Od puščave do mize From the desert to the table »Človek ne živi samo od kruha.« (5 Mz 8,3) םָדָאָה הֶיְחִי ֹוּדַבְל םֶחֶּלַה־לַע אֹל »People need more than food to live.« (Dt 8:3) Od puščave do mize Exhibition Razstava of the Biblical Archaeological Collection Biblične arheološke zbirke of the Theological Library Maribor Teološke knjižnice Maribor on the occasion of the 50th anniversary ob 50. obletnici of the Unit in Maribor, Enote v Mariboru Faculty of Theology, University of Ljubljana Teološke fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani From the desert to the table Od puščave do mize From the desert to the table Avtor Author doc. dr. Samo Skralovnik, Katedra za Sveto pismo in judovstvo, Teološka fakulteta UL Drugi avtorji Other authors Knjiga vseh knjig The Book of books Boris Hajdinjak, Center judovske kulturne dediščine Sinagoga Maribor Katalogu na pot Catalogue preface doc. dr. Mateja Pevec Rozman, Teološka fakulteta UL, Enota v Mariboru Opisi in komentarji artefaktov Descriptions and commentaries on the artefacts Aleksandra Nestorović, Pokrajinski muzej Ptuj Ormož, arheološki oddelek Andrej Preložnik, Inštitut za arheologijo in dediščino, Fakulteta za humanistične študije UP Risbe artefaktov Drawings of the artefacts Andrej Preložnik, Inštitut za arheologijo in dediščino, Fakulteta za humanistične študije UP Aleksandra Nestorović, Pokrajinski muzej Ptuj Ormož, arheološki oddelek Časovnica Timeline Boris Hajdinjak, Center judovske kulturne dediščine Sinagoga Maribor Recenziji Peer reviews Od puščave do mize – od gline do življenja From the desert to the table – from clay to life izr. prof. dr. Maksimilijan Matjaž, Katedra za Sveto pismo in judovstvo, Teološka fakulteta UL Ko posoda približuje besedo When the vessel approaches the word doc. dr. Aleš Maver, Oddelek za zgodovino, Filozofska fakulteta UM Avtor fotografij Photographs by Tomo Jeseničnik Prevod Translation CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Valerija Trojar Fras Univerzitetna knjižnica Maribor Lektoriranje Proof-reading 069.51:903/904(497.4Maribor) mag. Darja Gabrovšek Homšak Kristina Alice Waller OD puščave do mize : razstava Biblične arheološke zbirke Oblikovanje in prelom Design and lay-out Teološke knjižnice Maribor ob 50. obletnici Enote v Mariboru Teološke fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani = From the desert to the drugaOblika.com table : Exhibition of the Biblical Archaeological Collection of the Theological Library Maribor on the occasion of the 50th anniversary Izdala in založila Published by of the Unit in Maribor, Faculty of Theology, University of Ljubljana / [avtor Samo Skralovnik ; drugi avtorji Boris Hajdinjak .. [et al.] ; avtor Center judovske kulturne dediščine Sinagoga Maribor fotografij Tomo Jeseničnik ; prevod Valerija Trojar Fras]. - Maribor : Teološka fakulteta UL, Enota v Mariboru Center judovske kulturne dediščine Sinagoga ; [Maribor] : Univerza Urednika Editors v Ljubljani, Teološka fakulteta, Enota v Mariboru, 2018 doc. dr. Samo Skralovnik, Katedra za Sveto pismo in judovstvo, Teološka fakulteta UL 1. Vzp. stv. nasl. 2. Skralovnik, Samo 3. Hajdinjak, Boris Marjetka Bedrač, Center judovske kulturne dediščine Sinagoga Maribor COBISS.SI-ID 95392513 Vsebina 3 Knjiga vseh knjig 5 Katalogu na pot 9 Sestava Svetega pisma in uporabljene kratice 13 Časovnica 20 Biblična arheološka zbirka Teološke knjižnice Maribor 25 Pomen hrane v Svetem pismu 29 OČAKI 33 IZHOD IZ EGIPTA IN NASELITEV KÁNAANA 51 DOBA SODNIKOV: OD PLEMENSKE UREDITVE DO KRALJESTVA 63 DOBA KRALJEV: OD KRALJESTVA DO IZGNANSTVA 73 TUJI VPLIVI V DOBAH SODNIKOV IN KRALJEV 87 OD KONCA JUDOVEGA KRALJESTVA DO »NEBEŠKEGA KRALJESTVA« 97 Od puščave do mize ŠIRJENJE KRŠČANSTVA 107 Recenzija: Od puščave do mize – od gline do življenja 125 Recenzija: Ko posoda približuje besedo 127 Literatura 129 Content 4 The Book of books 6 Catalogue preface 10 Composition of the Bible and abbreviations 14 Timeline 22 The Biblical Archaeological Collection of the Theological Library Maribor 26 The meaning of food in the Bible 30 PATRIARCHS 34 THE DEPARTURE FROM EGYPT AND THE SETTLEMENT IN CANAAN 52 THE AGE OF JUDGES: FROM THE TRIBAL ORDER TO THE KINGDOM 64 THE AGE OF KINGS: FROM THE KINGDOM TO THE EXILE 74 FOREIGN INFLUENCES IN THE AGES OF JUDGES AND KINGS 88 FROM THE END OF THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH TO THE »KINGDOM OF HEAVEN« 98 SPREADING OF CHRISTIANITY 108 Peer review : From the desert to the table – from clay to life 126 desert to the table Peer review : When the vessel approaches the word 128 From the Literature 129 Knjiga vseh knjig 5 Zgodovino sem začel študirati še v času iščemo grešne kozle, sem prepričan, da večina ne socialistične Jugoslavije. Profesor obče zgodovine pozna bibličnega izvora frazema. Verjamem pa, 20. stoletja je pri uvodni uri, gotovo z željo, da da vsaj težkometalci vedo, zakaj velja petek, ki je ugotovi, kakšne študente bo poučeval, vprašal, trinajsti dan meseca, za nesrečen dan. Tako tudi ali morda kdo ve, katera je najbolj znana in v začetku 21. stoletja, ko v Sloveniji le še manjšina brana knjiga v vsej človeški zgodovini. Sošolka prebivalcev bere Biblijo, Biblija še vedno živi tudi je odgovorila kot iz topa: »Karl Marx, Kapital.« v večini, ki je ne bere. A ne glede na ta nezavedni Profesorjev kratki odgovor: »Kolegica: še vedno vsakdanji pomen, ki ga ima Biblija tudi za najbolj Biblija ali Sveto pismo,« in prizanesljivi nasmeh sta zagrizenega ateista, Biblija živi še na drugi, drznem povedala več, kot bi lahko povedalo stotine besed. si zapisati višji ravni. Ali ni Dekalog obvezen Ne bom ugibal, kakšni bi bili odgovori današnjih moralni minimum, ki nam omogoča normalno študentov zgodovine ali, bognasvaruj, splošne življenje v današnji, kot radi rečemo, civilizirani javnosti, a bojim se, da bi prevladovali mnogo manj družbi? In ali ne bo tako tudi v prihodnosti? zahtevni avtorji in naslovi od zgoraj navedenega. Le redki naši pismeni in latinščine vešči Tudi se bojim, da bi zelo preprosto vprašanje, zakaj srednjeveški predniki so se lahko z Biblijo seznanili ima teden bibličnih sedem dni, veliko ljudi pustilo neposredno, za vse druge je zadostovala Biblia brez odgovora. Verjetno bi bila tišina odgovor pauperum. Od Trubarjevega prvega delnega tudi pri vprašanju o bibličnem izvoru osmih od prevoda iz leta 1555 in Dalmatinovega celotnega desetih najpogostejših moških imen in štirih od prevoda iz leta 1584 se z Biblijo lahko seznanimo desetih najpogostejših ženskih imen v Sloveniji. v materinščini. Doslej je bila Biblija kar sedemkrat Od puščave do mize Kljub temu, da v Sloveniji na vseh področjih radi v celoti prevedena v slovenščino, to pa je podatek, The Book of books 6 I started to study history in the time of the social-when only a minority of the Slovenian inhabitants ist Yugoslavia. To get to know his students, at the reads the Bible, the Bible still lives also within the introductory lesson, the teacher of general history majority which does not read it. But regardless of the 20th Century asked which book among all of this unconscious everyday meaning which the books in the human history is best-known and Bible bears also for even strongest atheist, the Bible most-read. One of my co-students gave a speedy lives at another, I dare to write, higher level. Is not answer: »Karl Marx, Capital.« The teacher’s short the Decalogue the obligatory moral minimum reply was: »Dear colleague: the Bible still,« and his which enables normal life in the present, as we like indulgent smile told more than thousands of words to say, civilized society? Will not be so in the future, could tell. I will not guess what the answers by to-as well? day’s history students would be, or the answers by, Only some our medieval ancestors who were God forbid!, the general public but I am afraid that literate and knew Latin could get to know Bible far less demanding authors and titles than the one directly, all the others had to be satisfied with above would prevail. I am also afraid that a simple Biblia pauperum . Since the first partial translation question why the week has seven days, would leave by Trubar in 1555 and the total translation by many people speechless. Most probably silence Dalmatin in 1584, we can read Bible in our moth- would be the answer to the question of the biblical er tongue. Up to now, the total Bible was translated origin of eight out of the ten most frequent male into Slovenian for seven times. It is a piece of infor-and four of the ten most frequent female personal mation which testifies of the enormous importance names in Slovenia. Even though scapegoats are of The Book of books . It is one of the reasons why searched for in all fields in Slovenia, I am positive the Center of Jewish Cultural Heritage Synagogue that the majority of people does not know the bib-Maribor, which is strongly connected to the Bible lical origin of the idiom. But I believe that at least with its name, could not turn down the initiative of desert to the table fans of heavy metal know why Friday which falls the Faculty of Theology in Maribor of the common on the 13th day of the month, is considered to be exhibition of the Faculty’s Biblical Archaeological From the unlucky. Thus at the beginning of the 21st Century Collection. An exhibition was created which 7 Opeka z besedilom v klinopisu ki sam po sebi govori o izjemnem pomenu Knjige bodo razstava in njena gostovanja, spremljajoči (605–562 pr. Kr., kat. št. 31) vseh knjig. Tudi zato Center judovske kulturne dogodki in katalog dokazali, da smo bili kos temu Brick with the cuneiform text dediščine Sinagoga Maribor, ki je že z imenom izzivu. Zahvala za to gre tistim, ki so različno, a (605–562 B.C., Cat. No. 31) tesno povezan z Biblijo, ni mogel zavrniti pobude vselej ključno pomagali pri uresničitvi razstave in Teološke fakultete v Mariboru o skupni razstavi kataloga: akademiku prof. ddddr. Jožetu Krašovcu, njihove Biblične arheološke zbirke. Nastala je dr. Faniki Krajnc-Vrečko, Aleksandri Nestorović, razstava, ki obiskovalce nagovarja z napisano in Andreju Preložniku, doc. dr. Samu Skralovniku, govorjeno besedo ne samo v slovenščini, pač pa Marjetki Bedrač, Mestni občini Maribor in tudi v hebrejščini in stari grščini, s sliko v obliki Veleposlaništvu Države Izrael. fotografije in filma ter – kar je najpomembnejše – s predmeti iz bibličnega časa in prostora. Prav ti, na Maribor, 5. tišri 5779 / dan povišanja svetega prvi pogled skromni predmeti so najpristnejši izraz križa 2018 / 4. muharam 1440 tega, kar želimo z razstavo pokazati: dolgo pot do današnje civilizirane družbe. Boris Hajdinjak, Od začetka delovanja leta 2001 v Sinagogi direktor Centra judovske kulturne dediščine Maribor še nismo imeli takšnega izziva, kot je Sinagoga Maribor razstava Biblične arheološke zbirke. Upam, da Od puščave do mize 8 addresses its visitors not only with written and different ways, but all crucially helped to carry out spoken words in Slovenian but also in Hebrew and the exhibition and the catalogue: Jože Krašovec, Old Greek, with photographs and a film, as well as Acad., PhD, Prof., Fanika Krajnc-Vrečko, PhD, – which is most important – with artefacts from the Aleksandra Nestorović, Andrej Preložnik, Samo biblical time and space. These artefacts, humble at Skralovnik, PhD, Assist. Prof., Marjetka Bedrač, the the first sight, are the most authentic expression of Municipality of Maribor, and the Embassy of the what the exhibition wants to show: the long way to State of Israel. the civilized society. Since the beginning of the operation in 2001, the Maribor, 5th Tishrei 5779 / Holy Cross Day 2018 / Synagogue Maribor has not faced a challenge 4th Muharram 1440 as the exhibition of the Biblical Archaeological Collection presents. I hope that the exhibition Boris Hajdinjak and its hostings, the accompanying events and Head of the Center of Jewish Cultural Heritage the catalogue will prove that we were equal to Synagogue Maribor the challenge. I would like to thank to all who in desert to the table From the Katalogu na pot 9 Leto 2018 je posvečeno praznovanju kulturne Biblične arheološke zbirke ter tako na poseben dediščine Evrope. Poznavanje in odkrivanje način obeležili zlati jubilej mariborske Enote kulturne dediščine je pomembno, saj odstira pot Teološke fakultete in leto kulturne dediščine. v preteklost in po stopinjah, ki jih je človeštvo Predmeti arheološke zbirke, ki jih najdemo na naredilo v svojem razvoju, pojasnjuje sedanjost ter razstavi, njihove opise pa v tem katalogu, nas nakazuje pot v prihodnost. Poznavanje kulturne vodijo v daljno preteklost. Vodijo nas v skrivnostne dediščine pomeni poznavanje korenin človeštva, kraje in čase, ki so od nas in od sedanjega trenutka poznavanje identitete naroda in končno svoje oddaljeni več tisočletij. Primerki, ki jih lahko danes lastne identitete. Poznavanje in ohranjanje kulturne občudujemo, niso zgolj predmeti iz preteklosti, dediščine nas osvobaja vsakodnevnih ujetosti predmeti, ki jih je v davnini izdelala človeška roka, v predsodkovnost, omogoča nam, da se za hip temveč so mnogo več. So živi pripovedovalci, ustavimo v času in se zavemo skupnih korenin priče, ki pripovedujejo zgodbe preteklosti, zgodbe ter se tudi tako prebujamo za vzpostavljanje o človeku in njegovem hrepenenju, o stiskah in medkulturnega dialoga. radostih, pripovedujejo o življenju in smrti, o Najverjetneje ni naključje, da prav v letu kulturne iskanju smisla in iskanju tistega, ki presega vso dediščine dajemo na ogled in tako širši javnosti tukajšnjost, Tistega, ki daje življenje in vodi »od odpiramo del bogate Biblične arheološke zbirke, puščave do mize«. ki jo hrani Teološka knjižnica Maribor, knjižnica Predmeti Biblične arheološke zbirke so na videz Enote Teološke fakultete v Mariboru, ki letošnje preprosti, a nosijo v sebi pečat lepote, pečat, leto obhaja svoj zlati jubilej, 50-letnico delovanja. ki je vtisnjen v vsak predmet s posebno skrbjo Od puščave do mize Zato smo lahko še posebej veseli in ponosni, in ljubeznijo. Posode, vrči, oljenke … Vse te da so ob odličnem sodelovanju dveh imenitnih umetelne oblike nam odstirajo pogled v notranjost ustanov – Sinagoge Maribor in Teološke fakultete, človekovega doživljanja samega sebe, okolice, sil Enote v Mariboru s svojo Teološko knjižnico – v naravi, celotnega stvarstva. So priče časa, ki ga na straneh pričujočega kataloga in na razstavi ni več, a je hkrati tako resničen in navzoč, da se v Sinagogi Maribor ponovno zaživeli predmeti nas dotakne z vso močjo in pristnostjo ter nas ne Catalogue preface 10 The year 2018 is dedicated to the celebration of the with its Theological Library – the artefacts of the cultural heritage of Europe. Knowledge about the Biblical Archaeological Collection were revived on cultural heritage and the discovery of its secrets is the pages of the present catalogue and at the exhi-important, since it uncovers the path to the past, bition in the Synagogue Maribor, and thus mark and following the steps that mankind took in its the golden anniversary of the Unit, as well as the development, explains the present and directs year of cultural heritage, in a special manner. the path into the future. Knowledge about culturThe artefacts of the Archaeological Collection in the al heritage means knowledge about the roots of catalogue and at the exhibition, lead us to the dis-mankind, about the identity of a nation and finally tant past. They guide us to mysterious places and about one’s own identity. Knowledge and the pres-times which are several thousand years away from ervation of cultural heritage frees us from every-us and the present moment. The specimens which day entrapment into the prejudices and enables us we can admire today, are not only objects from the to stop in time for a moment and become aware of past; objects made by human hands in antiquity our mutual roots and get ready to establish inter-and now exhibited, but are a lot more. They are cultural dialogue also in this manner. live narrators; they are witnesses which tell stories It is probably not coincidental that a part of the about the past, stories about mankind, their de-rich Biblical Archaeological Collection held by the sires, pains and joys, they tell about life and death, Theological Library Maribor, the library of the about searching for what is sense and searching Maribor Unit of the Faculty of Theology, which for what transcends being here, the One who gives celebrates its golden anniversary, 50 years in oper-life and leads »from the desert to the table«. ation, is exhibited and shown to a broader public The artefacts of the Biblical Archaeological just in the year of the cultural heritage. Therefore, Collection are simple at first sight but carry a stamp we can be especially satisfied and proud that as of beauty, a stamp which is impressed on each desert to the table the result of an excellent cooperation between two object with special care and love. Bowls, jugs, oil prominent institutions – the Synagogue Maribor lamps…, all these artistic forms reveal the inner side From the and the Maribor Unit of the Faculty of Theology of man’s experiencing of himself, his surroundings, 11 Skleda s klekom v obliki črke S more pustiti ravnodušnih. Predmeti nosijo v sebi in izid tega kataloga, se zahvaljujem in iskreno (1800/1750–1550 pr. Kr., kat. št. 9) pečat najglobljih doživljanj in čutenj človeka, ki je čestitam ter želim, da bi skupno delo obrodilo Bowl with an S-shaped carination od najzgodnejših obdobij svojega samozavedanja bogate sadove: da bi se vseh obiskovalcev razstave (1800/1750–1550 B.C., Cat. No. 9) v svoje delo želel vtisniti sledi doživljanja in in vseh, ki bodo vzeli v roke ta katalog, dotaknila hrepenenja duše. Tako nam razstava in katalog preteklost, ki se daje na ogled v sedanjosti, in predmetov odstirata pogled v našo preteklost, v vsakogar posebej popeljala po sledeh zgodovine, našo človeško zgodovino. Poznavanje zgodovine po sledeh človeka. Da bi se s tem okrepil občutek nam pomaga odgovoriti na preprosti, a hkrati pripadnosti skupnim koreninam ter pripadnosti najzahtevnejši vprašanji, ki si ju človek poleg skupnemu evropskemu prostoru in človeškim zgodovinskega vprašanja (Od kod prihajam?) vrednotam, ki ostajajo v vseh časih nespremenjene enako zavzeto postavlja tako danes kot tudi nekoč: in večne. Da bi ostali zavezani univerzalnim Kdo sem? in Kam grem? Poznavanje zgodovine – vrednotam človeštva: lepoti, dobroti, resnici, svoje lastne, zgodovine naroda in človeštva – in pravičnosti, plemenitosti, spoštovanju in ljubezni. odgovori na vprašanje Od kod prihajam? nas Naj razstava, katalog in delo vseh ustvarjalcev spontano vodijo do soočanja s to zgodovino in s spregovorijo na srce vsakega izmed nas, postavljanjem ciljev, ki jih želimo doseči oziroma spregovorijo o iskanju in hrepenenju po Bogu, ki z h katerim smo usmerjeni. Brez zgodovine in enako močjo in ljubeznijo kot nekoč vodi človeka soočenja z njo ni sedanjosti niti prihodnosti. tudi danes »od puščave do mize«, vse do mize v Pričujočemu katalogu na pot in razstavi želim, nebeškem Jeruzalemu. da duh časa, ki ga odstirata – poimenovali smo Od puščave do mize ga biblični čas –, poneseta v sedanji čas, da bi V Mariboru, 1. septembra 2018 nas opomnil, da ni vseeno, kakšen pečat dajemo svojemu času, da ni vseeno, kakšne sledi puščamo Doc. dr. Mateja Pevec Rozman, za seboj, da ni vseeno, kako živimo in kam gremo. prodekanja in predstojnica Enote v Mariboru Vsem sodelavcem in odgovornim, ki skrbijo za Teološke fakultete UL zbirko, in vsem, ki so omogočili razstavo zbirke 12 nature’s forces, the entire creation. They are one wants to reach or to which one is headed. roots and belonging to the common European witnesses of a time which does not exist anymore Without history and facing up to it, there is neither space and the human values which remain un-but is at the same time so real and present, that it present nor past. changed in all times and are eternal. That we will touches us with all its power and authenticity and I would like to accompany the catalogue and the stay bound to the universal values of humanity: cannot leave us indifferent. The artefacts carry exhibition with the wish that they bring the spirit beauty, goodness, truth, justice, nobility, respect, the stamp of man’s innermost experiences and the of the time that they reveal, it is called the biblical and love. feelings of the man who has tried to leave traces of time, into the present, to remind us that it is im-Let the exhibition, the catalogue and the work of his experiences and the desires of his soul into his portant what kind of stamp we leave on our time, all the creators address the hearts of all of us, talk work since the earliest periods of his self-aware-what traces we leave behind, that it is not irrele-about the search and desire for God who, with the ness. Thus the exhibition and the catalogue of vant how we live and where we are heading. same power and love as in the past, guides man- the artefacts reveal our past, our human history. I would like to thank all the co-workers and the kind today »from the desert to the table«; just to the Knowledge about history helps us answer two workers who take care of the collection and to all table in celestial Jerusalem. simple but most difficult questions which humanity who made the exhibition of the collection and the has posed, next to the historical question (»Where publication of the catalogue possible and congrat-Maribor, 1st September 2018 do I come from? « ), equally enthusiastically today ulate them. I wish that this common work will bear and in the past: »Who am I?« and »Where do I go?« fruit: that the past which is exhibited in the present Mateja Pevec Rozman, PhD, Assist. Prof. Knowledge about history – one’s own, the history would touch the visitors to the exhibition and all Vice-Dean and Head of Maribor Unit, of the nation and mankind – and answers to the who take the catalogue into their hands and guide University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Theology question »Where do I come from?« spontaneously them after the traces of the history, the traces of lead us to facing up to this history and setting goals man. That thus the feeling of belonging to common desert to the table From the Sestava Svetega pisma in uporabljene kratice 13 STARA ZAVEZA ZGODOVINSKE KNJIGE 26. Visoka pesem Vp 27. Knjiga modrosti Mdr Stara zaveza vsebuje 46 knjig. 39 knjig, zapisanih 6. Jozue Joz 28. Sirah Sir v hebrejskem jeziku (z odlomki v aramejščini), 7. Sodniki Sod sestavljajo t. i. hebrejsko Biblijo, Sveto pismo Judov 8. Ruta Rut v Palestini. 7 preostalih knjig je bilo zapisanih v 9. Prva Samuelova knjiga 1 Sam PREROŠKE KNJIGE grščini za Jude v izseljenstvu (diaspora) in so prišle 10. Druga Samuelova knjiga 2 Sam k nam v prevodu, ki ga imenujemo Septuaginta 11. Prva knjiga kraljev 1 Kr 29. Izaija Iz (LXX). Te knjige imenujemo deveterokanonične: 12. Druga knjiga kraljev 2 Kr 30. Jeremija Jer Tobit, Judita, Prva in Druga knjiga Makabejcev, 13. Prva kroniška knjiga 1 Krn 31. Žalostinke Žal Baruh, Knjiga modrosti, Sirah (in odlomki Estere in 14. Druga kroniška knjiga 2 Krn 32. Baruh Bar Daniela). 15. Ezra Ezr 33. Ezekiel Ezk Knjige Stare zaveze razvrstimo v štiri skupine: 16. Nehemija Neh 34. Daniel Dan 17. Tobit Tob 35. Ozej Oz 18. Judita Jdt 36. Joel Jl PETEROKNJIŽJE (PENTATEVH) 19. Estera Est 37. Amos Am 20. Prva knjiga Makabejcev 1 Mkb 38. Abdija Abd 1. Prva Mojzesova knjiga (Geneza) 1 Mz 21. Druga knjiga Makabejcev 2 Mkb 39. Jona Jon 2. Druga Mojzesova knjiga (Eksodus) 2 Mz 40. Mihej Mih 3. Tretja Mojzesova knjiga (Levitik) 3 Mz 41. Nahum Nah 4. Četrta Mojzesova knjiga (Numeri) 4 Mz PESNIŠKE IN MODROSTNE KNJIGE 42. Habakuk Hab Od puščave do mize 5. Peta Mojzesova knjiga (Devteronomij) 5 Mz 43. Sofonija Sof 22. Job Job 44. Agej Ag 23. Psalmi Ps 45. Zaharija Zah 24. Pregovori Prg 46. Malahija Mal 25. Pridigar (Kohelet) Prd Composition of the Bible and abbreviations 14 THE OLD TESTAMENT HISTORICAL BOOKS 26. Song of Songs Sgs 27. Wisdom of Solomon Wis The Old Testament comprises 46 books. 39 books 6. Joshua Jos 28. Sirach Sir written in the Hebrew language (with passages in 7. Judges Jg Aramaic) constitute the so-called Hebrew Bible, 8. Ruth Ru the Bible of the Jews in Palestine. The remaining 7 9. 1 Samuel 1 S PROPHETIC BOOKS books were written in Greek for the Jews in emi- 10. 2 Samuel 2 S gration (diaspora) and came to us in a translation 11. 1 Kings 1 Ki 29. Isaiah Is called the Septuagint (LXX). These books are called 12. 2 Kings 2 Ki 30. Jeremiah Jr deuterocanonical: Tobit, Judith, First and Second 13. 1 Chronicles 1 Ch 31. Lamentations Lm Maccabees, Baruch, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach 14. 2 Chronicles 2 Ch 32. Baruch Bar (and passages of Esther and Daniel). 15. Ezra Ezra 33. Ezekiel Ez The books of the Old Testament are divided into 16. Nehemiah Ne 34. Daniel Dn four groups: 17. Tobit Tob 35. Hosea Ho 18. Judith Jdt 36. Joel Jl 19. Esther Est 37. Amos Am TORAH (PENTATEUCH) 20. 1 Maccabees 1 Macc 38. Obadiah Ob 21. 2 Maccabees 2 Macc 39. Jonah Jon 1. Book of Genesis (Genesis) Gn 40. Micah Mic 2. Book of Exodus (Exodus) Ex 41. Nahum Nah 3. Book of Leviticus (Leviticus) Lv POETICAL AND WISDOM BOOKS 42. Habakkuk Hab 4. Book of Numbers (Numbers) Nu 43. Zephaniah Zep 5. Book of Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy) Dt 22. Job Job 44. Haggai Hg desert to the table 23. Psalms Ps 45. Zechariah Zec 24. Proverbs Pr 46. Malachi Ml 25. Ecclesiastes (Kohelet) Ec From the 15 NOVA ZAVEZA PAVLOVA PISMA KATOLIŠKA OZ. SPLOŠNA PISMA Nova zaveza je sestavljena iz 27 »knjig«, napisanih v 6. Pismo Rimljanom Rim 20. Jakobovo pismo Jak grščini. Glede kanona novozaveznih knjig obstaja 7. Prvo pismo Korinčanom 1 Kor 21. Prvo Petrovo pismo 1 Pt danes popolno soglasje med vsemi Cerkvami, tudi 8. Drugo pismo Korinčanom 2 Kor 22. Drugo Petrovo pismo 2 Pt zaporedje knjig je v vseh izdajah Svetega pisma 9. Pismo Galačanom Gal 23. Prvo Janezovo pismo 1 Jn isto. Razvrstimo jih v štiri skupine: 10. Pismo Efežanom Ef 24. Drugo Janezovo pismo 2 Jn 11. Pismo Filipljanom Flp 25. Tretje Janezovo pismo 3 Jn 12. Pismo Kološanom Kol 26. Judovo pismo Jud EVANGELIJI IN APOSTOLSKA DELA 13. Prvo pismo Tesaloničanom 1 Tes 14. Drugo pismo Tesaloničanom 2 Tes 1. Evangelij po Mateju Mt 15. Prvo pismo Timoteju 1 Tim PREROŠKA KNJIGA 2. Evangelij po Marku Mr 16. Drugo pismo Timoteju 2 Tim 3. Evangelij po Luku Lk 17. Pismo Titu Tit 27. Razodetje (Apokalipsa) Raz 4. Evangelij po Janezu Jn 18. Pismo Filemonu Flm 5. Apostolska dela Apd 19. Pismo Hebrejcem Heb Od puščave do mize MEDITERRANEAN SEA SREDOZEMSKO MORJE Jerusalem Jeruzalem 16 THE NEW TESTAMENT PAULINE EPISTLES CATHOLIC OR GENERAL EPISTLES The New Testament comprises 27 »books«, written 6. Epistle to the Romans Ro 20. Epistle of James Jas in Greek. A perfect agreement on the canon of the 7. First Epistle to the Corinthians 1 Co 21. First Epistle of Peter 1 P New Testament books exist among all Churches, 8. Second Epistle to the Corinthians 2 Co 22. Second Epistle of Peter 2 P also the sequence of the books is the same in all 9. Epistle to the Galatians Ga 23. First Epistle of John 1 Jn editions of the Bible. They are divided into four 10. Epistle to the Ephesians Eph 24. Second Epistle of John 2 Jn groups: 11. Epistle to the Philippians Phil 25. Third Epistle of John 3 Jn 12. Epistle to the Colossians Col 26. Epistle of Jude Jd 13. First Epistle to the Thessalonians 1 Th GOSPELS AND ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 14. Second Epistle to the Thessalonians 2 Th 15. First Epistle to Timothy 1 Ti PROPHETIC BOOK 1. Gospel of Matthew Mt 16. Second Epistle to Timothy 2 Ti 2. Gospel of Mark Mk 17. Epistle to Titus Titus 27. Revelation (Apocalypse) Rev 3. Gospel of Luke Lk 18. Epistle to Philemon Phm 4. Gospel of John Jn 19. Epistle to the Hebrews He 5. Acts of the Apostles Ac desert to the table From the MEDITERRANEAN SEA SREDOZEMSKO MORJE Jerusalem Jeruzalem 17 Od puščave do mize Satelitski posnetek Bližnjega vzhoda Satellite imagery of the Middle East ARARAT ARARAT HITTITES HETITI MEDIA MEDIJA LYDIA LIDIJA Nineveh Ninive MESOPOTAMIA MEZOPOTAMIJA Der Deir Ugarit Mari Ugarit Ebla Ebla Mari Tigris Euphrates Babylon Tigris Evfrat Babilon ELAM CYPRUS SYRIA ELÁM CIPER SIRIJA CRETE Nippur Larsa KRETA Nipur Larsa Ur Damascus Ur Damask MEDITERRANEAN SEA SREDOZEMSKO MORJE CANAAN KÁNAAN km LIBYA 600 LIBIJA Memphis Memfis 400 EGYPT ARABIA EGIPT ARABIJA 200 El-Amarna El Amarna Rodovitni polmesec 0 Fertile Crescent Nineveh Ninive Haran Harán Aleppo Alepo Assur (Ashur) Ugarit Ašúr Ugarit Mari Mari AKKAD AKÁD 19 Byblos Biblos MEDITERRANEAN SEA Babylon SREDOZEMSKO MORJE Babilon Damascus Tigris Damask Tigris Shechem Sihem Euphrates Evfrat Nippur Nipur Tanis Tanis ELAM Beersheba ELÁM Beeršéba Ur Memphis Ur Memfis SUMER SUMER km 330 EGYPT EGIPT 220 Od puščave do mize 110 El-Amarna El Amarna Abrahamovo potovanje 0 Abraham's journey Časovnica absolutna kronologija arheološka obdobja biblična oz. judovska zgodovina obča zgodovina slovenska zgodovina ZAČETKI (1 Mz 1–11) pred ok. 12500 pr. Kr. starejša kamena doba ok. 12500 pr. Kr.: konec zadnje ledene dobe ok. 60000 pr. Kr.: piščal iz Divjih bab; ok. 33000 pr. Kr.: Potočka zijalka ok. 12500–9500 pr. Kr. epipaleolitik ok. 12500 pr. Kr.: stalno naseljeni lovci in nabiralci 20 ok. 9500–4500 pr. Kr. mlajša kamena doba/neolitik Kajn in Abel ok. 9500 pr. Kr.: živinoreja in poljedelstvo; ok. 8000 pr. Kr.: lončarstvo ok. 4500–3500 pr. Kr. bakrena doba/halkolitik Noe ok. 4000 pr. Kr.: mesta ok. 3500–1550 pr. Kr. OČAKI (1 Mz 12–50) ok. 3500–2000 pr. Kr. zgodnja bronasta doba Abrahamovi predniki nomadi v Mezopotamiji ok. 3200 pr. Kr.: začetek pisave; ok. 2270–2215 pr. Kr.: Sargon I. ok. 3200 pr. Kr.: barjansko kolo; pred ok. 2000 pr. Kr.: barjanski idol ok. 2000–1550 pr. Kr. srednja bronasta doba ok. 1850 pr. Kr.: Abraham pride v Kánaan; po ok. 1720 pr. Kr.: Jožef v Egiptu ok. 1728–1686 pr. Kr.: Hamurabi ok. 1550–1200 pr. Kr. pozna bronasta doba IZHOD IZ EGIPTA IN NASELITEV KÁNAANA (2 Mz; 4 Mz; 5 Mz; Joz) ok. 1250 pr. Kr.: Mojzes, izhod iz Egipta, Sinajska zakonodaja; ok. 1220–1200 pr. Kr.: Jozue osvoji ok. 1458–1425 pr. Kr.: Tutmozis III.; ok. 1350–1333 pr. Kr.: Ehnaton; ok. 1400–1300 pr. Kr.: Oloris/Dolnji Lakoš Kánaan ok. 1333–1323 pr. Kr.: Tutankamon; ok. 1279–1212 pr. Kr.: Ramzes II. ok. 1200–1030 pr. Kr. starejša železna doba DOBA SODNIKOV: OD PLEMENSKE UREDITVE DO KRALJESTVA (Sod; 1 Sam) ok. 1040 pr. Kr.: začetek Samuelovega delovanja ok. 1184–1153 pr. Kr.: Ramzes III. ok. 1200–900 pr. Kr.: svetišče Mušja jama pri Škocjanu ok. 1030–587/86 pr. Kr. mlajša železna doba DOBA KRALJEV: OD KRALJESTVA DO IZGNANSTVA (1 Sam; 2 Sam; 1 Kr; 2 Kr; 1 Krn; 2 Krn; Am; Oz; Iz; Mih; Sof; Nah; Hab; Jer; Ezk) ok. 1030–1010 pr. Kr.: Savel; ok. 1010–970 pr. Kr.: David; ok. 970–931 pr. Kr.: Salomon; ok. 945–924 pr. Kr.: Šišák I.; 722/21–705 pr. Kr.: Sargon II.; ok. 1000 – po 600 pr. Kr.: Ormož; ok. 800–300 pr. Kr.: Most na Soči; ok. 931: razcep na Izrael (do 722/21 pr. Kr.) in Judo (do 587/86 pr. Kr.) 605–562 pr. Kr.: Nebukadnezar II. po 800 pr. Kr.: Poštela; ok. 750 pr. Kr.: Vir pri Stični 587/86 pr. Kr. – 70 po Kr. novobabilonska doba, perzijska OD KONCA JUDOVEGA KRALJESTVA DO »NEBEŠKEGA KRALJESTVA« doba, helenistična doba in (Ezr; Neh; Ag; Zah; Mal; 1 Mkb; 2 Mkb; Dan 11; Mr; Mt; Lk; Jn) zgodnja rimska doba 587/86–538 pr. Kr.: babilonsko suženjstvo; pred ok. 440 pr. Kr.: Pentatevh; 559–530 pr. Kr.: Kir II. Veliki; 336–323 pr. Kr.: Aleksander III. Veliki; ok. 500/450 pr. Kr.: situla z Vač; ok. 450/350 pr. Kr.: negovske čelade; 167–160 pr. Kr.: upor Makabejcev; ok. 150 pr. Kr.: Kumran; 143–63 pr. Kr.: Hasmonejci; pred 132 pr. 323–285 pr. Kr.: Ptolemej I. Soter; 223–187 pr. Kr.: Antioh III. Veliki; 181 pr. Kr.: Akvileja; po 60 pr. Kr.: novci iz Keleje; 14/15: Emona; Kr.: Septuaginta; 37–4 pr. Kr.: Herod Veliki; 7/4 pr. Kr. – 30 po Kr.: Jezus; 66–70: 1. judovski upor 63 pr. Kr.: Pompej osvoji Jeruzalem; 44/27 pr. Kr. – 14 po Kr.: Oktavijan/Avgust; po 50: nekropola v Šempetru; pred 54: Celeja; 69: Petoviona 54–68: Neron; 69–79: Vespazijan 70–638 zgodnja rimska doba, pozna ŠIRJENJE KRŠČANSTVA rimska doba in bizantinska doba (Apd; Pavlova in druga pisma) desert to the table pred 120: Nova zaveza; 132–136: 2. judovski upor; ok. 326–328: romanje sv. Helene; pred 406: Vulgata; 79–81: Tit; 98–117: Trajan; 117–138: Hadrijan; 161–180: Mark Avrelij; pred 79: Neviodun; pred 186: Mark Valerij Maksimijan; 303/04: sv. Viktorin 637: Arabci zavzamejo Jeruzalem 284–305: Dioklecijan; 306–337: Konstantin I. Veliki; Petovionski; 394: bitka pri Frigidu; 434–453: Atila; 489–547/48: Ostrogoti; 379 – 395: Teodozij I. Veliki; 527–565: Justinijan I. Veliki; 570–632: Mohamed 547/48–568: Langobardi; po 550: Slovani; ok. 630: Valuk From the absolutna kronologija arheološka obdobja biblična oz. judovska zgodovina obča zgodovina slovenska zgodovina ZAČETKI (1 Mz 1–11) pred ok. 12500 pr. Kr. starejša kamena doba ok. 12500 pr. Kr.: konec zadnje ledene dobe ok. 60000 pr. Kr.: piščal iz Divjih bab; ok. 33000 pr. Kr.: Potočka zijalka ok. 12500–9500 pr. Kr. epipaleolitik ok. 12500 pr. Kr.: stalno naseljeni lovci in nabiralci ok. 9500–4500 pr. Kr. mlajša kamena doba/neolitik Kajn in Abel ok. 9500 pr. Kr.: živinoreja in poljedelstvo; ok. 8000 pr. Kr.: lončarstvo 21 ok. 4500–3500 pr. Kr. bakrena doba/halkolitik Noe ok. 4000 pr. Kr.: mesta ok. 3500–1550 pr. Kr. OČAKI (1 Mz 12–50) ok. 3500–2000 pr. Kr. zgodnja bronasta doba Abrahamovi predniki nomadi v Mezopotamiji ok. 3200 pr. Kr.: začetek pisave; ok. 2270–2215 pr. Kr.: Sargon I. ok. 3200 pr. Kr.: barjansko kolo; pred ok. 2000 pr. Kr.: barjanski idol ok. 2000–1550 pr. Kr. srednja bronasta doba ok. 1850 pr. Kr.: Abraham pride v Kánaan; po ok. 1720 pr. Kr.: Jožef v Egiptu ok. 1728–1686 pr. Kr.: Hamurabi ok. 1550–1200 pr. Kr. pozna bronasta doba IZHOD IZ EGIPTA IN NASELITEV KÁNAANA (2 Mz; 4 Mz; 5 Mz; Joz) ok. 1250 pr. Kr.: Mojzes, izhod iz Egipta, Sinajska zakonodaja; ok. 1220–1200 pr. Kr.: Jozue osvoji ok. 1458–1425 pr. Kr.: Tutmozis III.; ok. 1350–1333 pr. Kr.: Ehnaton; ok. 1400–1300 pr. Kr.: Oloris/Dolnji Lakoš Kánaan ok. 1333–1323 pr. Kr.: Tutankamon; ok. 1279–1212 pr. Kr.: Ramzes II. ok. 1200–1030 pr. Kr. starejša železna doba DOBA SODNIKOV: OD PLEMENSKE UREDITVE DO KRALJESTVA (Sod; 1 Sam) ok. 1040 pr. Kr.: začetek Samuelovega delovanja ok. 1184–1153 pr. Kr.: Ramzes III. ok. 1200–900 pr. Kr.: svetišče Mušja jama pri Škocjanu ok. 1030–587/86 pr. Kr. mlajša železna doba DOBA KRALJEV: OD KRALJESTVA DO IZGNANSTVA (1 Sam; 2 Sam; 1 Kr; 2 Kr; 1 Krn; 2 