2%					
ZUP				57,3 %		
Izobraževanje - priprava in skeniranje dokumentov	| 1,5%					
Izobraževanje - arhiviranje dokumentov	| 3,1%					
Varovanje podatkov	| 7,6%					
UDG		IS,3 %				
						
0% 20% 40% 60% S0% 100%						
Največ koristi v uporabi na delovnem mestu jim je prineslo usposabljanje s področja UDG - tako je odgovorilo 71,8 % anketiranih - Slika 4.
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Slika 4. Koristi posameznih strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja glede uporabe na delovnem mestu
Izobraževanje izven zavoda	| 3,1%			
ZUP	| 13,0%			
Izobraževanje - priprava in skeniranje dokumentov	| 2,3%			
Izobraževanje - arhiviranje dokumentov	0,8%			
Varovanje podatkov	| 9,2	%		
UDG	| 78,1%			
				
0% 20% 40% 60% 30% 100%				
3.4 Faktorska analiza zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj na
področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu
Faktorsko analizo (Bartlett test sig = 0,000; KMO = 0,933) smo izvedli z metodo glavnih faktorjev (angl. Principal axis factoring) in pravokotno rotacijo faktorjev Varimax. Dobili smo tri zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu, ki skupaj pojasnijo 69,76 % celotne variance zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja,
Prvi faktor FZ1 smo glede na vsebino imenovali »Pozornost, zaupanje, odzivnost izvajalca in predavatelja«. Faktor FZ1 vsebuje 13 spremenljivk, Drugi faktor FZ2 vsebuje pet spremenljivk - imenovali smo ga »Zunanja podoba prostora«. Tretji faktor FZ3 vsebuje štiri spremenljivke - imenovali smo ga »Zanesljivost izvajalca in predavatelja« - Tabela 13. V nadaljevanju smo jih opredelili kot elemente zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu.
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Tabela 13. Elementi zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu
Spremenljivka	*Faktorji		
	FZ1	FZ2	FZ3
Predavatelj je bil pozoren ter razumel potrebe in žeje udeležencev usposabljanj.	0,831		
Predavatelj je bil prijazen in ustrežljiv.	0,816		
Izvajalec usposabljanj je vzbujal zaupanje.	0,812		
Predavatelj je vedno ravnal v dobro udeleženca.	0,804		
Vedenje predavatelja je vzbujalo zaupanje.	0,785		
Predavatelj si je vzel čas za vsakega udeleženca usposabljanj.	0,759		
Predavatelj je bil do vsakega udeleženca usposabljanj vljuden.	0,754		
Predavatelj je odgovarjal na vprašanja udeležencev hitro in popolno.	0,735		
Predavatelj je imel ustrezna znanja z obravnavanega področja.	0,730		
Predavatelj je prisluhnil željam udeležencem in poiskati ustrezno rešitev.	0,690		
Predavatelj je čim prej reševal probleme/težave, ki se pojavijo med usposabljanjem.	0,675		
Urnik usposabljanj je bil ustrezen.	0,590		
Predavatelj je odpredaval snov brez napak.	0,585		
Predavatelj je bil primerno urejen.		0,824	
Predavatelj je bil profesionalno-družben (objektiven, formalen).		0,724	
Izvajalec je uporabljal sodobno tehnično opremo (premično platno, belo tablo, projektor, računalnik ipd.)		0,719	
Izvajalec je imel primerne urejene prostore in vzdrževan inventar (mize, stoli, osvetlitev prostora itd.).		0,718	
Prostori, v katerih so se izvajala usposabljanja, so bila pripravljena po dogovoru.		0,614	
Gradivo je bilo urejeno, vsebovalo je vse sestavine usposabljanj ter bilo brez slovničnih napak.			0,649
Tehnična oprema je delovala brez napak.			0,622
Izvajalec je pred začetkom usposabljanj podal terminski plan predavanj in se ga tudi dosledno držal (urnik).			0,562
Izvajalec je izvedel usposabljanja v obljubljenih rokih.			0,551
Odstotek pojasnjene variance	36,594	18,843	14,322
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3.5 Preverjanje zastavljenih hipotez
3.5.1 Hipoteza 1
Pričakovana kakovost usposabljanja na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu se statistično značilno razlikuje od dejanske zaznane kakovosti.
Hipotezo 1 smo preverili s t testom dvojic (angl. Paired-Samples T Test). Preverili smo, ali obstajajo statistično značilne razlike med oceno pričakovanj udeležencev (tako smo opredelili lastnosti idealnega ponudnika strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja) in oceno zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanjna področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu - dobili smo oceno SERVQUAL.
Iz tabel 14, 15, 16, 17 in 18 je razvidno, da so razlike SERVQUAL pri 20 posameznih parih spremenljivk negativne, kar pomeni, da strokovna usposabljanja na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu ne dosegajo pričakovanja. Pri spremenljivki urejenost izvajalca je razlika SERVQUAL pozitivna, kar pomeni, da urejenost izvajalca celo presega pričakovanja udeležencev. Pri spremenljivki prijaznost in ustrežljivost predavatelja statistično značilnih razlik ni. To pomeni, da prijaznost in ustrežljivost predavatelja dosega pričakovanja udeležencev strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu,
V nadaljevanju prikazujemo posamezne dejavnike kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu,
Iz Tabele 14 je razvidno, da med oceno zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu in oceno pričakovanj udeležencev pri dejavniku »zunanja podoba« obstajajo statistično značilne razlike pri vseh štirih spremenljivkah: urejenost prostorov in inventarja, sodobna tehnična oprema, urejenost izvajalca ter objektivnost in formalnost izvajalca (sig < 0,05). Razlike pri urejenosti prostorov in inventarja, sodobni tehnični opremi, ter pri objektivnosti in formalnosti izvajalca so negativne, kar pomeni, da ti elementi ne dosegajo pričakovanj udeležencev usposabljanj. Urejenost izvajalca (ocena SERVQUAL ima pozitiven predznak) celo presega pričakovanja udeležencev. Največja statistično značilna negativna razlika je pri tehnični opremi (premično platno, belo tablo, projektor, računalnik ipd.) (ocena SERVQUAL = -0,527; sig = 0,000).
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Tabela 14. T-test dvojic - zunanja podoba
Spremenljivke	SERVQUAL (Razlika M)	Sig
Urejenost prostorov in inventarja (mize, stoli, osvetlitev prostora ipd)	-0,374	0,000
Sodobne tehnična oprema (premično platno, belo tablo, projektor, računalnik ipd.)	-0,527	0,000
Urejenost izvajalca	0,168	0,044
Objektivnost in formalnost izvajalca	-0,313	0,000
Iz Tabele 15 je razvidno, da med oceno zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu in oceno pričakovanj udeležencev pri dejavniku »zanesljivost« obstajajo statistično značilne razlike pri vseh spremenljivkah (sig < 0,05). Te razlike so negativne, kar pomeni, da izvedba usposabljanj, pripravljenost prostorov, delovanje tehnične opreme, gradiva in predavanje izvajalca ne dosegajo pričakovanj udeležencev strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu. Največja statistično značilna negativna razlika je pri tehnični opremi (premično platno, belo tablo, projektor, računalnik ipd.), ki ni delovala brez napak (ocena SERVQUAL = -0,885; sig = 0,000),
Tabela 15. T-test dvojic - zanesljivost
Spremenljivke	SERVQUAL (Razlika M)	Sig
Izvedba usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v obljubljenih rokih	-0,275	0,001
Pripravljeni prostori v skladu z dogovorom	-0,519	0,000
Delovanje tehnične opreme brez napak	-0,885	0,000
Urejenost gradiva (gradivo vsebuje vse sestavine usposabljanj in to brez slovničnih napak)	-0,687	0,000
Izvajalčevo predavanje	-0,710	0,000
Iz Tabele 16 je razvidno, da med oceno zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu in oceno pričakovanj udeležencev pri dejavniku »odzivnost« obstajajo statistično značilne razlike pri vseh spremenljivkah (sig < 0,05). Te razlike so negativne, kar pomeni, da terminski plan predavanj, urnik predavanj, izvedba predavanja, hitrost reševanja problemov/težav, ki se pojavijo med usposabljanji, ter hitrost iskanja ustreznih rešitev ne dosegajo pričakovanj udeležencev strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu. Največja statistično značilna negativna razlika je pri hitrosti reševanja problemov/težav, ki se pojavijo med usposabljanji (ocena SERVQUAL = -0,573; sig = 0,000).
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Tabela 16. T-test dvojic - odzivnost
Spremenljivke	SERVQUAL (Razlika M)	sig
Terminski plan in urnik predavanj	-0,244	0,002
Izvedba predavanja	-0,450	0,000
Hitrost reševanja problema/težave, ki se pojavijo med usposabljanji	-0,573	0,000
Hitra iskanja ustrezne rešitve	-0,542	0,000
Iz Tabele 17 je razvidno, da med oceno zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu in oceno pričakovanj udeležencev pri dejavniku »zaupanje« obstajajo statistično značilne razlike pri štirih spremenljivkah (sig < 0,05). Te razlike so negativne, kar pomeni, da zaupanje v izvajalca, vedenje izvajalca, znanje in vljudnost predavatelja ne dosegajo pričakovanj udeležencev strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu. Največja statistično značilna negativna razlika je pri znanju predavatelja z obravnavanega področja (ocena SERVQUAL = -0,695; sig = 0,000). Pri spremenljivki »prijaznost in ustrežljivost predavatelja« statistično značilnih razlik ni, kar pomeni, da prijaznost in ustrežljivost predavatelja dosega pričakovanja udeležencev strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu,
Tabela 17. T-test dvojic - zaupanje
Spremenljivke	SERVQUAL (Razlika M)	sig
Zaupanje v izvajalca	-0,397	0,000
Vedenje izvajalca vzbuja zaupanje	-0,427	0,000
Prijaznost in ustrežljivost predavatelja	-0,122	0,106
Znanje predavatelja z obravnavanega področja	-0,695	0,000
Vljudnost predavatelja	-0,153	0,019
Statistično značilne razlike med oceno zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu in oceno pričakovanj udeležencev pri dejavniku »Pozornost« obstajajo pri vseh spremenljivkah (sig < 0,05). Te razlike so negativne, kar pomeni, da ustreznost urnika usposabljanj, pozornost predavatelja, razumevanje potreb in želja udeležencev usposabljanj ter ravnanje predavatelja v dobro udeleženca usposabljanj ne dosegajo pričakovanj udeležencev strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu. Največja statistično značilna negativna razlika je pri pozornosti predavatelja (ocena SERVQUAL = -0,542; sig = 0,000) - Tabela 18.
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Tabela 18. T-test dvojic - pozornost
Spremenljivke	SERVQUAL (Razlika M)	sig
Ustreznost urnika usposabljanj	-0,321	0,000
Pozornost predavatelja	-0,542	0,000
Razumevanje potreb in želja udeležencev usposabljanj	-0,511	0,000
Ravnanje predavatelja v dobro udeleženca usposabljanj	-0,282	0,000
Ugotovitev hipoteze 1: S hipotezo 1 smo predvidevali, da se pričakovana kakovost usposabljanja na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu statistično značilno razlikuje od dejanske zaznane kakovosti. Hipotezo 1 smo preverili s T testom dvojic. Ugotovili smo, da se ocene razlikujejo pri enaindvajsetih od dvaindvajsetih spremenljivk, zato smo hipotezo 1 sprejeli,
3.5.2 Hipoteza 2
Obstaja statistično značilna povezanost med oceno zadovoljstva udeležencev strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu in skupnimi dejavniki zaznane kakovosti teh usposabljanj.
Hipotezo 2 smo preverili z regresijsko analizo (uporabili smo metodo Stepwise), Odvisna spremenljivka je bila skupna ocena zadovoljstva udeležencev usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu, neodvisne spremenljivke pa posamezni elementi zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu, ki smo jih dobili s pomočjo faktorske analize zaznane kakovosti teh usposabljanj,
Ugotovili smo (Tabela 19), da le en element zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu vpliva na oceno zadovoljstva udeležencev usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu, in sicer »Zanesljivost izvajalca in predavatelja« (FZ3; Pn = 0,490), ki ima srednje močan in pozitiven vpliv,
Tabela 19. Ocene regresijskih koeficientov
Model	Nestandardni koeficienti		Standardni koeficient Beta	t	sig
	Beta	Standardna napaka			
Konstanta	1,783	0,351		5,085	0,000
FZ3 Zanesljivost izvajalca in predavatelja	0,490	0,093	0,420	5,253	0,000
Druga dva elementa zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu »Pozornost, zaupanje in odzivnost
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izvajalca in predavatelja« (FZ1) in »Zunanja podoba prostora« (FZ2) sta statistično neznačilna - nimata vpliva (sig > 0,05) - Tabela 20.
Tabela 20. Iz modela izključene spremenljivke
Model	Beta In	t	sig
FZ1 Pozornost, zaupanje in odzivnost izvajalca in predavatelja	0,162	1,388	0,168
FZ2 Zunanja podoba prostora	-0,109	-0,969	0,334
Regresijski model pojasni 17,0 % variabilnosti ocene zadovoljstva udeležencev usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu - Tabela 21.
Tabela 21. Koeficient multiple korelacije in determinacijski koeficient
Model	(r) Korelacijski koeficient	(R2) Determinacijski koeficient	Popravljeni (R2) determinacijski koeficient	Ocena standardne napake
1	0,420	0,176	0,170	0,713
Ugotovitev hipoteze 2: S hipotezo 2 smo predvidevali, da obstaja statistično značilna povezanost med oceno zadovoljstva udeležencev strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu in skupnimi dejavniki zaznane kakovosti teh usposabljanj. To hipotezo smo preverili z regresijsko analizo. Ugotovili smo, da je samo en element zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja povezan z zadovoljstvom udeležencev usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu (»Zanesljivost izvajalca in predavatelja« - ima pozitiven in srednje močan vpliv), ostala dva dejavnika zaznane kakovosti usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja pa ne, zato hipoteze 2 ne moremo sprejeti.
4 Sklepne ugotovitve
Namen raziskave je analizirati kakovost strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu v Sloveniji. Raziskavo smo izvedli med udeleženci strokovnih usposabljanj s področja digitalizacije poslovanja v letu 2015 v tem zavodu, zato rezultatov raziskave ne moremo posploševati na vsa usposabljanja v izbranem javnem zavodu, kakor tudi ne na vsa usposabljanja v javnih zavodih v Sloveniji. Kot osnovo za analizo smo uporabili merski instrument SERVQUAL, s katerim smo merili udeleženčeva pričakovanja in njihove zaznave kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja.
Prva ključna ugotovitev raziskave je, da strokovna usposabljanja na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu ne dosegajo pričakovanj, razen pri spremenljivki »urejenost izvajalca« (razsežnost kakovosti usposabljanj
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»zunanja podoba«), kjer urejenost izvajalca celo presega pričakovanja udeležencev teh usposabljanj ter pri spremenljivki »prijaznost in ustrežljivost predavatelja«, kjer statistično značilnih razlik ni - prijaznost in ustrežljivost predavatelja dosega pričakovanja udeležencev strokovnih usposabljanjna področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu,
Druga ključna ugotovitev raziskave je, da so anketirani v povprečju srednje zadovoljni s strokovnimi usposabljanji na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu, Največ anketiranih se je na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu udeležilo usposabljanjs področja upravljanja dokumentarnega gradiva (krajše UDG) in zakona o upravnem postopku (krajše ZUP), Nekajveč kot polovica anketiranih je bila najbolj zadovoljna z usposabljanji na področju UDG, kjer so pridobljeno znanje tudi koristno uporabili v praksi (na delovnem mestu), Nekajveč kot polovica anketiranih je bila najmanj zadovoljna z usposabljanji na področju ZUP,
Zaznano kakovost strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu v Sloveniji lahko pojasnimo z naslednjimi dejavniki: (1) pozornost, zaupanje, odzivnost izvajalca in predavatelja, (2) zunanja podoba prostora in (3) zanesljivost izvajalca in predavatelja,
Tretja ključna ugotovitev raziskave je, da le dejavnik zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj »zanesljivost izvajalca in predavatelja« pozitivno in srednje močno vpliva na oceno zadovoljstva udeležencev teh usposabljanj, Dejavnika »zunanja podoba prostora« in »pozornost, zaupanje, odzivnost izvajalca in predavatelja« na oceno zadovoljstva udeležencev teh usposabljanj nimata vpliva,
Do sedajraziskave, ki bi analizirala kakovost strokovnih usposabljanjna področju digitalizacije poslovanja nismo zasledili, Tu vidimo naš prispevek k razvoju teorije in stroke, Rezultati raziskave bodo lahko v praktično pomoč upravljalcem človeških virov in managementu v izbranem javnemu zavodu in v drugih organizacijah, kakor tudi raziskovalcem, saj lahko l ti na osnovi ugotovitev te raziskave ter na osnovi dodatno izbranih podatkov izpeljejo dodatne analize, V nadaljevanju predlagamo tudi nekaj predlogov za nadaljnje raziskave:
•	metoda SERQUAL ne omogoča identifikacije vzročnih dejavnikov, ki vplivajo na trenutno zaznano kakovost usposabljanj, zato bi bilo dobro v prihodnje raziskati tudi te dejavnike,
•	izvedba raziskave tudi pri drugih usposabljanjih v izbranem javnem zavodu ter rezultate primerjati med seboj,
•	izvedba raziskave z drugim merilnim instrumentom,
•	raziskavo v prihodnje razširiti in raziskati vplive kakovosti usposabljanj na ostale segmente v izbranem javnem zavodu, npr, raziskati, v kolikšni meri kakovost usposabljanj vpliva na delovno uspešnost v tem javnem zavodu,
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Dobruša Lipovž je diplomirala na Fakulteti za organizacijske vede. Sodeluje pri projektih za izmenjavo podatkov med državnimi institucijami, razvija in uvaja sistem za upravljanje z dokumentarnim gradivom v povezavi z drugimi sistemi,podprtimi s statističnimi modeli na Zavodu za pokojninsko in invalidsko zavarovanje. Ukvarjala se je tudi z razvojem vodenja evidenc posameznih podpornih dejavnosti (kadrovske, finančne, pravne). V povezavi z zunanjo institucijo je na nivoju R Slovenije vzpostavila elektronsko sprejemanje obrazcev matične evidence zavarovancev, ki so podlaga za vzpostavitev elektronske evidence za zagotavljanje priznanj pravic iz pokojninskega in invalidskega zavarovanja.
