ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 2025 65 2 0 1 0 1 6 6 1 8 5 1 7 7 9 ISSN 1581-6613 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA • GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK • 65-2 • 2025 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 65-2 • 2025 Contents Sašo StefanovSki, Mateja ferk, timotej verbovšek, Uroš Stepišnik Morphometric classification and spatial distribution of dolines in southern Slovenia 7 primož Miklavc, Matej lipar, france šUšteršič, andrej šMUc Reconstruction of palaeoflow and depositional dynamics from the Merjasec unroofed cave, Laze Plain (central Slovenia) 29 krisztina v arga, géza tóth Spatial distribution of social innovation potential in disadvantaged areas: The case of two Hungarian counties 47 Sarp Doruk oztUrk, Derya oztUrk Spatiotemporal analysis of light pollution in Samsun (Turkey) using spatial statistics and algebra from SNPP/VIIRS satellite imagery 65 naslovnica 65-2_naslovnica 49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:39 Page 1 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 2025 65 2 0 1 0 1 6 6 1 8 5 1 7 7 9 ISSN 1581-6613 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA • GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK • 65-2 • 2025 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 65-2 • 2025 Contents Sašo StefanovSki, Mateja ferk, timotej verbovšek, Uroš Stepišnik Morphometric classification and spatial distribution of dolines in southern Slovenia 7 primož Miklavc, Matej lipar, france šUšteršič, andrej šMUc Reconstruction of palaeoflow and depositional dynamics from the Merjasec unroofed cave, Laze Plain (central Slovenia) 29 krisztina v arga, géza tóth Spatial distribution of social innovation potential in disadvantaged areas: The case of two Hungarian counties 47 Sarp Doruk oztUrk, Derya oztUrk Spatiotemporal analysis of light pollution in Samsun (Turkey) using spatial statistics and algebra from SNPP/VIIRS satellite imagery 65 naslovnica 65-2_naslovnica 49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:39 Page 1 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA 65-2 2025 ISSN: 1581-6613 UDC: 91 2025, ZRC SAZU, Geografski inštitut Antona Melika International editorial board/mednarodni uredniški odbor: Zoltán Bátori (Hungary), David Bole (Slovenia), Marco Bontje (the Netherlands), Mateja Breg Valjavec (Slovenia), Michael Bründl (Switzerland), Rok Ciglič (Slovenia), Špela Čonč (Slovenia), Lóránt Dénes Dávid (Hungary), Mateja Ferk (Slovenia), Matej Gabrovec (Slovenia), Matjaž Geršič (Slovenia), Maruša Goluža (Slovenia), Mauro Hrvatin (Slovenia), Ioan Ianos (Romania), Peter Jordan (Austria), Drago Kladnik (Slovenia), Blaž Komac (Slovenia), Jani Kozina (Slovenia), Matej Lipar (Slovenia), Dénes Lóczy (Hungary), Simon McCarthy (United Kingdom), Slobodan B. Marković (Serbia), Janez Nared (Slovenia), Cecilia Pasquinelli (Italy), Drago Perko (Slovenia), Florentina Popescu (Romania), Garri Raagmaa (Estonia), Ivan Radevski (North Macedonia), Marjan Ravbar (Slovenia), Aleš Smrekar (Slovenia), Vanya Stamenova (Bulgaria), Annett Steinführer (Germany), Mateja Šmid Hribar (Slovenia), Jure Tičar (Slovenia), Jernej Tiran (Slovenia), Radislav Tošić (Bosnia and Herzegovina), Mimi Urbanc (Slovenia), Matija Zorn (Slovenia), Zbigniew Zwolinski (Poland) Editors-in-Chief/glavna urednika: Rok Ciglič, Blaž Komac (ZRC SAZU, Slovenia) Executive editor/odgovorni urednik: Drago Perko (ZRC SAZU, Slovenia) Chief editors/področni urednik (ZRC SAZU, Slovenia): • physical geography/fizična geografija: Mateja Ferk, Matej Lipar, Matija Zorn • human geography/humana geografija: Jani Kozina, Mateja Šmid Hribar, Mimi Urbanc • regional geography/regionalna geografija: Matej Gabrovec, Matjaž Geršič, Mauro Hrvatin • regional planning/regionalno planiranje: David Bole, Maruša Goluža, Janez Nared • environmental protection/varstvo okolja: Mateja Breg Valjavec, Aleš Smrekar, Jernej Tiran Editorial assistants/uredniška pomočnika: Špela Čonč, Jernej Tiran (ZRC SAZU, Slovenia) Journal editorial system manager/upravnik uredniškega sistema revije: Jure Tičar (ZRC SAZU, Slovenia) Issued by/izdajatelj: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU Published by/založnik: Založba ZRC Co-published by/sozaložnik: Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti Address/naslov: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, Gosposka ulica 13, p. p. 306, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija; ags@zrc-sazu.si The articles are available on-line/prispevki so dostopni na medmrežju: http://ags.zrc-sazu.si (ISSN: 1581–8314) This work is licensed under the/delo je dostopno pod pogoji: Creative Commons CC BY-SA 4.0 Ordering/naročanje: Založba ZRC, Novi trg 2, p. p. 306, SI – 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenija; zalozba@zrc-sazu.si Annual subscription/letna naročnina: 20 € Single issue/cena posamezne številke: 12 € Cartography/kartografija: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU Translations/prevodi: DEKS, d. o. o., Živa Malovrh DTP/prelom: SYNCOMP , d. o. o. Printed by/tiskarna: Birografika Bori Print run/naklada: 250 copies/izvodov The journal is subsidized by the Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency (B6-7614) and is issued in the framework of the Geography of Slovenia core research programme (P6-0101)/Revija izhaja s podporo Javne agencije za znanstvenoraziskovalno in inovacijsko dejavnost Republike Slovenije (B6-7614) in nastaja v okviru raziskovalnega programa Geografija Slovenije (P6-0101). The journal is indexed also in/revija je vključena tudi v: Clarivate Web of Science (SCIE – Science Citation Index Expanded; JCR – Journal Citation Report/Science Edition), Scopus, ERIH PLUS, GEOBASE Journals, Current geographical publications, EBSCOhost, Georef, FRANCIS, SJR (SCImago Journal & Country Rank), OCLC WorldCat, Google Scholar, CrossRef, and DOAJ. Design by/Oblikovanje: Matjaž Vipotnik Front cover photography: The lights of settlements illuminate the landscape near Kranj, NW Slovenia (photograph: Xseon, Shutterstock.com). Fotografija na naslovnici: Luči naselij osvetljujejo pokrajino v okolici Kranja na severozahodu Slovenije (fotografija: Xseon, Shutterstock.com). 