Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017, 45–55
THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION
OF ROCK LANDFORMS IN THE
POHOŘSKÁ MOUNTAINS
(POHOŘSKÁ HORNATINA),
CZECH REPUBLIC
Jiří Rypl, Karel Kirchner, Martin Blažek
View of the Pohořská Mountains from the Nové Hrady Foothills
(Novohradské podhůří)
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Jiří Rypl, Karel Kirchner, Martin Blažek, The spatial distribution of rock landforms in the Pohořská Mountains …
The spatial distribution of rock landforms in the Pohořská
Mountains (Pohořská hornatina), Czech Republic
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1184
UDC: 911.2:551.43(437.3)
COBISS: 1.01
ABSTRACT: Geomorphological mapping with an emphasis on rock landforms was carried out in the
Pohořská Mountains Pohořská hornatina) and the positional data acquired were further processed using
statistical and cartographical methods. The spatial distribution of rock landforms was investigated in rela-
tion to lithology, slope, orientation, and elevation based on an analysis using ArcGIS 9.1. The spatial distribution
of rock landforms was primarily determined by the index of distribution Wij = Xi / Yj, where Xi is the per-
centage representation of landforms in the appropriate category and Yj is the percentage quotient of this
category in the entire area studied, and was secondarily determined according to the sum (sum distribu-
tion) of the arithmetic mean and the average deviation.
KEY WORDS: geomorphology, rock landforms, lithology, slope, orientation of relief, elevation, Pohořská
Mountains (Pohořská hornatina), Czech Republic
ADDRESSES:
Jiří Rypl, Ph.D.
Department of Geography, Faculty of Education
University of South Bohemia
Jeronýmova 10, CZ-37115 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
E-mail: rypl@pf.jcu.cz
Karel Kirchner, Ph.D.
Institute of Geonics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Brno Branch
Drobného 28, CZ-60200 Brno, Czech Republic
E-mail: kirchner@geonika.cz
Martin Blažek, M. Sc.
Institute of Geography
Masaryk University
Kotlářská 2, CZ-61137 Brno, Czech Republic
E-mail: mart.mblazek@gmail.com
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1 Introduction
The Pohořská Mountains geomorphological subunit, which is part of the Nové Hrady Mountains
(Novohradské hory, Figure 1), is insufficiently geomorphologically explored due to its inaccessibility in the
past. The border between the Czech Republic and Austria passes through the area studied. The area was
part of the Iron Curtain during the Cold War, which means that it was virtually inaccessible. This area also
deserves increased attention for other reasons in addition to its particular diversity of relief. The first rea-
son is the progressive inclusion of Czech protected areas in the European Union’s nature protection system.
The unique landscape of the Nové Hrady Mountains with a variety of aesthetic and natural values is pro-
tected by national law no. 114/1992 as a natural park (Collection of… 1992). The second reason is anticipated
interference in the environment related to carrying out many investment projects. For these reasons, this
area has become the target of multilateral and vital research (e.g., Malíček and Palice 2013; Pavlíček 2004;
Rypl 2010; Rypl, Kirchner and Dvořáčková 2014; Štykar 2005).
Geomorphological mapping with an emphasis on rock landforms was carried out in the Pohořská Mountains
and the positional data acquired were further processed using statistical and cartographic methods.
Other authors have also dealt with the spatial distribution of rock landforms in other parts of the world.
Hjort, Etzelmuller and Tolgensbakk 2010 defined the effects of scale and data source in periglacial distri-
bution modeling in a high Arctic environment in western Svalbard, and Marmion et al. (2008) compared
predictive methods for modeling the distribution of periglacial landforms in Finnish Lapland. Ridefelt,
Etzelmuller and Boelhouwers (2010) dealt with spatial analysis of solifluction landforms and process rates
in the Abisko Mountains in northern Sweden. Marvánek (2010) discussed the distribution of cryogenic periglacial
landforms in the Krumgampen Valley (Ötztal Alps). Křížek (2007) and Křížek, Treml and Engel (2007) defined
the spatial distribution of cryogenic landforms above the alpine timberline in the High Sudetes (Vysoké
Sudety) and in the Giant Mountains (also known as the Krkonoše Mountains). The references described
were used from the viewpoint of methodological approach and to evaluate the spatial distribution of the
research data obtained for comparison with other areas.