Krn; Am; Oz; Iz; Mih; Sof; Nah; Hab; Jer; Ezk) ok. 1030–1010 pr. Kr.: Savel; ok. 1010–970 pr. Kr.: David; ok. 970–931 pr. Kr.: Salomon; ok. 945–924 pr. Kr.: Šišák I.; 722/21–705 pr. Kr.: Sargon II.; ok. 1000 – po 600 pr. Kr.: Ormož; ok. 800–300 pr. Kr.: Most na Soči; ok. 931: razcep na Izrael (do 722/21 pr. Kr.) in Judo (do 587/86 pr. Kr.) 605–562 pr. Kr.: Nebukadnezar II. po 800 pr. Kr.: Poštela; ok. 750 pr. Kr.: Vir pri Stični 587/86 pr. Kr. – 70 po Kr. novobabilonska doba, perzijska OD KONCA JUDOVEGA KRALJESTVA DO »NEBEŠKEGA KRALJESTVA« doba, helenistična doba in (Ezr; Neh; Ag; Zah; Mal; 1 Mkb; 2 Mkb; Dan 11; Mr; Mt; Lk; Jn) zgodnja rimska doba 587/86–538 pr. Kr.: babilonsko suženjstvo; pred ok. 440 pr. Kr.: Pentatevh; 559–530 pr. Kr.: Kir II. Veliki; 336–323 pr. Kr.: Aleksander III. Veliki; ok. 500/450 pr. Kr.: situla z Vač; ok. 450/350 pr. Kr.: negovske čelade; 167–160 pr. Kr.: upor Makabejcev; ok. 150 pr. Kr.: Kumran; 143–63 pr. Kr.: Hasmonejci; pred 132 pr. 323–285 pr. Kr.: Ptolemej I. Soter; 223–187 pr. Kr.: Antioh III. Veliki; 181 pr. Kr.: Akvileja; po 60 pr. Kr.: novci iz Keleje; 14/15: Emona; Kr.: Septuaginta; 37–4 pr. Kr.: Herod Veliki; 7/4 pr. Kr. – 30 po Kr.: Jezus; 66–70: 1. judovski upor 63 pr. Kr.: Pompej osvoji Jeruzalem; 44/27 pr. Kr. – 14 po Kr.: Oktavijan/Avgust; po 50: nekropola v Šempetru; pred 54: Celeja; 69: Petoviona 54–68: Neron; 69–79: Vespazijan Od puščave do mize 70–638 zgodnja rimska doba, pozna ŠIRJENJE KRŠČANSTVA rimska doba in bizantinska doba (Apd; Pavlova in druga pisma) pred 120: Nova zaveza; 132–136: 2. judovski upor; ok. 326–328: romanje sv. Helene; pred 406: Vulgata; 79–81: Tit; 98–117: Trajan; 117–138: Hadrijan; 161–180: Mark Avrelij; pred 79: Neviodun; pred 186: Mark Valerij Maksimijan; 303/04: sv. Viktorin 637: Arabci zavzamejo Jeruzalem 284–305: Dioklecijan; 306–337: Konstantin I. Veliki; Petovionski; 394: bitka pri Frigidu; 434–453: Atila; 489–547/48: Ostrogoti; 379 – 395: Teodozij I. Veliki; 527–565: Justinijan I. Veliki; 570–632: Mohamed 547/48–568: Langobardi; po 550: Slovani; ok. 630: Valuk Timeline Absolute chronology Archaeological periods Biblical or Jewish history General history Slovenian history THE BEGINNINGS (Gn 1–11) before ca. 12500 B.C. Early Stone Age ca. 12500 B.C.: the end of the last Ice Age ca. 60000 B.C.: flute from Divje Babe; ca. 33000 B.C.: Potočka zijalka ca. 12500–9500 B.C. Epipalaeolithic ca. 12500 B.C.: permanently settled hunters and collectors 22 ca. 9500–4500 B.C. Late Stone Age/Neolithic Cain and Abel ca. 9500 B.C.: cattle breeding and agriculture; ca. 8000 B.C.: pottery ca. 4500–3500 B.C. Copper Age/Chalcolithic Noah ca. 4000 B.C.: cities ca. 3500–1550 B.C. PATRIARCHS (Gn 12–50) ca. 3500–2000 B.C. Early Bronze Age Abraham's ancestors nomads in Mesopotamia ca. 3200 B.C.: the beginning of the alphabet; ca. 2270–2215 B.C.: Sargon I ca. 3200 B.C.: Ljubljana Marshes wheel; before ca. 2000 B.C.: Ljubljana Marshes ca. 2000–1550 B.C. Middle Bronze Age ca. 1850 B.C.: Abraham arrives in Canaan; after ca. 1720 B.C.: Joseph in Egypt ca. 1728–1686 B.C.: Hammurabi idol ca. 1550–1200 B.C. Late Bronze Age THE DEPARTURE FROM EGYPT AND THE SETTLEMENT IN CANAAN (Ex; Nu; Dt; Jos) ca. 1250 B.C.: Moses, departure from Egypt, the Sinai legislation; ca. 1220–1200 B.C.: Josue ca. 1458–1425 B.C.: Thutmose III; ca. 1350–1333 B.C.: Akhenaten; ca. 1400–1300 B.C.: Oloris/Dolnji Lakoš conquers Canaan ca. 1333–1323 B.C.: Tutankhamun; ca. 1279–1212 B.C.: Ramesses II ca. 1200–1030 B.C. Early Iron Age THE AGE OF JUDGES: FROM THE TRIBAL ORDER TO THE KINGDOM (Jg; 1 S) ca. 1040 B.C.: the beginning of Samuel's operation ca. 1184–1153 B.C.: Ramesses III ca. 1200–900 B.C.: sanctuary Mušja Cave near Škocjan ca. 1030–587/86 B.C. Late Iron Age THE AGE OF KINGS: FROM THE KINGDOM TO THE EXILE (1 S; 2 S; 1 Ki; 2 Ki; 1 Ch; 2 Ch; Am; Ho; Is; Mic; Zep; Nah; Hab; Jr; Ez) ca. 1030–1010 B.C.: Saul; ca. 1010–970 B.C.: David; ca. 970–931 B.C.: Solomon; ca. 945–924 B.C.: Shishak I; 722/21–705 B.C.: Sargon II; ca. 1000–after 600 B.C.: Ormož; ca. 800–300 B.C.: Most na Soči; ca. 931: division to Israel (to 722/21 B.C.) and Judah (to 587/86 B.C.) 605–562 B.C.: Nebuchadnezzar II after 800 B.C.: Poštela; ca. 750 B.C.: Vir pri Stični 587/86 B.C.–70 A.D. Neo–Babylonian Period, Persian FROM THE END OF THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH TO THE »KINGDOM OF HEAVEN« Period, Hellenistic Period and (Ezra; Ne; Hg; Zec; Ml; 1 Macc; 2 Macc; Dn 11; Mk; Mt; Lk; Jn) Early Roman Period 587/86–538 B.C.: Babylonian slavery; before ca. 440 B.C.: Pentateuch; 167–160 B.C.: 559–530 B.C.: Cyrus II the Great; 336–323 B.C.: Alexander III the Great; ca. 500/450 B.C.: Vače situla; ca. 450/350 B.C.: Negau helmets; 181 B.C.: Aquileia; Maccabean revolt; ca. 150 B.C.: Qumran; 143–63 B.C.: the Hasmoneans; before 132 B.C.: 323–285 B.C.: Ptolemy I Soter; 223–187 B.C.: Antiochus III the Great; after 60 B.C.: coins from Keleia; 14/15: Emona; after 50: Šempeter necropolis; Septuaginta; 37–4 B.C.: Herod the Great; 7/4 B.C.–30 A.D.: Jesus; 66–70: 1st Jewish revolt 63 B.C.: Pompey conquers Jerusalem; 44/27 B.C.–14 A.D.: Octavius/Augustus; before 54: Celeia; 69: Poetovio 54–68: Nero; 69–79: Vespasian 70–638 Early Roman Period, Late Roman SPREADING OF CHRISTIANITY Period and Byzantine Period (Ac; Paul's and other Epistles) desert to the table before 120: New Testament; 132–136: 2nd Jewish revolt; ca. 326–328: pilgrimage of St Helena; be-79–81: Titus; 98–117: Trajan; 117–138: Hadrian; 161–180: Marcus Aurelius; before 79: Neviodun; before 186: Marcus Valerius Maximianus; 303/04: fore 406: Vulgata; 637: the Arabs conquer Jerusalem 284–305: Diocletian; 306–337: Constantine I the Great; 379–395: Theodosius I St Victorinus of Poetovio; 394: battle at Frigidus; 434–453: Attila; 489–547/48: the Great; 527–565: Justinian I the Great; 570–632: Muhammad the Ostrogoths; 547/48–568: the Langobards; after 550: the Slavs; ca. 630: Valuk From the Absolute chronology Archaeological periods Biblical or Jewish history General history Slovenian history THE BEGINNINGS (Gn 1–11) before ca. 12500 B.C. Early Stone Age ca. 12500 B.C.: the end of the last Ice Age ca. 60000 B.C.: flute from Divje Babe; ca. 33000 B.C.: Potočka zijalka ca. 12500–9500 B.C. Epipalaeolithic ca. 12500 B.C.: permanently settled hunters and collectors 23 ca. 9500–4500 B.C. Late Stone Age/Neolithic Cain and Abel ca. 9500 B.C.: cattle breeding and agriculture; ca. 8000 B.C.: pottery ca. 4500–3500 B.C. Copper Age/Chalcolithic Noah ca. 4000 B.C.: cities ca. 3500–1550 B.C. PATRIARCHS (Gn 12–50) ca. 3500–2000 B.C. Early Bronze Age Abraham's ancestors nomads in Mesopotamia ca. 3200 B.C.: the beginning of the alphabet; ca. 2270–2215 B.C.: Sargon I ca. 3200 B.C.: Ljubljana Marshes wheel; before ca. 2000 B.C.: Ljubljana Marshes ca. 2000–1550 B.C. Middle Bronze Age ca. 1850 B.C.: Abraham arrives in Canaan; after ca. 1720 B.C.: Joseph in Egypt ca. 1728–1686 B.C.: Hammurabi idol ca. 1550–1200 B.C. Late Bronze Age THE DEPARTURE FROM EGYPT AND THE SETTLEMENT IN CANAAN (Ex; Nu; Dt; Jos) ca. 1250 B.C.: Moses, departure from Egypt, the Sinai legislation; ca. 1220–1200 B.C.: Josue ca. 1458–1425 B.C.: Thutmose III; ca. 1350–1333 B.C.: Akhenaten; ca. 1400–1300 B.C.: Oloris/Dolnji Lakoš conquers Canaan ca. 1333–1323 B.C.: Tutankhamun; ca. 1279–1212 B.C.: Ramesses II ca. 1200–1030 B.C. Early Iron Age THE AGE OF JUDGES: FROM THE TRIBAL ORDER TO THE KINGDOM (Jg; 1 S) ca. 1040 B.C.: the beginning of Samuel's operation ca. 1184–1153 B.C.: Ramesses III ca. 1200–900 B.C.: sanctuary Mušja Cave near Škocjan ca. 1030–587/86 B.C. Late Iron Age THE AGE OF KINGS: FROM THE KINGDOM TO THE EXILE (1 S; 2 S; 1 Ki; 2 Ki; 1 Ch; 2 Ch; Am; Ho; Is; Mic; Zep; Nah; Hab; Jr; Ez) ca. 1030–1010 B.C.: Saul; ca. 1010–970 B.C.: David; ca. 970–931 B.C.: Solomon; ca. 945–924 B.C.: Shishak I; 722/21–705 B.C.: Sargon II; ca. 1000–after 600 B.C.: Ormož; ca. 800–300 B.C.: Most na Soči; ca. 931: division to Israel (to 722/21 B.C.) and Judah (to 587/86 B.C.) 605–562 B.C.: Nebuchadnezzar II after 800 B.C.: Poštela; ca. 750 B.C.: Vir pri Stični 587/86 B.C.–70 A.D. Neo–Babylonian Period, Persian FROM THE END OF THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH TO THE »KINGDOM OF HEAVEN« Period, Hellenistic Period and (Ezra; Ne; Hg; Zec; Ml; 1 Macc; 2 Macc; Dn 11; Mk; Mt; Lk; Jn) Early Roman Period 587/86–538 B.C.: Babylonian slavery; before ca. 440 B.C.: Pentateuch; 167–160 B.C.: 559–530 B.C.: Cyrus II the Great; 336–323 B.C.: Alexander III the Great; ca. 500/450 B.C.: Vače situla; ca. 450/350 B.C.: Negau helmets; 181 B.C.: Aquileia; Maccabean revolt; ca. 150 B.C.: Qumran; 143–63 B.C.: the Hasmoneans; before 132 B.C.: 323–285 B.C.: Ptolemy I Soter; 223–187 B.C.: Antiochus III the Great; after 60 B.C.: coins from Keleia; 14/15: Emona; after 50: Šempeter necropolis; Septuaginta; 37–4 B.C.: Herod the Great; 7/4 B.C.–30 A.D.: Jesus; 66–70: 1st Jewish revolt 63 B.C.: Pompey conquers Jerusalem; 44/27 B.C.–14 A.D.: Octavius/Augustus; before 54: Celeia; 69: Poetovio 54–68: Nero; 69–79: Vespasian Od puščave do mize 70–638 Early Roman Period, Late Roman SPREADING OF CHRISTIANITY Period and Byzantine Period (Ac; Paul's and other Epistles) before 120: New Testament; 132–136: 2nd Jewish revolt; ca. 326–328: pilgrimage of St Helena; be-79–81: Titus; 98–117: Trajan; 117–138: Hadrian; 161–180: Marcus Aurelius; before 79: Neviodun; before 186: Marcus Valerius Maximianus; 303/04: fore 406: Vulgata; 637: the Arabs conquer Jerusalem 284–305: Diocletian; 306–337: Constantine I the Great; 379–395: Theodosius I St Victorinus of Poetovio; 394: battle at Frigidus; 434–453: Attila; 489–547/48: the Great; 527–565: Justinian I the Great; 570–632: Muhammad the Ostrogoths; 547/48–568: the Langobards; after 550: the Slavs; ca. 630: Valuk Biblična arheološka zbirka Teološke knjižnice Maribor 25 Zbirka predmetov iz Svete dežele izvira z območij Osnovni katalog zbirke je rokopisni popis današnjega Izraela, Palestine in Egipta in je predmetov, ki ga je v Izraelu pripravil arheolog edinstvena zbirka v Sloveniji. Nekateri muzeji v Jean-Baptiste Humbert na francoski biblični in Sloveniji sicer hranijo posamezne predmete z arheološki šoli École Biblique et Archeologique Bližnjega vzhoda, ta zbirka pa je edina, ki je v celoti v Jeruzalemu. Leta 2006 je knjižnica sodelovala posvečena biblični arheologiji. Sestavljena je bila v mednarodnem projektu digitalizacije v sklopu z mislijo, da bi bila uporabljena kot didaktični CULTURE 2000. Takrat je zbirko digitalizirala pripomoček, ki naj študentom in drugim približa na pobudo vodje knjižnice dr. Fanike Krajnc- zgodovino Svetega pisma. Vrečko, arheologa Aleksandra Nestorović in Zbirka obsega 91 predmetov. Prevladujejo glineni Andrej Preložnik pa sta dopolnila arhiv zbirke predmeti – posodje različnih oblik in za različne z arheološkimi risbami in opisi in jih primerjala namene (vrči, čaše, lonci, sklede) ter oljenke. z razpoložljivo literaturo. Opisi posameznih Dobro so zastopani tudi stekleni predmeti predmetov tako vsebujejo podatke o najdišču, (posodice, balzamariji) in kamniti pečatniki. dataciji, materialu, izdelavi, okrasju, merah, Zbirka vsebuje še dve bazaltni skledi (najverjetneje hranjenju. možnarja), tri primere figurativne umetnosti in Nenazadnje je Biblična arheološka zbirka Teološke opeki z besedilom v klinopisu. knjižnice Maribor edinstvena tudi v tem, da v njej Zbirka je časovno zelo heterogena, v njej so ne najdemo orožja, nakita ali denarja, temveč predmeti iz obdobij od bakrene dobe (5. oziroma prevladujejo lončenina in predmeti, povezani z 4. tisočletje pr. Kr.) do obdobja arabske ekspanzije vsakdanjim življenjem. In prav zato smo se odločili, Od puščave do mize (7. stoletje po Kr.). Obdobja so različno zastopana, da naj bo rdeča nit, s pomočjo katere zbirko tokrat najbolje srednja bronasta in mlajša železna doba. predstavljamo javnosti, prehrana in njena vloga v Bazaltni skledi oziroma možnarja Najstarejša predmeta v zbirki sta bazaltni skledi Svetem pismu. (4500–3500 pr. Kr., kat. št. 1) oziroma možnarja iz bakrene dobe (4500– 3500 Basalt bowls or mortars pr. Kr., kat. št. 1). (4500–3500 B.C., Cat. No. 1) The Biblical Archaeological Collection of the Theological Library Maribor 26 The collection of artefacts from the Holy Land The basic collection catalogue is the manuscript originates from the area of today’s Israel, Palestine, inventory of the artefacts, prepared in Israel by the and Egypt, and represents a unique collection in archaeologist Jean-Baptiste Humbert at the French Slovenia. Some museums in Slovenia hold individ-biblical and archaeological school École Biblique et ual artefacts from the Middle East, however, this Archeologique in Jerusalem. In 2006, the Library collection is the only one devoted to biblical archae-cooperated in the international project of digitali-ology. It was collected with the idea of being used zation within the CULTURE 2000 framework. On as a teaching aid with the aim of illustrating the the initiative of the head of the Library, Fanika history of the Bible to students and others. Krajnc-Vrečko, PhD, the collection was then digiThe collection comprises 91 artefacts. Clay arte-talized, while the collection archive was completed facts predominate – pottery of different forms and using archaeological drawings and descriptions for different uses (jugs, cups, pots, bowls) and oil and compared with the available literature by the lamps. There is also a considerable number of glass archaeologists Aleksandra Nestorović and Andrej objects (pots, balsamaria) and stone signets. The Preložnik. The descriptions of individual artefacts collection also comprises two basalt bowls (possibly thus include the data about the site of the finding, mortars), three examples of figurative arts and two time, material, production, decoration, dimensions bricks with the cuneiform text. and storing. From the temporal point of view, the collection Last but not the least, the Biblical Archaeological is quite heterogeneous, it comprises artefacts Collection of the Theological Library Maribor is from the periods from the Copper Age (5th or 4th unique also in the fact that it does not contain Millennium B.C.) to the period of the Arabic expan-weapons, jewellery and money, but mainly in- sion (7th Century A.D.). The periods are variously cludes pottery and objects connected to everyday represented; the most represented are the Middle life. This is the reason we have decided that the desert to the table Bronze and Late Iron Ages. The oldest two artefacts red thread by the means of which the collection is in the collection are basalt bowls or mortars from presented to the public this time, is food and its role From the the Copper Age (4500–3500 B.C., Cat. No. 1). in the Bible. 27 Zbirka je v zasebni lasti, hrani jo Teološka knjižnica Maribor. Predmeti iz zbirke so bili kupljeni v različnih antikvariatih v Jeruzalemu in imajo certifikate, iz katerih je razvidno njihovo poreklo. Od puščave do mize The collection is privately owned, held by the Theological Library Maribor. The artefacts were purchased from different antique shops in Jerusalem and have certificates which prove their origin. Konična bazaltna skleda z 1. vrezanim okrasom visečih šrafiranih trikotnikov na notranjem robu ustja Najdišče: Beeršéba Višina: 18,6 cm Premer ustja: 37,4 cm Inv. št.: 57 Datacija: bakrena doba / halkolitik (4500–3500 pr. Kr.) 28 Conical basalt bowl with engraved decoration of hatched triangles on the inner side of the rim Location: Beersheba Height: 18.6 cm Opening diameter: 37.4 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 57 Dated: Copper Age / Chalcolithic From the (4500–3500 B.C.) Pomen hrane v Svetem pismu 29 »Človek ne živi samo od kruha.« (5 Mz 8,3) dne prav odnos do hrane oziroma pripravljenost učence uči moliti, prosimo za hrano, vsakdanji Sveto pismo vabi k spoznanju, da so v življenju deliti to hrano: »Pridite, blagoslovljeni mojega kruh, ki v tem kontekstu že prerašča dobesedni pomembnejše stvari, kot je lehem, kruh, a Očeta! Prejmite v posest kraljestvo, ki vam je pomen (hrane) v splošne človeške potrebe in pogostost te besede in njenih izpeljank v pripravljeno od začetka sveta! Kajti lačen sem bil in pogoje za življenje: »Človek ne živi samo od kruha.