65-2-uvod_uvod49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:34 Page 4 Acta geographica Slovenica, 65-2, 2025, 29–45 RECONSTRUCTION OF PALAEOFLOW AND DEPOSITIONAL DYNAMICS FROM THE MERJASEC UNROOFED CAVE, LAZE PLAIN (CENTRAL SLOVENIA) Primož Miklavc, Matej Lipar, France Šušteršič, Andrej Šmuc Merjasec unroofed cave deposits. A N D R E J Š M U C 65-2_acta49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:35 Page 29 Primož Miklavc, Matej Lipar, France Šušteršič, Andrej Šmuc, Reconstruction of palaeoflow and depositional dynamics from … DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.14446 UDC: 551.435.84:551.3.051(497.4) Creative Commons CC BY-SA 4.0 Primož Miklavc 1 , Matej Lipar 2 , France Šušteršič 1 , Andrej Šmuc 1 Reconstruction of palaeoflow and depositional dynamics from the Merjasec unroofed cave, Laze Plain (central Slovenia) ABSTRACT: Sparsely preserved unroofed cave deposits are ancient remains of cave systems. The Merjasec unroofed cave is a perfect example of poorly preserved cave deposits where conventional sedimentologi- cal study revealed a greater potential for the reconstruction of local to regional palaeoenvironmental conditions. Cave deposits are characterised by polymictic conglomerates, pebbly sandstones and flowstone belonging to five distinct sedimentary facies. Sedimentary features indicate deposition of channel-related bedforms in a narrow cave-connecting conduit, activated only during extreme pulsating floods under epiphreatic conditions. In this sense, it mimics the current hydrology of the regional system and shows that the hydrological history of the cave system is strongly dependent on climatic conditions. Moreover, this study demonstrates a methodological approach that can be successfully applied to similary exposed cave deposits elsewhere, showing that even fragmentary or eroded remnants, when analysed in detail, can significantly contribute to understanding of karst palaeohydrology. KEYWORDS: karst, denuded cave, clastic cave deposits, facies, fluvial, depositional dynamics, palaeoen- vironment Rekonstrukcija paleotoka in dinamike zapolnjevanja brezstrope jame Merjasec, Laški ravnik (osrednja Slovenija) POVZETEK: Redkeje ohranjeni sediment brezstropih jam so ostanki starejših jamskih sistemov. Brezstropa jama Merjasec je odličen primer slabo ohranjenih jamskih sedimentov, kjer so konvencionalne sedimentološke študije pokazale velik potencial za rekonstrukcijo lokalnih do regionalnih paleookoljskih razmer. Jamske sed- imente predstavljajo polimiktični konglomerati, prodnati peščenjaki ter sige in so organizirani v pet različnih sedimentnih faciesov. Sedimentne značilnosti kažejo na odlaganje v ozkem, povezujočem kanalu aktiviranem le med ekstremnimi pulzirajočimi poplavami pod epifreatičnimi pogoji. V tem smislu posnema sedanjo hidrologijo regionalnega sistema in kaže, da je hidrološka zgodovina jamskega sistema močno odvisna od podnebnih razmer. Poleg tega ta študija prikazuje metodološki pristop, ki ga je mogoče uspešno uporabiti za podobno razgaljene jamske sedimente drugje, in kaže, da lahko celo fragmentirani ali erodirani ostanki, če jih podrobno analiziramo, pomembno prispevajo k razumevanju kraške paleohidrologije. KLJUČNE BESEDE: kras, brezstropa jama, klastični jamski sedimenti, faciesi, fluvialno, dinamika odlaganja, paleookolje The article was submitted for publication on May 8th, 2025. Uredništvo je prejelo prispevek 8. maja 2025. 30 1 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Department of Geology, Ljubljana, Slovenia primoz.miklavc@ntf.uni-lj.si (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6140-4020), andrej.smuc@ntf.uni-lj.si (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7883-4676), france.sustersic@siol.net (Retired) 2 Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Anton Melik Geographical Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia matej.lipar@zrc-sazu.si (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4414-0147) 65-2_acta49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:35 Page 30 1 Introduction Caves are natural archives which contain a wide spectrum of clastic, chemical, and organic deposits that preserve valuable information about surface and subsurface palaeoenvironmental conditions (White 2007; Laureano et al. 2016; Caldeira et al. 2021; De Waele and Gutiérrez 2022). Volumetrically most abundant cave deposits are clastic autochthonous and allochthonous sediments; the former originate locally in the cave due to mechanical and chemical weathering of the host rock, whilst the latter were transported into the cave from outside (White 2007; Herman et al. 2012). The composition of clastic cave sediments depends mainly on their provenance, while their textures and structures relate on transportation and depositional processes (De Waele and Gutiérrez 2022). Cave sedimentary environments closely resemble surface fluvial systems, however, subterranean waterflows are strongly influenced by the resistant nature of the bedrock morphology and prone to dramatic changes in flow velocities, resulting in rapid local variations in trans- port and deposition processes (Trappe 2010; Bella et al. 2020; De Waele and Gutiérrez 2022). In this context, understanding the sedimentological processes, their depositional dynamics, and the facies concepts of clas- tic cave sediments (Bosch and White 2007; Trappe 2010; Campaña et al. 2017; Campaña et al. 2023) is crucial for reconstructing the hydrological history of cave systems, which is the starting point for advanced stud- ies of palaeoclimate and land evolution in karst areas. Clastic cave sediments are found in recent cave systems and also unroofed