This paper discusses the distribution of geomorphological landforms in the area studied and its depen-
dencies on the characteristics of relief and subsoil geology. The results obtained can be compared with similar
areas that developed on granite rocky relief (Migoń 2004b) and can help in the study of complex solutions
to problems in the structural control of evolution in granite landforms.
2 Study area
Late Variscan migmatites of the Central Moldanubian Pluton prevail in the area (represented by several
types: Weinsberg granite, Freistadt granodiorite, and Mrákotín granite), being partially overlaid by cordierite
gneisses and migmatites representing remnants of the pluton’s mantle (Pavlíček 2004).
The prevailing relief of the Pohořská Mountains has characteristic elements of a fault-block moun-
tain range with delimitations strongly marked by erosion, and it is also polygenetic. Here is possible to find
recent forms (rounded blocks of various sizes, alcoves, and grooves) and also fossil forms that are con-
served in granite rock, such as exfoliation joints, tors, and frost-riven cliffs (Demek 1964).
Tables 1 through 4 show the percentage quotient in relation to all mapped categories of relief (lithology,
slope, slope orientation, and elevation) in the Pohořská Mountains.
Table 1: Percentage quotient representation of lithology.
Lithology Granite Gneiss and migmatite Sediments Residue
Percentage quotient 56.84 30.61 11.52 1.03
Table 2: Percentage quotient representation of slope.
Slope 0–2° 2.1–5° 5.1–10° 10.1–20° above 20.1°
Percentage quotient 9.77 19.73 48.28 20.71 1.51
Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017
47
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Au
st
ri
a
Source: ZABAGED 10
IB-3 Novohradské hory Mts.
IB-3A Pohoøská hornatina Mts.
IB-3B Jedlická vrchovina Highlands
Legend
Praha
České Budějovice
•
•
Mt. Vysoká 
  1034 m 
Kraví hora Mt.
953 m Kuní hora Mt.
  925 m
IB - 3A 
IB-3B 
Mt. Myslivna
   1040 m
Mountain
Kuøský p.
 Mt. Kamenec
    1072 m
Kabelský p.
K
am
enice
M
alše
Pohoøský p.
St
ro
pn
ice
Černá
Geomorphological subunit border
Geomorphological unit border
State border
0 2 4 6 km1
Author of contents: Jiøí Rypl
Author of map: Jiøí Rypl
© University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Education,
    Department of Geography
1 4
2 3
1 – #e Novohradské hory Mts.
2 – #e Jizerské hory Mts.
3 – #e Giant Mountains
4 – #e Podyjí area 
River
Figure 1: Location of the Nové Hrady Mountains, the Jizera Mountains, the Giant Mountains, and the Podyjí area in the Czech Republic and the basic
geomorphological regionalization of the Nové Hrady Mountains.
48
Table 3: Percentage quotient representation of slope orientation.
Slope orientation N NE E SE S SW W NW Plain
Percentage quotient 14.54 15.01 9.67 5.47 7.15 12.44 14.14 13.07 8.51
Table 4: Percentage quotient representation of elevation.
Elevation (m) 560–600 601–700 701–800 801–900 901–1,000 1,001–1,072
Percentage quotient 0.87 14.82 36.85 31.98 14.57 0.91
There are also granite areas with spectacular landforms in the Czech Republic. The Jizera Mountains
(Jizerské hory, Figure 1) are among granite areas with extensive protection as a protected landscape area.
The Giant Mountains and the Podyjí area (Figure 1) are also among granite areas with extensive protec-
tion as national parks. Although the Nové Hrady Mountains are an area with well-preserved spectacular
granite landforms in the Czech Republic, there is no appropriate protection of the Nové Hrady Mountains
today.
Jiří Rypl, Karel Kirchner, Martin Blažek, The spatial distribution of rock landforms in the Pohořská Mountains …
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1
1n
W Wij ij
i
n
−
=
∑
Sumj W
n
W Wij ij ij
i
n
= + −
=
∑1
1
49
Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017
3 Methods
Investigation of the spatial distribution of rock landforms in relation to geomorphological characteristics
(lithology, slope inclination, orientation of slope, and elevation) may be based on division of the territory
into discrete areas (e.g., squares). Dependence in the discrete area is examined using multiple statistical
methods (e.g., CART, or classification and regression trees; Breiman et al. 1984) or generalized linear mod-
els such as GLM (Nelder and Wedderburn 1972). This article used another methodological approach, in
which the study area is divided into categories according to its geomorphological characteristics and links
to them are investigated. This method was successfully tested earlier in a similar Bohemian mountain range
of the Giant Mountains (Křížek, Treml and Engel 2007).