« svetopisemskih besedilih in širše – kdo npr. ni ste mi dali jesti, žejen sem bil in ste mi dali piti …« (5 Mz 8,3) slišal za Betlehem, »hišo kruha« – jasno kaže na (Mt 25,34-35) Jesti za isto mizo v Svetem pismu Hebrejska beseda lehem pomeni »kruh«, označuje njegovo pomembnost. označuje pripravljenost sprejeti nekoga kot sebi pa tudi hrano na splošno. Beseda prvotno ni Prehranjevanje je temeljna človeška potreba, enakega, kot prijatelja. Ko se Jezus v evangelijih pomenila le kruha. V arabščini je kasneje pomenila ki je pomembno sooblikovala vsako kulturo, v druži in obeduje z grešniki, sporoča, da grešnika, meso in označevala »glavno hrano«. Ko so bila žita preteklosti še bolj kot danes. Življenje večine ljudi torej slehernika, sprejema kot prijatelja. Podobno (moka) osnova prehranjevanja, je lehem pomenil starih ljudstev se je vrtelo okoli zagotavljanja hrane, je v današnji kulturi. Si lahko prikličete v spomin kruh, za tiste, ki so se večinoma prehranjevali z njene pridelave, spravila, priprave in zaužitja. Ker podobo, kako skupaj obedujeta klošar in politik mesom, pa meso. »Jedilnik« je vedno pogojen s je imela hrana središčno in vseprisotno vlogo, je ali direktor banke? Morda najbolj očitna in tudi časom in načinom življenja. Puščava v naslovu imelo to, kaj so jedli in kdo je bil vpleten v pripravo najlaže preverljiva metoda pa je domača kuhinja, tako predstavlja nomadski način življenja hrane, velik pomen, zato nam lahko dobro osvetli hladilnik. Odgovor na vprašanje, komu dovolite, (prehranjevanja) Izraelcev, miza pa način življenja življenje v starem Izraelu. Hrana uteleša družbene da sam brska po vašem hladilniku, je odgovor na v civilizaciji (stalni naselitvi). Miza hkrati kaže na odnose, ki povezujejo njeno pridelavo, razdelitev vprašanje, kdo je vaš bližnji. zadnjo večerjo, prostor, kjer je bila sklenjena Nova in pripravo, območja božanskega in človeškega. Čeravno bi bilo mogoče primakniti še kakšen zaveza. Obe zavezi sta bili sklenjeni ob hrani, prva Hrana v Svetem pismu prestavlja ne le pomembno razlog, naj omenimo še najpomembnejšega. Hrana na peščenih tleh Sinajskega pogorja, »zrli so Boga, zgodovinsko in kulturno presečišče – številni ima v Svetem pismu tako pomembno vlogo, da jedli so in pili« (2 Mz 24,11), druga za mizo pri Od puščave do mize pomembni dogodki, opisani v Svetem pismu, lahko izrečemo naslednjo trditev: v resnici ni bilo Jezusovi zadnji večerji. so se zgodili »za mizo« –, temveč doživi tudi dovolj, da si je Bog Svetega pisma nadel podobo pomembno teološko transformacijo. Dogajanje ob človeka, moral se je spremeniti v hrano, v kruh. Doc. dr. Samo Skralovnik, koncu časov je podrobno naslikano z mesijansko Nova zaveza se sklene prav za mizo tako, da Bog Katedra za Sveto pismo in judovstvo, gostijo (Iz 25,6-8). Jezus v govoru o ponovnem sam postane (naša vsakdanja) hrana. V enem bolj Teološka fakulteta UL prihodu predstavlja kot temeljni kriterij sodnega znanih svetopisemskih odlomkov, v katerem Jezus The meaning of food in the Bible 30 »People need more than food to live.« (Dt 8:3) The towards food or the willingness to share this food as well-known biblical passages, where Jesus teaches Bible invites us to the awareness that in life there are the basic criterion of the Judgement Day: »›My father his disciples to pray, we ask for food, everyday bread, more important things than lehem , bread, but the has blessed you! Come and receive the kingdom that which in this context surpasses the literal meaning frequency of the word and its derivatives in the bibli-was prepared for you before the world was created. (food) into general human needs and conditions for cal texts and beyond – e.g. the well known example When I was hungry, you gave me something to eat, living: »People need more than food to live.« (Dt 8:3) of Bethlehem – »House of Bread«,– clearly proves its and when I was thirsty, you gave me something to The Hebrew word lehem means »bread«, but it also importance. drink.‹« (Mt 25:34-35). To eat at the same table in denotes food in general. Originally, the word does Nourishment is a fundamental human need which the Bible means to be prepared to accept someone not mean only bread. In Arabic, the word later has significantly co-shaped each culture, in the as equal, as a friend. When Jesus in the gospels means meat and denotes »main food«. When cereals past even more than today. The life of the majority socializes and dines with sinners, he communica- (flour) represented the basis of the nourishment, of men of ancient people was centred around the tes that he accepts a sinner, an ordinary man, as a lehem meant bread; for those who mainly consumed provision of food, its growing, conservation and friend. Similarly, in modern culture. Can you ever meat, it meant meat. The »diet« is always conditioned preparation, distribution and consumption. Since remember an image of a tramp and a politician or a by the time and the way of living. The »desert« in the food was central and ubiquitous, what they ate and director of a bank dining together? Perhaps the most title thus represents the nomadic way of living (nou-who cooperated in its preparation, had a great signi-obvious method and easiest to test is the home ki-rishment) of the Israelites, and the table, the way of ficance, therefore it can well throw a light on life in tchen, or the refrigerator. The answer to the question, living in civilization (permanent settlement). At the old Israel. Food embodies social relationships, which »Who is allowed to dig into your refrigerator?« is the same time, the table directs us to the Last Supper, the connect its growing, distribution and preparation, answer to the question »Who is your neighbour?«. place where the New Testament was concluded. Both the sphere of the divine and the human. It would be possible to give some other reasons, but testaments were concluded with eating; the first one The food in the Bible is not only an important histori-let us focus on the most important one; the food in on the sandy ground of Mount Sinai, »so they ate cal and cultural intersection – numerous important the Bible has such an important role that one can and drank« (Ex 24:11), and the other at the table at events, described in the Bible, happened »at the table« conclude: in reality it was not enough that the God Jesus’s Last Supper. – but also exceeds an important theological transfor-of the Bible had to assume a human image; He had desert to the table mation. The happening at the end of times is presen-to change himself into food, into bread. The New Samo Skralovnik, PhD, Assist. Prof. ted in detail as the Messiah's feast (Is 25:6-8). Jesus Testament concludes, just at a table in a way that Department of Biblical Studies and Judaism, From the in his speech about his return presents the attitude God alone becomes human food. In one of the most University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Theology Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum ) is a Koriander je travniška rastlina meadow plant. Its ground grains are ( Coriandrum sativum). Zmleta zrna used as a spice. uporabljamo kot začimbo. Bdellium is the resin of a tree growing in Bdelij je smola drevesa, ki raste v Arabiji Arabia (most likely Commiphora Africana ). (najbrž Commiphora Africana). MANNA MANA 31 T he oldest artefacts in the collection are basalt bowls (possibly mortars) from the Najstarejša predmeta v zbirki sta bazaltni skledi (verjetno možnarja) iz Copper Age (4500–3500 B.C., Cat. No. 1). bakrene dobe (4500–3500 pr. Kr., kat. št. 1). These kinds of prestigious vessels were Tovrstne prestižne posode so bile odkrite v found in settlements and graves, therefore naselbinah in grobiščih, zato domnevamo, it is assumed that they had a role both in da so imele vlogo tako v vsakdanjem everyday life and in ceremonies. For some življenju kot pri obredih. Za nekatere it is believed that they served as censers or domnevamo, da so služile kot kadilnice ali sacrificial bowls, while the traces of wear in žrtvene posode, sledovi obrabe v drugih pa others prove that they were used as mortars pričajo, da so bile uporabljane kot možnarji, which were indispensable in grinding spices ki so bili nepogrešljivi pri trenju začimb in and other cultural plants. The Bible reports drugih kulturnih rastlin. Sveto pismo denimo that the Israelites ground manna with poroča, da so Izraelci v možnarjih trli mano, mortars, »the bread down from heaven« (Ex »kruh z neba« (2 Mz 16,4), ki je »bila kakor 16:4), which »was like small whitish seeds koriandrovo seme in podobna bdeliju. and tasted like something baked with sweet Ljudstvo je hodilo okoli, jo nabiralo in […] olive oil. […] the people would collect the trlo v možnarjih, kuhalo v loncih in delalo iz manna, […] crush it into flour, then boil it nje kolače; imela je okus oljnatega kolača« and make it into thin wafers« (Nu 11:7-9). (4 Mz 11,7-8). Preplet uporabne in obredne Such a combination of the practical and funkcije lepo kaže na pomen, ki sta ga imela ceremonial functions indicated very nicely hrana in posodje, v katerem so jo pripravljali Od puščave do mize the meaning that food and vessels in which in stregli, v življenju bližnjevzhodnih starih it was prepared and served in the lives of the kultur. old Near-Eastern cultures. Od leve: skleda s klekom v obliki črke S (1800/1750–1550 pr. Kr., kat. št. 9); skleda z blagim klekom (1300–1200 pr. Kr., kat. št. 16); skodela s klekom na ostenju (2000–1800/1750 pr. Kr., kat. št. 7) From the left: bowl with an S-shaped carination (1800/1750–1550 B.C., Cat. No. 9); bowl with a vestigial carination (1300–1200 B.C., Cat. No. 16); carinated bowl (2000–1800/1750 B.C., Cat. No. 7) OČAKI 1 Mz 12–50 ZGODNJA IN SREDNJA BRONASTA DOBA 3500–1550 pr. Kr. 33 Izraelova zgodovina se začne v puščavi: »Moj Kánaanska regija – ki zajema današnji Izrael in mora posameznik, ki se je ločil od svoje skupine, oče je bil blodeč Aramejec.« (5 Mz 26,5) Beseda Libanon, ozemlje Palestine ter dele Jordanije, nujno računati na sprejem pri skupinah, mimo »blodeč« kaže na Izraelove nomadske korenine, Sirije in severovzhodnega Egipta – je bila tedaj katerih potuje ali katerim se pridruži. Vsakdo predniki Izraelcev in Izraelci sami so v začetku razdeljena med majhne mestne države, od katerih utegne potrebovati tako pomoč in vsakdo jo svoje zgodovine živeli nomadsko in polnomadsko je morda najpomembnejša Hacór (arheološka mora nuditi: to je temelj zakona gostoljubnosti in življenje. Natančna časovna določitev tega izkopavanja so pokazala, da je bilo mesto uničeno zaščite. Gostoljubje se je kazalo v različnih oblikah, obdobja, t. i. obdobja očakov (Abrahama, ob prihodu Izraelcev), Sveto pismo pa omenja še vsem pa je skupna zaščita in obilna pogostitev Izaka in Jakoba), je nemogoča. Trigeneracijska mnoge druge, npr. Gazo, Lahíš, Megído. V Svetem gostov: Abraham je razkošno sprejel »tri može« pri pripoved najverjetneje odseva stoletja dolge pismu (Stare zaveze) izraz Kánaan označuje vso Mamrejevih hrastih (1 Mz 18,1-8); Laban je tekel, procese naseljevanja semitskih plemen v predele deželo, ki jo je Bog obljubil Izraelcem in so jo pod da bi sprejel in pogostil Abrahamovega služabnika rodovitnega polmeseca. njegovim vodstvom zavzeli. (1 Mz 24,28-32). Rabi Natán pripoveduje, da je Potovanje Abrahama oziroma Abrahamovega rodu Nomade je arheološko težko izslediti, ker niso Abraham imel vrata na vseh štirih straneh svojega tako postavljajo v sklop ekspanzije nomadskih gradili in živeli na istem mestu, ob stalni naselitvi doma, da je lahko hitro sprejel gosta, tujca. plemen iz puščavskih in stepskih predelov Azije na pa so se pogosto prilagodili dotedanji kulturi v Na podlagi predmetov iz ustreznega območje mestnih držav Mezopotamije, rodovitne deželi. Nomadsko življenje narekuje posebno zgodovinskega obdobja, najdenih na različnih dežele med Tigrisom in Evfratom, in (kasneje) družbeno ureditev in poseben način vedenja. lokacijah v današnjem Izraelu in Palestini, lahko Kánaana v prvi polovici 2. tisočletja pr. Kr. Čeprav Takšen je zakon gostoljubnosti, ki ima korenine sklepamo o predmetih, ki so jih nomadski predniki manjka zadostnih dokazov za natančno določitev v nomadskem načinu življenja prednikov Izraela. Izraelcev ob prihodu uporabljali »za mizo« časa, v katerem so živeli očaki, je mogoče njihov Gostoljubnost je nujnost življenja v puščavi, toda ta (v šotoru). prihod v Kánaan postaviti v obdobje med 20. in nujnost je postala »etični imperativ«, krepost, ki jo Od puščave do mize 17. stoletjem pr. Kr. nomadi najbolj cenijo, tudi po naselitvi. V puščavi PATRIARCHS Gn 12–50 EARLY AND MIDDLE BRONZE AGE 3500–1550 B.C. 34 The history of Israel begins in the desert: »My Canaan into the period between the 20th and 17th of Israel’s ancestors. Hospitality is a necessity of ancestor was homeless, an Aramean...« (Dt 26:5) Century B.C. the life in the desert, but this necessity became an The word »homeless« indicates Israel’s nomadic In that time, the Canaan region – which includes to- »ethical imperative«, a virtue most appreciated by roots, the predecessors of the Israelites and the day’s Israel and Lebanon, the area of Palestine and the nomads, also after settlement. In the desert, an Israelites alone lived a nomadic and semi-nomadic parts of Jordan, Syria and the North-Eastern Egypt individual who separates from his group, depends life at the beginning of their history. It is impossi- – was divided into small city states, the most impor-on the acceptance by the groups which he meets on ble to determine the exact time of the period, the tant being Hazor (the archaeological excavations his travel and to which he can join. Anybody might so-called period of the patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac showed that the city was destroyed with the arrival need such help and everybody should offer it: this is and Jacob). The three-generation narrative most of the Israelites), while the Bible mentions many the foundation of the law of hospitality and protec-probably reflects the centuries-long processes of the others, e.g. Gaza, Lachish, Megiddo. In the Bible (in tion. Abraham accepts the »three men« at the trees settlement of the tribes in the Fertile Crescent. the Old Testament), the expression Canaan denotes of Mamre (Gn 18:1-8); Laban runs out to accept The journey of Abraham or Abraham’s tribe is thus the whole land which God promised to the Israelites and treats Abraham’s servant (Gn 24:28-32). set into the context of the expansion of nomadic and they conquered it under His leadership. Rabbi Natan tells that Abraham had doors on all tribes from the desert and steppe areas of Asia Archaeologically, nomads are difficult to trace, four sides of his home, so that he could quickly to the area of the city states of Mesopotamia, the since they do not build and live in the same place. accept a guest, a stranger. fertile land between the Tigris and the Euphrates, However, when they do settle down permanently, On the basis of artefacts from the corresponding and (later) Canaan in the first half of the 2nd they often adapt to the existent culture in the area. historical period found at different locations in Millennium B.C. Even though there is no sufficient The nomadic life dictates a special social order and today’s Israel and Palestine, it can be inferred what proof for the exact determination of time when the a special type of behaviour. One example is the law objects the nomadic ancestors of the Israelis used patriarchs lived, it is possible to set their arrival in of hospitality which originates in the nomadic life on the table (in a tent). desert to the table From the ABRAHAM'S THREE GUESTS BOG V GOSTEH PRI ABRAHAMU Book of Genesis 18:1-8 Prva Mojzesova knjiga 18,1-8 35 One hot summer afternoon while Abraham was sitting by the entrance to his tent near the sacred trees of Mamre, the GOSPOD se je prikazal Abrahamu pri Mamrejevih hrastih, ko je ob dnevni vročini sedèl pred vhodom v šotor. Povzdignil je oči, LORD appeared to him. Abraham pogledal in glej, pred njim so stali trije možje. looked up and saw three men standing nearby. He Ko jih je zagledal, jim je stekel naproti od vhoda v quickly ran to meet them, bowed with his face to šotor in se jim priklonil do tal. Rekel je: »Moj gospod, the ground, and said, »Please come to my home če sem našel naklonjenost v tvojih očeh, nikar ne hodi where I can serve you. I’ll have some water brought, mimo svojega služabnika! Naj prinesejo malo vode, so you can wash your feet, then you can rest under da si umijete noge. Potem se spočijte pod drevesom! a tree. Let me get you some food to give you Jaz pa prinesem kos kruha, da se okrepčate, potem strength before you leave. I would be honored to pa lahko greste naprej. Čemu bi sicer prišli mimo serve you.« »Thank you very much,« they answered. svojega služabnika!« Rekli so: »Stori, kakor si »We accept your offer.« Abraham went quickly to rekel!« Abraham je pohitel v šotor k Sari in rekel: his tent and said to Sarah, »Hurry! Get a large sack »Hitro vzemi tri merice boljše moke, zamesi jo in of flour and make some bread.« After saying this, he speci kolače!