caves exposed by denudation or human activity. These are of special importance for the reconstruction of temporal and spatial geomorphologic evolution of the area spanning over millions of years. Unroofed caves, are ancient cave conduits that underwent a transition from phreatic or epiphreatic to vadose conditions until they were surface-exposed due to denudation (Mihevc 1996; Mihevc and Zupan Hajna 1996; Šušteršič 1998; Šebela 1999; Bosák et al. 2000; Šebela and Sasowsky 2000; Zupan Hajna et al. 2020). They can be identified by elongated, shallow depressions such as trenches or dolines, and by the sediment characteristics for caves (Mihevc 1999). They resemble the oldest still identifiable fragments of cave systems, which emphasises their value as they store the only preserved information on regional underground palaeohydrology. The preservation of unroofed cave deposits is often very sparse, so their interpretation can be very challenging as their sedimentary characteristics may be blurred or even unrecog- nisable. In this case, the study of such deposits requires a very comprehensive sedimentary analytical approach and diverse knowledge of various surface and underground processes (Caldeira et al. 2021), allowing the identification of sedimentary facies and their vertical and lateral distribution, which provide information about processes and the environment of the deposition (Reading 2001). In this paper we reconstruct the cave palaeoenvironment and its palaeohydrological regime from the sparsely preserved Merjasec unroofed cave deposits from Laze Plain (slv. Laški ravnik), also known as Logatec- Begunje Plain (slv. Logaško-Begunjski ravnik), in central Slovenia using a conventional sedimentological methodology. This study demonstrates that even fragmentary remnants of unroofed cave deposits can yield valuable insights into karst palaeohydrology, highlighting the importance of applying similarly detailed methodologies to palaeocave deposits in other regions. 2 Geological and geomorphological setting of the research area The low-relief elevated plain of Laze Plain structurally belongs to the NW part of the External Dinarides (Placer 2008) (Figure 1A) and was in the Mesozoic part of the Adriatic Carbonate platform (Vlahović et al. 2005). During the Cenozoic, a complex northwest - southeast trending thrusting, divided the area into several thrusts and nappes (Placer 2008; Korbar 2009). The area was later in Neogene cut by dextral strike-slip faults with the most significant structural element represented by the Idrija Fault zone (Figure 1A). The Idrija Fault zone is characterised by chaotically displaced blocks separated by minor faults (Šušteršič 1996; Čar 2010) and plays an important role in the development of surface and subsurface karst forms and in determining the regional hydrological network (Šušteršič 1996; Čar 2018; Gabrovšek et al. 2022). The karst of Laze Plain is mainly formed in Jurassic, well-bedded limestone (micritic and oolithic) and coarse- crystalline dolomite (Buser 1978; Borenović 1993), as well as in Cretaceous, bedded limestone (micritic, bioclastic) and crystalline dolomite (Jež and Otoničar 2018), and the Upper Triassic bedded dolomites. The latest have proven to be the least permeable and are therefore less susceptible to karstification (Figure 1B). Geomorphologically, the Laze Plain is a corrosion plain (Figure 1B), defined as a dry polje (Stepišnik and Ferk 2023), which extends parallel to the Planina Polje (i.e., a karst polje) in the NW-SE (Dinaric) direction Acta geographica Slovenica, 65-2, 2025 31 65-2_acta49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:35 Page 31 Primož Miklavc, Matej Lipar, France Šušteršič, Andrej Šmuc, Reconstruction of palaeoflow and depositional dynamics from … 32 Triassic Jurassic Cretaceous Quaternary Merjasec unroofed cave L A Z E P L A I N (LAŠKI RAVNIK) Ljubljana CROATIA ITALY HUNGARY 0 50 ADRIATIC SEA AUSTRIA Dinarides S. Alps E. Alps Pannonian B. Idrija F . b) b) 1 km ± a) km ± b) Figure 1: Location and geological characteristics of the investigated area. A) Structural map of Slovenia (Placer 2008). The yellow rectangle marks the investigated area. B) Geological map (Pleničar et al. 1970) of the investigated area with the exact location of the Merjasec unroofed cave (45º52’57.90’’ N; 14º17’23.34’’ E). 65-2_acta49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:35 Page 32 and is extremely rich in surface and subsurface karst forms (Figure 1B), especially solution dolines and caves (Šušteršič 1994; Šušteršič 2002). Laze Plain is a part of the Ljubljanica river recharge area and has a very complex structure of epiphreatic and vadose zones, where caves occupy multiple levels and are char- acterised by a very irregular geometry (Blatnik et al. 2019). The thickness of the vadose zone ranges from a few dozen to more than hundred metres, which allows a very dynamic epiphreatic zone in which water can rise up to 60 m during flood events (Gabrovšek and Turk 2010). A very complex organisation of the cave system is also detectable on the surface, where several cave conduits of phreatic or epiphreatic ori- gin and outcrops of clastic cave sediments are exposed (Šušteršič 1998). 