Dr. Melita Moretti je doktorirala na področju organizacijskih znanosti na temo trajnostne rabe energetskih virov na Univerzi na Primorskem. Njeno raziskovalno, razvojno in strokovno delo je usmerjeno na področje managementa, managementa znanja, marketinga in prodaje. Sodeluje na mednarodnih znanstvenih konferencah, je avtorica in/ali soavtorica strokovnih in znanstvenih člankov, soavtorica znanstvene monografije, avtorica samostojnega dela znanstvene monografije ter članica različnih projektnih skupin, ki so povezane z gospodarstvom in javno upravo.
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the transfer of training (PhD dissertation). University North Carolina. Winters, A., Meijers, F., Kuijpers, M., & Baert, H. (2009). What are vocational training conversations about? Analysis of vocational training conversations in Dutch vocational education from a career learning perspective. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 61(3), 247-266. doi: 10.1080/13636820903194690 Wright, P., & McMahan, G. (2011). Exploring human capital: putting human back into strategic human resource management. Human Resource Management Journal, 21(2), 93-104. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-8583.2010.00165.x Yousapronpaiboon, K. (2014). SERVQUAL: Measuring higher education service quality in Thailand. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 116(1), 1088-1095. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.350 ZPIZ - Zavod za pokojninsko in invalidsko zavarovanje. (2016). Upravljanje z dokumentarnim gradivom. Interno gradivo. Ljubljana: ZPIZ.
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DOI: 10.17573/ipar.2017.2.04
1.02 Review article
Analysis of Professional Training in Business Digitalisation at a Selected Public Institute
Dobrusa Lipovz
ZPIZ; Ljubljana, Slovenia dobrusa.lipovz@zpiz.si
Melita Moretti
Univerza of Ljubljana; Ljubljana, Slovenia melita.moretti@amis.net
ABSTRACT
A quantitative analysis was performed about the quality of professional training in business digitalisation at a selected public institute with the SERVQUAL measurement instrument that measured the expectations of the participants and perception of quality of professional training in business digitalisation by measuring the following five dimensions: tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and attentiveness. The analysis has shown that the expected quality of training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute statistically significantly differs from the actual perceived quality, and that the factor of perceived quality of training 'the reliability of the provider and the lecturer' positively corresponded with the satisfaction of the participants in these trainings. The results of the analysis will be of practical assistance for managers of human resources and the management of the selected public institute, other organisations, as well as researchers, who can carry out additional research on the basis of the findings of this research and additional selected data.
Keywords: training, knowledge, quality, business digitalisation, public institute JEL: M53
1 Introduction
We live in a knowledge society, in a society facing constant changes, such as, new informational and other technological advances, as well as a number of political, social, ecological and economic changes (Drucker, 2007; Evans, 2014). The employees are supposed to follow this development - lifelong learning has become a constant for on-going development of each individual and also of the organisation, in which the individual is employed (Cernetic, 2006). Today and in the future these changes will change the habits
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and attitudes of individuals and organisations - developing new, more responsible behaviour (Aguinis & Glavas, 2012; Martínez, Pérez, & Bosque, 2013; Buslovich & Searcy, 2014).
Intangible assets of organisations also play an important role in their success (both for profit and non-profit organisations). Many theorists and researchers believe that the role of knowledge should be considered as a basic element of an organisation, while its development, incentive and adaptation are essential for the sustainable development of organisations (Ortas & Moneva, 2011; Wright & McMahan, 2011). In order to acquire more knowledge, organisations employ different professional trainings for their employees (Ortas & Moneva, 2011; Medina, 2017). Professional trainings focus on complementing knowledge and skills according to short-term and current changes, while the scope of training is according to the requirements for knowledge in an individual organisation (Dermol, 2010).
We analysed the quality of professional training at the selected public institute in digitalisation of business processes - document management. Document management is one of the foundations of modern administrative operation, it is the fundamental process of each administrative body when it conducts administrative tasks on the basis of its public mandate. When the document management project will become fully operational in its core activity in 2017, it will enable effective paperless operation of the selected public institute, transparency and traceability of documents, management of cases and entities and keeping records of documentary material in full using the IT system and will be able to adapt to the new technological requirements (ZPIZ, 2016). All this requires modern IT resources (employees, business partners, documentation data, databases, software, hardware, uninterruptible power supply, facilities, etc.) (Likar & Trcek, 2012). Special attention should be given to the vulnerability (weakness) of the IT system that can be exploited by one or more threats, among which are different security threats (for example, system injectors through writing program viruses, dissatisfied employees, natural disasters, software and hardware failures), employee turnover and disposal of certain IT resources (Anderle, 2012). Thus, security quality management of an IT system is a must and an organisation needs to set up an appropriate security policy and train its employees of their duties to protect information and to work with information and update the IT system.
Different models have been used to measure the quality of services, which can measure the expectations of the users and detect the service quality. The SERVQUAL model (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1988) was used to examine the five dimensions of the quality of professional training, namely: reliability, assurance, the tangibles of training implementation, attentiveness and responsiveness of the implementation of professional training services.
Based on the above-described and an overview of the research carried out so far in Slovenia, it has been discovered that there have been no empirical
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researches performed in public institutes in Slovenia in quality of professional training using the SERVQUAL model. Here, we detected a research gap and therefore believed that this issue was worth researching.
Primarily, the objective of the paper is to present the characteristics of quality training and satisfaction of participants in training in general, and secondly, to address the findings of a quantitative survey conducted in February 2016 on a random sample of participants in professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute.
2 Professional Training
The importance of professional training is linked with the changing role of human resources in an organisation (Pena & ViUasalero, 2010; Ubeda-Garcia, Marco-Lajara, Sabater, & Garcia-Lillo, 2013). In order to increase productivity, creativity and innovativeness of employees, organisations implement different professional trainings for their employees because of an increased need for new knowledge, adaptation of the level of qualifications of employees (new employees compared to earlier employees) (Ortas & Moneva, 2011; Medina, 2017).
Professional trainings can be examined from different perspectives:
•	Professional training can be considered as a means of an organisation that affects an individual within the organisation (effects on their character, competitiveness, value system, attitudes, etc.) (Ferraz & Gallardo-Vazquez, 2016),
•	Professional training can be seen as a development process, improvement of jobs, behaviour and attitudes of employees (Paauwe, 2009; Wright & McMahan, 2011),
•	Professional training can be considered as a tool to reduce the differences between what employees can offer according to their experience and skills and job requirements (Mata, Guenagia, & Rodriguez, 2006),
•	Professional training can be referred to as an adaptation process and vocational guidance of employees, which enables changes in an organisation, thus increasing the organisation's potential (Winters, Meijers, Kuijpers, & Baert, 2009; Nguyen, Truong, & Buyens, 2010).
However, we emphasise that the effectiveness of professional training can only be measured by the continuity of such training over a longer period of time, since employees need to constantly gain new skills in order to improve their efficiency (Collier, Green, Young-Bae, & Peirson, 2011).
Professional training is important for an individual at all stages of life, mainly because of their work effects and better employability (ILO, 2009) -(1) only employees with sufficient knowledge can achieve the high objectives
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of the organisation, and (2) only employees with knowledge can defend organisations against aggressive market strategies. As a result, organisations have to develop different strategies in the area of human resources. The research by Úbeda-García et al. (2013) has shown that professional training policies depend on the strategic guidelines of an organisation.
The guidelines for professional training also depend on the development stage of an organisation - during the organisation's growth, training is appropriate with a clear motivation plan for promoting the organisation, during maintenance, i.e. the survival of the organisation, training is appropriate in terms of improving the quality of work, processes and procedures, while in stage of decline of organisations, training loses its importance (Buller & McEvoy, 2012; Ferraz & Gallardo-Vazquez, 2016). Therefore, professional training is an organisation's long-term investment, but only if the system for identifying training needs and training is implemented at a sufficiently high level of quality (Wieland Handy, 2008; Gomezelj Omerzel, 2010). Dermol (2010, p. 50) includes the following dimensions in terms of quality of professional training: 'Systematic implementation of training processes, recognition and consideration of learning needs; setting clear learning objectives; use of teaching methods that suit the objectives and learning content; relevance of training content and evaluation of training'.
In development and implementation of strategies in human resources, management has the decisive role in the organisation (Blewitt, 2014; Dodds, Laguna-Celis, & Thompson, 2014) - the success of professional training programs depends on the support of management (research by Devos et al. 2007; Wieland Handy, 2008; Moretti & Markic, 2015), on the support from co-workers (see research by Holton, Hsin-Chih, & Naquin, 2003; Wieland Handy, Moretti & Markic 2015) and on the incentives to transfer knowledge into practice (i.e. increase in personal income and other rewards) that all encourage employees to implement new knowledge in practice (see research by Holtonet al., 2003; Wieland Handy, 2008; Moretti & Markic 2015).
Due to specific characteristics of services, including professional training services, the quality of the implementation of professional training is difficult to evaluate - service users define quality from another perspective than the service providers - the quality of services and the quality of the implementation of professional training can be measured from the perspective of the users/participants and from the perspective of service providers/lecturers (Podbreznik & Bojnec, 2013). In the 1980's, Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry (1985, pp. 41-50) developed a gap model of the perceived service quality, where the quality of the service was defined as 'the difference between the expectations of the customer and the perceived service quality' (Podbreznik & Bojnec, 2013, p. 3). The basis for measuring the perceived service quality is the SERVQUAL measurement instrument, where service quality is measured in five dimensions: (1) tangibles (physical components of the service), (2) reliability, (3) responsiveness, (4) assurance, and (5) attentiveness (Parasuraman et. al,
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1985; 1988). The SERVQUAL measurement instrument consists of two parts (expectations and perceived quality), each consisting of 22 statements to clarify these five dimensions of service quality. The service quality assessment is issued as follows (Parasuraman et al., 1985; 1988):
•	In the event the difference between the perceived quality of services and the expectations is positive, it means that the quality of the services has been implemented above expectations;
•	In the event that there is no difference between the perceived quality of services and the expectations, it means that the quality of the services has not fulfilled the expectations;
•	In the event that the difference between the perceived quality of services and the expectations is negative, it means that the quality of the services is below expectations;
Ladhari (2009) carried out an overview about the use of the SERVQUAL measurement instrument - based on a number of studies that had been carried out before and found this to be the best tool for measuring the perceived quality of services. The quality of services was also measured by a number of researchers after 2009 with the SERVQUAL measurement instrument (researches by Udo, Bagchi, & Kirs, 2011; Lee & Kim, 2012; Podbreznik & Bojnec, 2013; Yousapronpaiboon, 2014; Pradela, 2015; Liu et al. 2015; Lampic, 2016; Hamari, Hanner, & Koivisto, 2017, etc.).
It has been determined that the quality, including the quality of the implementation of professional training, is linked with the satisfaction of the participants (Schermerhorn, 2013; Dermol, 2010) - if the quality of services meets the expectations or even exceeds expectations, the users of these services are satisfied. Oliver (2010, p. 8) also believes that user satisfaction is 'the customer's response to fulfilment or non-fulfilment. It is the customer's judgement on whether a service feature or the service itself has provided (or attained) the desired level of fulfilment or not'.
In analysing professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute, we focused on the quality assessment of the participants of these trainings. The participants assessed the following dimensions of quality of professional training in business digitalisation:
•	Tangibles (appearance and expertise of the lecturer, suitability of the equipment, facility and inventory);
•	Reliability (implementation of training within the promised deadline, appropriate materials, appropriate technical equipment and reliability of the lecturer);
•	Responsiveness (implementation accordingto schedule, responsiveness of the lecturer);
•	Assurance (courtesy and assurance of the lecturer, assurance of the training provider);
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•	Attentiveness (suitability of the training schedule, the lecturer's attentiveness towards the participants).
Namely, participants responded twice to each statement for a particular dimension: (1) the first part measured their expectations, i.e. the importance of this training; (2) the second part measured the perceptions of participants of this training.
3 Research
The purpose of the research is a quality analysis of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute. In order to achieve the purpose, two hypotheses were set, namely:
H1: The expected quality of training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute is statistically significantly different from the actual perceived quality, H2: There is a statistically significant correlation between the assessment of the satisfaction of participants in professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute and the overall factors of the perceived quality of this training,
3.1 Methodology
The empirical part was based on quantitative research methodology. Data and information were obtained using the SERVQUAL questionnaire (Parasuraman et al., 1988). The questionnaire was composed of three parts, namely:
•	First part: general demographic data of respondents;
•	Second part: statements for determining the expectations of participants in professional training in the area of business digitalisation;
•	Third part: statements for determining the perceived quality of professional training in business digitalisation and overall assessment of the satisfaction of the training.
The respondents expressed their level of agreement (the second and third part of the questionnaire) with the five-level Likert scale, except for the issue related to the overall assessment of the importance of individual dimensions of the professional training quality in digitalisation of business, where respondents distributed 100 points among those dimensions. The questionnaire was tested before the survey was conducted with the help of seven people from the sample.
Consent for the implementation of the research was obtained from the management of the selected public institute. Surveying was done by e-mail and the access to the questionnaire was sent to all participants of professional training through the Personnel Development and Business Process Management Department of the selected public institute.
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The reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed by Cronbach a = 0.950.
The following data analysis methods were used for data analysis: basic statistical analysis (mean - M; standard deviation - SD; frequencies - f; frequency percentage - f%), paired sample t-test; factor analysis (the principal axis factoring method was used and vertical rotation of Varimax factors) and regression analysis (Stepwise method).
3.2 Target Research Group
Participants involved in professional training in business digitalisation in 2015 were included in the research. At the selected public institute 16 training courses were carried out in business digitalisation in 2015 (presentations and workshops directly related to the management of the paperless paperwork process, lectures on the protection of personal data with emphasis on working with the customer), where 584 employees attended trainings.
We received 131 fully completed questionnaires (22.4% response rate). 108 questionnaires (82.4%) were completed by women, whereas 23 questionnaires (17.6%) by men. The minimum age of a respondent was 23 years and maximum 59 years. Most of the respondents (87.8%) work in individual regional units of the selected public institute and are professional workers who handle administrative matters (72.5% of respondents), have over 25 to 35 years of work experience (35.1% of respondents), have been employed at the selected public institute for 5 to 15 years (43.5% of respondents) and have completed higher education/university education (55.7% of respondents). Other data are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Demographic data of respondents
Characteristics	Descriptor	f	f%
Gender	Woman	108	82.4
	Man	23	17.6
	Minimum age	23	
Age	Maximum age	59	
	Average age	43.78	
	Head office	4	3.1
Organisational unit	Division	6	4.6
	Regional unit	115	87.8
	Department	6	4.6
	Head of organisation unit (director, head of service, head of department)	20	15.3
Job	Professional worker handling administrative work	95	72.5
	Office worker (scanner, registrar, documentation preparer)	16	12.2
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Characteristics	Descriptor	f	f%
	up to 5 years	4	3.1
	from 5 to 15 years	40	30.5
Work experience	from 15 to 25 years	39	29.8
	from 25 to 35 years	46	35.1
	over 35 years	2	1.5
	up to 5 years	7	5.3
	from 5 to 15 years	57	43.5
Period of employment	from 15 to 25 years	36	27.5
	from 25 to 35 years	28	21.4
	over 35 years	3	2.3
	Secondary education	19	14.5
Education	Short-cycle higher education	25	19.1
	Higher professional/university education	73	55.7
	Specialist/Master's	10	7.6
Total		131	100.0
3.3 Basic Statistical Analyses
3.3.1 Assessment of the Expectations of the Participants of Professional Training in Business Digitalisation
Respondents answered to statements on expectations of professional training in business digitalisation using the five-level Likert scale (1- not at all important; 5 - very important),
In terms of quality dimension 'tangibles', the respondents on average evaluated as most important modern technical equipment (M = 4,36; SD = 0,68) and as least important the appearance of the lecturer (M = 3,90; SD = 0,80,) - Table 2,
Table 2. Assessment of expectations of the training participants - tangibles
Variables	M	SD
The provider needs to have modern technical equipment (mobile screen, white board, computer, etc.)	4.36	0.68
The provider needs to be professional-social (objective, formal)	4.29	0.67
The provider needs to have well-kept facilities and well-maintained inventory (desks, chairs, room lighting, etc.)	4.18	0.78
The appearance of the provider needs to be appropriate	3.90	0.80
In terms of quality dimension 'reliability', the respondents estimated as most important that the lecturer is able to convey the subject matter without
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mistakes (M = 4.41; SD = 0.58) and as least important that the lecturer needs to conduct the training within the promised deadlines (M = 4.12; SD = 0.65) -Table 3.