Geomorphological mapping and GPS mapping were carried out in the Pohořská Mountains following
the methodology described by Condorachi (2011), Smith, Paron and Griffiths (2011), and Voženílek et al. (2001).
Mapping focused on rock relief landforms, and spatial data concerning their localization were acquired during
the mapping. These spatial data were then processed using ArcGIS 9.1. Every geolocated landform was over-
laid with a digital elevation model of the area studied and every feature was associated with data concerning
lithology, slope, slope orientation, and elevation. Spatial statistics were calculated and it was possible to obtain
the spatial distribution of rock landforms in all these categories. The spatial distribution of rock landforms
was detected using the index of distribution Wij = Xi / Yj, where Xi is the percentage representation of the
landform in the relevant category of the characteristic studied (e.g., in the case of slope characteristic, five
categories of slopes were studied: 0–2.0°, 2.1–5.0°, 5.1–10.0°, 10.1–20.0°, and > 20.1°). Yj is the percentage
quotient of this category on the surface of the entire area studied; this means that the percentage of surface
was calculated where the relevant category of slope was identified. The example of tors is explicit: 52.5% of
tors were found on slopes between 0° and 2°, and this category of slope is located on 9.7% of the area stud-
ied. The index of distribution Wij of tors was calculated as 52.49 / 9.79, which yields Wij =5.41. The index
of distribution was calibrated using the sum (distribution sum) of arithmetic mean and average deviation:
The distribution sum was calculated using the indices of the spatial distribution Wij of all rated land-
forms in the appropriate category of the characteristic investigated (e.g., slope 0–2° in the case of slope
characteristic), its arithmetic mean, and its average deviation. From these indicators it is possible to obtain
the formula:
where n represents the number of all landforms rated (the sum of tors, frost-riven cliffs, castle koppies, and
blockfields). If the index of distribution Wij is equal to 1, the percentage representation of the landform in
the category is equal to the proportional surface of this category in the total area studied. If the value of Wij
is above 1, the landform has more significant representation in the relevant category. This means that the
presence of this rock landform is related to the relevant category of the observed characteristic. If the value
Wij is below 1, the occurrence of the landform in question is less significant in the relevant category and
there is no clear dependence of landform localization with the relevant category. Landforms were estimat-
ed as dependent landforms based on two statistical conditions. First, the index of distribution Wij must be
greater than 1. Second, the index of distribution must be greater than the sum of the arithmetic mean and
average deviation in the category of the characteristic studied (Křížek, Treml and Engel 2007; Křížek 2007).
4 Results
Thirty-four tors were mapped in the Pohořská Mountains (see Figure 2), as well as 153 frost-riven cliffs
(see Figure 3), thirty-six castle koppies, ninety-nine areas of blockfields, and a significant number of cry-
oplanation surfaces and terraces. This landforms are defined in global research as cryogenic landforms
(Traczyk and Migoń 2000). According to Demek et al. (2006), the territory of what is now the Czech Republic
was located not far from the frontal part of a continental glacier in Pleistocene sequence, where the climate
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Figure 2: Tor on Mount Kamenec.
Figure 3: Frost-riven cliff on Mount Kuní.
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Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017
was cold and cryogenic processes took place. This geomorphological processes formed cryoplanation ter-
races with frost-riven cliffs, tors, castle koppies, and blockfields (Demek et al. 2006). These landforms also
developed in the Pohořská Mountains. They stand next to the Bohemian Forest (Šumava), a mountain
range covered by an alpine glacier in the late Pleistocene sequence (Demek et al. 2006). Tors and castle
koppies were formed during the same process (Migoń 2006) and they are mainly distinguished by their
shape and proportions. Landforms with height greater than length were mapped as tors, and landforms
with length greater than height were defined as castle koppies.
The cryoplanation terraces in the study area were not included in the analysis due to the scale of the maps
used (1:25,000; the maps used covered the entire study area) and due to the size of cryoplanation terraces,
which was smaller than other rock landforms. The thickness of the regolith was not considered in the research
because the regolith was removed by etching during Saxon tectogenesis and a planation surface with a stripped
etchplain was created (Migoń 2004a; Demek et al. 2006). The study area is practically without regolith orig-
inating from chemical weathering in the Paleogene. The percentage occurrence of cryogenic landforms in
relation to various categories of relief is shown in Figures 4 through 7. The index of distribution, the arith-
metic mean, the average deviation, and the distribution sum are shown in Tables 5 through 8.