3 Methods The unroofed cave sediment represents a unique archive of ancient cave system. Unfortunately, the exposed cave deposits are predominantly composed of fine-grained clays and silts that have been completely or par- tially transformed by pedogenetic processes. In this study we therefore focussed on coarse-grained cave sediments (conglomerates and pebbly sandstones) of Laze Plain, which are much rarer but can hold a rich archive of the past environmental events. Even though the exposed conglomerate outcrops are often highly eroded, under- standing their sedimentary characteristics, facies types and architectural elements is crucial for reconstructing the depositional environment and interpreting the evolution of individual cave conduit, which, due to their inherent connectivity within the cave network, provide essential insights into the wider ancient cave system. The investigated Merjasec unroofed cave represents one of the best preserved outcrops of cave deposits of Laze Plain. These deposits were analysed using conventional methods for clastic sedimentary rocks (Boggs 2009). The sedimentary succession was logged on a scale of 1:10 using a standard sedimentological pro- cedure. A total of 22 samples were collected to prepare polished slabs, which were used to determine and interpret the sedimentary structures and textures. The main criteria for determining the facies types and architectural elements was based on Miall (1977; 1996 in conjunction with existing facies classifications for clastic cave sediments (e.g., Bosch and White 2007; Ghinassi et al. 2009; Trappe 2010; Laureano et al. 2016; Campaña et al. 2017; Campaña et al. 2022). The identified facies types and sedimentary bodies (architectural elements) were used to reconstruct the depositional dynamics and evolution of the conduit. 4 Results 4.1 Unroofed cave The Merjasec unroofed cave is characterised by its unique deposits, which are the only clear indicators of the cave´s existence. The surface around the cave is mostly flat and characterised by solution dolines. The cave was formed in Late Jurassic shallow-marine, well-bedded carbonates and is now surface-exposed on the southern slope of the doline. The cross-section of the cave conduit (Figure 2) is irregular and ellipti- cal, at least 500 cm wide and 110 cm high. The cave conduit was most probably of phreatic origin and later modified by epiphreatic and alluviation processes. The outcrop is characterised by eight clearly detectable cave deposit remnants (Figure 2). The best preserved and most exposed is remnant 7 (Figure 2), where a detailed cross-section was recorded. Other remnants (Figure 2), on the other hand, are poorly preserved polymictic conglomerates, that are mostly covered by soil. 4.2 Merjasec section The investigation of the Merjasec section (Figure 3A) in remnant 7 (Figure 2) of the unroofed cave out- crop revealed that it is a completely filled palaeocave conduit characterised by well-stratified polymictic conglomerates, pebbly sandstones and flowstone (Figure 3A; Table 1). The basal contact with the hostrock is covered. The cave deposits are organised into five sedimentary units (Figure 3C; Table 1) separated by major erosional contacts, representing five cut-and-fill sequences in which five distinct facies (Gh, Gp, Sp, Ss and Flowstone; see Table 1 for full names) and three architectural elements (CH, SB, GB; see Table 1 for full names) were identified (Figure 3A, B). Conglomerate (Gh, Gp) and sandstone (Sp, Ss) facies are Acta geographica Slovenica, 65-2, 2025 33 65-2_acta49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:35 Page 33 Primož Miklavc, Matej Lipar, France Šušteršič, Andrej Šmuc, Reconstruction of palaeoflow and depositional dynamics from … 34 Merjasec section Cave deposit remnants Crossection of the conduit 1 m 2 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 Figure 2: The cross-section of the Merjasec unroofed cave. White line marks the clearly detectable cross-section, white dashed line marks the possible cross-section of the conduit with no clear contact between the hostrock and cave deposits. Table 1: List of facies, depositional environments, characteristics of depositional units, architectural elements and interpretation. Facies Facies characteristics Depositional Depositional Architectural Interpretation environment unit elements Gh – clast-supported Bedded, graded, Fluvial I, II, III, IV , V GB - gravel bars and Channel lags or low relief conglomerate imbricated bedforms, CH – channel longitudinal bars Gp – cross-stratified High-angle, Fluvial II GB - gravel bars and Migration of longitudinal clast-supported cross-stratified bedforms and transverse bars conglomerate Sp – cross-stratified High-angle, cross- Fluvial II SB - sand bars and Migration of longitudinal pebbly sandstone -stratified, imbricated bedforms and transverse bars Ss – pebbly Non-stratified, Fluvial IV CH - channel, Rapid channel-fill of coarse sandstone imbricated SB - sand bars bedload or final deposit during and bedforms flood’s waning stage Fl – flowstone Laminated Precipitation IV / Weak supersaturated sheet flows under sub-aerial conditions Figure 3: Merjasec unroofed cave. A) Merjasec section with distribution of sedimentary units and facies. B) Architectural elements and their bounding surfaces. C) Outcrop of the Merjasec section and the sedimentary unit distribution (white dashed lines mark the erosional contacts; the length of the measuring rod is 80 cm). p p. 35 65-2_acta49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:35 Page 34 Acta geographica Slovenica, 65-2, 2025 35 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Lithology sand gravel silt clay Units 0 I II III IV V COVERED (50 cm) (cm) Imbrication Normal grading Conglomerate Pebbly sandstone Flowstone Hostrock granule pebble Cross–strati!ed pebbly sandstone Cross–strati!ed conglomerate Facies Gh Gp Sp Ss Flowstone COVERED COVERED COVERED Erosional surface Unit I Hostrock c) a) CH CH GB SB GB GB GB GB SB GB GB b) Unit II Unit IV Unit III Unit V SB Grain size 65-2_acta49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:35 Page 35 Primož Miklavc, Matej Lipar, France Šušteršič, Andrej Šmuc, Reconstruction of palaeoflow and depositional dynamics from … 36 characteristic for fluvial environment, while flowstone facies (Fl) represents autochthonous sediment accu- mulation. Clast composition is very similar throughout the entire section. Most abundant are coarse-grained dolomite clasts and various types of limestone clasts, while quartz, chert, iron oxide/hydroxide and speleothem clasts are less common. 