Table 3. Assessment of expectations of the training participants - reliability
Spremenljivke	M	SD
The lecturer needs to teach the subject matter without mistakes.	4.41	0.58
The facilities, where the training is taking place, need to prepared according to the agreement.	4.37	0.68
Material must be well-prepared and contain all the components of the training without grammatical mistakes.	4.36	0.59
Technical equipment needs to operate without errors.	4.31	0.57
Provider needs to carry out the training within the promised deadlines.	4.12	0.65
In terms of quality dimension 'responsiveness', the respondents on average assessed as most important that the lecturer needs to address any problems/ issues arising during the course of training as quickly as possible (M = 4.36; SD = 0.62), and as least important to issuing a time schedule of the lectures ahead of training and rigorously following it during training (schedule) (M = 4.10; SD = 0.67) - Table 4.
Table 4. Assessment of expectations of the training participants - responsiveness
Variables	M	SD
The lecturer needs to address any problems/issues arising during the course of training as quickly as possible.	4.36	0.62
The lecturer needs to pay attention to the requests of the participants and try to find the right solution.	4.36	0.62
The lecturer needs to answer any questions from the participants quickly and completely.	4.26	0.60
The lecturer needs to issue a time schedule for the lectures ahead of training and thoroughly follow it during training (schedule).	4.10	0.67
In terms of quality dimension "assurance", the respondents estimated as most important adequate level of expertise in the subject area from the lecturer (M = 4.69; SD = 0.56) and as least important kindness and helpfulness of the lecturer (M = 4.09; SD = 0.67) - Table 5.
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Table 5. Assessment of expectations of the training participants - assurance
Variables	M	SD
Lecturer needs to have an adequate level of expertise in the subject area.	4.69	0.56
The lecturer's conduct needs to invoke assurance.	4.28	0.69
The training provider needs to invoke assurance.	4.26	0.65
The lecturer needs to be polite towards the training participants.	4.20	0.60
The lecturer needs to be friendly and helpful.	4.09	0.67
In terms of quality dimension 'attentiveness', the respondents on average estimated as most important that the lecturer is attentive and understands the needs and desires of the participants (M = 4.28) and as least important actions of the lecturer for the benefit of the participants (M = 4.13) - Table 6.
Table 6. Assessment of expectations of the training participants - attentiveness
Variables	M	SD
The lecturer needs to be attentive and understand the needs and desires of the training participants.	4.28	0.59
The lecturers needs to make time for each training participant.	4.24	0.63
Training schedule needs to be appropriate.	4.16	0.61
The lecturer needs to act for the benefit of the participants at all times.	4.13	0.73
3.3.2 The Significance of Individual Dimensions of Training Quality in Business Digitalisation
The significance of individual dimensions of the quality of training in business digitalisation, such as: tangibles (appearance of the facility, modern technical equipment, appearance of the lecturer, well-prepared material), reliability (reliable, accurate training within the agreed deadline), responsiveness (willingness to address potential problems, quick response of the lecturer to the requests of the training participants in the area in question), assurance (knowledge and courtesy of the lecturers who emulate confidence) and attentiveness (kindness, care and attention to each training participant) were assessed in a way that the participants distributed 100 points among the individual dimensions.
As most important the respondents rated the dimension 'responsiveness' (M = 28.67/100) and as least important 'attentiveness' (M = 15.22/100) - Table 7. It was determined that the training participants in business digitalisation at the selected public institute chose as most important the willingness of the lecturer to address potential problems, as well as to quickly respond to requests from the training participants in the area in question.
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Table 7. Ocena pomembnosti petih dimenzij kakovosti usposabljanj na področju
digitalizacije poslovanja
	Min	Max	M
Responsiveness (willingness to address potential problems, rapid response of the lecturer to requests from training participants in the area in question)	1	90	28.67
Assurance (knowledge and courtesy of the lecturers emulating assurance)	0	80	20.98
Reliability (reliably and accurately providing the training service within the agreed deadline)	2	90	20.82
Tangibles (appearance of the facility, modern technical equipment, appearance of the lecturer, well-prepared material)	0	95	15.31
Attentiveness (kindness, care and attentiveness to each training participant)	0	80	15.22
3.3.3 Assessment of Perceived Quality of Professional Training in Business Digitalisation at the Selected Public Institute
The respondents expressed their level of agreement with statements in terms of perceived quality of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute using the Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree),
On average, the respondents strongly supported the assertion that the lecturer was well-groomed (M = 4,07; SD = 0,69), and least agreed with the statement that the facilities were well-kept and inventory properly maintained (M = 3,81; SD = 0,86) - Table 8 (perceived quality dimension of training 'tangibles'),
Table 8. Assessment of perceived quality of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute - tangibles
Variables	M	SD
Lecturer was well-groomed,	4.07	0.69
Lecturer was professional-social (objective, formal),	3.98	0.77
Lecturer used modern technical equipment (mobile screen, white board, computer, etc,),	3.83	0.86
Well-kept facilities and properly maintained inventory (i,e, desks, chairs, room lighting),	3.81	0.86
On average, the respondents strongly supported the assertion that the lecturer conducted the training within deadlines (M = 3,85; SD = 0,71), and least agreed with the statement that the technical equipment operated without errors (M = 3,43; SD = 0,98) - Table 9 (perceived quality dimension of training 'reliability'),
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Table 9. Assessment of perceived quality of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute - reliability
Variables	M	SD
The provider carried out the training within the promised deadlines.	3.85	0.71
The facilities where the training was taking place were prepared according to the agreement.	3.85	0.75
The lecturer presented the subject matter without mistakes..	3.70	0.74
Materials were well-prepared and contained all the components of the training without grammatical mistakes.	3.67	0.83
Technical equipment operated without errors.	3.43	0.98
On average, the respondents strongly agreed with the statement that the lecturer provided the training schedule prior to the training and consistently complied with it (M = 3.85; SD = 0.68), and least agreed with the statement that the lecturer addressed problems/issues arising during training as quickly as possible (M = 3.79; SD = 0.69) - Table 10 (perceived quality dimension of training 'responsiveness').
Table 10. Assessment of perceived quality of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute - responsiveness
Variables	M	SD
The lecturer provided the time schedule of the lectures ahead of training and observed it during training (schedule).	3.85	0.68
The lecturer paid attention to the requests of the participants and tried to find the right solution..	3.82	0.67
The lecturer answered all questions from the participants quickly and completely.	3.81	0.70
The lecturer addressed problems/issued arising during training as quickly as possible.	3.79	0.69
On average, the respondents strongly supported the statement that the lecturer was polite to every training participant (M = 4.05; SD = 0.61), and least agreed with the statement that the lecturer's behaviour invoked assurance (M = 3.85; SD = 0.68) - Table 11 (dimension of perceived quality of training 'assurance').
On average, the respondents strongly agreed with the statement that the lecturer always acted in the best interest of the participant (M = 3.85; SD = 0.71), and least agreed with the statement that the lecturer took time for each training participant (M = 3.69; SD = 0.83) - Table 12 (perceived quality dimension of training 'attentiveness').
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Table 11. Ocena zaznane kakovosti strokovnih usposabljanj na področju digitalizacije poslovanja v izbranem javnem zavodu - zaupanje
Variables	M	SD
The lecturer was polite towards each participant.	4.05	0.61
Lecturer had adequate level of expertise in the area in question.	3.99	0.63
The lecturer was friendly and helpful.	3.97	0.67
The training provider invoked assurance.	3.86	0.69
The lecturer's conduct invoked assurance.	3.85	0.68
Table 12. Assessment of perceived quality of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute - attentiveness		
Variables	M	SD
The lecturer at all times acted in the best interest of the participants.	3.85	0.71
Training schedule was appropriate.	3.84	0.68
The lecturer was attentive and understood the needs and desires of the training participants.	3.77	0.72
The lecturer made time for each training participant.	3.69	0.83
3.3.4 Overall Assessment of Satisfaction of Professional Training at the Selected Public Institute
The respondents gave an overall assessment of the satisfaction of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute (satisfaction assessment according to the Likert scale from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied)). It was determined that on average the respondents were satisfied with professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute (M = 3.60; SD = 0.78).
Most of the respondents have previously attended training in business digitalisation in the public institute in the area of document management (DM) (77.9% of respondents) and in the area of Administrative Dispute Act (74.8% of respondents) - Figure 1.
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Figure 1. Participation in professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute in 2015
Most respondents (57.3%) were very satisfied with trainings in the area of document management (DM) - Figure 2.
Figure 2. The area of professional trainings in business digitalisation where respondents were most satisfied
Most respondents (57.3%) were least satisfied with training in the area of Administrative Dispute Act - Figure 3.
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Figure 3. The area of professional trainings in business digitalisation where respondents were least satisfied
Izobraževanje izven zavoda ZUP
Izobraževanje - priprava in skeniranje dokumentov
Izobraževanje - arhiviranje dokumentov Varovanje podatkov UDQ
1 12,2 %	
1 57,3 %	
1 1,5%	
1 3,1 %	i i i
1 7,5%	
1 IS,3 % 1 1	
0% 20% 40% 60% 30% 100%
The most beneficial training for the respondents was training in document management (DM) - 71.8% respondents gave this answer - Figure 4.
Figure 4. Benefits of individual professional training in business digitalisation
Education outside the institute	1 3.1%		
Administrative Dispute Act	1 13.0%		
Education - preparing and scanning documents	1 2.3%		
Education - archiving documents	0.8%		
Data protection	1 9.2%		
DM			73.1%
			
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%			
3.4 Factor Analysis of Perceived Quality of Training in Business Digitalisation at the Selected Public Institute
Factor analysis (Bartlett test sig=0.000; KMO=0.933) was done using the principal axis factoring and vertical rotation of Varimax factors. Three perceived qualities were obtained in the area of business digitalisation at the selected public institute, which together explain 69.76% of the total variance of the perceived quality of training in business digitalisation,
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Table 13. Elements of perceived quality of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute
Variable	*Factors		
	FZ1	FZ2	FZ3
The lecturer was attentive and understood the needs and desires of the training participants.	0.831		
The lecturer was friendly and helpful.	0.816		
The training provider invoked assurance.	0.812		
The lecturer at all times acted in the best interest of the participants.	0.804		
The conduct of the lecturer invoked assurance.	0.785		
The lecturer made time for each training participant.	0.759		
The lecturer was polite towards each participant.	0.754		
The lecturer answered all questions from the participants quickly and completely.	0.735		
Lecturer had an adequate level of expertise of the area in question.	0.730		
The lecturer paid attention to the requests of the participants and tried to find the right solution.	0.690		
The lecturer addressed problems/issues arising during training as quickly as possible.	0.675		
The training schedule was appropriate.	0.590		
The lecturer presented the subject matter without mistakes.	0.585		
Lecturer was well-groomed.		0.824	
Lecturer was professional-social (objective, formal).		0.724	
Lecturer used modern technical equipment (mobile screen, white board, computer, etc.).		0.719	
The provider had well-organised facilities and maintained inventory (desks, chairs, room lighting, etc.).		0.718	
The facilities, where the training was taking place, were prepared according to the agreement.		0.614	
Material was well-prepared and contained all the components of the training without grammatical mistakes.			0.649
Technical equipment operated without errors.			0.622
The lecturer provided the time schedule of the lectures ahead of training and consistently followed it during training (schedule).			0.562
The provider carried out the training within the promised deadlines.			0.551
Percentage of explained variance	36.594	18.843	14.322
The first factor FZ1 was named according to the content "Attentiveness, assurance, responsiveness of the provider and lecturer". FZ1 factor contains 13 variables. The second factor FZ2 contains five variables and was named
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"Tangibles". The third factor FZ3 contains four variables and was named "Reliability of the provider and lecturer" - Table 13. The factors are defined as elements of perceived quality of training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute.
3.5 Validation of Set Hypotheses
3.5.1 Hypothesis 1
The expected quality of training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute is statistically significantly different from the actual perceived quality.
Hypothesis 1 was validated using the paired sample t-test. It was examined whether there were statistically significant differences between the assessment of the expectations of the participants (defining the characteristics of an ideal provider of professional training in business digitalisation) and assessment of the perceived quality of professional training in the area of business digitalisation at the selected public institute - resulting in the SERVQUAL assessment.
Tables 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 show that the SERVQUAL differences in 20 pairs of variables are negative, which means that professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute do not meet the expectations. The SERVQUAL difference for the variable appearance of the provider is positive, meaning that the appearance of the provider exceeds the expectations of the participants. There are no statistically significant differences for the variable kindness and helpfulness. This means that friendliness and helpfulness of the lecturer meet the expectations of the participants in professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute.
The individual quality factors for professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute are shown below.
Table 14 shows that during the assessment of the perceived quality of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute and the assessment of participants' expectations for the factor 'tangibles', there are statistically significant differences for all four variables: appearance of the facilities and inventory, modern technical equipment, appearance of the provider and the objectivity and formality of the performer (sig < 0.05). Differences in the appearance of the facilities and inventory, modern technical equipment, and objectivity and formality of the provider are all negative, which means that these elements do not meet the expectations of the training participants. The appearance of the provider (SERVQUAL is positive) actually exceeds the expectations of the participants. The highest statistically significant negative difference is for technical equipment (mobile screen, white board, projector, computer, etc.) (SERVQUAL = -0,527; sig = 0,000).
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Table 14. Paired sample t-test - tangibles
Variables	SERVQUAL (Difference M)	Sig
Urejenost prostorov in inventarja (mize, stoli, osvetlitev prostora ipd)	-0.374	0.000
Sodobne tehnična oprema (premično platno, belo tablo, projektor, računalnik ipd.)	-0.527	0.000
Urejenost izvajalca	0.168	0.044
Objektivnost in formalnost izvajalca	-0.313	0.000
Table 15 shows that during the assessment of the perceived quality of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute and the assessment of participants' expectations in the factor 'reliability' there are statistically significant differences in all variables (sig < 0.05). Here, differences are negative, which means that the implementation of training, the appearance of the facilities, the operation of the technical equipment, materials and the lecturer of the provider do not meet the expectations of the participants in professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute. The highest statistically significant negative difference is for technical equipment (mobile screen, white board, projector, computer, etc.) that did not operate without errors (SERVQUAL = -0.885; sig = 0.000).
Table 15. Paired sample t-test - reliability
Variables	SERVQUAL (Difference M)	Sig
Implementation of training in business digitalisation within the promised deadline	-0.275	0.001
Appearance of facilities according to the agreement	-0.519	0.000
Operation of technical equipment without errors	-0.885	0.000
Material preparation (materials include all the components of the training and contain no grammatical errors)	-0.687	0.000
Lecture of the provider	-0.710	0.000
Table 16 shows that during the assessment of the perceived quality of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute and the assessment of participants' expectations for the factor 'responsiveness' there are statistically significant differences in all variables (sig < 0.05). These differences are negative, which means that the timetable of lectures, the schedule of lectures, the implementation of lectures, the promptness of addressing problems/issues arising during training, and the promptness of finding suitable solutions do not meet the expectations of participants in professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute. The highest statistically significant negative difference is for promptness in addressing problems/issues arising during the training (rating SERVQUAL = -0.573; sig = 0.000).
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Table 16. Paired sample t-test - responsiveness
Variables	SERVQUAL (Difference M)	sig
Schedule and timetable of lectures	-0.244	0.002
Implementation of lectures	-0.450	0.000
Promptness in addressing problems/issues arising during training	-0.573	0.000
Trying to find the appropriate solution as quickly as possible	-0.542	0.000
Table 17 shows that during the assessment of the perceived quality of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute and the assessment of participants' expectations in factor 'assurance' there are statistically significant differences for all variables (sig < 0.05). Differences are negative in value, which means that the assurance in the provider, conduct of the provider, knowledge and courtesy of the lecturer do not meet the expectations of the participants in professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute. The highest statistically significant negative difference is for the lecturer's expertise in the subject area (SERVQUAL = 0.695; sig = 0.000). There are no statistically significant differences for the variable 'friendliness and helpfulness of the lecturer', meaning that friendliness and helpfulness of the lecturer meet the expectations of the participants in professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute.
Table 17. Paired sample t-test - assurance
Variables	SERVQUAL (Difference M)	sig
Assurance in the provider	-0.397	0.000
Conduct of the provider invokes assurance	-0.427	0.000
Kindness and helpfulness of the lecturer	-0.122	0.106
Level of expertise of the lecturer of the subject area	-0.695	0.000
Courtesy of the lecturer	-0.153	0.019
Statistically significant differences between the assessment of perceived quality of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute and the assessment of participants' expectations in the factor 'responsiveness' are present for all variables (sig < 0.05). The differences are negative, which means that the relevance of the training schedule, the lecturer's attentiveness, understanding of the needs and desires of the participants in the training, and the lecturer acting in the best interest of the participants do not meet the expectations of the participants in professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute. The highest statistically significant negative difference is for the attentiveness of the lecturer (SERVQUAL = -0.542; sig = 0,000) - Table 18.