Table 5: Index of distribution, arithmetic mean, average deviation, and distribution sum in relation to lithology.
Lithology Tors Frost-riven cliffs Castle koppies Blockfields Arithmetic mean Average deviation Distribution sum
Granite 1.71 1.53 1.71 1.51 1.62 0.09 1.71
Gneiss 0.10 0.13 0.00 0.33 0.14 0.06 0.20
Table 6: Index of distribution, arithmetic mean, average deviation, and distribution sum in relation to slope.
Slope Tors Frost-riven cliffs Castle koppies Blockfields Arithmetic mean Average deviation Distribution sum
0.0–2.0° 5.41 0.40 2.27 0.10 2.05 1.80 3.85
2.1–5.0° 0.15 0.17 0.42 0.05 0.20 0.11 0.31
5.1–10.0° 0.24 0.39 0.23 0.75 0.40 0.17 0.57
10.1–20.0° 1.28 2.68 1.60 2.15 1.93 0.49 2.42
> 20.1° 3.89 12.11 16.56 11.30 10.97 3.54 14.51
Table 7: Index of distribution, arithmetic mean, average deviation, and distribution sum in relation to slope orientation.
Slope orientation Tors Frost-riven cliffs Castle koppies Blockfields Arithmetic mean Average deviation Distribution sum
N 0.20 0.90 1.15 0.76 0.75 0.28 1.03
NE 0.19 0.70 0.74 0.81 0.61 0.21 0.82
E 1.22 0.42 0.86 1.15 0.91 0.27 1.18
SE 1.61 2.27 1.52 1.48 1.72 0.27 1.99
S 0.00 2.10 0.39 1.70 1.05 0.85 1.90
SW 0.95 0.95 0.89 1.62 1.11 0.26 1.37
W 0.00 1.20 0.98 0.93 0.78 0.39 1.17
NW 0.67 0.75 0.43 0.85 0.68 0.13 0.81
plain 6.22 0.38 2.61 0.19 2.35 2.07 4.42
Table 8: Index of distribution, arithmetic mean, average deviation, and distribution sum in relation to elevation.
Elevation (m) Tors Frost- riven cliffs Castle koppies Blockfields Arithmetic mean Average deviation Distribution sum
560–600 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
601–700 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.20 0.06 0.04 0.10
701–800 0.16 0.50 0.15 0.90 0.43 0.27 0.70
801–900 1.11 0.94 0.96 1.45 1.12 0.17 1.29
901–1,000 2.42 2.74 3.24 1.04 2.35 0.67 3.02
above 1,001 25.86 12.21 18.31 2.21 12.76 7.44 20.20
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0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Granite Gneiss and migmatite Sediment
Lithology
Tor
Frost - riven cliff
Castle koppie
Blockfield
P
er
ce
n
ta
ge
 q
u
o
ti
en
t 
o
f 
la
n
d
fo
rm
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0–2° 2.1–5° 5.1–10° 10.1–20° above 20.1°
Slope
Tor
Frost - riven cliff
Castle koppie
Blockfield
P
er
ce
n
ta
ge
 q
u
o
ti
en
t 
o
f 
la
n
d
fo
rm
Figure 4: Occurrence of rock landforms in relation to lithology.
Figure 5: Occurrence of rock landforms in relation to slope.
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
P
er
ce
n
ta
ge
 q
u
o
ti
en
t 
o
f 
la
n
d
fo
rm
Slope orientation
N
o
rt
h
N
o
rt
h
–
ea
st
E
as
t
So
u
th
–
ea
st
So
u
th
So
u
th
–
w
es
t
W
es
t
N
o
rt
h
–
w
es
t
P
la
in
Tor
Frost - riven cliff
Castle koppie
Blockfield
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
560–600 m 601–700 m 701–800 m 801–900 m 901–1,000 m 1,001–1,072 m
Altitude
Tor
Frost - riven cliff
Castle koppie
Blockfield
P
er
ce
n
ta
ge
 q
u
o
ti
en
t 
o
f 
la
n
d
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rm
Figure 6: Occurrence of rock landforms in relation to slope orientation.
Figure 7: Occurrence of rock landforms in relation to elevation.