4.3 Description of sedimentary facies Facies Gh (clast-supported conglomerate) is the most abundant and is present in every unit of the section (Figure 4A, B). This facies forms 2–31 cm thick beds, which are graded and imbricated (Figure 5A, B) or may locally express plane-parallel stratification (Figure 4B). The contact between beds is usually irregular or erosional. The conglomerate is characterised by a clast-supported texture and consists of moderately to well-sorted, mostly subangular to rounded granule- to pebble- sized clasts and a fine-grained carbonate matrix. Facies Gp (cross-stratified clast-supported conglomerate) is represented in unit II of the section (Figure 4C). This facies forms up to 3 cm thick lenticular beds, which underlie and overlie sandstones of Facies Sp. The high-angle cross-stratified conglomerate is moderately sorted, clast-supported and consists of angular to subrounded granules and rarely pebbles. Matrix is fine grained carbonate. Facies Sp (cross-stratified pebbly sandstone) is present in Unit II of the section (Figure 4B, C). This facies forms a high-angle cross-stratified, up to 2 cm thick lenticular bodies with weakly developed imbri- a) b) c) d) Unit I Unit II Gh Gh Unit II Unit II Unit IV Gh Sp Gp Sp Gh Figure 4: Details from the Merjasec unroofed cave deposits. A) Basal part of the section. Erosional contact (white dashed line) between conglomerate (facies Gh) of Unit I and conglomerate (facies Gh) of Unit II. B) Pebbly-sandstone (facies Sp) overlaying plane-parallel bedded conglomerate (facies Gh) of Unit II. C) Pebbly-sandstone (facies Sp) and conglomerate (facies Gp) from Unit II. D) Flowstone layer covering the irregular surface pebbly-sand- stone of Unit IV . 65-2_acta49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:35 Page 36 cation (Figure 5C), that are present as insets in conglomerates of facies Gp. The cross-stratified pebbly sand- stone is characterised by a clast-supported texture and is poorly to moderately sorted. It consists of angular and rounded medium to coarse sand sized clasts and rare granules and pebbles. Matrix is mostly com- posed of fine-grained carbonate. Facies Ss (pebbly sandstone) is present in Unit IV of the Merjasec section. This facies forms lenticu- lar shaped or sheet-like beds up to 5 cm thick, which are overlying erosional bounding surfaces or gravel lags of facies Gh. The pebbly sandstone is clast-supported and moderately to poorly sorted. It consists of mostly subrounded to subangular medium to coarse sand clasts and rare granules and pebbles that exhib- it moderate imbrication. The matrix is mostly fine-grained carbonate. Facies Fl (flowstone) is present in Unit IV of the section (Figure 4D). The facies forms a 3 cm thick bed precipitated over an irregular bed surface of pebbly sandstone (facies Ss). The flowstone is charac- terised by the alternation of thin microcrystalline laminae and thicker laminae of sparry calcite crystals covered by columnar calcite. 4.4 Description of sedimentary architectural elements Gravel bars and bedforms (GB) are represented by coarse-grained facies Gh and Gp (Figure 3B). GB deposits characterised by sheet-like bed geometry or rarely lenticular geometry. Irregular, low-relief scoured bases are common. These gravels mostly occur as conduit-wide conglomerate deposits. Minor channel deposits (CH) (Figure 3B) are represented by deposits of facies Gh and Ss and are char- acterised by sharp, high-relief erosional base. The channel infills consist of massive conglomerates or conglomerates and lenticular bodies of pebbly sandstones. The channel deposits are covered by sheet-like, bedded conglomerates of the element previously described. Sand bar and bedform (SB) (Figure 3B) are represented by deposits of facies Sp and Ss and are char- acterised by a lenticular geometry. They occur as interbeds in gravel bedforms (facies Sp) or minor channel fills (facies Ss). 5 Discussion The sparsely preserved Merjasec unroofed cave deposits were deposited in a very dynamic, high-energy underground environment, mainly characterised by channel-related bedforms with a multistorey architecture Acta geographica Slovenica, 65-2, 2025 37 3 cm a) b) c) Figure 5: Polished slabs of Merjasec unroofed cave deposits. A) Graded and imbricated conglomerate (facies Gh) of Unit II. B) Imbricated conglomer- ate (facies Gh) of Unit IV . C) Cross-stratified pebbly-sandstone (facies Sp) of Unit II. 65-2_acta49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:35 Page 37 Primož Miklavc, Matej Lipar, France Šušteršič, Andrej Šmuc, Reconstruction of palaeoflow and depositional dynamics from … controlled by fluvial forces and the resistant nature of the hostrock. The coarse-grained clastic cave mate- rial mostly consists of carbonates, which means that it is a product of underground erosion of the conduit walls – the corrosion of caves is much more intense during flood waters than during low waters (Palmer 2007) or is related to collapse of the tectonically weakened zones (Zupan Hajna et al. 2024) or a combina- tion of both processes. The presence of channel-related bedforms, erosional surfaces and the complete absence of fine-grained overbank flood sheets, crevasses and levées indicates that deposition took place in a nar- row cave-connecting conduit, where the open channel flow may become a pipe-full flow during floods (Ghinassi et al. 2009; Trappe 2010; Herman et al. 2012; Laureano et al. 2016; Bella et al. 2020). During these flood events, a conduit-wide stream channel was formed, in which the mobilisation of the riverbed gener- ated bedforms similar to those in surface rivers (Trappe 2010; Bella et al. 2020). 