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Table 18. Paired sample t-test - attentiveness
Variables	SERVQUAL (Razlika M)	sig
Adequacy of the training schedule	-0.321	0.000
Attentiveness of the lecturer	-0.542	0.000
Understanding the needs and desires of the training participants	-0.511	0.000
Lecturer acting in the best interest of the training participants	-0.282	0.000
Hypothesis 1 finding: Hypothesis 1 assumed that the expected quality of training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute is statistically significantly different from the actual perceived quality. Hypothesis 1 was tested using the paired sample t-test. It was determined that values differ in twenty-one out of twenty-two variables, therefore hypothesis 1 was accepted,
3.5.2 Hypothesis 2
There is a statistically significant correlation between the assessment of the satisfaction of participants in professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute and the overall factors of perceived quality of these training.
Hypothesis 2 was verified by regression analysis (the Stepwise method was used). The dependent variable was an overall assessment of the satisfaction of participants in the training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute, while independent variables included individual elements of the perceived quality of training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute, which were obtained through factor analysis of the perceived quality of these training courses,
It was established (Table 19) that only one element of the perceived quality of training in business digitalisations at the selected public institute influenced the assessment of the satisfaction of participants in training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute, namely 'Reliability of the provider and lecturer'" (FZ3; fin = 0.490), which has a moderately strong positive influence.
Table 19. Evaluation of regression coefficients
Model	Non-standard coefficients		Standard Beta coefficient	t	sig
	Beta	Standard error			
Constant	1.783	0.351		5.085	0.000
FZ3 Reliability of the provider and lecturer	0.490	0.093	0.420	5.253	0.000
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The other two elements of the perceived quality of training in the area of business digitalisation at the selected public institute 'Attentiveness, assurance and responsiveness of the provider and lecturer' (FZ1) and 'Appearance of the facilities' (FZ2) are statistically insignificant - they have no influence (sig > 0.05) - Table 20.
Table 20. Model of excluded variable
Model	Beta In	t	sig
FZ1 Attentiveness, assurance and responsiveness of the provider and lecturer	0.162	1.388	0.168
Appearance of the facility	-0.109	-0.969	0.334
The regression model explains the 17.0% variability of the assessment of the satisfaction of training participants in the area of business digitalisation at the selected public institute - Table 21.
Tabela 1. Koeficient multiple korelacije in determinacijski koeficient
Model	(r) Correlation coefficient	(R2) Coefficient of determination	Corrected (R2) coefficient of determination	Estimated standard error
1	0.420	0.176	0.170	0.713
Hypothesis 2 finding: Hypothesis 2 expected that there was a statistically significant correlation between the assessment of the satisfaction of participants in professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute and the overall factors of the perceived quality of these trainings. The hypothesis was verified using regression analysis. Only one element of perceived quality of training in the area of business digitalisation was found to correlate with satisfaction of participants in training in the area of business digitalisation at the selected public institute ('Reliability of the provider and lecturer' - it had a positive and moderately strong influence), while the remaining two factors of the perceived quality of training in the area of business digitalisation, i.e. hypothesis 2, could not be accepted.
4 Conclusions
The purpose of the research was analysis of professional training in business digitalisation at the selected public institute. Research was conducted among the participants of professional training in business digitalisation in 2015 at the institute, therefore the results of the research cannot be generalised to all trainings at the selected public institute, either to all trainings in public institutes in Slovenia. The basis for the analysis was the measurement instrument SERVQUAL, which measured the participant's expectations
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and their perceptions of the quality of professional training in the area of business digitalisation,
The first key finding of the research is that professional training in the area of business digitalisation at the selected public institute fails to meet expectations, except in terms of the variable 'appearance of the provider' (quality dimension of training 'tangibles'), where the appearance of the provider even exceeds the expectations of the participants in these training courses, and for the variable 'friendliness and helpfulness of the lecturer', where there are no statistically significant differences - the friendliness and helpfulness of the lecturer meet the expectations of the participants in professional training in the area of business digitalisation of business at the selected public institute,
Another key finding of the research is that the on average respondents were moderately satisfied with professional training in the area of business digitalisation at the selected public institute. In the area of business digitalisation, the majority of respondents attended training courses in the area of document management (DM) and the Administrative Dispute Act. More than half of the respondents were most satisfied with the training in the area of document management, where they were able to apply the acquired knowledge in practice (at the workplace). A little over half of the respondents were least satisfied with the training in the area of the Administrative Dispute Act.
The perceived quality of professional training in the area of business digitalisation at the selected public institute in Slovenia can be explained with the following factors: (1) attentiveness, assurance, responsiveness of the performer and lecturer, (2) appearance of the facility, and (3) the reliability of the provider and the lecturer,
The third key finding of the research is that only the factor 'the reliability of the provider and the lecturer' of the perceived quality of professional training had a positive and moderately strong effect on the assessment of the satisfaction of the participants in these training courses. The factors 'appearance of the facility' and 'attentiveness, assurance, responsiveness of the provider and lecturer' had no impact on the satisfaction of the participants in these training courses.
Up until now there has been no research analysing the quality of professional training in the area of business digitalisation. This is our contribution to the development of theory and expertise. The results of the analysis will be of practical assistance for managers of human resources and the management at the selected public institute and other organisations, as well as for researchers, who can carry out additional research on the basis of findings of this research and additional selected data. Below are some suggestions for further research:
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•	the SERVQUAL method does not allow the identification of causal factors that affect the currently perceived quality of training, and it would be good to explore these factors in the future,
•	conducting research also for other trainings at the selected public institute and comparing the results with each other,
•	conducting research with another measurement tool,
•	in the future expanding the research and exploring the impacts of training quality to other segments at the selected public institute, i.e. to investigate to what extent the quality of training affects work performance at this public institute.
Dobrusa Lipovz graduated from the Faculty of Organisational Sciences. She participates in data exchange projects between state institutes, is developing and introducing a system for document management in relation with other systems, supported by the statistical models at the Pensions and Disability Insurance Institute of Slovenia. She has also been involved in the development of record keeping for different support activities (personnel, financial, legal). In connection with an external institute she has established the electronic acceptance of forms from the register of births, marriages and deaths of insured persons at the level of the Republic of Slovenia, which are the basis for the establishment of electronic records for providing rights from the pension and disability insurance.
Melita Moretti, PhD, obtained her PhD in organisational sciences in the area of sustainable use of energy resources at the University of Primorska. Her research, development and professional work focuses on management, knowledge management, marketing and sales. She participates in international scientific conferences, she is the author and/or co-author of professional and scientific articles, co-author of a scientific monograph, author of independent work of a scientific monograph and a member of various project groups related to economy and public administration.
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DOI: 10.17573/ipar.2017.2.05
1.02 Pregledni znanstveni članek
Pomisleki in dileme o normativnem okviru instituta pomilostitve
Anton Olaj
anton.olaj@gmail.com
IZVLEČEK
Normativni okvir instituta pomilostitve izhaja iz Ustave RS, ki je vsebinsko razčlenjena z zakonodajno intervencijo. Podrobno branje in interpretacija Zakona o pomilostitvi nakazujeta na nekatere dileme in pomisleke v smeri nedopustnega oženja izključne izvirne ustavne pristojnosti predsednika republike. Da bi se izognili dvomom, bi bila potrebna dopolnitev Ustave v šesti alineji prvega odstavka 107. člena, npr. z oblikovano določbo, da predsednik republike odloča o pomilostitvah »na način, kakor je to določeno z zakonom«. Zakon o pomilostitvi je mogoče do takrat z zgodovinsko objektivistično interpretacijo razumeti tako, da predsednika republike pravno ne omejuje pri izvajanju njegove izvirne ustavne pristojnosti dajanja pomilostitev.
Ključne besede: pomilostitev, predsednik republike, 107. člen Ustave RS, Zakon o pomilostitvi, materiae constitutionis
JEL: K10
1 Uvod
Republika Slovenija (v nadaljevanju: RS) v svoji ustavi v poglavju o državni ureditvi določa pristojnosti predsednika RS. Ena izmed njih je, da »predsednik RS odloča o pomilostitvah«. V slovenskih strokovnih besedilih obstaja disputacijska skromnost glede tega ustavnega instituta. Obstoječi diskurzi se odvijajo predvsem v smeri zgodovinskega razvoja te pravno-politične predsedniške pristojnosti in predstavljanja nekaterih dilem glede dopustnosti poseganja izvršne veje oblasti v odločitve sodne veje oblasti.1
Ustavna formulacija predsedniškega prerogativa v šesti alineji prvega odstavka 107. člena, da »predsednik republike /.../ odloča o pomilostitvah«, je zapisana izrecno in taksativno v obliki nepogojne zapovedi. O pomilostitvah odloča izključno predsednik republike;2 pri tem upošteva ustavni red, lastno vest in prizadevanje za blaginjo Slovenije.3 Ker gre za ustavno tvarino (materio
1	Glej npr: Fišer (2013, str. 3).
2	Glej: Petrovec (2013, str. 22 in 23).
3	Ustava RS (Ur. list RS, št. 33/91 in nasl.), 104. člen: »Pred nastopom funkcije izreče predsednik republike pred državnim zborom naslednjo prisego: 'Prisegam, da bom spoštoval(a) ustavni red, da bom ravnal(a) po svoji vesti in z vsemi svojimi močmi deloval(a) za blaginjo Slovenije.'«
Olaj, A. (2017). Pomisleki in dileme o normativnem okviru instituta pomilostitve 145 [Scruples and dilemmas of the institute of clemency regulatory framework].
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constitutionis), predsednika republike ni mogoče pravno zavezati k novim pristojnostim s splošnim pravnim aktom nižje hierarhične veljavnosti, kot je ustava, prav tako mu ni dopustno odvzeti ali omejiti že določene ustavne pristojnosti z nižjim hierarhičnim splošnim pravnim aktom, kot je ustava, Ustava ne predvideva morebitne delegacije predsedniške pristojnosti pomiloščenja na neko drugo telo niti na morebitne osebe oziroma organe, ki pomagajo predsedniku pri udejanjanju njegovega ustavnega pooblastila,4 Ude (1996, str, 1126) navaja, da iz nekaterih odločb Ustavnega sodišča RS izhaja, da uresničevanje nekaterih ustavnih pravic ne zahteva zakonske ureditve načina njihovega uresničevanja in da njena odsotnost načeloma ne preprečuje, da bi se ustavne pravice v tem primeru uresničevale neposredno na podlagi ustave, zlasti ustavne določbe o državni ureditvi so pogosto takšne, da ne potrebujejo zakonodajnega urejanja, čeprav nekatere tovrstne določbe povzemajo zakoni, To je jasno razvidno iz obravnavanega instituta pomilostitve, ki je dodatno urejen z Zakonom o pomilostitvi, Posamezne določbe je mogoče najti tudi v kazenskem zakoniku, Če je ustavna norma formulirana dovoljkonkretno in nepogojno, je mogoča njena neposredna uporaba tudi brez nadaljnje konkretizacije z zakonom, Pavčnik (2007, str, 142) pravi, da v doktrini glede tega obstajajo različna mnenja, predvsem v smeri razlikovanja med pravnimi pravili in pravnimi načeli, in nadaljuje, da del doktrine zagovarja stališče, da gre v obeh primerih za pravna pravila; drugi del jih jasno razločuje, tretji del meni, da razlika med njimi ni kakovostna, ampak je ključno vprašanje, ali je mogoče pravna načela operacionalizirati in jih izraziti v obliki pravnih pravil,
Polemičnost prispevka v nadaljevanju se bo pomembno dotikala normativnega okvira Zakona o pomilostitvi, Iz tega razloga je relevantno, kajnajbo (je lahko ali bi moralo biti) sploh vsebina zakona, Pavčnik pravi, da Ustava na ta vprašanja ne daje natančnega odgovora, saj ne določa izrecno obsega in vsebine zakonske pristojnosti državnega zbora, V naravi stvari je, da zakoni urejajo vse zadeve, ki so poglavitne za določen pravni sistem, a hkrati niso tako pomembne, da bi bile urejene v ustavi, Toda tudi zadeve, ki so v ustavi že urejene, praviloma zahtevajo določeno zakonsko urejanje, zato ustava na več mestih, po mnenju Pavčnika in Grada (v Šturm, 2002, str, 798), ali zapoveduje zakonodajalcu ureditev določenega vprašanja ali ga pooblašča za zakonsko ureditev določene zadeve oziroma mu prepoveduje poseganje na nekatera področja,5
4	Glej npr., kako je to vprašanje rešeno v Ustavi Republike Hrvaške, »Članak 107: Predsjedniku Republike u obavljanju njegovih dužnosti pomažu savjetodavna tijela. Članove tih tijela imenuje i razrješuje Predsjednik Republike. Nisu dopuštena imenovanja koja su u suprotnosti s načelom diobe vlasti. Savjetodavni, stručni i drugi poslovi obavljaju se u Uredu Predsjednika Republike. Ustrojstvo i djelokrug Ureda ureduje Predsjednik Republike svojom odlukom. Ured Predsjednika Republike i stručne službe Vlade Republike Hrvatske suraduju u obavljanju poslova od zajedničkog interesa. Sredstva za rad Ureda Predsjednika Republike osiguravaju se u okviru državnog proračuna Republike Hrvatske.« (Hrvatski sabor; http://www.sabor.hr/ ustav-rh-ustrojstvo-drzavne-vlasti, zadnjič obiskano 23. 7. 2016)).
5	Primer tovrstne prepovedi najdemo v Ustavi, npr. v prvem in drugem odstavku 15. člena.
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Ustava pri institutu pomilostitve ne zapoveduje ureditve tega instituta z zakonom, niti ne pooblašča zakonodajalca za to. Kavčič (2004, str. 24 in 25) meni, da je dodatno zakonsko urejanje dopustno, če je to potrebno »zaradi narave pristojnosti«, vendar ne navaja konkretne pravne podlage za takšno trditev. Podobno formulacijo je mogoče najti v drugem odstavku 15. člena Ustave, ki se glasi: »/Z/ zakonom je mogoče predpisati način uresničevanja človekovih pravic in temeljnih svoboščin, kadar tako določa ustava ali če je to nujno zaradi same narave posamezne pravice ali svoboščine.« Vendar se ta določba nanaša le na človekove pravice in temeljne svoboščine, kamor instituta pomilostitve ne uvrščamo, pa še to samo izjemoma, če je podan razlog nujnosti,
Na splošno lahko pojasnimo dopustnost zakonske intervencije na področju instituta pomilostitve z dejstvom, da ne obstaja izrecna ustavna prepoved za to, vendar se morata obstoječa zakona še toliko bolj vsebinsko gibati v normativnem okviru šeste alineje prvega odstavka 107. člena Ustave. Pravni red namreč ni sistem enakovrednih, vzporednih pravnih norm, temveč stopnjevit red (Kelsen, 2005, str. 68). Nižji pravni akt se mora gibati v mejah, ki mu jih vsebinsko zarisuje višji (Pavčnik, 2007, str. 265). Enotnost stopnjevito strukturiranega pravnega reda je namreč postavljena pod vprašaj, kakor hitro norma nižje stopnje ne ustreza delujoči normi višje stopnje, naj bo to glede načina nastanka ali glede vsebine (Kelsen, 2005, str. 74 in 75). Zakoni morajo biti v skladu z ustavo.6
V	doktrini je sicer mogoče zaslediti diametralno nasprotna mnenja, da predsedniško pooblastilo odločanja o pomilostitvah ne more biti podvrženo nobenemu omejevanju, kakor tudi stališča, da so omejitve dovoljene in potrebne, kot navaja Kurtovic (2003, str. 497), vendar navedena dilema v kontekstu tega članka ni relevantna, saj se pravi problem skriva v bistvu, kako se je v praksi pravodajalca zakonsko pristopilo k urejanju obravnavanega instituta. Izhajajoč iz tega bom v nadaljevanju prispevka poskušal argumentirati pravno dopusten odziv predsednika republike pri podeljevanju pomilostitev obsojencem po pravnomočni razsodbi sodišča glede na nekatere restriktivne določbe Zakona o pomilostitvi, ki jezikovno nakazujejo nedopustno oženje materieconstitutionis. V članku se ne bom ukvarjal s problematiko pomilostitev, ki zadevajo odpustitev kazenskega pregona, niti se ne bom dotikal relevantnih določb o pomilostitvi v kazenskem zakoniku, za katere sicer menim, da so skladne z ustavo.
2 Normativni okvir predsedniškega prerogativa
V	Ustavi RS leta 1991 se je institut pomilostitve na novo uredil. Kljub temu da so se spremenile pristojnosti pri odločanju o pomilostitvi,7 je vse do leta 1995 ostal smiselno v veljavi Zakon o pomilostitvi Socialistične republike
6	Glej: Ustava RS, 153. člen.
7	Glej: Poročevalec Državnega zbora Republike Slovenije, št. 39, 1994, str. 23.
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Slovenije iz leta 1977.8 Leta 1994 je Državni zbor RS - sicer brez izrecne ustavne zapovedi ali pooblastila - opredelil institut pomilostitve s sprejemom novega kazenskega zakonika9 in leto kasneje uredil podrobnosti pomilostitve z Zakonom o pomilostitvi.10 Pri slednjem se ob jezikovni interpretaciji kot temeljni razlagalni metodi pojavi dvom, ali je zakonodajalec ob odsotnosti izrecne ustavne zahteve oziroma pooblastila po urejanju ustavne tvarine prekoračil normativni okvir šeste alineje prvega odstavka 107. člena Ustave.