« Potem je Abraham tekel k živini. Vzel rushed off to his herd of cattle and picked out one of je mlado in lepo tele in ga dal hlapcu; ta ga je hitro the best calves, which his servant quickly prepared. pripravil. Vzel je masla in mleka ter tele, ki ga je bil He then served his guests some yogurt and milk pripravil, in vse to položil prednje. Stal je pri njih pod together with the meat. While they were eating, he drevesom in so jedli. stood near them under the tree... Od puščave do mize Dvoročajni vrč z ravnim 2. dnom, ustjem z izlivom in rdečkastim premazom Najdišče: Tell el Farah, Samarija (?) Višina: 15,4 cm Premer ustja: 12,5 cm Inv. št.: 23 Datacija: zgodnja bronasta doba (3500–3050 pr. Kr.) 36 Two-handled jug with a flat base, a rim with a spout and a reddish slip Location: Tell el Farah, Samaria (?) Height: 15.4 cm Opening diameter: 12.5 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 23 Dated: Early Bronze Age From the (3500–3050 B.C.) Polkrožna skodela s koničnim omfalosom in 3. vboklim dnom Najdišče: Tell el Farah, Samarija (?) Višina: 4,8 cm Premer ustja: 12,6 cm Inv. št.: 61 Datacija: zgodnja bronasta doba (3500–3050 pr. Kr.) 37 Semi-circular bowl with a conical omphalos and a concave base Od puščave do mize Location: Tell el Farah, Samaria (?) Height: 4.8 cm Opening diameter: 12.6 cm Inv. No.: 61 Dated: Early Bronze Age (3500–3050 B.C.) Dvoročajni kroglast lonec 4. (amforiskos) z ravnim dnom in Perforacijo na trupu, narejeno po žganju Najdišče: Ain Samiyeh Višina: 15,4 cm Premer ustja: 8,3 cm Inv. št.: 18 Datacija: zgodnja bronasta doba (2300–2000 pr. Kr.) 38 Two-handled amphoriskos with a flat base and a perforation on the body that was made after firing Location: Ain Samiyeh Height: 15.4 cm Opening diameter: 8.3 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 18 Dated: Early Bronze Age From the (2300–2000 B.C.) Trebušast lonec z lijakastim vratom, ravnim dnom in 5. tremi pasovi z glavnikom izdelanih linij na ramenu Najdišče: Ain Samiyeh Višina: 21,5 cm Premer ustja: 10,4 cm Inv. št.: 15 Datacija: zgodnja bronasta doba (2300–2000 pr. Kr.) 39 Bellied jar with a funnel- shaped neck, a flat base and three stripes of lines made with a comb at its shoulder Od puščave do mize Location: Ain Samiyeh Height: 21.5 cm Opening diameter: 10.4 cm Inv. No.: 15 Dated: Early Bronze Age (2300–2000 B.C.) Skleda z rahlo uvihanim 6. ustjem in ravnim dnom Najdišče: Ain Samiyeh Višina: 5,7 cm Premer ustja: 18,2 cm Inv. št.: 1 Datacija: srednja bronasta doba (2000–1800/1750 pr. Kr.) 40 Bowl with slightly in-turned rim and a flat base Location: Ain Samiyeh. Height: 5.7 cm Opening diameter: 18.2 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 1 Dated: Middle Bronze Age From the (2000–1800/1750 B.C.) Skodela s klekom na ostenju, ravnim dnom in 7. izvihanim ustjem Najdišče: Ain Samiyeh Višina: 9,9 cm Premer ustja: 13,1 cm Inv. št.: 2 Datacija: srednja bronasta doba (2000–1800/1750 pr. Kr.) 41 Carinated bowl with a flat base and an out-turned rim Od puščave do mize Location: Ain Samiyeh Height: 9.9 cm Opening diameter: 13.1 cm Inv. No.: 2 Dated: Middle Bronze Age (2000–1800/1750 B.C.) Skleda z uvihanim ustjem in 8. vboklim dnom Najdišče: Ain Samiyeh Višina: 4,7 cm Premer ustja: 20,1 cm Inv. št.: 3 Datacija: srednja bronasta doba (1800/1750–1650 pr. Kr.) 42 Bowl with an in-turned rim and a concave base Location: Ain Samiyeh Height: 4.7 cm Opening diameter: 20.1 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 3 Dated: Middle Bronze Age From the (1800/1750–1650 B.C.) Skleda s klekom v obliki črke S in prstanastim dnom 9. Najdišče: Hebron (?) Višina: 6,4 cm Premer ustja: 15,6 cm Inv. št.: 60 Datacija: srednja bronasta doba (1800/1750–1550 pr. Kr.) 43 Bowl with an S-shaped carination and a ring base Od puščave do mize Location: Hebron (?) Height: 6.4 cm Opening diameter: 15.6 cm Inv. No.: 60 Dated: Middle Bronze Age (1800/1750–1550 B.C.) Skodela z izvihanim ustjem, 10. klekom v obliki črke S in nogo Najdišče: Ain Samiyeh Višina: 9,2 cm Premer ustja: 11,6 cm Inv. št.: 55 Datacija: srednja bronasta doba (1800/1750–1550 pr. Kr.) 44 Bowl with an out-turned rim, S-shaped carination and a foot Location: Ain Samiyeh Height: 9.2 cm Opening diameter: 11.6 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 55 Dated: Middle Bronze Age From the (1800/1750–1550 B.C.) Ciborij na votli nogi 11. Najdišče: Ain Samiyeh Višina: 13,1 cm Premer ustja: 9,1 cm Inv. št.: 53 Datacija: srednja bronasta doba (1800/1750–1550 pr. Kr.) 45 Ciborium on a trumpet foot Od puščave do mize Location: Ain Samiyeh Height: 13.1 cm Opening diameter: 9.1 cm Inv. No.: 53 Dated: Middle Bronze Age (1800/1750–1550 B.C.) Kelih na votli nogi 12. Najdišče: Ain Samiyeh Višina: 13,4 cm Premer ustja: 15,2 cm Inv. št.: 13 Datacija: srednja bronasta doba (1800/1750–1550 pr. Kr.) 46 Chalice on a trumpet foot Location: Ain Samiyeh Height: 13.4 cm Opening diameter: 15.2 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 13 Dated: Middle Bronze Age From the (1800/1750–1550 B.C.) KOMENTAR K ARHEOLOŠKEMU GRADIVU IN IZBRANIM EKSPONATOM 47 Lončenina je eden najboljših pokazateljev tehnološkega, gospodarskega in družbenega razvoja starih civilizacij. S časom se je namreč spreminjala tehnologija priprave gline in žganja lončenine. Sprva se je pojavilo preprosto, potem pa tudi hitro lončarsko kolo. Uvoženo posodje kaže na trgovske povezave, novi ornamenti in oblike pa na kulturne vplive. Najstarejši lončeni posodi iz Biblične arheološke zbirke sta dvoročajni lonec in skledica s koničnim omfalosom – izboklino na dnu posode (kat. št. 2 in 3). Obe obliki sta značilni za začetek zgodnje bronaste dobe, čas prvih večjih utrjenih naselbin. Prehod iz zgodnje v srednjo bronasto dobo je zaznamovalo kratko obdobje ponovne prevlade nomadsko-ruralne ureditve z značilnim posodjem, odkritim večinoma v grobovih. Posode so kroglaste ali sodčaste oblike, narejene prostoročno, zgornji in spodnji del lahko celo ločeno, ki sta bila nato spojena. To je mogoče razbrati iz sledov glajenja oziroma prstnih odtisov in nepravilne oblike posod. Nekatere so bile naknadno dodelane na lončarskem vretenu ali okrašene z uporabo glavnika. Dekoracija je izvedena na ramenu posode in verjetno skuša prekriti zgladitev na spoju zgornjega in spodnjega dela posode (kat. št. 4 in 5). V srednji bronasti dobi II se je dokončno uveljavila uporaba lončarskega kolesa, zaradi česar je oblika posod postala pravilnejša. Ob enostavnih odprtih ali zaobljenih skledicah (kat. št. 6) so se v fazi II A pojavile tudi takšne s klekom na ostenju (kat. št. 7). Prototipi za take oblike izhajajo iz kovinskih posod, kleki pa postanejo še izrazitejši in stene manj zaobljene v naslednji fazi, fazi II B–C (kat. št. 9 in 10). Tipična skledica iz te faze ima ravno steno in uvihano ustje (kat. št. 8). Pojavile so se tudi nove oblike lončenine na visoki votli nogi trobentaste oblike (kat. št. 11 in 12). Za to vrsto namiznega posodja so Od puščave do mize značilne tanke stene, ostri prelomi in kakovostno žganje. An example of a tent as it is still used today by Arabic tribes with a similar nomadic way of living. Unleavened bread A COMMENTARY ON THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND THE SELECTED ARTEFACTS 48 HOSPITALITY Pottery is one of best indicators of the technological, economic, and social development of old civilizations. The technology of the preparation and firing of clay changes over time. At first a T he remains of the nomadic way of life: some old habits of the Israelites were kept long after simple, and then later a fast pottery wheel appears. Imported pottery shows trade links, and new their (permanent) settlement. The language, which ornaments and forms indicate the cultural influences. is more conservative than practices, preserved some The oldest clay pots from the Biblical Archaeological Collection are the two-handled jug and the signs of past experiences. For example, »a tent« in the bowl with conical omphalos – embossing at the bottom of the bowl (Cat. Nos. 2–3). They are both songs and also in everyday speech often denotes a typical of the beginning of the Early Bronze Age, the time of the first larger fortified settlements. home, and such is the standard English translation The transition from the Early to the Middle Bronze Age is characterized by a short period of the of the Bible (Jg 19:9; 1 S 13:2; 1 Ki 8:66; the released repeated predomination of nomadic-rural order with typical pottery, mainly found in graves. soldiers return »to their homes«: 1 S 4:10; 2 S 18:17). The pottery is spherical or barrel-shaped, made using bare hands, sometimes even primarily in If they want to express that they would like to set two separate parts, the upper and the lower ones, which are later joined into one. This can be in-out on a journey early in the morning, they use the ferred from the traces of strokes or fingerprints and the irregular form of the bowls. Some of them verb meaning »to load the stock« which is a nomadic are subsequently completed at the pottery wheel or ornamented using a comb. The decoration is expression denoting an early morning start from the made at the shoulder of the bowl and most probably tries to cover the smoothing at the junction tent (the standard English translation of the Bible of the upper and lower part of the bowl (Cat. Nos. 4–5). follows this meaning and simplifies it; see Jg 19:9; 1 In the II Middle Bronze Age, the use of a pottery wheel was finally established, and so the form S 17:20 etc.). These expressions were used later long of the bowls became more regular. In phase II A, next to the simple open or rounded bowls after Israelites became attached to the land. (Cat. No. 6), carinated bowls appeared (Cat. No. 7). Prototypes for such forms originated from It is necessary to draw attention to the frequent use metal bowls. The carination becomes even more explicit and the walls less rounded in the next of metaphors in the poetry of the Old Testament phase II B-C (Cat. Nos. 9–10). A typical bowl in this phase has a flat wall and in–turned rim (Cat. borrowed from the nomadic life. Death is a broken No. 8). New forms of pottery appear, bowls on high trumpet foot (Cat. Nos. 11–12). The characte-tent rope or tent pegs pulled up (Job 4:21), a moved ristic of this type of table-ware are the thin walls, sharp breaks and quality firing. tent (Is 38:12). Despair and sadness are broken tent ropes, or a destroyed tent (Jr 10:20); there are many desert to the table allusions to the pastoral life and they often present God (or his Messiah) as the Good Shepherd (Ps 23; Is From the 40:11; Jr 23; Ez 34 etc.). Prikaz šotorskega bivališča kot se uporablja še danes pri arabskih plemenih s sorodnim nomadskim načinom življenja. Nekvašen kruh (opresnik) GOSTOLJUBJE 49 Ostanki nomadskega načina življenja; nekatere stare navade Izraelcev so se obdržale še dolgo po (stalni) naselitvi. Jezik, ki je bolj konservativen kot navade, je ohranil znamenja nekdanjih izkušenj. »Šotor« v pesmih in tudi v vsakdanjem govoru pogostokrat označuje hišo (Sod 19,9; 1 Sam 13,2; 1 Kr 8,66); odpuščeni vojaki so se vrnili »vsak v svoj šotor« (1 Sam 4,10; 2 Sam 18,17); »Vsak v svoj šotor, Izrael!« je bil klic k uporu proti Davidu (2 Sam 20,1) in po Salomonovi smrti (1 Kr 12,16). Če so hoteli reči, da bodo odrinili na pot zgodaj zjutraj, so pogostokrat uporabili glagol, ki pomeni »otovoriti živino« (Sod 19,9; 1 Sam 17,20 ipd.); to je nomadski izraz, s katerim so označili zgodnji jutranji odhod iz šotorišča. Ti izrazi so bili še naprej v rabi, ko je bil Izrael že dolgo vezan na zemljo, ko je živel kmečko življenje in je bil njegov ideal živeti v miru »vsak pod svojo trto in pod svojo smokvo«. Opozoriti je treba še na pogosto uporabo prispodob v pesništvu Stare zaveze, ki so si jih izposodili pri nomadskem življenju. Smrt je prerezana šotorska vrv Od puščave do mize ali izruvani kolec (Job 4,21), odnesen šotor (Iz 38,12). Obup, žalost so pretrgane šotorske vrvi, razdejan šotor (Jer 10,20); mnogo je namigovanj na pastirsko življenje in pogosto predstavljajo Boga (ali njegovega Mesijo) kot dobrega pastirja (Ps 23; Iz 40,11; Jer 23; Ezk 34 ipd.). Bikonični vrč (1400–1300 pr. Kr., kat. št. 13) Bi-conical jug (1400–1300 B.C., Cat. No. 13) IZHOD IZ EGIPTA IN NASELITEV KÁNAANA 2 Mz, 4 Mz, 5 Mz, Joz POZNA BRONASTA DOBA 1550–1200 pr. Kr. 51 Sveto pismo poroča, da so Abrahamovi potomci uvaja pripoved o osvoboditvi in sklenitvi zaveze. vsesplošni in neprekinjeni izraelski osvojitvi zaradi lakote potovali iz Kánaana naprej proti Čas odhoda iz Egipta zgodovinarji postavljajo v se ujema z nagnjenji in pristopom kasnejših zahodu in se naselili v Egiptu (1 Mz 12), »žitnici« 13. stoletje pr. Kr. redaktorjev Svetega pisma. Francoski biblicist R. de antičnega sveta. V Egiptu so postali številčna V puščavi se je Mojzesu razodel »JAZ SEM, KI SEM«, Vaux je zapisal: »Za svetega pisca zavzetje Kánaana skupnost, ki so jo faraoni zasužnjili. Toda moč Bog Abrahama, Izaka in Jakoba (2 Mz 3), nekoliko ni sveten, marveč teološki dogodek.« Podrobnejša Egipta je v 14. stoletju pr. Kr. zelo oslabela, kasneje je bila na peščenih tleh Sinajskega pogorja analiza svetopisemskih virov in arheološke preživljal je tudi versko krizo. To je bil čas vladanja sklenjena »Stara zaveza«. Ne glede na domneve najdbe prikazujejo zapleten in dolgotrajen proces faraonov Amenofisa IV. (Ehnatona, ok. 1350– nekaterih strokovnjakov, da je bila ta tradicija osvajanja. V Svetem pismu omenjena ozemeljska 1333 pr. Kr.) in Tutankamona (ok. 1333–1323 prvotno ločena od odhoda iz Egipta in dodana razdelitev med plemeni je bolj odraz stanja ob pr. Kr.). Nekoliko kasneje je general Horemheb kasneje, je prav ta osrednjega pomena v teološki koncu naselitve kakor pa stanja takoj po osvojitvi. (ok. 1319– 1291 pr. Kr.) ustanovil 19. dinastijo in nacionalni pripovedi judovstva. Bog je povabil Kánaan je bil zaradi egiptovskega izkoriščanja in (13. stoletje pr. Kr.). Novi vladar Ramzes II. (ok. Izraela »za mizo« – »zrli so Boga, jedli so in pili« občasnih vojaških posegov dokaj osiromašen, 1279–1212 pr. Kr.) je moral utrjevati Nilovo delto (2 Mz 24,11). Od tistega trenutka naprej je bila miza dežela sama pa je bila razdeljena na veliko število pred nevarnostjo Hetitov in zaradi uporov vazalov v svetišču vedno polna, obložena s »hlebi obličja«, mestnih državic. Kljub temu je Izraelcem v prvi mestnih državic v Kánaanu. Domnevajo, da je za kar je znamenje posebnega odnosa, izvoljenosti. fazi uspelo prevladati le v hribovitih predelih, ta dela uporabil polnomadske delavce, hebrejsko Hlebi se imenujejo tako, ker so bili položeni pred predvsem na območju osrednje Judeje. delovno silo, ki so jo imeli »pri roki«. V Drugi »obličje« Boga (prim. 3 Mz 24,5-9; 1 Sam 21,5). Bivanje v puščavi je bilo za Izrael posebna verska Mojzesovi knjigi beremo: »Postavili so jim torej Po odhodu iz Egipta so se Izraelovi rodovi izkušnja, ki je ob različnih krizah oblikovala Izrael – [Egipčani Izraelcem] priganjače pri tlaki, da bi postopoma naselili v Kánaanu. Po svetopisemskem v verskem in nacionalnem smislu. Nezvestoba jih stiskali s težkimi deli; tako so zidali za faraona poročilu je bila obljubljena dežela osvojena in pomanjkanje vere sta razkriti v nizu »uporov«, Od puščave do mize skladiščni mesti Pitóm in Ramesés.« (2 Mz 1,11) v kratkotrajni vojni. Gre za teološko kroniko povezanih s prehranjevanjem in temeljnimi Mesti Pitóm in Ramesés so arheologi izkopali na osvajanja in prihoda Izraelcev v obljubljeno deželo, telesnimi potrebami, in po biblični pripovedi je vzhodnem robu Nilove delte pri današnjih naseljih osvajanje »dežele, v kateri se cedita med in mleko« bilo potrebnih 40 let, da je bil Izrael pripravljen za Kantir in Tel el Daba. Besedilo Druge Mojzesove (2 Mz 3,8), je za svetega pisca predvsem verski vstop v obljubljeno deželo. knjige poudarja faraonovo nasilje nad Izraelci, ker dogodek. To poenostavljeno izročilo o hkratni, THE DEPARTURE FROM EGYPT AND THE SETTLEMENT IN CANAAN Ex, Nu, Dt, Jos LATE BRONZE AGE 1550–1200 B.C. 52 The Bible reports that due to famine, Abraham’s at the Eastern edge of the Nile’s delta where today’s by means of a short war. It is a theological chroni-descendants travelled from Canaan forward to villages of Qantir and Tell el-Dab’a are standing. cle of the conquest and arrival of the Israelites to the West and they settled down in Egypt (Gn 12), The text in the Book of Exodus emphasizes phara-the Promised Land; the author of the sacred text re-the »granary« of the antique world. In Egypt, oh’s violence against the Israelites, since it introdu-gards the conquest of the »good land, rich with milk they became a numerous community which was ces a narrative on their liberation and covenant. and honey« (Ex 3:8) most of all as a religious event. treated as slaves by the pharaohs. But in the 14th Historians have set the time of departure from This simplified report about the simultaneous, Century B.C., the power of Egypt diminished, Egypt to be in the 13th Century B.C. universal and continuous Israelites’ conquest cor-and it went through a religious crisis, as well. It is In the desert, Moses met God: the God who was responds with the inclinations and the approach of the time of the reign of the pharaohs Amenophis worshiped by Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Ex 3). later editors of the Bible. A detailed analysis of the IV (Akhenaten, ca. 1350–1333 B.C.) and A bit later on the desert soil of the Mount Sinai, the biblical sources and archaeological findings show Tutankhamun (ca. 1333–1323 B.C.). Some years »Old Testament« was concluded. Regardless of some a complex and long-lasting process of conquest. later, general Horemheb (ca. 1319–1291 B.C.) esta-hypotheses by some scientists that this tradition was Due to Egyptian exploitation and periodical blished the 19th Dynasty (13th Century B.C.). The originally separated from the departure from Egypt military interventions, Canaan was rather impo-new ruler Ramesses II (ca. 1279–1212 B.C.) had and added later, this same tradition is of central si-verished, and the land was divided into many city to fortify the Nile delta against the dangers from gnificance in the theological and national narrati-states. Even though in the first phase, the Israelites the Hittites and because of the up-risings of the ve of Judaism. God invited Israel »to the table« – »so managed to predominate only in the highland are-vassals of the city states in Canaan. It is assumed they ate and drank« (Ex 24:11). From this moment as, especially in the area of central Judea. that for this work, he used semi-nomadic workers, on, the table at the sanctuary was always full, The Israelites experienced the stay in the desert as a the Hebrew work force which they had »at hand«. laden with »the sacred loaves of bread«, which was special religious experience which formed Israel in The Book of Exodus states: »The Egyptians put slave a sign of a special relationship, or peculiarity. The various crises – in the religious and national sense. bosses in charge of the people of Israel and tried to loaves were named like this because they were laid Unfaithfulness and a lack of faith were revealed in wear them down with hard work. Those bosses for-in front of God’s face (comp. Lv 24:5-9; 1 S 21:4). a series of »rebellions« connected to nutrition and ced them to build the cities of Pithom and Rameses, After the departure from Egypt, the Israelites gra-basic corporal needs, and according to the biblical desert to the table where the king could store his supplies.