5.1 Facies interpretation Conglomerate facies Gh is present in every unit and is characterised by sheet-like bedded or minor chan- nel-fill, clast-supported conglomerates. The abundant clast-supported framework, graded bedding, clast imbrication, and scoured erosive surfaces indicate deposition in a bedload-dominated fluvial system in which the flow conditions change rapidly from high-energy to waning-energy flows. Therefore, the facies is interpreted as a channel lag deposit or low relief longitudinal bars developed by ephemeral high-ener- gy dynamic events (seasonal floods) (Miall 1977; Miall 1996. In this scenario, gravels are moving and accumulating along the riverbed, while fine-grained sediments are washed downstream, forming open- work conglomerates in which pores were filled by filtration of suspended load during the waning phase of the flood event (Ramos and Sopeña 1983; Zhang et al. 2020). Conglomerate facies Gp occurs in Unit II in lenticular beds of high-angle, cross-stratified and clast- supported conglomerate. Facies is in direct contact with cross-stratified sandstones, which indicates channel deposition and migration of longitudinal and transverse bar forms (Miall 1981; Miall 1996). In general, the Merjasec cave conglomerate facies exhibit similar characteristics to other cave envi- ronments. Ghinassi et al. (2009) described the clast-supported gravels of the channel-lag deposits (facies Gh in the present study) as a result of the erosive and rising phases of the stream floods and cross-bed- ded gravels (facies Gp in the present study) as alternate or side bars. Campaña et al. (2017) and Laureano et al. (2016) interpreted clast-supported gravels (facies Gh in the present study) as deposits of water flow in fluvial channels, while according to the classification of Bosch and White (2007), investigated deposits are mainly characteristic for the thalweg facies, although they could also be determined as »gravelly« chan- nel facies deposits due to the presence of fabrics (imbrication, normal grading) and sedimentary structures (horizontal bedding, cross-stratification). Sandstone facies Sp occurs in Unit II as lenticular bodies of high-angle, cross-stratified coarse-grained sandstone with a weakly imbricated pebbly admixture. Facies is imbedded in channel lag/bar conglom- erates and was deposited from traction by a  unidirectional current, which indicates a  downstream migration of longitudinal and transverse bar forms (Miall 1977; Miall 1981; Miall 1996; Opluštil et al. 2005). Sandstone facies Ss occurs in unit IV as a lenticular or sheet-like bodies of non-stratified mainly coarse- grained sandstone with abundant granule- to pebble-sized clasts that exhibit moderate imbrication. Facies directly overlies scoured basal surface of channel lag conglomerates, indicating rapid channel-fill deposition of coarse bedload (Miall 1996), or it covers conglomerate lags as a final deposit during the flood’s waning stage. Compared to other investigated caves (Ghinassi et al. 2009; Laureano et al. 2016), similar sandstone facies were mostly described as channel bedforms (bars, side-bars, dunes) formed as a result of localised sediment deposition related to channel floor irregularity, channel widening, channel migration or as chan- nel-fill deposits accumulated by vertical accretion. Flowstone facies Fl occurs in Unit IV as laminated bed precipitated over conglomerate. Facies indi- cates a cessation of fluvial sedimentation and beginning of flowstone formation under sporadic or weak supersaturated sheet flows under sub-aerial conditions with typically slow accretion (Fairchild et al. 2007; Ford and Williams 2007; De Waele and Gutiérrez 2022). Flowstone indicates a hiatus in the stratigraphic sections, which means that during its precipitation, other sediments should not be deposited (Gillieson 1986). Flowstones, which are very common authigenic deposits in caves are described as a very useful indicator for palaeoenvironmental conditions (Fairchild and Baker 2012; Nehme et al. 2015) and geochronology (Bosák 2002; Fairchild et al. 2006; Laureano et al. 2016; Ferk et al. 2019; Sierpień et al. 2021; Zupan Hajna et al. 2021). 38 65-2_acta49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:35 Page 38 5.2 Architectural interpretation The Merjasec cave conduit represents a complex, channel-fill sequence consisting of various types of intra- channel bars and minor channel deposits, mostly separated by erosional bounding surfaces (Figure 3). Investigated cave deposits have been recognised as three distinct architectural elements defined by their geometries, bounding surfaces and sediment fills. The most common are deposits of gravel bars and bed- forms (GB) interbedded with rare deposits of minor channels (CH) and sand bars and bedforms (SB). Gravel bars and bedforms (GB) form multistory sheets, rarely lenses composed of facies Gh, and Gp, and represent an intra-channel (conduit-wide) bar (longitudinal, transverse) deposited during pulsating high- water discharge (Miall 1996). Minor channels (CH) were incised into underlying conglomerate sheets of element GB during the erosional stage of the flood and were filled rapidly after the formation of the channel. Two types of channels were recognised. First is a single channel with a complex fill of pebbly sands (facies Ss) and gravels (facies Gh) and the second is a single channel with a simple fill of gravels (facies Gh) (Ramos and Sopeña 1983; Miall 2014). Sand bars and bedforms (SB) record intra-channel deposits, which were probably generated by migrat- ing dunes within the shallower part of the conduit (facies Sp) (Opluštil et al. 2005; Miall 1996) or by the flood’s wanning stage (facies Ss) (Miall 1996). 