2.1 Pomisleki in dileme o »obvezni iniciativi« kot pogoju za začetek postopka pomilostitve
Zakon o pomilostitvi v prvem odstavku 4. člena določa, da se postopek za pomilostitev začne na prošnjo ali po uradni dolžnosti. Z uporabo logičnega sklepanja po nasprotnem razlogovanju (argumentum a contrario) lahko razumemo, da se postopek za pomilostitev ne začne, dokler ni izpolnjen pogoj, tj. podana prošnja določene osebe," ali če minister za pravosodje prej ne sproži postopka pomilostitve po uradni dolžnosti." Posledično, per se, se postavlja vprašanje, ali to pomeni, da predsednik republike sploh sme odločati o pomilostitvi, če prej ni izpolnjen zakonski pogoj iz prvega odstavka 4. člena Zakona o pomilostitvi.
Jezikovna razlaga je praviloma res temeljna razlagalna metoda, pri kateri se s pomočjo jezikovnih pravil išče jezikovni smisel pravne norme, vendar smisel ni v njeni dobesednosti, temveč pomeni zgolj izhodišče in jezikovni okvir, ki ga pomensko določajo in soopredeljujejo ostale uveljavljene metode razlage." Za razumevanje smisla 4. člena Zakona o pomilostitvi je treba upoštevati njegovo vključenost in povezanost s pravnim sistemom v okviru sistematične razlage, nato pomen norme preveriti še z logično metodo interpretiranja.
Sistematična razlaga nam razkrije, da 4. člen Zakona o pomilostitvi ureja materijo iz šeste alineje prvega odstavka 107. člena Ustave in je zato v okviru pravnega sistema v podrejenem položaju. Normativnega pomena sporne zakonske določbe zato ni mogoče iskati v njeni restriktivnosti oziroma pogojevanju, saj iz ustave ni razbrati, da lahko predsednik republike svoje pristojnosti izvršuje le pogojno. To lahko dodatno utemeljimo s tem, da Zakon o pomilostitvi razen samega obsojenca določa še druge osebe, ki lahko imajo status prosilca oziroma vlagatelja prošnje za pomilostitev obsojenca. Pri tem ni potrebno, da bi te druge osebe imele dovoljenje obsojenca za takšno
8	Glej: Zakon o pomilostitvi (Ur. list SRS, št. 12/1977), str. 689 in 690, in Navodilo o delu sodišč v zvezii s pomilostitvenim postopkom (Ur. list SRS, št. 14/1978), str. 1428-1430.
9	Glej: Kazenski zakonik (Ur. list RS, št. 63/94 in nasl.).
10	Glej: Zakon o pomilostitvi (Ur. list RS, št. 45/1995 in nasl.).
11	Zakon o pomilostitvi (6. člen): »Prošnjo za pomilostitev lahko vloži obsojenec, obsojencev zakonec ali oseba, s katero živi v zunajzakonski skupnosti, krvni sorodnik obsojenca v ravni črti, brat, sestra, posvojitelj, posvojenec, rejnik ali skrbnik.«
12	Zakon o pomilostitvi (5. člen): »Postopek za pomilostitev po uradni dolžnosti začne minister, pristojen za pravosodje.«
13	Glej: Sklep VS II Ips 393/2010, tč. 8 (http://www.sodisce.si/znanje/sodna_praksa/vrhovno_ sodisce_rs/2010040815255079/#, zadnjič obiskano 19. 8. 2016).
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iniciativo oziroma strinjanje obsojenca. Zato bi bilo nerazumno sklepati, da je ob vseh teh različnih iniciatorjih pomilostitve le pobuda predsednika republike nezaželena. Če pomensko izhajamo iz tega, da je samo predsednik republike po ustavi pristojen po lastnem preudarku pomilostiti obsojenca, potem je še toliko bolj (a fortiori) pristojen na lastno pobudo začeti preudarjanje, ali sploh bo ali ne bo nekega obsojenca pomilostil. To se lahko ponazori z latinskim pravnim rekom »Qui potest plus, potest minus« (»Kdor sme več, ta lahko tudi manj«). Normativni pomen sporne zakonske določbe je očitno le, da se je z njo opredelila vloga še ostalih subjektov, ki so lahko zainteresirani za pomilostitev obsojenca, pri tem pa se ne posega v izključno ustavno pristojnost predsednika republike glede odločanja o pomilostitvah.
2.2 Pomisleki in dileme o »obvezni pomoči« predsedniku republike
Zakon o pomilostitvi predvideva kronološki potek postopka pred odločitvijo predsednika republike o pomilostitvi in v njih opredeljuje obligatorno sodelovanje sodišča, ministrstva za pravosodje in tožilstva, ki vsak v zvezi s svojo vlogo vsebinsko oblikuje pomilostitveni material o obsojencu. Ta material se predloži predsedniku republike.14 Pristojnost odločanja o pomilostitvah je izvirna ustavna pristojnost predsednika republike, zato je z vidika koherentnosti pravnega sistema nenavadno, da je zakonodajalec v postopku določil obvezno vlogo organov, ki so izven oblasti predsednika republike. Posebej je problematičen 7. člen zakona z določbo, da se prošnja vlagatelja vloži le pri sodišču in ne pri predsedniku republike, ki je edini pristojen za odločanje o pomilostitvah. Sodišče pri tem ni dolžno npr. posredovati kopije prošenj predsedniku republike ali ga o številu in osebah, na katere se prošnje nanašajo, obveščati kako drugače. Zadrega se nadaljuje s 16. členom zakona, iz katerega smiselno izhaja, da predsednik republike »sme« začeti odločati o pomilostitvi obsojenca šele takrat, ko prejme že oblikovan pomilostitveni predlog ministra za pravosodje. Z logičnim sklepanjem a contrario je razumeti, da če predsednik republike ne prejme predloga ministra, o pomilostitvi sploh ne more odločati kljub svoji jasni nepogojni ustavni pristojnosti, kar je čisti nonsens.
Zakon o pomilostitvi v celoti sistemsko izhaja iz ustavne določbe šeste alineje prvega odstavka 107. člena z določbo, da predsednik republike »odloča« o pomilostitvah, in ga je treba interpretirati v normativnem okviru materie constitutionis. Termin »odločati« je mogoče razumeti kot celovit miselni proces za razliko od smiselno podobnega pojma »dovolitev«, ki pomeni »dati dovoljenje, pristanek za kaj« oziroma koncedirati potem, ko predlog odločitve že pripravijo drugi organi. Sistematična interpretacija jezikovnega smisla členov Zakona o pomilostitvi, ki določajo postopek s prošnjami, nakazuje na premiso, da pomen kronološke opredelitve »faz« postopka ni v tem, da bi predsednika republike omejevali pri izpolnjevanju njegove
14 Glej: Zakon o pomilostitvi, 7. člen, 9. člen, 13. člen, 16. člen.
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ustavne pristojnosti odločanja o pomilostitvah, ampak da zakon na pregleden način ureja poslovanje z obstoječimi vlogami prosilcev za pomilostitev. Na takšno interpretacijo delno nakazuje tudi prejšnja ureditev, zato je nujno, da jezikovno in sistematično interpretacijo nadgradimo še z zgodovinsko metodo razlage. Zakon o pomilostitvi Socialistične republike Slovenije, ki se je v RS smiselno uporabljal do leta 1995, je v svojem 16. členu15 relativiziral zakonsko proceduro pomilostitve z določbo, da je pomilostitev dopustna tudi, če niso opravljene »vse« zakonsko predvidene faze postopka. Podobna pravna ureditev je bila zamišljena tudi ob prvem branju predloga novega Zakona o pomilostitvi leta 1994 v 16. členu, kjer je predsednik republike predvidoma lahko dal pomilostitev »brez« predhodnih faz postopka, vendar ne brez prošnje upravičenega prosilca.16 V starem zakonu prejšnje ustavne ureditve Slovenije je bilo nujno, da je bila opravljena »vsaj ena faza postopka«, v prvi obravnavi predloga novega zakona je ta tvarina še bolj liberalizirana, če je prej obstajala vloga upravičenega prosilca. Do te točke lahko z zgodovinsko metodo odkrivanja volje zakonodajalca v času, ko je predpis nastajal, delno pritrdimo svoji zgornji premisi. Delno zato, ker se vztraja pri iniciativi predpisanega vlagatelja prošnje kot pogoju, da se postopek pomilostitve lahko začne. Vendar kasneje, v drugi obravnavi predloga Zakona o pomilostitvi leta 1995, so navedeni 16. člen v celoti črtali7 in takšna ureditev je bila sprejeta v novem Zakonu o pomilostitvi. Povod za to je bilo mnenje odbora za notranjo politiko in pravosodje, da brez predhodno opravljenega postopka, torejzbiranja potrebnih podatkov, predsednik republike »ne sme« dati pomilostitve. To pojasnjuje, da pri črtanju predvidene norme iz prvega branja zakona ni šlo le za lapsus in nomotehnično zadrego, ampak za nezavezujoč, »neprimeren« poskus zakonske omejitve materie constitutionis, ki je v izključni pristojnosti urejanja ustavodajalca in ne zakonodajalca. Določbe zakona o pomilostitvi, ki se nanašajo na »obvezne« faze postopka, je mogoče razumno interpretirati, ko jezikovno razlago nadgradimo s sistematično metodo in nato smisel preverimo še z objektivistično zgodovinsko razlago.
Veljavna ustavna ureditev instituta pomilostitve dovoljuje prepričljivo razumevanje Zakona o pomilostitvi z opredeljenimi faznimi vlogami različnih organov, ki za predsednika republike predstavljajo le fakultativno paralelno možnost, da pri odločanju o pomilostitvah uporabi zbrane podatke teh
15	»Predsedstvo Socialistične Republike sme dati pomilostitev tudi, če niso bile opravljene vse predhodne faze postopka, predpisanega s tem zakonom.« Zakon o pomilostitvi (Ur. list SRS, št. 12/1977), 16. člen.
16	»Predsednik republike sme dati pomilostitev tudi, če niso bile opravljene predhodne faze postopka, predpisanega s tem zakonom, vendar ne brez prošnje upravičenega prosilca oziroma predloga ministra, pristojnega za pravosodje.« Predlog zakona o pomilostitvi - prva obravnava, 16. člen, Poročevalec Državnega zbora Republike Slovenije, št. 39, 1994, str. 24.
17	Odbor za notranjo politiko in pravosodje je menil, da brez predhodno opravljenega postopka, torej zbiranja potrebnih podatkov, predsednik republike »ne sme« dati pomilostitve. Glej: Poročilo k predlogu zakona o pomilostitvi - prva obravnava (Državni zbor RS, Odbor za notranjo politiko in pravosodje, št. 713-04/94-2/1, z dne 1. 12. 1994). Glej tudi: Predlog zakona o pomilostitvi - druga obravnava (Poročevalec Državnega zbora Republike Slovenije, št. 6, 1995, str. 21 in 22).
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organov ali pa jih ignorira, izhajajoč neposredno iz same določbe šeste alineje prvega odstavka 107. člena Ustave,
2.3 Pomisleki in dileme o pravni podlagi za odločanje predsednika republike o pomilostitvah
V prejšnjih podpoglavjih navedene zakonske pomisleke smiselno zaokrožuje prvi odstavek 1. člena Zakona o pomilostitvi s splošno določbo, da »/p/ omilostitev za kazniva dejanja, določena v zakonih Republike Slovenije, daje v skladu s tem zakonom predsednik republike«. Površno branje tega člena bi lahko nepoučenega bralca napeljalo k sklepu, da je pravna podlaga za pomilostitev »le« Zakon o pomilostitvi, kar seveda ne drži. Navedeni zakon v celoti pomensko izhaja iz ustavne določbe šeste alineje prvega odstavka 107. člena, kar je v praksi razvidno iz individualnih konkretnih pravnih aktov predsednika republike, kjer vedno kot pravno podlago za pomilostitev na prvem mestu navaja šesto alinejo prvega odstavka 107. člena Ustave in šele v nadaljevanju 1. člen Zakona o pomilostitvi ter v določenih primerih tudi 97. člen Kazenskega zakonika.18
Iz navedenih argumentov je razvidno, da je pravna podlaga za odločanje predsednika o pomilostitvah primarno relevantna določba Ustave kot materie constitutionis in ne le Zakon o pomilostitvi. Ko predsednik republike pomilosti obsojenca na podlagi ustavne določbe iz šeste alineje prvega odstavka 107. člena Ustave in se pri tem drži zaveze spoštovanja ustavnega reda ter zaveze upoštevanja svoje vesti pri sprejemu odločitve po 104. členu Ustave, je takšna pomilostitev ustavna, torej pravilna in pravno dopustna. Takšno razumevanje odločanja o pomilostitvi se ujema z razmišljanjem Halscherja (v Kurtovic, 2003, str. 489), ki navaja, da gre pri pomilostitvi za dodatek pravičnosti (supplementum justitiae), uporabljen skozi pravo, čeprav je, kakor meni Smith (1983, str. 399), povzdignjen nad pravo. Če se tako dana pomilostitev vzporedno sklada z restriktivnim normativnim okvirom Ustavi podrejenega Zakona o pomilostitvi, potem je takšna pomilostitev primarno ustavna in hkrati podrejeno skladna s prvim odstavkom 1. člena Zakona o pomilostitvi. Zakonsko določbo 1. člena je torej mogoče razumeti le v smislu sekundarne fakultativne pravne podlage za odločanje predsednika republike o pomilostitvah.
3 Odgovornost predsednika republike pri odločanju o pomilostitvi
Treba je poudariti, da predsednika republike pri opravljanju funkcije zavezuje ustava, ki je ne sme kršiti. Kar zadeva zakone, jih ne sme »huje« kršiti. Državni zbor lahko fakultativno zahteva odgovornost predsednika republike v postopku ustavne obtožbe pred ustavnim sodiščem po določbi
18 Glej npr.: Ukaz o pomilostitvi obsojenke Ireni Sladič (Ur. list RS, št. 565/2015; http://www.uradni-list.si/1/objava.jsp?sop=2015-01-2680 zadnjič obiskano 19. 7. 2016) in Odlok o pomilostitvi obtoženca - pomilostitev po uradni dolžnosti Vorenu Pavliču (Ur. list RS, št. 55/2012; http://www. uradni-list.si/1/objava.jsp?sop=2012-01-2333, zadnjič obiskano 19. 7. 2016).
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109. člena Ustave. Bilo bi pravno nevzdržno očitati predsedniku republike, da je s samoiniciativno konkretno odločitvijo o pomilostitvi kršil Zakon o pomilostitvi, vendar je pri tem hkrati ravnal v skladu z Ustavo. Takšen očitek bi jasno nakazoval na obstojneskladnosti zakona z Ustavo. Predsedniku republike, ki pomilosti obsojenca na podlagi šeste alineje prvega odstavka 107. člena Ustave in pri tem ravna po svoji vesti, k čemur ga zavezuje 104. člen Ustave, ni mogoče uspešno očitati kršitve Ustave. Če se njegova odločitev ne sklada z Zakonom o pomilostitvi, mu ne moremo očitati kršitve tega zakona, ker za njegovo odločitev originarno obstaja pravna podlaga v Ustavi, ki je vsakič izrecno navedena v aktih predsednika o pomilostitvi. Poleg tega ima Zakon o pomilostitvi svoje določbe, strukturirane v obliki nepopolnih pravnih pravil (lex imperfecta), ki ne vsebujejo sankcij. Tako Zakon o pomilostitvi niti drugi predpisi ne preprečujejo predsedniku republike, da po sprejeti diskrecijski odločitvi o pomilostitvi izda odredbo o objavi ukaza ali odloka o pomilostitvi v uradnem listu.19 Zakon o pomilostitvi za predsednika republike predstavlja le dodatne možnosti uporabe zbranih podatkov po določenih organih, ki jih fakultativno koristi , nikakor pa zakon ne izključuje njegove izvirne ustavne pristojnosti odločanja o pomilostitvah ali to pristojnost omejuje le na raven dovoljevanja s strani ministra za pravosodje predlaganih pomilostitev. To se je že potrdilo tudi v praksi, ko je npr. predsednik republike dr. Janez Drnovšek uspešno pomilostil mimo nekaterih določil Zakona o pomilostitvi obsojenega nekdanjega direktorja novogoriškega Hita, Danila Kovačiča.20
4 Zaključki
Predsedniška ustavna pristojnost odločanja o pomilostitvah je zapisana v kratki obliki nepogojne zapovedi, kar kaže na potrebo po njeni operacionalizaciji, vendar ustava tega niti ne zapoveduje niti ne prepoveduje. Normativni okvir Zakona o pomilostitvi nakazuje, da je bil zakonodajalec pri urejanju v nekaterih segmentih preveč intenziven in je s tem posegel v ustavno materijo, ki je v izključni pristojnosti urejanja ustavodajalca. Če obstaja političen projekt, da se ustavna pristojnost predsednika republike o odločanju o pomilostitvah spremeni, potem je to pravilno pravno mogoče skozi instrument revizije Ustave. Menim, da bi bilo potrebno Ustavo dopolniti v šesti alineji prvega odstavka 107. člena z določbo, da predsednik republike odloča o pomilostitvah »na način, kakor je to določeno z zakonom«. Za spremembo materie constitutionis je dejansko potreben konsenz najmanj 60 poslancev. Takšnega političnega soglasja v preteklosti pri urejanju oziroma operacionalizaciji tvarine
19	Glej: Zakon o uradnem listu (Ur. list RS, št. 112/2005 in nasi.), prvi odstavek 9. člena,
20	Glej: Finance, Drnovšek pomilostil še tri obsojence (2007; http://www.finance.si/181060, zadnjič obiskano 15. 8. 2016), ali STA, Drnovšek pomilostil policijske specialce (2007; https://www.sta. si/1 156553/drnovsek-pomilostil-policijske-specialce, zadnjič obiskano 15. 8. 2016).