« (Ex 1:11) dually settled down in Canaan. According to the narrative, forty years was required for the Israelites The cities of Pithom and Rameses were excavated biblical report, the Promised Land was conquered to be ready to enter the Promised Land. From the IZRAEL SE V PUŠČAVI VODA V MASI IN MERÍBI PRITOŽUJE ZARADI Druga Mojzesova knjiga 17,1-7 POMANJKANJA Četrta Mojzesova knjiga 11,4-9 53 Drhal, ki je bila med njimi, je začela hlepeti po hrani in tudi Izraelovi sinovi so spet začeli jokati in govoriti: »Kdo nam bo dal jesti meso? Spominjamo se rib, ki smo jih zastonj jedli v Egiptu, kumar, lubenic, pora, čebule in Ko so se utaborili v Refidímu, tam ni bilo vode, da bi ljudstvo moglo piti. Zato so se prepirali z Mojzesom; rekli so: »Dajta nam vode, da bomo pili!« Mojzes jim je rekel: »Kaj se prepirate z menoj? Zakaj preizkušate česna. Zdaj pa naša duša hira; ničesar več ni, le mano GOSPODA?« Ljudstvo je bilo tam žejno in tako imamo pred očmi.« Mana pa je bila kakor koriandrovo je godrnjalo zoper Mojzesa: »Zakaj si nas izpeljal iz seme in podobna bdeliju. Ljudstvo je hodilo okoli, jo Egipta, da z žejo pomoriš nas, naše otroke in našo nabiralo in mlelo v žrmljah ali trlo v možnarjih, kuhalo živino?« In Mojzes je vpil h GOSPODU ter rekel: v loncih in delalo iz nje kolače; imela je okus oljnatega »Kaj naj storim s tem ljudstvom? Še malo in kamnali kolača. Ko je na tabor ponoči padala rosa, je z njo me bodo.« GOSPOD je rekel Mojzesu: »Pojdi padala tudi mana. pred ljudstvom in vzemi s seboj nekaj Izraelovih starešin! Tudi palico, s katero si udaril Nil, vzemi v roko in pojdi! Glej, stal bom pred teboj tam na skali na Horebu. Udari po skali in iz nje bo pritekla voda, da bo ljudstvo moglo piti!« Mojzes je storil tako pred očmi Izraelovih starešin. In dal je temu kraju ime Masa in Meríba, ker so se Izraelovi sinovi prepirali in preizkušali GOSPODA ter rekli: »Ali je GOSPOD med nami ali ne?« Od puščave do mize THE PEOPLE GRUMBLE THE LORD GIVES WATER ABOUT BEING HUNGRY FROM A ROCK Book of Numbers 11:4-9 Book of Exodus 17:1-7 54 One day some foreigners among the Israelites became greedy for food, and even the Israelites themselves began Once they camped at Rephidim, but there was no water for them to drink. The people started complaining to Moses, »Give us moaning, »We don’t have any meat! In some water!« Moses replied, »Why are Egypt we could eat all the fish we wanted, and you complaining to me and trying to put the LORD there were cucumbers, melons, all kinds of onions, to the test?« But the people were thirsty and kept on and garlic. But we’re starving out here, and the only complaining, »Moses, did you bring us out of Egypt just food we have is this manna.« The manna was like to let us and our families and our animals die of thirst?« small whitish seeds and tasted like something baked Then Moses prayed to the LORD, »What am I going with sweet olive oil. It appeared at night with the to do with these people? They are about to stone me dew. In the morning the people would collect the to death!« The LORD answered, »Take some of the manna, grind or crush it into flour, then boil it and leaders with you and go ahead of the rest of the people. make it into thin wafers. Also take along the walking stick with which you struck the Nile River. When you get to the rock at Mount Sinai, I will be there with you. Strike the rock with the stick, and water will pour out for the people to drink.« Moses did this while the leaders watched. The people had complained and tested the LORD by asking, »Is the LORD really with us?« So Moses named that place Massah, which means »testing« and Meribah, which means »complaining.« desert to the table From the Bikonični vrč z narebrenim vratom in prstanastim 13. dnom Najdišče: Hebron (?) Višina: 18,5 cm Premer ustja: 7,5 cm Inv. št.: 59 Datacija: pozna bronasta doba (1400–1300 pr. Kr.) 55 Bi-conical jug with a ribbed neck and a ring base Od puščave do mize Location: Hebron (?) Height: 18.5 cm Opening diameter: 7.5 cm Inv. No.: 59 Dated: Late Bronze Age (1400–1300 B.C.) Zaobljena skleda z ravnim 14. dnom Najdišče: Hebron Višina: 7 cm Premer ustja: 16 cm Inv. št.: 6 Datacija: pozna bronasta doba (1400–1300 pr. Kr.) 56 Rounded bowl with a flat base Location: Hebron Height: 7 cm Opening diameter: 16 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 6 Dated: Late Bronze Age From the (1400–1300 B.C.) Skleda z blagim klekom in prstanastim dnom 15. Najdišče: Hebron Višina: 8,5 cm Premer ustja: 17,5 cm Inv. št.: 4 Datacija: pozna bronasta doba (1300–1200 pr. Kr.) 57 Bowl with a vestigial carination and a ring base Od puščave do mize Location: Hebron Height: 8.5 cm Opening diameter: 17.5 cm Inv. No.: 4 Dated: Late Bronze Age (1300–1200 B.C.) Skleda z blagim klekom in 16. prstanastim dnom Najdišče: Hebron Višina: 9,8 cm Premer ustja: 16,5 cm Inv. št.: 5 Datacija: pozna bronasta doba (1300–1200 pr. Kr.) 58 Bowl with a vestigial carination and a ring base Location: Hebron Height: 9.8 cm Opening diameter: 16.5 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 5 Dated: Late Bronze Age From the (1300–1200 B.C.) The Exodus routes (from Egypt) KOMENTAR K ARHEOLOŠKEMU GRADIVU IN IZBRANIM EKSPONATOM 60 WATER Lončenina pozne bronaste dobe je precej bolj groba in tehnološko manj zahtevna kot v predhodnem obdobju. Zmanjšuje se pestrost oblik in dekoracije, oblike so enotnejše. Še vedno je pogosta razgibana profilacija posod, zlasti skled in čaš. Ravna ali izvihana ustja posod so W ater in the Bible represents the source of life and fruitfulness. To značilna za večje odprte posode, vrči pa imajo visoke vratove z zavihanim robom. Posode so »drink water of his own cistern« (2 Ki 18:31 okrašene z vodoravnimi ali valovitimi potezami glavnika na ramenu ali zgornjem delu. WEB) was the proverbial wish of every V Biblični arheološki zbirki je prevladujoča oblika poznobronastodobne lončenine odprta Israelite, therefore they collected water skledica. Različica z zaobljeno steno in ravnim dnom (kat. št. 14) sodi v fazo II A, bolj profilirane in underground rain water containers s prstanasto nogo pa v pozno bronasto dobo II B (kat. št. 15 in 16). V fazo II A sodi tudi vrč z (cisterns). bikoničnim trupom in visokim, drobno narebrenim vratom (kat. št. 13). Human thirst or the need for water is a basic human need but it should not become the standard and the goal of human life (Ex 17:1-7). According to the rabbinic tradition, the rock out of which water poured (Ex 17:1- A COMMENTARY ON THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND 7; Nu 20:2-13), accompanied the Israelites on THE SELECTED ARTEFACTS their journey across the desert. In this rock, Paul saw Christ’s image: »All of them also The pottery of the Late Bronze Age is more coarse and technologically less sophisticated than ate the same spiritual food and drank the in the previous period. The variety of forms and decoration is reduced and the forms are more same spiritual drink, which flowed from the unified. The profilation of the vessels, especially the bowls and beakers, is still often diversified. spiritual rock that followed them. That rock Flat or out-turned rims are typical for large open vessels, while jugs have high necks with pinched was Christ.« (1 Co 10:3-4) rims. The vessels are decorated with horizontal or undulating comb strokes at the shoulder or in the upper part. In the Biblical Archaeological Collection, the predominating form of the pottery of the Late Bronze Age was an open small bowl. The variant with a rounded wall and flat base (Cat. No. 14) desert to the table belongs to the II A phase, while more profile variants with a ring foot belong to the II B Late Bronze Age (Cat. Nos. 15–16). The jug with a bi-conical body and high finely ribbed neck too From the belongs to the II A phase (Cat. No. 13). Poti izhoda (iz Egipta) Jericho Jeriha MEDITERRANEAN SEA Mount Nebo SREDOZEMSKO MORJE Gora Nebo Gaza Gaza Dead Sea Mrtvo morje Rameses Ramesés VODA 61 Succoth Sukót Pithom Wilderness of Shur Har Karkom Pitóm Puščava Šur Voda je v Svetem pismu vir življenja in Har Harkom rodovitnosti. »Piti vodo iz svoje kapnice« Kadesh-Barnea Kadeš Barnéa (2 Kr 18,31) je bila pregovorna želja vsakega Izraelca, zato so v deževnem obdobju vodo zbirali v izkopane kapnice (cisterne). Wilderness of Zin Puščava Cin Človeška žeja oziroma potreba po vodi je temeljna človeška potreba, vendar ne sme Sea of Reeds crossing postati merilo in cilj človeškega življenja (2 (Yam Suph) Makheloth Timnah Mz 17,1-7). Po rabinskem izročilu je skala, Prehod čez Makhelót Timna Trstično morje Marah iz katere je pritekla voda (2 Mz 17,1-7; 4 Mz Mara 20,2-13), Izraelce spremljala na potovanju po Ezion-Geber (Eloth) Wilderness of Paran puščavi. V tej skali je Pavel videl Kristusovo Ecjón Geber (Elát) Puščava Parán Elim podobo: »Vsi so jedli isto duhovno jed in vsi Elím so pili isto duhovno pijačo. Pili so namreč iz km duhovne skale, ki jih je spremljala. In ta skala 120 Hazeroth je bil Kristus.« (1 Kor 10,3-4) Hacerót Red Sea Rdeče morje Wilderness of Sin 80 Puščava Sinaj Jebel Serbal Od puščave do mize Assumed locations of Mount Sinai Gebel Serbal Domnevane lokalizacije za goro Sinaj 40 Traditional route Pot po izročilu Jebel Musa Way of the Philistines (Via maris) Gebel Musa Pot Filistejcev (Via maris) Sinai Other suggested routes Druge predlagane poti Sinaj 0 Od leve: dvoročajni kroglast lonec/amforiskos (2300–2000 pr. Kr., kat. št. 4); ciborij na votli nogi (1800/1750–1550 pr. Kr., kat. št. 11); bikonični vrč (1400–1300 pr. Kr., kat. št. 13) From the left: two-handled amphoriskos (2300–2000 B.C., Cat. No. 4); ciborium on a trumpet foot (1800/1750–1550 B.C., Cat. No. 11); bi-conical jug (1400–1300 B.C., Cat. No. 13) DOBA SODNIKOV: OD PLEMENSKE UREDITVE DO KRALJESTVA Sod, 1 Sam STAREJŠA ŽELEZNA DOBA 1200–1030 pr. Kr. 63 Podatki iz Knjige sodnikov kažejo, da so Izraelci izjemoma se je njihovo delovanje razširilo na več pa so še vedno nadzorovali voditelji družin. V sprva živeli v nekakšni ohlapni zvezi rodov brez (skupin) rodov. Pripovedi o osvojitvi Kánaana so tem obdobju je patriarhalna avtoriteta v različnih skupnega uradnega organa (voditelja) in brez bile shematizirane na račun združenega Izraela in plemenih začela popuščati, predvsem zaradi vse prave politične učinkovitosti. Izročilo v tem času ne na škodo značilnosti posameznih rodov. manj nomadskega in vse bolj poljedelskega značaja pozna nobene osebnosti, ki bi jo lahko primerjali Čeprav se sodniki med seboj razlikujejo, imajo izraelskega življenja, večje navezanosti na zemljo in z Mojzesom ali Jozuetom, govorimo o obdobju skupni imenovalec, kot beremo v Svetem pismu: za delne prilagoditve na kánaansko mestno okolje. sodnikov. Redaktor Knjige sodnikov je to dobo rešitev jih je izbral Bog (Sod 3,9.15; 4,7; 6,14; 13,5), Pripoved o sodniku Gideónu se, podobno kot razdelil med poglavarje (sodnike), ki naj bi eden nad njimi je Gospodov duh (Sod 3,10; 6,34; 11,29; Abrahamova, začne »za mizo«, z Gideónovo za drugim vodili ves Izrael. Kasneje so proučevalci 13,25; 14,6.19). Gre za način vladanja, pri katerem postrežbo Gospodovega angela: »›Prosim te, ne Svetega pisma spoznali, da je bila ta delitev umetna. je bilo vodstvo osnovano na osebni karizmi. S tem hodi od tod, dokler se ne vrnem k tebi, prinesem Osebe, o katerih poroča Knjiga sodnikov, se je ločilo tako od tradicionalnega patriarhalnega svoj dar in ga postavim predte!‹ Rekel mu je: imenujemo »sodniki«, heb. šopetím, iz glagola vodstva starešin in poglavarjev plemen kakor ›Ostanem, dokler se ne vrneš.‹ Tedaj je Gideón šapát, ki pomeni soditi, pa tudi varovati ali braniti. tudi od institucionalizirane avtoritete kasnejše odšel, pripravil kozjega mladiča in nekvašenega Tako je bil sodnik tisti, ki je (ponovno) utrdil monarhije. kruha iz škafa moke. V košaro je položil meso in položaj enega ali več rodov, kadar je bil ta položaj Politični režim sodnikov je bil spontane in občasne vlil juho v lonec.« (Sod 6,18-19) iz katerega koli vzroka ogrožen. Sodniki so bili narave, saj so se po prenehanju nevarnosti voditelji enega samega klana ali enega rodu, samo ponovno umaknili v ozadje, vsakdanje zadeve Od puščave do mize THE AGE OF JUDGES: FROM THE TRIBAL ORDER TO THE KINGDOM Jg, 1 S EARLY IRON AGE 1200–1030 B.C. 64 The data from the Book of Judges show that the their operation was only on exceptional occasions while the everyday issues were monitored by the Israelites primarily lived in a kind of loose associa-spread to several (a group of) families. The narra-family leaders. In this period, the patriarch authori-tion of kindreds without an official common organ tives on the conquest of Canaan were schematized ty within different tribes started to slacken, primar- (leader) and without real political efficiency. In on behalf of the united Israelites and to the detri-ily due to the increasingly less nomadic and more this time, tradition does not recall anybody who ment of the characteristics of individual kindreds. agricultural nature of the Israelite life, a stronger could be compared to Moses or Joshua, it is spoken Even though the judges differ, they have a common attachment to the land and a partial adjustment to about the Age of Judges. The editor of the Book of nominator, as the Bible states: they were chosen the Canaan city environment. Judges divided the period among heads (judges), by God to rescue the Israelites (Jg 3:9.15; 4:7; 6:14; The story of judge Gideon, like Abraham's, begins who are believed to have led the whole of Israel. 13:5), the Lord’s Spirit took control of them (Jg »at the table,« with Gideon's hospitality towards The researches of the Bible later found that this 3:10; 6:34; 11:29; 13:25; 14:6.19). It was the type of the Lord's angel: »›And wait here until I bring you division was artificial. ruling in which leadership was based on personal an offering.‹ ›All right, I'll wait,‹ the Lord answered. The people, about whom the Book of Judges reports, charisma. In that it differs from the traditional Gideon went home and killed a young goat, then are called »judges« (heb. shopetím , originating patriarchal leadership of the elders, as well as started boiling the meat. Next, he opened a big sack from the verb shapát , meaning to judge, but also to from the institutionalized authority of the later of flour and made it into thin bread. When the protect or to defend. Thus it was a judge who (re-) monarchy. meat was done, he put it in a basket and poured established the position of one or several kindreds The political order of the judges was of a spontane-the broth into a clay cooking pot.« (Jg 6:18-19) when it was threatened for any reason. The judg-ous and temporary nature, since after the danger es were leaders of one single clan or one family, had ceased, they retreated into the background, desert to the table From the THE LORD CHOOSES GIDEON BOG POKLIČE GIDEÓNA Judges 6:11-22 Sodniki 6,11-22 65 One day an angel from the LORD went to the town of Ophrah and sat down under the big tree that belonged to Joash, a member of the Abiezer Tedaj je prišel GOSPODOV angel in se usedel pod terebinto v Ofri, last Abiézerjevca Joáša. Njegov sin Gideón je clan. Joash’s son Gideon was nearby, threshing v stiskalnici s palico otepal pšenico, da bi jo grain in a shallow pit, where he could not be seen by the spravil na varno pred Midjánci. Tedaj se mu je prikazal Midianites. The angel appeared and spoke to Gideon, »The GOSPODOV angel in mu rekel: »GOSPOD s LORD is helping you, and you are a strong warrior.« Gideon teboj, močni junak!« Gideón mu je rekel: »Toda, moj answered, »Please don’t take this wrong, but if the LORD is gospod, če je GOSPOD z nami, zakaj nas je potem helping us, then why have all of these awful things happened? vse to zadelo? Kje so vsa njegova čudežna dela, o We’ve heard how the LORD performed miracles and rescued katerih so nam pripovedovali naši očetje, ko so rekli: our ancestors from Egypt. But those things happened long ›Ali nas ni GOSPOD izpeljal iz Egipta?‹ Zdaj pa nas ago. Now the LORD has abandoned us to the Midianites.« je GOSPOD zavrgel in izročil v roke Midjáncem.