5.3 Reconstruction of palaeodepositional dynamics Stratigraphy and sedimentary characteristics of the exposed cave deposits reveal five cut-and-fill sequences (Figure 6), which describe the local palaeohydrological evolution of the investigated cave conduit and resem- ble the palaeohydrological conditions of the regional system. The architecture of the sediments indicates ephemeral, high-energy dynamic events terminated by a longer period of subaerial exposure under epiphreat- ic conditions. The first sequence S1 (Figure 6) indicates the deposition of conduit-wide sheet-like gravel lags during the high-energy pulse generated by the rising stage of the stream flood. Second sequence S2 (Figure 6) begins with an erosive phase during the rise of the flood, followed by a conduit-wide aggradation of sheet-like gravel beds during the high-energy flow, which were covered by the migration of longitudinal and transverse bars by the pulsating moderate- to low-energy flow during the waning of the flood. The sequence S3 (Figure 6) recorded a reactivation of flooding-induced erosion and a subsequent accu- mulation of gravel lag under high-energy flood flow conditions. The sequence S4 (Figure 6) records one of the two major erosional events, forming a channel incised into the underlying gravel pavement, which was filled with a complex-fill of gravels and gravelly sands imme- diately after the flood´s erosional phase. A conduit-wide aggradation covers the channel deposits under high-energy flow conditions and accumulates gravel lags that were covered by a sheet-like sand bed dur- ing the flood’s waning stage. The accumulation of flowstone over slightly irregular surface records a break of the fluvial activity in the conduit. After this quiet period, the sequence S5 (Figure 6) records an upstream barrage breakthrough and a restoration of epiphreatic flood-induced fluvial activity with a second major, very intensive erosional event that cuts the stream channel through the flowstone into the deposits of the fourth sequence, which was filled with gravel immediately after the flood´s erosional phase and covered by a conduit-wide gravel lag during later phase of the flood that eventually completely filled the conduit. Sequence 5 thus documents the last known erosional and depositional activity in the conduit before it was abandoned. 5.4 Energy fluctations of palaeoflow Merjasec cave palaeoflow was characterised by high-energy ephemeral flood-flows and intra-channel depo- sition, as evidenced by upper-flow regime features such as planar bedding, the predominance of coarse-grained material, erosional surfaces and the presence of speleothem debris, indicating also an upstream erosion of older cave deposits. Acta geographica Slovenica, 65-2, 2025 39 65-2_acta49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:35 Page 39 Primož Miklavc, Matej Lipar, France Šušteršič, Andrej Šmuc, Reconstruction of palaeoflow and depositional dynamics from … 40 Sequence 1 (S1) Sequence 2 (S2) Sequence 3 (S3) Sequence 4 (S4) Sequence 5 (S5) Not exposed Not exposed Not exposed Erosion Deposition Covered Hostrock Hostrock Covered Hostrock Covered Hostrock Covered Hostrock Covered Hostrock Covered Hostrock Covered Covered Hostrock Flowstone Covered Flowstone Hostrock Covered Flowstone Flowstone n Hostrock Figure 6: Schematic evolution of depositional dynamics in the Merjasec unroofed cave conduit. Illustration (not to scale) represents erosional and depositional phases in each of the five sequences. A description of each sequence is provided in section 5.3. 65-2_acta49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:35 Page 40 All recorded floods in Merjasec cave are characterised by an early erosional and subsequent deposi- tional stage, developing a cut-and-fill sequence (Simms 1994; Adams et al. 2019). However, a detailed analysis of the facies and architecture reveals that the floods differ in their flow energy, resulting in different ero- sional bounding surfaces and different channel bedforms. The low-relief, conduit-wide erosions indicate a high-energy, laterally stable flow and occur in the early erosional flood stage in sequences 1, 2 and 3. These low-relief erosional surfaces were in the later depositional stage covered by conduit-wide gravel bars of the facies Gh. High-relief erosion with increased localised incisions represents the early flood stages in sequences 4 and 5, indicating thalweg migration within the conduit-wide stream channel, probably asso- ciated with oscillations in flow velocity (Collinson 1970). High-relief incisions were later covered by minor channel fills of facies Gh and Ss (also noticed by Miall 1996; Ghinassi et al. 2009; Scherer et al. 2015; Fambrini et al. 2017; Bella et al. 2020). Low-energy bedforms are rare in Merjasec cave and were only found in the sequence 2. They are char- acterised by a lenticular geometry and cross-bedded structure composed of facies Gp and Sp. They represent a downstream migration of subaqueous dunes and bars in lower flow regime (Miall 1977; Miall 1996; Miall 1996; Fambrini et al. 2017). Direct stacking of high-energy conglomerates and low-energy sands clearly demon- strate relatively fast changes in the flow energy and consequently depositional dynamics (Ramos and Sopeña 1983). Sequence 2 is therefore the only one that records the flood´s waning stage, while in other sequences the deposits of this stage were probably washed away by the rising and erosive stage of the flood in other sequences (Zupan Hajna et al. 2024). 5.5 Regional implications The regional underground palaeohydrology, mostly characterised by periodic, pulsating flooding, as evi- dent from the Merjasec section, was probably controlled by climatic conditions (Ghinassi et al. 2009; Hercman et al. 2023; Zupan Hajna et al. 2024), which transferred larger amounts of rainwater into the cave system during storm periods or to processes related to allogenic recharge, leading to a sudden rise in the water table and thus to the reactivation of several levels in the epiphreatic zone of the cave system, including the investigated conduit. Similar conditions are also present in a current hydrological regime of the regional system with variable recharge conditions, characterised by increased discharge of influent rivers, causing pulsating flooding of the system (Prelovšek et al. 2008; Gabrovšek and Turk 2010; Gabrovšek et al. 2014; Blatnik et al. 2019). The end of sequence 4 record a significant change in the depositional environment and thus in the depositional dynamics. The