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pomilostitve ni bilo.21 Do časa morebitnih sprememb je mogoče očitno sporne vsebine Zakona o pomilostitvi interpretirati kot osamostaljena besedila in jih z zgodovinsko objektivistično interpretacijo razumeti tako, da Zakon o pomilostitvi efektivno predstavlja le del normativnega okvira, ki predsednika republike pravno ne omejuje pri izvajanju njegove izvirne ustavne pristojnosti dajanja pomilostitev.
Dr. Anton Olaj je upokojeni direktor Policijske uprave Novo mesto. Ima bogate izkušnje predvsem s prakticiranjem in poučevanjem kazenskega prava, področju ustavnega prava pa se posveča teoretično. V doktorski disertaciji, ki zajema znanstveni področji ustavnega prava in mednarodnega javnega prava, je proučeval problematiko adopcije splošno veljavnih načel mednarodnega prava v pravni red Republike Slovenije. Trenutno znanstveno raziskovanje namenja področju ustavnih pristojnosti predsednika republike.
21 Ob pregledu glasovanja za Zakon o pomilostitvi je bilo na 34. seji državnega zbora leta 1995 ob glasovanju prisotnih le 51 poslancev, za sprejem zakona je glasovalo le 41 poslancev, proti so bili trije poslanci (https://www.dz-rs.si/wps/portal/Home/deloDZ/seje/evidenca?manda t=I&type=sz&uid=2F8EF2721E4BFAE0C1257832004838F1, zadnjič obiskano 31. 7. 2016), Ob pregledu glasovanja za Zakon o spremembi in dopolnitvi Zakona o pomilostitvi je bilo na 38. redni seji državnega zbora leta 2004 ob glasovanju prisotnih le 50 poslancev, za sprejem zakona je bilo le 47 poslancev in proti so glasovali trije poslanci (https://www.dz-rs.si/wps/ portal/Home/deloDZ/seje/glasovanje?mandat=NI&seja=38.%20Redna&uid=CC2B6FFEEEF5E 734C1256ED20057967C, zadnjič obiskano 31. 7. 2016).
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Literatura in viri
Državni zbor RS. Evidenca zapisa 34. redne seje iz leta 1995. Pridobljeno
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Državni zbor RS. Evidenca zapisa 38. redne seje iz leta 2004. Pridobljeno 31. 7. 2016, s https://www.dz-rs.si/wps/portal/Home/deloDZ/seje/ glasovanje?mandat=IN&seja=38.%20Redna&uid=G:2B6FFEEEF5E734C1256E D20057967C
Državni zbor RS, Odbor za notranjo politiko in pravosodje. Poročilo k predlogu zakona o pomilostitvi - prva obravnava, št. 713-04/94-2/1 z dne 1. 12. 1994.
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Državni zbor RS. Predlog zakona o pomilostitvi - prva obravnava. Poročevalec
Državnega zbora RS, št. 39, 1994. Finance. Drnovšek pomilostil še tri obsojence. Pridobljeno 18. 8. 2016 s
http://www.finance.si/181060 Fišer, Z. (2013). Pomilostitev ne sme biti revizija sodne odločbe. Pravna praksa
(39), 3. Ljubljana: GV Založba. Hrvatski sabor. Pridobljeno 23. 7. 2016, s http://www.sabor.hr/ustav-rh-
ustrojstvo-drzavne-vlasti Kavčič, I. (2004). Predsednik republike med reprezentativno in izvršilno funkcijo.
Deseti dnevi javnega prava, Portorož. Ljubljana: Inštitut za javno upravo. Kazenski zakonik. Ur. list RS, št. 50/12 - uradno prečiščeno besedilo, 6/16 - popr., 54/15 in 38/16. Pridobljeno 24. 7. 2016, s https://www.uradni-list.si/glasilo-uradni-list-rs/vsebina/109161 Kelsen, H. (2005). Čista teorija prava. Ljubljana: CZ. Kurtovic, A. (2003). Pomilovanje. Zagreb: Policijska akademija. Kurtovic, A. Pomilovanje u kaznenom pravosudu. Pridobljeno 24. 12. 2017, s
http://hrcak.srce.hr/file/129646 Navodilo o delu sodišč v zvezi s pomilostitvenim postopkom. Ur. list SRS, št. 14/1978.
Odlok o pomilostitvi obtoženca - pomilostitev po uradni dolžnosti Vorenu Pavliču. Ur. list RS, št. 55/2012. Pridobljeno 19. 7. 2016, s http://www.uradni-list.si/1/ objava.jsp?sop=2012-01-2333 Pavčnik, M. (2007). Teorija prava. Ljubljana: GV Založba.
Petrovec, D. (2013). Pomilostitev kot (ne)izogibna revizija sodne odločbe. Pravna praksa, (40-41). Ljubljana: GV Založba.
Sklep VS II Ips 393/2010, tč. 8. Pridobljeno 19. 8. 2016, s http://www.sodisce.si/ znanje/sodna_praksa/vrhovno_sodisce_rs/2010040815255079/#
Slovar slovenskega knjižnega jezika. Dovoliti. Pridobljeno 10. 8. 2016, s http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/cgi/a03.exe?name=sskj_ testa&expression=dovoliti&hs=1 Slovar slovenskega knjižnega jezika. Koncedirati - dovoliti, dopustiti. Pridobljeno 10. 8. 2016, s http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/cgi/a03.exe?name=sskj_testa&expression =koncedirati&hs=1 Slovar slovenskega knjižnega jezika. Odločati. Pridobljeno 10. 8. 2016, s http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/cgi/a03.exe?name=sskj_ testa&expression=ODLOČATI&hs=1
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Smith, A. T. H. (1983). The prerogative of mercy, the power of pardon and criminal justice. Wellington: Victoria University of Wellington, Faculty of Law.
STA. Drnovšek pomilostil policijske specialce. Pridobljeno 15. 8. 2016, s https:// www.sta.si/1156553/drnovsek-pomilostil-policijske-specialce
Šturm L. (ur.). (2002). Komentar ustave RS. Ljubljana: FPDEŠ.
Ude, L. (1996). Ustavne podlage za pravno odločanje. Podjetje in delo, (5/6), 1124-1132.
Ukaz o pomilostitvi obsojenke Ireni Sladič. Ur. list RS, št. 565/2015. Pridobljeno 19. 7. 2017, s http://www.uradni-list.si/1/objava.jsp?sop=2015-01-2680
Ustava Republike Hrvaške. Pridobljeno 23. 7. 2016, s http://www.sabor.hr/ustav-rh-ustrojstvo-drzavne-vlasti
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Zakon o pomilostitvi. Ur. list RS, št. 45/1995 in št. 86/04. Pridobljeno 24. 7. 2016, s http://www.pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=ZAK0420
Zakon o pomilostitvi. Ur. list SRS, št. 12/1977
Zakon o uradnem listu. Ur. list RS, št. 57/96, št. 90/05, št. 102/07 in št. 109/09. Pridobljeno 24. 7. 2016, s http://www.pisrs.si/Pis.web/ pregledPredpisa?id=ZAK0470
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DOI: 10.17573/ipar.2017.2.05
1.02 Review article
Scruples and Dilemmas of the Institute of Clemency Regulatory Framework
Anton Olaj
anton.olaj@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The legal framework institution of clemency stems from the Constitution, which is substantially filled with a legislative intervention. Detailed reading and interpretation of the Pardon Act indicate some dilemmas and doubts about the inadmissible narrowing of the exclusive original constitutional power of the President of the Republic. For the avoidance of doubt, it would require an amendment of the Constitution in the sixth line of the first paragraph of Article 107 with the provision that the President of the Republic decides on the granting of clemency 'in the manner provided by law.' It is, therefore, possible to understand the valid Pardon Act through historical objectivist interpretation in such a way that the President of the Republic is not restricted by law in the implementation of his original constitutional powers on the granting of clemency.
Keywords: clemency, the president of the republic, article 107 of the Constitution, pardon act, materiae constitutionis
JEL: K10
1 Introduction
The Republic of Slovenia (hereinafter: RS), in its constitution in the chapter on the organisation of the state, sets out the powers of the President of the Republic of Slovenia. One of them is that the 'President of the Republic decides on the granting of clemency'. There is not much written about this constitutional institute in the Slovenian expert texts. The existing discourses mainly take place concerning the historical development of this legal political presidential power and the presentation of certain dilemmas regarding the admissibility of prejudice to the executive decisions in the judicial branch.1 The constitutional formulation of the presidential prerogative in the sixth line of the first paragraph of Article 107, stating that 'the President /.../ decides on the granting of clemency', was written expressly and enumerated in the form of unconditional commandments. To grant clemency exclusively decided by the President of the Republic,2 we should take into account the constitutional
1	See: Fiser (2013, p. 3).
2	See: Petrovec (2013, pp. 22-23).
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order, the President's own conscience, and striving for the good of Slovenia.3 Since it is a matter of the Constitution (materiaeconstitutionis), the President of the Republic cannot legally commit to new powers using a general legal act with a lower hierarchical force than the Constitution, and nor is it permissible to withdraw or restrict the already established constitutional power using a lower hierarchical general legal act than the Constitution. The Constitution does not provide for any delegation of presidential powers when deciding on the granting of clemency to another body, nor to any persons or bodies that assist the President in implementing its constitutional authorization.4 Ude (1996, p. 1126) stated that some decisions of the Constitutional Court of the Republic mandate that the implementation of certain constitutional rights does not require the regulation of how they are implemented. In principle, its absence does not prevent the passing of constitutional rights (in this case, realized directly on the basis of the Constitution; in particular the constitutional provisions on the organization of the state are often those that do not require legislative regulation, although some provisions of this kind are summarized by laws. This is clearly evident in the institute of clemency, which is additionally regulated by the Pardon Act and the individual provisions that can be found in the Criminal Code. If the constitutional norms are formulated specifically and unconditionally, it is possible to use them directly without the further concretization of law. Pavcnik (2007, p. 142) says that the doctrines regarding this contain differences of opinion, especially in the direction of the distinction between the legal rules and the principles of law. Pavcnik continues to say that this part of the doctrine has taken the view that these are in fact legal rules in both cases; the second part they clearly distinguish and the third part considers that the difference between them is not a matter of quality, but the key question is the possibility of operationalizing principles and expressing them in the form of legal rules.
The criticality of this article below will have an important impact on the regulatory framework of the Pardon Act. For this reason, it is relevant to what the content of Act can be (or should be). Pavcnik says that the Constitution does not give a precise answer on this issue because it does not specifically define the scope and the contents of the statutory powers of the National Assembly. However, even matters that the Constitution has already regulated require regulation. Therefore, according to Pavcnik and Grad (in Sturm, 2002, p. 798), the Constitution in several places requires the legislature to regulate certain issues or authorises the legislature to regulate certain matters.
3	Ustava RS (Uradni list RS, No. 33/91), Article 104: 'Before taking office, the President of the Republic shall swear the following oath before the National Assembly: "I swear that I shall uphold the constitutional order, that I shall act according to my conscience and that I shall do all in my power for the good of Slovenia."'
4	See e.g., how this question is explicitly resolved in the Constitution of the Republic of Croatia, Article 107 (Hrvatski sabor; http://www.sabor.hr/ustav-rh-ustrojstvo-drzavne-vlasti, last visited 23 July 2016).
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However, we can also find the provisions in the Constitution, which prohibit the legislature encroaching in certain areas.5
The Constitution of the Institute of clemency does not require the regulation of this institute by law and nor does it authorise the legislature to do so, Kavcic (2004, pp. 24-25) believes that additionally, regulation is admissible if it is necessary 'due to the nature of competence'. However, it does not provide a specific legal basis for such a claim. A similar formulation can be found in the second paragraph of Article 15 of the Constitution, which reads as follows: 'The manner in which human rights and fundamental freedoms are exercised may be regulated by law whenever the Constitution so provides or where this is necessary due to the particular nature of an individual right or freedom.' However, this provision only applies to human rights and fundamental freedoms, which do not include the institution of clemency, and even then only in exceptional circumstances, in cases where there are grounds of urgency.
In general, we can explain the admissibility of legal intervention in the institution of clemency by the fact that there is no explicit constitutional prohibition of this, but the existing laws must be even more substantial and fall in the normative framework of the sixth indent of the first paragraph of Article 107 of the Constitution. The legal order, in fact, is not a system of equivalent, parallel legal norms, but a hierarchical order (Kelsen, 2005, p. 68). The lower legal act should fall within the limits, which have substantively higher outlines (Pavcnik, 2007, p. 265). The unity of the hierarchical structured legal order is in fact called into question, as soon as the norm lower rates do not comply with the operational norm higher level, whether it is in terms of its formation or its content (Kelsen, 2005, p. 74-75). Laws must be in accordance with the Constitution.6
In doctrine, it is possible to trace diametrically opposed views - that the presidential power should decide on the granting of clemency and should not be restricted, as well as the view that restrictions are permissible and necessary, as stated by Kurtovic (2003, p. 497). However, this dilemma is not relevant in the context of this article because the real problem lies in how, in practice, the legislature approaches the regulation of the Institute. Starting from this contribution, I shall try to argue the lawful response to the President of the Republic in granting clemency to convicts after the final judgment of the Court in relation to certain restrictive provisions of the Pardon Act, which indicate an impermissible narrowing materiae constitutionis.
In this article, I shall not deal with the issue of clemency in matters of dismissal of criminal prosecution, nor the relevant amnesty provisions in the Criminal Code, which otherwise appear to be in conformity with the Constitution.
5	An example of such a ban can be found in the Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, for example in paragraphs 1 and 2 of Article 15.
6	See: Ustava RS, Article 153.
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2 The Normative Framework of Presidential Prerogative
In 1991, Slovenia adopted a new constitution. The institute of clemency was newly regulated. Despite the fact that jurisdiction changed when deciding on clemency,7 until 1995, the Pardon Act of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia adopted in 1977 remained in force.8 In 1994, the National Assembly, without explicit constitutional command or powers, defined the institute of clemency in the adoption of new Criminal Code9 and a year later edited details of clemency with the Pardon Act.10 With the linguistic interpretation of the Pardon Act as the basic interpretative approach, it appears doubtful whether, in the absence of explicit constitutional requirements, the legislature regulates constitutional matters, exceeding the normative framework of the sixth indent of the first paragraph of Article 107 of the Constitution.
2.1 Scruples and Dilemmas of 'Obligatory Initiative' as a Condition for Initiating Procedure for Deciding on the Granting of Clemency
In the first paragraph of Article 4, the Pardon Act provides that proceedings for clemency begin on request or ex officio. By using the argumentum a contrario, it can be understood that the procedure for clemency does not begin until a condition is fulfilled. The condition is to request clemency for a certain person," or ex officio through an initiative of the Minister of Justice." As a result, per se, the question arises if this means that the President cannot decide on the granting of clemencies if the legal requirements under the first paragraph of Article 4 of the Pardon Act are not previously met.
A grammatical explanation is a basic interpretive method of understanding the legal content. With the help of linguistic rules, the meaning of legal norms is searched for but not in a literal sense. The grammatical explanation is just a starting point and a linguistic framework that can meaningfully define other established methods of interpretation." To understand the meaning of article 4 of the Pardon Act, it is necessary to consider its involvement and interaction with the legal system in the context of a systematic interpretation. The meaning of the norm is then checked using logical methods to interpret.
Systematic interpretation reveals that Article 4 of the Pardon Act regulates the matter from the sixth indent of the first paragraph of Article 107
7	See: Poročevalec Državnega zbora Republike Slovenije, No. 39, 1994, p. 23.
8	See: Zakon o pomilostitvi (Ur. list SRS, No. 12/1977), pp. 689-690 and Navodilo o delu sodišč v zvezi s pomilostitvenim postopkom (Ur. list SRS, No. 14/1978), pp. 1428-1430.
9	See: Kazenski zakonik (Ur. list RS, No. 63/94).
10	See: Zakon o pomilostitvi (Ur. list RS, No. 45/1995).
11	Zakon o pomilostitvi (Article 6): 'The request for clemency may be submitted by the convict, the convicted person's spouse or a person with whom he lives in an extramarital community, or a blood relative of the convict in a straight line: brother, sister, adoptive parent, adopted child, foster parent or guardian.'