« […] Gideon went home and killed a young goat, then started […] Tedaj je Gideón odšel, pripravil kozjega mladiča boiling the meat. Next, he opened a big sack of flour and made in nekvašenega kruha iz škafa moke. V košaro je it into thin bread. When the meat was done, he put it in a položil meso in vlil juho v lonec. Vse to je odnesel basket and poured the broth into a clay cooking pot. He took k njemu pod terebinto in daroval. Božji angel mu the meat, the broth, and the bread and placed them under the je tedaj rekel: »Vzemi meso in nekvašeni kruh in ju big tree. God’s angel said, »Gideon, put the meat and the bread položi na to skalo, juho pa zlij proč!« Storil je tako. on this rock, and pour the broth over them.« Gideon did as GOSPODOV angel je tedaj vzel konec palice he was told. The angel was holding a walking stick, and he v svojo roko in se dotaknil mesa in nekvašenega Od puščave do mize touched the meat and the bread with the end of the stick. kruha. Iz skale je tedaj švignil ogenj in použil meso Flames jumped from the rock and burned up the meat and in nekvašeni kruh; GOSPODOV angel pa je odšel the bread. When Gideon looked, the angel was gone. Gideon izpred njegovih oči. Tedaj je Gideón videl, da je bil realized that he had seen one of the LORD’s angels. GOSPODOV angel. Vrč s kroglastim trupom, 17. prstanastim dnom, koničnim vratom, trolistnim ustjem in ročajem, ki ustje povezuje z ramenom Najdišče: območje Ramale, grobna najdba Višina: 24,9 cm Premer ustja: 9 cm Inv. št.: 24 Datacija: starejša železna doba 66 (1200–1030 pr. Kr.) Jug with a spherical body, a ring base, a conical neck, a trefoil rim and a handle drawn from the rim to the shoulder Location: the area of Ramallah, found in a grave Height: 24.9 cm Opening diameter: desert to the table 9 cm Inv. No.: 24 Dated: Early Iron Age From the (1200–1030 B.C.) Dvoročajna piksida s hruškastim trupom in z 18. okrasom črnih in rdečih prog na trupu Najdišče: neznano Višina: 10 cm Premer ustja: 3,6 cm Inv. št.: 111 Datacija: starejša železna doba (1200–1030 pr. Kr.) 67 Two-handled pyxis with a piriform body and a decoration of black and red stripes on the body Od puščave do mize Location: unknown Height: 10 cm Opening diameter: 3.6 cm Inv. No.: 111 Dated: Early Iron Age (1200–1030 B.C.) Zaobljena skledica s 19. prstanastim dnom in rdečkastim premazom na zunanji in notranji strani Najdišče: območje Hebrona Višina: 9 cm Premer ustja: 18 cm Inv. št.: 9 Datacija: starejša železna doba (1150–1030 pr. Kr.) 68 Rounded bowl with a ring base and a reddish slip inside and outside Location: the area of Hebron Height: 9 cm Opening diameter: 18 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 9 Dated: Early Iron Age From the (1150–1030 B.C.) KOMENTAR K ARHEOLOŠKEMU GRADIVU IN IZBRANIM EKSPONATOM Spremembe, ki jih je povzročila doselitev izraelskih plemen v Kánaan, so se odražale tudi v predmetih vsakdanje uporabe, v lončenini. Lončenina starejše železne dobe je povezana s kánaanskim izročilom, vendar so bile uvedene tudi novosti. Opazen je razvoj tehnologije izdelovanja keramike na lončarskem vretenu in pri žganju. Številne različice posod so ena od značilnosti železne dobe in pričajo o visokih standardih lončarske obrti. Posode so okrašene drugače, le malo je ostalo slikanega okrasa pozne bronaste dobe, posode imajo delno ali v celoti sijajen premaz, večinoma rdeč, rumen, črn in rjav. Razvoj tehnologije in krašenja keramike je bil posledica stikov s sosednjimi kulturami, s Feničani, Aramejci, Asirci, Egipčani in Ciprom. V Biblični arheološki zbirki lahko starejšemu delu železne dobe pripišemo tri posode. Skledica z 69 nekoliko zaprtim ostenjem (kat. št. 19) predstavlja razvoj tradicionalne oblike. Piksida je majhna vrsta posode mikenskega izvora. V Kánaanu se je hitro udomačila tako med Kánaanci kot med Izraelci, izdelovali so jih v velikem številu in številnih različicah. Dvoročajna piksida (kat. št. 18) je tak lokalni proizvod in pripada severni različici. Tudi vrči s trolistnim ustjem (kat. št. 17) imajo vzore v egejskem prostoru, od koder so se razširili po celotnem Sredozemlju. A COMMENTARY ON THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND THE SELECTED ARTEFACTS The changes caused by the settlement of the Israelite tribes to Canaan, reflect also in the objects of everyday use, in the pottery. The pottery of the Early Iron Age is connected to the Canaanite tradition but it also introduces some novelties. The technology of pottery production had developed on the pottery wheel and in firing of clay. Numerous variants of the vessels is one of the characteristics of the Iron Age and testify about high standards of the pottery trade. Vessels are ornamented differently, only a few of the painted ornaments of the Late Bronze Age had left. The vessels are partly or wholly covered in a glossy slip, mostly of the red, yellow, black, and brown colour. The development of the technology and ornamentation of the pottery is the consequence of the contacts with the neighbouring cultures of the Phoenicians, Arameans, Assyrians, Egyptians and Cyprus. In the Biblical Archaeological Collection, there are three artefacts that can be attributed to the Early Od puščave do mize Iron Age. The bowl with somewhat closed walls (Cat. No. 19) represents the development of the traditional form. A pyxis is a small bowl of Mycenaean origin. In Canaan, it quickly became popular both among the Canaanites and the Israelites, they were made in significant numbers and numerous variants. The two-handled pyxis (Cat. No. 18) is one of such products and belongs to the Northern variants. The jugs with a trefoil rim (Cat. No. 17) have also a model in the Aegean area from where they spread to the whole Mediterranean. Salt Coast of the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea, Heb. jam hamelah (חַלֶּמַה םָי ), is a salt lake at the border between Israel and Jordan. The average salinity of the water is around 28%, up to 33% in most salty areas. The Dead Sea is the second among the most salty lakes on Earth. 70 SALT AND YEAST G ideon »killed a young goat, then started boiling the meat. Next, he opened a big sack of flour and made it into thin bread. […] He took the meat, the broth, and the bread and placed them under the big tree.« (Jg 6:19) B efore the sacrifice, the meat was salted. Salt has, according to the thinking of the antiquity, a purifying power, therefore it was also used in (some) sacrifices: »Salt is offered when you make an agreement with me, so sprinkle salt on these sacrifices.« (Lv 2:13; Ez 43:24) Salt provides taste, preserves and even purifies (comp. 2 Ki 2:19-22). The Jews used it in their worship, in the preparation of the offering (comp. Ex 30:35) and in concluding an agreement (comp. Nu 18:19; 2 Ch 13:5 WEB); this is the origin of the expression the »salt of the covenant (and the covenant of salt).« It is an agreement which is permanent as the taste of salt is permanent. In antiquity, salt symbolized permanence and value. The main source of salt in Israel was the Dead Sea. G ideon (like Abraham in Gn 18) served unleavened bread which could be prepared the fastest. The haste when serving (hospitality) did not allow using yeast. Similarly, on the Passover holiday, the Jews did not add yeast to their bread, since they left Egypt in haste (the bread did not have time to rise). When celebrating Passover, they do not consume anything leavened. All houses had to be thoroughly cleaned, so that any trace of chametz (yeast) was removed: »And on the first of these seven days, you must remove all yeast from your homes. If you eat anything made with yeast during this festival, you will no longer be part of Israel.« (Ex 12:15) I n the Bible, yeast is a metaphor for the power of influence, but in the Jewish and Christian (comp. 1 Co 5:6-8; Ga 5:9) literature it predominantly symbolizes the negative aspect of such power, the power of spreading impurity and corruption. With time, they started to see yeast as a symbol of sin and corruption; thus Paul states: »Stop being proud! Don’t you know how a little yeast can spread through the whole batch of dough? Get rid of the old yeast! Then you will be like fresh bread made without desert to the table yeast, and that is what you are. Our Passover lamb is Christ, who has already been sacrificed. So don’t celebrate the festival by being evil and sinful, which is like serving bread made with yeast. Be pure and From the truthful and celebrate by using bread made without yeast.« (1 Co 5:6-8) Slana obala Mrtvega morja. Mrtvo morje, heb. jam hamelah (חַלֶּמַה םָי), je slano jezero na meji med Izraelom in Jordanijo. Povprečna slanost vode znaša okoli 28 %, v najbolj slanih predelih pa tudi do 33 %. Mrtvo morje je drugo najbolj slano jezero na svetu. SOL IN KVAS 71 Gideón je »pripravil kozjega mladiča in nekvašenega kruha iz škafa moke […]«, »vse to je odnesel […] pod terebinto in daroval.« (Sod 6,19) Meso je bilo pred daritvijo osoljeno. Po antičnem mišljenju ima sol očiščevalno moč, zato so jo uporabljali tudi pri (nekaterih) daritvah: »Sleherni dar jedilne daritve osôli; ne daj, da bi na tvoji jedilni daritvi manjkala sol zaveze s tvojim Bogom; pri vsakem daru daruj sol!« (3 Mz 2,13; Ezk 43,24). Sol daje okus, ohranja in celo očiščuje (prim. 2 Kr 2,19-22). Judje so jo uporabljali v bogoslužju, pri pripravi žrtve (prim. 2 Mz 30,35) in pri sklepanju zaveze (prim. 4 Mz 18,19; 2 Krn 13,5); od tod izraz »sol zaveze« (in »solna zaveza«). Gre za zavezo, ki je trajna, kakor je trajen okus soli. Sol je v antiki simbolizirala trajnost in vrednost. Glavni vir soli v Izraelu je bilo Mrtvo morje. Gideón je (kakor Abraham v 1 Mz 18) postregel nekvašen kruh, ki je najhitreje pripravljen. Naglica pri postrežbi (gostoljubje) ni omogočala uporabe kvasa. Podobno na praznik pashe Judje kruhu niso smeli dodati kvasa, ker so Egipt zapustili v naglici (kruh ni imel časa vzhajati). Pri obhajanju pashe zato ne uživajo ničesar kvašenega. Vsako hišo je treba temeljito očistiti, da se odstrani vsaka sled hameca (kvasa): »Že prvi dan odstranite kvas iz svojih hiš! Kajti kdor koli bo od prvega do sedmega dne jedel kaj kvašenega, bo iztrebljen iz Izraela.« (2 Mz 12,15) Kvas je v Svetem pismu prispodoba za moč prežemanja nasploh, vendar pa v judovski in krščanski (prim. 1 Kor 5,6-8; Gal 5,9) književnosti pretežno simbolizira negativni vidik takšne moči, moč razširjanja nečistosti in pokvarjenosti. Sčasoma so na kvas začeli gledati kot na simbol greha oziroma pokvarjenosti, tako Pavel: »Ni lepo to, s čimer se ponašate. Mar ne veste, da malo kvasa prekvasi vse testo? Postrgajte stari kvas, da boste novo testo, ker ste nekvašeni. Kristus, naše pashalno jagnje, je bil Od puščave do mize namreč žrtvovan. Praznujmo, pa ne s starim kvasom hudobije in zla, ampak z nekvašenim kruhom iskrenosti in resnice.« (1 Kor 5,6-8) Lesena pogrebna maska z obrobljenimi očmi v egipčanskem slogu (747–332 pr. Kr., inv. št. 89) Wooden funerary mask with rimmed eyes in the Egyptian style (747–332 B.C., Inv. No. 89) DOBA KRALJEV: OD KRALJESTVA DO IZGNANSTVA 1 Sam, 2 Sam, 1 Kr, 2 Kr, 1 Krn, 2 Krn, Am, Oz, Iz, Mih, Sof, Nah, Hab, Jer, Ezk MLAJŠA ŽELEZNA DOBA 1030–587/86 pr. Kr. 73 V času sodnikov so se v sklopu vsesplošne je bil v zatonu, imperij Hetitov se je sesul dve Preroki so opustošenje in izgnanstvo razlagali invazije indoevropskih pomorskih ljudstev na stoletji poprej in Asirija še ni postala velesila. kot posledico Izraelovega nemoralnega življenja. jugovzhodno Sredozemlje na obalo Kánaana Največji razcvet v političnem in vojaškem smislu V relativno kratkem obdobju nekaj stoletij, v naselili Filistejci. S tehnološko in vojaško premočjo je Izrael doživel v času vladanja Salomona, procesu vzpostavljanja in vzdrževanja monarhije, (železo, lokostrelci, bojni vozovi) so si sčasoma Davidovega sina in naslednika. Salomonov so se politične in gospodarske razmere drastično podredili Kánaance in Izraelce in ohranili premoč sloves je presegal meje Izraelovega kraljestva, o spremenile in poslabšale. Družinski nomadski vse do časa kralja Davida. Toda prav ta grožnja tem npr. beremo v »poročilu« o obisku kraljice iz ideal (rodovniška povezanost), ki je stoletja je v sebi nosila seme transformacije plemenske Sabe, iz kraljevine z juga Arabije (1 Kr 10). Pod predstavljal družbeno vezivo, je zbledel. Kraljevo zveze v kraljevino. Sosednja sorodna kraljestva v Salomonovo dolgotrajno in skorajda popolnoma vojskovanje je oslabilo kmečko gospodarstvo, Amónu, Moábu in Edómu so bila ustanovljena že mirno vladavino (ok. 970–931 pr. Kr.) je Izrael uprava in bogastvo sta se koncentrirala v rokah dolgo časa, ko je bila izraelska zveza politično še postal relativno veliko in bogato kraljestvo. Največ peščice kraljevih uradnikov, bogatih trgovcev, brezoblična. Razvoj je pospešila ravno filistejska pozornosti je bilo namenjene Jeruzalemu, kjer je veleposestnikov, sodnikov. V obrambo zatirane nevarnost, ko so se v bojih plemena tesneje dal Salomon postaviti tempelj (1 Kr). večine so se postavili preroki, razgaljajoč povezala in izvolila kralja. Zadnji sodnik Samuel je Poizkus enotnega kraljestva je trajal le dve neusmiljeno pohlepno izkoriščanje, ki je bilo tako mazilil Savla (ok. 1030 pr. Kr.), prvega kralja. S generaciji. Po Salomonovi smrti se je kraljestvo v Izraelu v nekaterih obdobjih tako globoko tem se je končala zgodovina izraelske plemenske razdelilo na Severno kraljestvo Izrael (10 plemen) zasidrano, da sta Jeruzalem in Samarija (prestolnici zveze in se začela zgodovina kraljestva. in Južno kraljestvo Juda, vsako s svojo prestolnico, razdeljenega kraljestva) postala prispodobi za greh Po Savlovi smrti je David (ok. 1010–970 pr. Kr.) Juda z Jeruzalemom, Izrael s Samarijo. Leta (Mih 1,5). Zato ta čas pomeni razcvet preroštva združil vseh dvanajst plemen in malo pred letom 722 ali 721 pr. Kr. je pod asirskim nakovalom na področju obeh kraljestev. Srečamo jih že v 1000 pr. Kr. postal kralj celotnega Izraela. Temu padlo Severno kraljestvo, nato je leta 587 ali 586 10. stoletju pr. Kr. pri Samuelu in Savlu kot preroške Od puščave do mize so botrovale tudi takratne mednarodne razmere, Nebukadnezar II. (605–562 pr. Kr.), babilonski bratovščine, na Davidovem dvoru pa posameznika v katerih sta bila oba centra moči, severni in kralj, opustošil še Južno kraljestvo z Jeruzalemom; Natána, vidno vlogo imata nekoliko kasneje tudi južni – torej egipčanski in mezopotamski –, mesto je bilo takrat uničeno in razdejano, tempelj Elija (9. stoletje pr. Kr.) v Severnem kraljestvu in hkrati brez zunanjih političnih tendenc. Egipt porušen, ljudstvo pa odpeljano v izgnanstvo. Jeremija (7.–6. stoletje pr. Kr.) v Južnem. THE AGE OF KINGS: FROM THE KINGDOM TO THE EXILE 1 S, 2 S, 1 Ki, 2 Ki, 1 Ch, 2 Ch, Am, Ho, Is, Mic, Zep, Nah, Hab, Jr, Ez LATE IRON AGE 1030–587/86 B.C. 74 In the age of Judges, in the context of the ubiquitous without external political tendencies. Egypt was demolished, as the temple, and the inhabitants invasion of the Indo-European maritime peoples of in decline, the imperium of the Hittites had fallen taken into slavery. South-Eastern Mediterranean, the coast of Canaan apart two centuries before, and Assyria had not The prophets explained the devastation and exile as was settled by the Philistines. With their technologi-become a superpower yet. The Israelites experien-the consequence of Israel’s immoral life. In the relati-cal and military superiority (iron, archers, chari-ced the biggest expansion in the political and mively short period of a few centuries, in the process of ots) in time they subjected the Canaanites and the litary sense in the time under the rule of Solomon, establishing and maintaining the monarchy, the po-Israelites and preserved their predominance up to David’s son and successor. Solomon’s fame exten-litical and economic circumstances drastically chan-the time of King David. But this threat itself carried ded beyond the borders of the Kingdom of Israel, ged and deteriorated. The family nomadic ideal (the the seed of transformation from the association of e.g. it is mentioned in the »report« on the visit by the connectedness of the kindred), which had mainta-the tribes into a kingdom. The similar neighbou- Queen of Sheba, from the kingdom in the South of ined social coherence for centuries, faded away. The ring kingdoms of Ammon, Moab and Edom had Arabia (1 Ki 10). In the time of Solomon’s long and King’s warfare weakened the rural economy, the been formed for a long time, when the Israelites almost perfectly peaceful reign (ca. 970–931 B.C.), management and wealth were concentrated in the association was still politically shapeless. It was just Israel became a relatively large and rich kingdom; hands of a handful of the King’s officials, rich mer-the Philistinian danger that accelerated the deve-most attention was devoted to Jerusalem, where chants, large landowners, judges. The prophets wan-lopment, since the tribes firmly connected in the Solomon ordered the building of a temple (1 Ki). ted to defend the repressed majority, revealing the battles and elected a king. The last judge Samuel The experiment of the united kingdom lasted only merciless greedy exploitation which used to be so de-thus anointed Saul (ca. 1030 B.C.), as the first king. for two generations. After Solomon’s death the eply rooted in Israel in some periods that Jerusalem Thus the history of the Israelites association ended kingdom was divided into the Northern Kingdom and Samaria (the capitals of the divided kingdom) and the history of the kingdom began. of Israel (10 tribes) and the Southern Kingdom became metaphors for sin (Mic 1:5). Therefore, in After Saul’s death (ca. 1010–970 B.C.), David uni-of Judah; each having its own capital, Jerusalem the area of both kingdoms, prophecy prospered. ted all the twelve tribes and some years before year being the capital of Judah and Samaria the capital Prophets were present from the 10th Century B.C. 1000 B.C. became the king of the whole of Israel. of Israel. In 722 or 721 B.C., the Northern Kingdom with Samuel and Saul as prophet brotherhoods, This was also supported by the then international was conquered by the Assyrians, then in 587 or Nathan is active at David’s court, later Elijah played desert to the table circumstances, in which both centres of power, the 586, Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 B.C.), the a prominent role (9th Century B.C.) in the Northern Northern and the Southern ones – the Egyptian Babylonian king, annihilated the South Kingdom, Kingdom and Jeremiah (7th –6th Century B.C.) in From the and the Mesopotamian –, were at the same time together with Jerusalem; the city was destroyed, the Southern Kingdom. ČUDEŽ Z MOKO IN OLJEM JEREMIJA PRI LONČARJU Prva knjiga kraljev 17,10-16 Jeremija 18,1-11 75 Ko je [Elija] prišel do mestnih vrat, glej, je bila tam vdova, ki je nabirala drva. Zaklical je za njo in rekel: »Prinesi mi, prosim, malo vode v vrču, da bom pil!