formation of the flowstone layer over the irregular morphology of the fluvial deposits indicates a break of fluvial activity (Bella et al. 2020; Hercman et al. 2023; Zupan Hajna et al. 2024). It is possible that the irregular contact between the flowstone and the underlying fluvial deposits record yet another flood event with only detectable erosional stage, as conduits can undergo several phases of deposition and removal without leaving clear indicators (Zupan Hajna et al. 2024), but this remains only a conjecture as this part of the section is very sparsely exposed. This sudden change in environmental con- ditions from repetitive flooding (epiphreatic) to calm, intermittent thin flows in sub-aerial exposed conduit and back again could be explained by the temporary drier conditions or underground flow bypass creat- ed by the upstream blockage of the conduit due to cave-roof collapses (Bella et al. 2020). Sequence 5 records the last active phase in which the conduit was completely filled with clastics. After this phase, the conduit became completely abandoned, which can be related to (a) base level drop and region- al uplift that moved the conduit to higher levels of the system, where it became out of reach even for large flood events (b) clogging of the conduit and therefore forcing flood waters through different pathways or (c) the deflection of flood waters by faults that can act as very effective underground flow barriers. Regarding the morphological features and sedimentary characteristics, the investigated cave was most likely connected to the main regional drainage system and functioned as a bypass conduit that was fully activated only during extreme floods under epiphreatic conditions. Such conduits are usually draining flood waters from the main conduit, a characteristic of a cave systems with a complex, interconnected conduit network. The detailed sedimentological investigation of the Merjasec section highlights the significant value of unroofed cave deposits in reconstructing past subsurface and surface environmental conditions, despite their typically sparse preservation, poor exposure, and frequent erosion. The present study demonstrates Acta geographica Slovenica, 65-2, 2025 41 65-2_acta49-1.qxd 8.12.2025 9:35 Page 41 Primož Miklavc, Matej Lipar, France Šušteršič, Andrej Šmuc, Reconstruction of palaeoflow and depositional dynamics from … that, when examined in detail, such deposits can yield far more than just confirmation of ancient fluvial activity; they can provide insights into the provenance, energy, and dynamics of palaeoflow, offering an under- standing of past hydrological conditions. The Merjasec case further underscores the potential of unroofed cave deposits to act as key pieces in deciphering the evolution and hydrodynamics of regional cave systems, particularly in areas like Laze Plain where few caves intersect the epiphreatic zone (Blatnik et al. 2019). Importantly, this work also demonstrates a methodological approach that can be successfully applied to sim- ilarly exposed deposits elsewhere, showing that even fragmentary or degraded remnants, when analysed with appropriate techniques, can significantly enrich our understanding of karst palaeohydrology. 6 Conclusion The sedimentological characterisation of sparsely preserved Merjasec unroofed cave deposits from Laze Plain (central Slovenia) provided very valuable information about past regional hydrological conditions: 1) Stratigraphy and sedimentary characteristics of the exposed cave deposits reveal five cut-and-fill sequences formed during high-energy ephemeral flood-flows and intra-channel deposition, terminated by a longer period of subaerial exposure under epiphreatic conditions. 2) Most of the bedforms indicate high-energy flows generated by the rising stages of stream floods, while low-energy bedforms indicate the flood´s waning stages. 3) The direct stacking of high-energy bedforms and low-energy bedforms indicates fast changes in the flow energy and consequently depositional dynamics. The interpreted sediment characteristics indi- cate that the flood flows range from conduit-wide and laterally stable flows to oscillating flows with increased localised incisions formed by thalweg migration. Sedimentary data of the Merjasec cave sug- gests that the regional palaeohydrology was mostly affected by the storm periods and/or allogenic discharge, leading to a sudden rise in the water table and epiphreatic zone reactivation. 4) Similar conditions are also present in a current hydrological regime of the regional system with vari- able recharge conditions, characterised by increased discharge of influent rivers, causing pulsating flooding of the system. This work demonstrates that even fragmentary or degraded remnants of unroofed cave deposits, when studied in detail, can provide most valuable information about karst palaeohydrology and therefore should not be overlooked. We suggest that a similar detailed methodological approach in studying comparable palaeocave deposits in other regions. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The research was financially supported by the Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency, Research Programme P1-0195: »Geoenvironment and Geomaterials«, Research Programme P6-0101: »Geography of Slovenia«, Research Project J6-50213 »Unroofed Caves of the Nullarbor Plain«, Unesco IGCP Project 661: »The Critical Zone in Karst Systems« and IGCP Project 715: »A new karst modelling approach along different tectonic contacts«. RESEARCH DATA: For information on the availability of research data related to the study, please visit the article webpage: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.14446. 7 References Adams, N. F., Candy, I., Schreve, D. C., Barendregt, R. W . 2019: Deposition and provenance of the Early Pleistocene Siliceous Member in Westbury Cave, Somerset, England. 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