12	Zakon o pomilostitvi (Article 5): 'Procedure for pardon initiate ex officio the Minister of Justice.'
13	See: Sklep Vrhovnega sodišča VS II Ips 393/2010, tč. 8 (http://www.sodisce.si/znanje/sodna_ praksa/vrhovno_sodisce_rs/2010040815255079/#, last visited 19. 8. 2016).
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of the Constitution and is therefore in a position of subordination within the legal system. The normative meaning of the disputed statutory provision, therefore, cannot be found in a restrictive or conditional way, because the constitution does not figure that the President of the Republic shall exercise his/her powers conditionally. This can further be justified by the fact that the Pardon Act provides additional persons who may have the status of deciding on the applicant's request for clemency (except for the convicts themselves). It is not necessary for the other person to have the permission or consent of the convicted person for such an initiative. Therefore, it would be unreasonable to conclude that out of all these different initiators of clemency, only the initiatives of the President of the Republic are undesirable. If we proceed from this (that it is only the President of the Republic that is constitutionally responsible at his/her discretion to provide clemency for the convict), then he/she is even more (a fortiori) responsible on his/her own initiative, to begin with contemplation on whether or not to pardon a convict. This can be illustrated by the Latin legal adage: 'Qui potest plus, minus potest (who may be more, may also be less). The normative meaning of the disputed statutory provision is obviously that it continues identifying the role of other entities that may be interested in pardoning a convict while it does not prejudice the exclusive constitutional competence of the President of the Republic who decides on the granting of clemency.
2.2 Scruples and Dilemmas of 'Obligatory Assistance' for the President of the Republic
The Pardon Act provides a chronological course of the procedure before the President of the Republic decides to grant amnesty and defines the obligatory participation of the Courts, the Ministry of Justice and the Prosecutor's Office. Each in relation to their specific role, formed the material on the convict that shall be submitted to the President of the Republic.14 The President of the Republic has constitutional jurisdiction for the decision on clemency. Therefore, it is unusual from the viewpoint of the coherence of the legal system that the legislator in the process on the granting of clemency specified the obligatory role of the authorities, which are beyond the authority of the President of the Republic. Particularly problematic is Article 7 of the Pardon Act, which contains the provision that the application of the applicant must be filed with the courts and not with the President of the Republic, who is the only one responsible for deciding of the granting of clemency. The Court is not bound to transmit a copy of the application to the President of the Republic, neither it is obliged to inform him about the person the request relates to. The ambiguity continues with Article 16 of the Pardon Act, which is to be understood as saying that the President of the Republic 'should' begin to decide on the granting of clemency of the convict when he/she receives an already formed amnesty proposal from the Minister of Justice. The logical conclusion, a contrario, is that if the President
14 See: Zakon o pomilostitvi, Article 7., 9., 13. and 16.
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of the Republic does not receive the proposal of the Minister, he/she cannot decide on the granting of clemency, despite the clear unconditional constitutional jurisdiction, which is pure nonsense,
The Pardon Act in its entirety, stems from the constitutional provisions of the sixth indent of the first paragraph of Article 107 with the provision that the President of the Republic 'decides' on the granting of clemency and that it must be interpreted in the normative framework materiae constitutionis. The term 'decides' can be understood as a comprehensive mental process, unlike the meaningful similar term 'authorization', which means to give consent for something or agree with the draft decision prepared by other authorities. The systematic interpretation of the linguistic meaning of the Pardon Act, which sets out the procedure for the applications, indicates the premise that the importance of the chronological definition of the process 'phases' is not to restrict the President of the Republic in fulfilling his/her constitutional power of decisions on the granting of clemency, but that the Pardon Act transparently regulates the operations concerning existing applications for pardon applicants. This interpretation can partly suggest the former regulation, Therefore, it is necessary for grammatical and systematic interpretation upgrades of the historical method of interpretation. The Pardon Act of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia, which was used until 1995, in its Article 16,15 relativized the statutory procedure of clemency with the provision that clemency is admissible even if 'all' regulatory steps of the procedure are not made. A similar regulation was conceived in the first reading of the proposal for a new Pardon Act in 1994 in Article 16, where the President of the Republic is expected to give a pardon with 'no' previous stages of the procedure, but not without a legitimate request from the applicant.16
In the old Pardon Act, an earlier constitutional regulation in Slovenia was necessary, which mandated 'at least one step in the process'. In the first reading proposal of the new Pardon Act, the procedures are even more liberalised if the previously existing applications from the eligible applicant have been made. Up to this point, with the historical method of detecting the will of the legislature at the time when the Pardon Act evolved, it partially confirms our premise. This is partially because it insists on the initiative of the applicant as a condition to process a pardon. However, later in the second reading proposal of the Pardon Act in 1995, the mentioned Article 16 was completely deleted" and such an arrangement was later adopted in the new
15	'The Presidency of the Socialist Republic may give clemency, even if all the preliminary stages of the procedure prescribed by this Act were not completed.'
16	'The President of the Republic may give clemency, even if the the preliminary stage of the procedure prescribed by this Act was not carried out, but not without a legitimate request from the applicant or the proposal of the Minister responsible for justice.'
17	The Committee for Internal Policy and Justice felt that without having been subjected to the procedure, thus collecting the necessary data, the President of the Republic 'should not' give clemency. See: Poročilo k predlogu zakona o pomilostitvi - prva obravnava (Državni zbor RS, Odbor za notranjo politiko in pravosodje, No. 713-04/94-2/1 z dne 1. 12. 1994). See: Predlog zakona o pomilostitvi - druga obravnava (Poročevalec Državnega zbora Republike Slovenije, No. 6, 1995, pp. 21 and 22).
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Pardon Act. The reason for this was the opinion of the Committee for Internal Policy and Justice that without previous specific procedural data collection, the President of the Republic 'should not' give clemency. It explains that the deletion of the norms from the first reading of the Pardon Act was not only a lapse and a nomotechnical embarrassment but also a non-binding 'inappropriate' attempt at statutory restrictions materiae constitutionis, which is the exclusive regulatory power of the constitution makers and not the legislature. The provisions of the Pardon Act relating to the 'obligatory' phase of the process can reasonably be interpreted as a grammatical interpretation built upon a systematic method and the meaning checked with an objectivist historical interpretation.
The current constitutional arrangements of the institution of clemency allows a convincing understanding of the Pardon Act with defined roles for various organs, which for the President of the Republic shall mean only an optional parallel possibility when deciding on clemency. He/she can use the data collected by those bodies, or ignore it, deriving directly from the actual provisions of the sixth indent of the first paragraph of Article 107 of the Constitution.
2.3 Scruples and Dilemmas about the Legal Basis of the President of the Republic to Decide on the Granting of Clemency
In the previous subsections, the listed statutory doubts apply to the first paragraph of Article 1 of the Pardon Act with the general provision that 'the President of the Republic may apply clemency for crimes defined in laws of the Republic of Slovenia, placed in accordance with this Act'. A superficial reading of this article by an unprofessional reader could encourage the conclusion that the legal basis for clemency is 'only' the Pardon Act, which of course is not true. The mentioned law derives conceptually from the constitutional provisions of the sixth indent of the first paragraph of Article 107, which in practice can be seen from the individual specific legal acts of the President of the Republic, where a legal basis for clemency in the first place is indicated by the sixth indent of the first paragraph of Article 107 of the Constitution and later the Article 1 of the Pardon Act - and in certain cases also Article 97 of the Criminal Code.18
The mentioned arguments explain that the legal basis for the President deciding to grant clemency is primarily the relevant provision of the Constitution as materiae constitutionis and not only the Pardon Act. When the President of the Republic pardons a convicted person on the basis of the constitutional provisions of the sixth indent of the first paragraph
18 See eg. The command to grant clemency to sentenced prisoners Ireni Sladic (Ur. list RS, No. 565/2015; http://www.uradni-list.si/1/objava.jsp?sop=2015-01-2680, last visited 19. 7. 2016) and The decree on clemency for the accused - clemency ex officio Vorenu Pavlicu (Ur. list RS, No. 55/2012; http://www.uradni-list.si/1/objava.jsp?sop=2012-01-2333, last visited 19. 7. 2016).
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of Article 107 of the Constitution and takes into account the commitment to respect the constitutional order and the commitment to take into account their conscience when taking his/her decision under Article 104 of the Constitution, such a decision on clemency is correctly and legally allowable,
Such an understanding of decision-making when granting clemency coincides with the thinking of Halscher (in Kurtovic, 2003, p, 489), which states that an act of clemency is a supplement of justice (supplementum justitiae) applied through the law, although, as Smith (1983, p, 399) believes, it is elevated above the law, If clemency is consistent with the restrictive constitutional normative framework of the subordinated Pardon Act, then the clemency is primarily constitutional and at the same time subordinately consistent with the first paragraph of Article 1 of the Pardon Act. The statutory provision of Article 1, therefore, can only be understood in the sense of a secondary facultative legal basis for the President of the Republic deciding on clemency,
3 The Responsibility of the President of the Republic for the Decision on Granting Clemency
It should be noted that the President of the Republic, in performing his/her duties, is bound by the constitution, which must not be violated, Regarding the laws, the President should not 'seriously' violate the laws. The National Assembly may require the optional responsibility of the President of the Republic in impeachment proceedings at the Constitutional Court under the provisions of Article 109 of the Constitution. Nevertheless, it would be legally untenable to blame the President of the Republic if a clemency decision, on his/her own initiative, violated the Pardon Act, but at the same time, acted in accordance with the Constitution, Such a criticism would clearly suggest the existence of inconsistencies with the Constitution. The President of the Republic, who pardons a convict on the basis of the sixth indent of the first paragraph of Article 107 of the Constitution and in so doing, follows his conscience, to which he is bound by Article 104 of the Constitution, cannot be successfully blamed for violating the Constitution, If the President's decision is not consistent with the Pardon Act, we cannot assign blame for violating these provisions because a legal basis in the Constitution exists for the decision, which is always explicitly mentioned in the individual legal acts of the President to grant clemency, In addition, the Pardon Act is structured in the form of incomplete legal rules (lex imperfecta), which do not contain sanctions,
Thus, neither the Pardon Act nor other regulations prevent the President of the Republic from accepting the discretionary decision to grant clemency and issue an order on the publication of a command or decree of clemency in the official gazette.19 The Pardon Act for the President of the Republic represents the only possibility of using additional data collected by certain bodies,
19 See: Uradni list RS(Ur. List RS, No. 112/2005), the first paragraph of Article 9.
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which they optionally use, but the law does not preclude the original constitutional powers to decide on the granting of clemency or that jurisdiction is limited to the level permitting the Minister of Justice to propose an amnesty. This has been confirmed in practice when, for example, the President of the Republic Janez Drnovšek successfully pardoned the sentenced former director of the company Hit Nova Gorica Danilo Kovačič, going beyond some provisions of the Pardon Act.20
3.3.1 Conclusions
The Presidential constitutional jurisdiction to decide on the granting of clemency is written in the short form of unconditional commandments, which indicates the need for its operationalization. However, the Constitution does not require or prohibit it. The Pardon Act normative framework indicates that the legislator was too intense in regulating certain segments. This has encroached on the constitutional subject, which is in the exclusive power of the constitution-maker. If there is a political project to change the constitutional competence of the President of the Republic to decide on the granting of clemency, then it is properly possible through the instrument of constitutional revision. I think that the constitution should be completed in the sixth indent of the first paragraph of Article 107 with the provision that the President of the Republic shall decide on the granting of clemency 'in the manner provided by law.' To change materiae constitutionis, a consensus of at least sixty deputies is required. In the past, such a political consensus in the regulation of the legal matter of clemency did not exists Possible amendments can obviously be controversial from the content of the Pardon Act and could be interpreted with a historical objectivist interpretation and if it is understood that the Pardon Act effectively represents the only part of the regulatory framework providing that the President of the Republic is legally not prevented from carrying out the original constitutional power of pardon.
20	See: Finance, Drnovšek pomilostil še tri obsojence (2007; http://www.finance.si/181060, last visited 15. 8. 2016) or STA, Drnovšek pomilostil policijske specialce (2007; https://www.sta. si/1 156553/drnovsek-pomilostil-policijske-specialce, last visited 15 August 2016).
21	When reviewing the voting for the Pardon Act at the 34th session of the National Assembly in 1995, only 51 Members were present to vote; 41 members voted for the adoption of a law and 3 members against (https://www.dz-rs.si/wps/portal/Home/deloDZ/seje/evidenca?man dat=I&type=sz&uid=2F8EF2721E4BFAE0C1257832004838F1, last visited 31. 7. 2016). When reviewing the voting Act to amend and supplement the Pardon Act in the 38th regular session of the National Assembly in 2004, only 50 deputies were present for the vote; 47 deputies voted for the adoption of the law and 3 members voted against (https://www.dz-rs.si/wps/ portal/Home/deloDZ/seje/glasovanje?mandat=III&seja=38.%20Redna&uid=CC2B6FFEEEF5E 734C1256ED20057967C, last visited 31. 7. 2016).
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Anton Olaj, PhD, is a director of the Novo mesto Police Directorate in retirement. His primary areas of expertise are constitutional and criminal law. He has a PhD in the field of public international law and constitutional law. In his doctoral thesis, he studied the topic of the entry of customary rules of general international law into the national law of the Republic of Slovenia. His current research is focused on the powers of the President of the Republic.
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Državni zbor RS. Evidenca zapisa 34. redne seje iz leta 1995. Pridobljeno
31. 7. 2016, s https://www.dz-rs.si/wps/portal/Home/deloDZ/seje/evidenca? mandat=I&type=sz&uid=2F8EF2721E4BFAE0C1257832004838F1
Državni zbor RS. Evidenca zapisa 38. redne seje iz leta 2004. Pridobljeno 31. 7. 2016, s https://www.dz-rs.si/wps/portal/Home/deloDZ/seje/ glasovanje?mandat=IN&seja=38.%20Redna&uid=G:2B6FFEEEF5E734C1256E D20057967C
Državni zbor RS, Odbor za notranjo politiko in pravosodje. Poročilo k predlogu zakona o pomilostitvi - prva obravnava, št. 713-04/94-2/1 z dne 1. 12. 1994.
Državni zbor RS. Predlog zakona o pomilostitvi - druga obravnava. Poročevalec Državnega zbora RS, št. 6, 1995.
Državni zbor RS. Predlog zakona o pomilostitvi - prva obravnava. Poročevalec
Državnega zbora RS, št. 39, 1994. Finance. Drnovšek pomilostil še tri obsojence. Pridobljeno 18. 8. 2016 s
http://www.finance.si/181060 Fišer, Z. (2013). Pomilostitev ne sme biti revizija sodne odločbe. Pravna praksa
(39), 3. Ljubljana: GV Založba. Hrvatski sabor. Pridobljeno 23. 7. 2016, s http://www.sabor.hr/ustav-rh-
ustrojstvo-drzavne-vlasti Kavčič, I. (2004). Predsednik republike med reprezentativno in izvršilno funkcijo.
Deseti dnevi javnega prava, Portorož. Ljubljana: Inštitut za javno upravo. Kazenski zakonik. Ur. list RS, št. 50/12 - uradno prečiščeno besedilo, 6/16 - popr., 54/15 in 38/16. Pridobljeno 24. 7. 2016, s https://www.uradni-list.si/glasilo-uradni-list-rs/vsebina/109161 Kelsen, H. (2005). Čista teorija prava. Ljubljana: CZ. Kurtovic, A. (2003). Pomilovanje. Zagreb: Policijska akademija. Kurtovic, A. Pomilovanje u kaznenom pravosudu. Pridobljeno 24. 12. 2017, s
http://hrcak.srce.hr/file/129646 Navodilo o delu sodišč v zvezi s pomilostitvenim postopkom. Ur. list SRS, št. 14/1978.
Odlok o pomilostitvi obtoženca - pomilostitev po uradni dolžnosti Vorenu Pavliču. Ur. list RS, št. 55/2012. Pridobljeno 19. 7. 2016, s http://www.uradni-list.si/1/ objava.jsp?sop=2012-01-2333 Pavčnik, M. (2007). Teorija prava. Ljubljana: GV Založba.
Petrovec, D. (2013). Pomilostitev kot (ne)izogibna revizija sodne odločbe. Pravna praksa, (40-41). Ljubljana: GV Založba.
Sklep VS II Ips 393/2010, tč. 8. Pridobljeno 19. 8. 2016, s http://www.sodisce.si/ znanje/sodna_praksa/vrhovno_sodisce_rs/2010040815255079/#
Slovar slovenskega knjižnega jezika. Dovoliti. Pridobljeno 10. 8. 2016, s http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/cgi/a03.exe?name=sskj_ testa&expression=dovoliti&hs=1 Slovar slovenskega knjižnega jezika. Koncedirati - dovoliti, dopustiti. Pridobljeno 10. 8. 2016, s http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/cgi/a03.exe?name=sskj_testa&expression =koncedirati&hs=1 Slovar slovenskega knjižnega jezika. Odločati. Pridobljeno 10. 8. 2016, s http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/cgi/a03.exe?name=sskj_ testa&expression=ODLOČATI&hs=1
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Smith, A. T. H. (1983). The prerogative of mercy, the power of pardon and criminal justice. Wellington: Victoria University of Wellington, Faculty of Law.