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Jiří Rypl, Karel Kirchner, Martin Blažek, The spatial distribution of rock landforms in the Pohořská Mountains …
5 Discussion and conclusion
The determination of regularities in the spatial distribution of rock landforms is based on a comparison
of the indices of distribution and arithmetic averages, or corresponding distribution sums. Each value of
the index of distribution that is greater than the corresponding arithmetic mean of all the indices of dis-
tribution of the category shows that the occurrence of the specific type of rock landform is above average
with regard to the mean. The data in Tables 5 through 8 show that the criterion related to the distribution
sum is more stringent. This is because the criterion corresponds to only some values of the distribution
indices that belong to the set of values greater than the arithmetic mean of the corresponding indices.
The elimination of a number of values is caused by calculating the variability of all rock landforms in
the category, which also involves the error of minimalization potentially caused by variance in irregular-
ly distributed values (Křížek, Treml and Engel 2007; Křížek 2007).
The spatial analysis of cryogenic landforms shows that all rock landforms are related to the presence
of granite in all cases in which Wij > 1 (Table 5). The analysis did not prove dependence on another type
of rock from the area studied. The dependence of cryogenic landforms on granite results from its easier
conservation as solid rock (French 2007; Migoń 2006; Summerfield 1991) and was also studied in the Giant
Mountains (Křížek, Treml and Engel 2007).
With regard to slope (Table 6), the dependence between tors and a slope of 0 to 2° was confirmed. This
dependence is primarily based on the genesis of these cryogenic landforms (French 2007; Migoń 2006;
Summerfield 1991). An above-average occurrence on slopes with an inclination of 0 to 2° was also dis-
covered for castle koppies. The dependence of castle koppies and relief with a slope greater than 20.1° is
interesting. This dependence is mainly explained by the low percentage quotient of occurrence of this land-
form in the area studied. The dependence of occurrence of frost-riven cliffs was proved for relief with a
slope of 10.1 to 20° and an above-average occurrence of such cliffs was identified for relief with a slope of
20.1° and greater. This dependence and the above-average occurrence can be explained by the genesis of
these cryogenic landforms (French 2007; Migoń 2006; Summerfield 1991). In the case of blockfields, no
dependence was found, but only an above-average occurrence for two slope categories: 10.1–20° and > 20.1°.
It is not possible to compare the dependence and above-average occurrence of landforms with the results
of this relief category in the Giant Mountains because Křížek, Treml and Engel (2007) specified different
slope categories in their work.
With regard to slope orientation (Table 7), the dependence of tors and the above-average occurrence
of castle koppies on plains was confirmed. This dependence and above-average occurrence is connected
to the genesis of cryogenic landforms (French 2007; Migoń 2006; Summerfield 1991). The dependence
of tors extends to the eastern slope orientation, and the dependence of castle koppies to the northern slope
orientation. Frost-riven cliffs are mainly distributed on slopes with a warm exposure (W, S, SE) owing to
the intensive dynamics of cryogenic processes (Czudek 2005). This is why the blockfields also depend on
slopes with a warm exposure, especially on slopes with a south (S) and southwest (SW) aspect. In this case,
it is also difficult to compare the dependency and above-average occurrence of landforms with the results
of this relief category in the Giant Mountains because Křížek, Treml and Engel (2007) specify four prin-
cipal orientations in their work (N, E, S, W).
Above-average occurrences (Table 8) of destructive landforms (tors, frost riven cliffs, and castle kop-
pies) were found at elevations above 901 m (climate conditions at this elevation are favorable for the significant
expansion of tors; this is cold climatic zone CH7, based on Quitt 1971). Dependences and above-average
occurrences of accumulation landforms (blockfields) were found at elevations between 801 and 900 meters
(Table 8). Dependences and above-average occurrences with relation to elevations are a result of the gen-
esis of these cryogenic landforms (French 2007; Migoń 2006; Summerfield 1991). In the Giant Mountains
dependences and above-average occurrences of destructive cryogenic landforms depend on higher ele-
vations (1,400–1,500 m), whereas in the case of accumulation landforms this dependence was found for
relatively lower elevations (1,100–1,300 m; Křížek, Treml and Engel 2007).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: This research could not have been carried out without the financial support
of grant no. MSM 124100001 from the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports of the Czech Republic,
and grants nos. KJB 300460501 and RVO 68145535 from the Czech Academy of Sciences.
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