STA. Drnovšek pomilostil policijske specialce. Pridobljeno 15. 8. 2016, s https:// www.sta.si/1156553/drnovsek-pomilostil-policijske-specialce
Šturm L. (ur.). (2002). Komentar ustave RS. Ljubljana: FPDEŠ.
Ude, L. (1996). Ustavne podlage za pravno odločanje. Podjetje in delo, (5/6), 1124-1132.
Ukaz o pomilostitvi obsojenke Ireni Sladič. Ur. list RS, št. 565/2015. Pridobljeno 19. 7. 2017, s http://www.uradni-list.si/1/objava.jsp?sop=2015-01-2680
Ustava Republike Hrvaške. Pridobljeno 23. 7. 2016, s http://www.sabor.hr/ustav-rh-ustrojstvo-drzavne-vlasti
Ustava RS. Ur. list RS, št. 33/91 in nasl.
Wikipedija. Zakon. Pridobljeno 15. 7. 2016, s https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/zakon
Zakon o pomilostitvi. Ur. list RS, št. 45/1995 in št. 86/04. Pridobljeno 24. 7. 2016, s http://www.pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=ZAK0420
Zakon o pomilostitvi. Ur. list SRS, št. 12/1977
Zakon o uradnem listu. Ur. list RS, št. 57/96, št. 90/05, št. 102/07 in št. 109/09. Pridobljeno 24. 7. 2016, s http://www.pisrs.si/Pis.web/ pregledPredpisa?id=ZAK0470
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Navodila avtorjem
V Mednarodni reviji za javno upravo objavljamo izvirne članke, ki obravnavajo teoretična in praktična vprašanja razvoja in delovanja javne uprave.
Znanstvene članke objavljamo v slovenskem in v angleškem jeziku, izjemoma v nemškem ali francoskem jeziku. Druge članke objavljamo v slovenskem, angleškem, nemškem ali francoskem jeziku, z daljšim povzetkom v angleškem oziroma slovenskem jeziku.
Članek za objavo v Mednarodni reviji za javno upravo pošljite na elektronski naslov: mrju@fu.uni-lj.si.
Članek imenujte po priimku prvega avtorja (Novak.doc). Članku priložite izpolnjeno Izjavo o avtorstvu, s katero potrdite, da se strinjate s pravili objavljanja v teh navodilih.
Za avtorsko delo, objavljeno v Mednarodni reviji za javno upravo, pripadajo vse moralne avtorske pravice avtorju. Materialne avtorske pravice reproduciranja (vsebuje tudi shranitev v elektronski obliki, 23. člen ZASP), pravico dajanja na voljo javnosti (32. a člen ZASP), pravico distribuiranja (24. člen ZASP) v Republiki Sloveniji in tujini pa avtor brezplačno, enkrat za vselej, za vse primere in neomejene naklade ter vse medije prenese izključno na izdajatelja.
Avtorji so za objavo slik, tabel in grafičnih prilog, za katere nimajo avtorskih pravic, dolžni pridobiti dovoljenje, ki ga pošljejo na naslov uredništva.
Vsakemu avtorju pripada 1 tiskan izvod revije in separat članka v e-obliki.
Članki niso honorirani.
Citiranje člankov, izdanih v Mednarodni reviji za javno upravo, pomembno prispeva k uveljavljanju revije. Zato vas glavna urednica prosi, da pregledate arhiv revije na naslovu http://www.fu.uni-lj.si/zalozba/mednarodna-revija-za-javno-upravo/arhiv-stevilk/, kjer najdete članke, izdane v reviji v letih 2003-2016, odnosno od letnika I do letnika XIV, ki bi bili morda zanimivi za vašo tematiko, in jih citirate v literaturi svojega članka.
Uredniški postopek:
1.	Uredništvo lahko še pred recenzijo zavrne objavo članka, če njegova vsebina ne ustreza najavljeni temi, če je bil podoben članek v reviji že objavljen, ali če članek ne ustreza kriterijem za objavo v reviji. O tem uredništvo pisno obvesti avtorja.
2.	Članek naj bo lektoriran, v uredništvu se opravlja samo korektura. Izjemoma se po dogovoru z avtorjem besedilo tudi lektorira.
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3.	Vsi članki se recenzirajo in razvrstijo.' Med recenziranjem avtorji in recenzenti niso imenovani. Članki po 1.01, 1.02 morajo za objavo prejeti dve pozitivni recenziji, od tega eno od tujega recenzenta. Če recenzenti razvrstijo članek različno, o končni razvrstitvi odloči uredniški odbor.
4.	Članek, ki ga je avtor poslal v slovenskem jeziku in sta ga recenzenta razvrstila po 1.01, 1.02, mora avtor nato poslati še v prevodu v angleški jezik.
5.	Avtor prejme rezultate recenziranja praviloma v treh mesecih od oddaje članka.
Oblikovanje članka:
1.	Naslovu prispevka naj sledi: a) polno ime avtorja/avtorjev, b) naziv institucije/ institucij in c) elektronski naslov/naslovi.
2.	Članek mora vsebovati še: a) izvleček, ki naj v 8 do 10 vrsticah opiše vsebino prispevka in dosežene rezultate raziskave; b) ključne besede: 1-5 ključnih besed ter c) kodo iz klasifikacije po Journal of Economic Literature - JEL (https://www.aeaweb.org/jel/guide/jel.php).
3.	Članek, ki je bil razvrščen po 1.04, 1.05 ali 1.08, naj vsebuje tudi povzetek v angleškem jeziku v obsegu 3 strani. V povzetku prevedite naslov ter predstavite vsebino članka (opredelitev problema in ugotovitve). Prevod povzetka članka tujih avtorjev v slovenski jezik zagotovi uredništvo.
4.	Članek naj bo napisan v urejevalniku besedil Word (*.doc, *.docx) v enojnem razmiku, brez posebnih ali poudarjenih črk. Ne uporabljajte zamika pri odstavkih. Razdelki od Uvoda do Sklepnih ugotovitev naj bodo naslovljeni in oštevilčeni z arabskimi številkami.
5.	Slike in tabele, ki jih omenjate v članku, vključite v besedilo. Opremite jih z naslovom in oštevilčite z arabskimi številkami. Revijo tiskamo v črno-beli tehniki, zato barvne slike ali grafikoni kot original niso primerni. Če v članku
1 Članke razvrščamo po tipologiji COBISS:
1.01	Izvirni znanstveni članek. Izvirni znanstveni članek je samo prva objava originalnih raziskovalnih rezultatov v takšni obliki, da se raziskava lahko ponovi, ugotovitve pa preverijo. Praviloma je organiziran po shemi IMRAD (Introduction, Methods, Results And Discussion) za eksperimentalne raziskave ali na deskriptivni način za deskriptivna znanstvena področja.
1.02	Pregledni znanstveni članek. Pregledni znanstveni članek je pregled najnovejših del o določenem predmetnem področju, del posameznega raziskovalca ali skupine raziskovalcev z namenom povzemati, analizirati, evalvirati ali sintetizirati informacije, ki so že bile objavljene. Prinaša nove sinteze, ki vključujejo tudi rezultate lastnega raziskovanja avtorja.
1.04	Strokovni članek. Strokovni članek je predstavitev že znanega, s poudarkom na uporabnosti rezultatov izvirnih raziskav in širjenju znanja, zahtevnost besedila pa prilagojena potrebam uporabnikov in bralcev strokovne ali znanstvene revije.
1.05	Poljudni članek. Poljudnoznanstveno delo podaja neko znanstveno ali strokovno vsebino tako, da jo lahko razumejo tudi preprosti, manj izobraženi ljudje.
1.08 Objavljeni znanstveni prispevek na konferenci. Predavanje, referat, načeloma organiziran kot znanstveni članek.
1.19 Recenzija, prikaz knjige, kritika. Prispevek v znanstveni ali strokovni publikaciji (reviji, knjigi itd.), v katerem avtor ocenjuje ali dokazuje pravilnost/nepravilnost nekega znanstvenega ali strokovnega dela, kriterija, mnenja ali ugotovitve in/ali spodbija/podpira/ ocenjuje ugotovitve, dela ali mnenja drugih avtorjev. Prikaz strokovnega mnenja, sodbe o znanstvenem, strokovnem ali umetniškem delu, zlasti glede na njegovo kakovost. 1.21 Polemika, diskusijski prispevek. Prispevek, v katerem avtor dokazuje pravilnost določenega kriterija, svojega mnenja ali ugotovitve in spodbija ugotovitve ali mnenja drugih avtorjev.
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uporabljate slike ali tabele drugih avtorjev, navedite sklic pod sliko, tabelo ali kot sprotno opombo. Enačbe oštevilčite v oklepajih desno od enačbe.
6.	Članek naj obsega največ 30.000 znakov.
7.	Članku dodajte kratek življenjepis avtorja/avtorjev (do 8 vrstic).
8.	V besedilu se sklicujte na navedeno literaturo na način: (Novak, 1999, str. 456).
9.	Na koncu članka navedite literaturo po abecednem redu avtorjev in vire, upoštevajoč APA standard, po naslednjem vzorcu:
Članek v reviji:
Gilber, G., & Pierre, P. (1996). Incentives and optimal size of local jurisdictions. European Economic Review, 40(1), 19-41.
Članek z DOI številko2:
Boldrin, M., & Levine, D. K. (2013). The case against patents. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1), 3-22. doi:10.1257/jep.27.1.3
Knjiga:
Katzenbach, J., & Smith, D. (1993). The wisdom of teams. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Knjiga z urednikom:
Keene, E. (ur.). (1988). Natural language. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
Prispevek na konferenci:
Bugarič, B. (2002). Od hierarhične k participativni (odprti) javni upravi. IX. dnevi slovenske uprave. Portorož (str. 23-29). Ljubljana: Visoka upravna šola.
Internetni vir:
Tax Administration of the Republic of Slovenia. (n.d.). Pridobljeno 8. 5. 2007, s http://www.durs.gov.si/
Uradna publikacija, poročilo:
World Bank. (2001). World development Indicators. Washington: World Bank.
Disertacija:
Richmond, J. (2005). Customer expectations in the world of electronic banking: a case study of the Bank of Britain (doktorska disertacija). Chelmsford: Anglia Ruskin University.
Kadar ima publikacija več kot pet avtorjev, navedite samo prvega avtorja, npr.
Novak et al. Če navajate dve deli ali več del istega avtorja, letnico označite,
npr. 2005a, 2005b ... Priporočamo, da uporabite samodejni zapis literature, ki
ga omogoča Word 2010 (zapis APA).
2 Če ima članek dodeljeno DOI številko, jo v seznamu literature obvezno navedite.
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Instructions for Authors
The International Public Administration Review publishes original articles on theoretical and practical issues in the development and function of public administration.
Academic articles are published in Slovene and English, and exceptionally also in German and French. Other articles are published in Slovene, English, German or French with an extended summary in English or Slovene as appropriate.
Please send articles for publication in the International Public Administration Review to this address: mrju@fu.uni-lj.si.
The article filename should be the surname of the principal author (e.g. Novak. doc). A completed Copyright Statement should be sent as an attachment to the article to confirm agreement with the rules of publication, as set out in these instructions.
The author retains all moral rights to any copyright work published in the International Public Administration Review. The author transfers the economic right to reproduction (including saving in electronic format pursuant to Article 23 of the Slovenian Copyright and Related Rights Act - the CRRA), the right of communication to the public (Article 32a of the CRRA), and the right of distribution (Article 24 of the CRRA) in the Republic of Slovenia and abroad exclusively to the publisher free-of-charge and once and for all for all cases and an unlimited number of copies, and for all media.
Authors are required to obtain permission for the publication of any images, tables and graphic material for which they do not own the copyright, which they must submit to the journal's editorial board.
All published authors are entitled to one printed copy of the journal and a copy of the article in electronic format. Fees are not paid for the articles.
Citations of articles published in the International Public Administration Review contribute significantly to developing the journal's standing, therefore the chief editor has asked that you review the journal archive (available at http://www. fu.uni-lj.si/en/publishing-center/international-public-administration-review/arhiv-stevilk/), where you will find articles published from 2003 to 2016 (Volume I to XIV), which may be of relevance to your subject, and which you may cite in the literature of your article.
Editorial policy
1.	The editorial board may decide not to publish an article even before the peer-review phase, if its content does not match the stated subjects, if a similar article has already been published in the journal, or if the article does not meet the criteria for publication in the review. The editorial board will inform authors of such a decision in writing.
2.	The article should already have been language edited, and the editorial board only takes responsibility for proof-reading. Exceptionally it may also edit a text in agreement with the author.
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3.	AH articles are peer-reviewed and classified.3 The author and reviewer are not named during the peer review process. Articles classified as 1.01 and 1.02 must have two positive peer reviews in order to be published, one of which from a foreign reviewer. If peer reviewers assess an article differently, the editorial board will make the final decision on the assessment.
4.	If an article submitted in Slovene is classified as 1.01 or 1.02 by the reviewers, the author must then provide a translation into English.
5.	The author will generally receive the results of the peer review within three months of submitting the article.
Article formatting
1.	The article's title should be followed by: a) the full name of the author/ authors; b) the name of the institution/institutions, and c) email address(es).
2.	The article must also include: a) an abstract defining the content of the contribution and research results in 8 to 10 lines; b) keywords: 1-5 keywords; and c) a JEL (Journal of Economic Literature) code - (https://www.aeaweb. org/jel/guide/jel.php).
3.	An article classified as 1.04, 1.05 or 1.08 must also have a summary in English, 3 pages in length. The summary should offer a translation of the title and present the content of the article (define the argument and findings). For foreign authors, the translation of the article summary into Slovene will be arranged by the editorial board.
4.	An article must be supplied in MS Word (*.doc, *.docx) with single spacing, without special or highlighted characters. Do not indent paragraphs. Sections should be titled and numbered with Arabic numerals from the introduction to the conclusion.
5.	Figures and tables mentioned in the article should be included in the text. They should be titled and numbered with Arabic numerals. The journal
3 Articles are classified according the COBISS typology:
1.01	Original scientific article - first publication of original research results in a form that allows the research to be repeated and the findings verified. In general it must be organised according to the IMRAD structure (Introduction, Methods, Results And Discussion) for experimental research or in a descriptive manner for descriptive academic areas.
1.02	Review article - an overview of the latest articles in a specific subject area, the works of an individual researcher or group of researchers with the purpose of summarising, analysing, evaluating or synthesising data that has already been published. It offers new syntheses, including the results of the author's own research.
1.04	Professional article - a presentation of what is already known, with an emphasis on the applicability of original research results and the dissemination of knowledge, with readability adapted to the needs of users and readers of the professional or scientific journal in which it appears.
1.05	Popular article - popular (science) articles offer professional or scientific content in a simpler form, making it accessible to people without higher education in the field.
1.08 Published scientific conference contribution - lecture, presentation, organised in principle as a scientific article.
1.19 Review, book review, critique - a contribution in a scientific or professional publication (journal, book, etc.) in which the author evaluates or demonstrates the validity or otherwise of a scientific or professional work, criterion, opinion or finding and/or disputes, supports or evaluates the finding, work or opinion of other authors. The presentation of an expert opinion, a critique of a scientific, professional or artistic work, particularly in terms of its quality. 1.21 Polemic, discussion - a contribution in which the author demonstrates the correctness of a specific criterion, his or her own opinion or findings and disputes the findings or opinions of other authors.
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 15, št. 2/2017 173
is published in black and white, so the original of figures and graphs should not be in colour. If the figures or tables of other authors are used in the article, give the reference below the figure or table or as a footnote. Equations should be numbered in brackets to the right of the equation.
6.	Articles should not exceed 30 000 characters.
7.	A short CV of the author or authors should be added to the article (up to 8 lines).
8.	References in the text to cited literature should be made as follows: (Novak, 1999, p. 456).
9.	List the literature in alphabetical order of author and source at the end of the article according to APA standard, in the following manner:
Article from a journal:
Gilber, G., & Pierre, P. (1996). Incentives and optimal size of local jurisdictions. European Economic Review, 40(1), 19-41.
Article with DOI number4:
Boldrin, M., & Levine, D. K. (2013). The case against patents. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1), 3-22. doi:10.1257/jep.27.1.3
Book:
Katzenbach, J., & Smith, D. (1993). The wisdom of teams. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Book with editor:
Keene, E. (Ed.). (1988). Natural language. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
Conference contribution:
Bugarič, B. (2002). Od hierarhične k participativni (odprti) javni upravi. IX. dnevi slovenske uprave. Portorož (pp. 23-29). Ljubljana: Visoka upravna šola.
Internet source:
Tax Administration of the Republic of Slovenia. (n.d.). Retrieved 8. 5. 2007, from http://www.durs.gov.si/
Official publication, report:
World Bank. (2001). World development Indicators. Washington: World Bank.
Dissertation:
Richmond, J. (2005). Customer expectations in the world of electronic banking: A case study of the Bank of Britain (PhD). Chelmsford: Anglia Ruskin University.
If a publication has more than five authors, state only the first author, e.g.
Novak et al. If citing two works or more by the same author, indicate the year,
e.g. 2005a, 2005b, etc. We recommend the use of the automatic literature
citation, which is supported by Word 2010 (APA citation).
4 If a DOI number is assigned to an article, it should be stated in the reference list.
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