« Ko je šla, da mu jo prinese, je zaklical za njo in rekel: »Prinesi mi, Beseda, ki se je zgodila Jeremiju od GOSPODA, rekoč: »Vstani, pojdi v lončarjevo hišo; tam ti bom naznanil svoje besede.« Šel sem torej v lončarjevo hišo in glej, lončar je ravno delal pri lončarskem kolovratu. prosim, še kos kruha v roki!« Rekla je: »Kakor živi Kadar se mu je posoda, ki jo je oblikoval iz gline, v roki GOSPOD, tvoj Bog, nič pečenega nimam, samo pokvarila, je iz nje naredil drugo, kakor se je lončarju prgišče moke v loncu in malo olja v vrču. In glej, zdelo prav. Tedaj se mi je zgodila GOSPODOVA nabiram suhljad, da pojdem in pripravim to zase in za beseda, rekoč: Mar ne morem, Izraelova hiša, storiti sina, da bova pojedla in potem umrla.« Elija ji je rekel: z vami kakor ta lončar? govori GOSPOD. Glejte, »Ne boj se; pojdi in pripravi, kakor si rekla, vendar kakor je glina v lončarjevi roki, tako ste vi v moji roki, naredi iz tega najprej meni kolaček in mi ga prinesi; Izraelova hiša! Včasih zagrozim kakšnemu narodu ali sebi in svojemu sinu pa ga boš pripravila potem. Kajti kraljestvu, da ga bom izruval, zrušil in ugonobil. Če pa se tako govori GOSPOD, Izraelov Bog: ›Moka v tisti narod odvrne od svoje hudobije, zaradi katere sem loncu ne bo pošla in olja v vrču ne bo zmanjkalo do mu grozil, mi je žal nesreče, ki sem mu jo mislil prizadeti. dne, ko bo GOSPOD poslal dež na zemljo.‹« Šla Spet drugič govorim kakšnemu narodu ali kraljestvu, da je in storila po Elijevi besedi. In dan za dnem so ga bom zidal in sadil. Če pa potem dela, kar je hudo v imeli jesti, ona, on in njena družina. Moka v loncu ni mojih očeh, in ne posluša mojega glasu, mi je žal dobrote, pošla in olja v vrču ni zmanjkalo, po besedi, ki jo je ki sem mu jo nameraval izkazati. Zdaj torej reci Judovim GOSPOD govoril po Eliju. možem in jeruzalemskim prebivalcem: Tako govori Od puščave do mize GOSPOD: Glejte, nesrečo snujem proti vam in naklep kujem zoper vas. Odvrnite se vendar vsak od svoje hudobne poti, popravite svoje poti in svoja dela. ELIJAH'S WONDER: JEREMIAH GOES TO THE A HANDFUL OF FLOUR AND POTTERY SHOP A LITTLE OLIVE OIL Jeremiah 18:1-11 1 Kings 17:10-16 76 When Elijah came near the town gate of Zarephath, he saw a widow gathering sticks for a fire. »Would The LORD told me, »Jeremiah, go to the pottery shop, and when you get there, I will tell you what to say to the people.« I went you please bring me a cup of water?« there and saw the potter making clay pots he asked. As she left to get it, he asked, »Would on his pottery wheel. And whenever the clay would you also please bring me a piece of bread?« The not take the shape he wanted, he would change widow answered, »In the name of the living LORD his mind and form it into some other shape. Then your God, I swear that I don’t have any bread. All I the LORD told me to say: People of Israel, I, the have is a handful of flour and a little olive oil. I’m on LORD, have power over you, just as a potter has my way home now with these few sticks to cook power over clay. If I threaten to uproot and shatter what I have for my son and me. After that, we will an evil nation and that nation turns from its evil, I starve to death.« Elijah said, »Everything will be will change my mind. If I promise to make a nation fine. Do what you said. Go home and fix something strong, but its people start disobeying me and doing for you and your son. But first, please make a small evil, then I will change my mind and not help them at piece of bread and bring it to me. The LORD God all. So listen to me, people of Judah and Jerusalem! I of Israel has promised that your jar of flour won’t have decided to strike you with disaster, and I won’t run out and your bottle of oil won’t dry up before he change my mind unless you stop sinning and start sends rain for the crops.« The widow went home and living right. did exactly what Elijah had told her. She and Elijah and her family had enough food for a long time. The LORD kept the promise that his prophet Elijah had made, and she did not run out of flour or oil. desert to the table From the Vrč s kroglastim trupom, prstanastim dnom, kratkim 20. vratom in ročajem, ki povezuje vrat z ramenom Najdišče: območje Ramale, grobna najdba Višina: 22,7 cm Premer ustja: 7,2 cm Inv. št.: 22 Datacija: mlajša železna doba (1030–720 pr. Kr.) 77 Jug with a spherical body, a ring base, a short neck and a handle drawn from the neck to the shoulder Location: the area of Ramallah, Od puščave do mize found in a grave Height: 22.7 cm Opening diameter: 7.2 cm Inv. No.: 22 Dated: Late Iron Age (1030–720 B.C.) Dvoročajna kroglasta 21. posoda z zaobljenim dnom Najdišče: Hebron (?) Višina: 18,2 cm Premer ustja: 13,6 cm Inv. št.: 79 Datacija: mlajša železna doba (720–587/86 pr. Kr.) 78 Two-handled spherical pot with a rounded base Location: Hebron (?) Height: 18.2 cm Opening diameter: 13.6 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 79 Dated: Late Iron Age From the (720–587/86 B.C.) Enoročajna kroglasta posoda z zaobljenim dnom 22. Najdišče: Hebron Višina: 14,9 cm Premer ustja: 7,9 cm Inv. št.: 78 Datacija: mlajša železna doba (720–587/86 pr. Kr.) 79 One-handled spherical pot with a rounded base Od puščave do mize Location: Hebron Height: 14.9 cm Opening diameter: 7.9 cm Inv. No.: 78 Dated: Late Iron Age (720–587/86 B.C.) Čutara s sledovi okrasa 23. koncentričnih krogov Najdišče: neznano Višina: 26 cm Premer ustja: 4,5 cm Inv. št.: 29 Datacija: mlajša železna doba (720–587/86 pr. Kr.) 80 Pilgrim flask with traces of decoration of concentric circles Location: unknown Height: 26 cm Opening diameter: 4.5 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 29 Dated: Late Iron Age From the (720–587/86 B.C.) Trinožna skodelica 24. Najdišče: neznano Višina: 7,6 cm Premer ustja: 10,7 cm Inv. št.: 112 Datacija: mlajša železna doba (720–587/86 pr. Kr.) 81 Tripod cup Od puščave do mize Location: unknown Height: 7.6 cm Opening diameter: 10.7 cm Inv. No.: 112 Dated: Late Iron Age (720–587/86 B.C.) Skleda z zaobljenim dnom 25. in rdečim premazom v različnih odtenkih Najdišče: neznano Višina: 4,9 cm Premer ustja: 14,5 cm Inv. št.: 63 Datacija: mlajša železna doba (720–587/86 pr. Kr.) 82 Bowl with a rounded base and a red slip in different shades Location: unknown Height: 4.9 cm Opening diameter: 14.5 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 63 Dated: Late Iron Age From the (720–587/86 B.C.) KOMENTAR K ARHEOLOŠKEMU GRADIVU IN IZBRANIM EKSPONATOM Geografsko-politična delitev na dve kraljestvi se kaže tudi v razlikah v obliki lončenine iz severnih oziroma južnih območij. Kroglasta vrča z zaobljenim dnom (kat. št. 21 in 22) sta predstavnika južnih različic. Romarske čutare so se pojavile že v pozni bronasti dobi in postale ena najpogostejših oblik lončenine. Od druge lončenine se ne razlikujejo le po obliki, ampak tudi po načinu izdelave. Oba dela trebuha sta bila narejena posebej na lončarskem kolesu in nato združena, posebej so bili dodani še vrat in ročaja. Na severu se je nadaljevala proizvodnja čutar z bihromnim okrasom koncentričnih krogov. Čutara (kat. št. 23) iz mlajše železne dobe C je južna različica. 83 Trinožna skodelica (kat. št. 24) je ena značilnih oblik amonitske lončenine (mlajša železna doba, 8.–6. stoletje pr. Kr.). Dovršeno izdelana skleda z zaobljenim dnom z ostanki svetlečega premaza (kat. št. 25) je t. i. samarijska skleda s tankimi stenami. Skleda ima rdeč premaz na zunanji in notranji strani. Tovrstne posode imajo premaze najpogosteje v rdeči in rumeni barvi, včasih tudi črni. A COMMENTARY ON THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND THE SELECTED ARTEFACTS The geographical and political division into two kingdoms reflected in the differences in the form of the pottery from the Northern or Southern areas. The spherical jugs with rounded base (Cat. Nos. 21–22) are the representatives of the Southern variants. Pilgrim flasks appeared in the Late Bronze Age and became one of the most frequent forms of pottery. From the rest of the pottery, they do not differ just in their form but also in the method of production. Both parts of the body were made separately on the pottery wheel and are joined afterwards, the neck and handles were added individually. In the North, the production of pilgrim flasks with bi-chromatic decoration of concentric circles continued. The pilgrim flask (Cat. No. 23) from the Late Iron Age C is a Od puščave do mize Southern variant. The tripod cup (Cat. No. 24) is one of the typical forms of Ammonite pottery (Late Iron Age, 8th–6th Century B.C.). The faultlessly made bowl with a rounded base with the remains of a glossy slip (Cat. No. 25) is the so-called Samarian bowl with thin walls. The bowl has a red slip on the outer and inner side. Such bowls are most frequently covered with red, yellow, and sometimes a black slip. A priest at the altar for burnt offerings (in front of the temple in Jerusalem) 84 MEAT T he Bible reports that King Solomon and the whole of Israel with him on the occasion of the consecration of the temple in Jerusalem sacrificed to God, i.e. ritually slaughtered, »twenty-two thousand cattle and one hundred and twenty thousand sheep as sacrifices to ask the LORD’s blessing« (1 Ki 8:62-63). In the time before the arrival of Israel, the slaughtering of animals had a religious meaning, which meant that meat for domestic needs was slaughtered in the nearest temple. Deuteronomy abolishes the old temples (and thus the religious practices) and announces that only one was legal (the one in Jerusalem), which also brought changes in the field of nutrition. Before, the slaughtering of domestic animals was regarded as an act of ritual sacrifice. It had to be performed in the local temple where blood was sacrificed to God. With the abolition of all local temples, except for the temple in Jerusalem, it was not possible anymore and thus slaughtering of animals became secularized. After the consecration of the temple, the Israelites were also allowed to slaughter animals at home, »where you live« (Dt 12:5-19), and in this they only had to follow the blood rules (Dt 12). Since the slaughter of animals as an religious act was restricted to the temple or conditioned by the requirements of the divinities, it meant that an individual had limited access to meat (as nutrition). The provisions in the Bible (Dt 12) brought novelty and enabled the free consumption of meat. S olomon built a temple in Jerusalem on Mount Moriah (2 Ch 3:1). The Jewish tradition associates the mount with the place where Abraham decided to sacrifice his son Isaac (Gn 22). In the end, Abraham sacrificed a ram »caught by its horns in the bushes« (Gn 22:13), thus he is considered as the forerunner of the later temple sacrifice. desert to the table From the Duhovnik pred oltarjem žgalnih daritev (pred templjem v Jeruzalemu) MESO 85 Sveto pismo poroča, da sta kralj Salomon in z njim ves Izrael ob posvetitvi templja v Jeruzalemu darovala Bogu, torej obredno zaklala, »dvaindvajset tisoč glav goveda in sto dvajset tisoč ovc. Tako so kralj in vsi Izraelovi sinovi posvetili GOSPODOVO hišo.« (1 Kr 8,63) Klanje živali je imelo v času pred Izraelom religiozni značaj, kar pomeni, da so za domače potrebe klali v najbližjem svetišču. Peta Mojzesova knjiga je stara svetišča (in s tem verske prakse) odpravila in razglasila, da je zakonito le eno samo (v Jeruzalemu), kar je prineslo spremembe tudi na področju prehranjevanja. Pred tem je bil zakol domače živali obravnavan kot obredno žrtveno dejanje. Izvesti ga je bilo treba v lokalnem svetišču, kri pa je bila darovana Bogu. Z odpravo vseh lokalnih svetišč, razen svetišča v Jeruzalemu, to ni bilo več mogoče in tako se je zakol živali sekulariziral. Izraelci so od posvetitve templja v Jeruzalemu smeli klati živali tudi doma, »znotraj vseh svojih vrat« (5 Mz 12,15), pri tem pa so morali spoštovati samo pravila o krvi (5 Mz 12,16). Ker je bilo klanje živali kot religiozno dejanje omejeno na svetišče oziroma pogojeno z zahtevami božanstev, to pomeni, da je imel posameznik do mesa (kot prehrane) omejen dostop. Določila v Svetem pismu (5 Mz 12) so prinesla novost in omogočila svobodno uživanje mesa. Salomon je pozidal tempelj v Jeruzalemu na griču Moríja (2 Krn 3,1). Judovsko izročilo enači ta grič s krajem, kjer je Abraham sklenil darovati svojega sina Izaka (1 Mz 22). Abraham je na koncu daroval ovna, »ki se je z rogovi zapletel v grmovje« (1 M 22,13), s tem pa velja za začetnika kasnejšega tempeljskega darovanja. Od puščave do mize Odtis pečatnika v obliki skarabeja z vgraviranim imenom Tutmozisa III. (945–716 pr. Kr., kat. št. 29) Impression of a signet in the form of a scarab with the engraved name of Thutmose III (945–716 B.C., Cat. No. 29) TUJI VPLIVI V DOBAH SODNIKOV IN KRALJEV STAREJŠA IN MLAJŠA ŽELEZNA DOBA 1200–587/86 pr. Kr. 87 Od tujih vplivov je bil v tem času najizrazitejši življenju, pečatili so npr. osebno korespondenco, dobo. Skaraboide so izdelovali tudi v starem egiptovski. V Svetem pismu beremo, da je v trgovske pogodbe, vojaške dokumente, upravne Izraelu, imajo lokalne posebnosti in ne kažejo petem letu kralja Roboáma (ok. 931–913 pr. Kr.), odredbe in diplomatske sporazume. V vosek tipičnih egiptovskih oblik. Salomonovega sina, nad Jeruzalem prišel faraon ali glino vtisnjen pečat je bil jamstvo pristnosti Priljubljen motiv v gliptiki je ibeks (kat. št. 27 in 28), Šišák I. (ok. 945–924 pr. Kr.) z vojsko in da se je in nedotaknjenosti vsebine dokumenta ali ki se prav tako pojavlja na lončenini. Ti pečatniki bi kralj odkupil z dragocenostmi iz templja in kraljeve embalaže. Izraelci so uporabljali pečatnike, ki so lahko bili izdelani ali lokalno ali v Egiptu. palače (1 Kr 14,25-26). Tako po Šišákovem napisu bili najverjetneje po egiptovskem vzoru narejeni Priča nemirnega obdobja tujih vplivov s sledovi na steni templja v Karnaku kot po arheoloških lokalno, najpogosteje v obliki skarabeja. Oblika babilonske arhitekture je opeka z žigom z imenom podatkih o rušenjih in požigih vidimo, da je Šišák izhaja iz egipčanskega svetega hrošča – skarabeja, in kraljevskimi naslovi Nebukadnezarja II. opustošil velik del Kánaana, vendar Egipčani niso ki je simbol sonca ter obenem vstajenja in novega (kat. št. 31). Nebukadnezarjev obsežni gradbeni imeli dovolj moči, da bi obdržali svojo oblast. življenja. Skarabej je zato močan amulet. Skarabeji program je zahteval veliko gradbenega materiala, Vseeno o njihovem vplivu in razvejani birokraciji so bili pogosto del nakita, vstavljeni v obeske in zato opeke najdejo razmeroma pogosto. Opeke na tem področju pričajo ohranjeni pečatniki, prstane. Napise na skarabejih so včasih nadomestili z besedilom, njegovim imenom in vladarskimi ki imajo vgravirano faraonovo ime. Pečatnike s preprostimi ornamenti, včasih pa so skušali naslovi so bile zelo kakovostne. Napis v klinopisu z imeni faraonov so uporabljali tudi po njihovi posnemati hieroglife, ki jih verjetno niso razumeli. je bil odtisnjen v opeko tako, da je bil berljiv v smrti. V zbirki sta dva takšna primerka z imenom Oblika skaraboida izhaja iz skarabeja; po obliki sta odtisu. Pečat je bil odtisnjen še v vlažno glino. Tutmozisa III. (ok. 1458–1425 pr. Kr.), ki pričata o si podobna, vendar je skaraboid brez anatomskih Iz besedila je razvidna kraljeva najpomembnejša tradiciji in dolgi rabi pečatnikov (kat. št. 29 in 30). podrobnosti. Skaraboid je vzdolžno prevrtan dejavnost – odgovornost za izvajanje in Pečat je imel podoben pomen kot danes podpis. kamen ovalne oblike, s poudarjeno stransko steno vzdrževanje kultov. Pečate so uporabljali v javnem in zasebnem in izbočeno zgornjo površino, značilen za železno Od puščave do mize FOREIGN INFLUENCES IN THE AGES OF JUDGES AND KINGS EARLY AND LATE IRON AGE 1200–587/86 B.C. 88 Among all the foreign influences, the Egyptian one They were used in public and private life, they wall and convex upper surface, typical of the Iron is the most powerful at this time. The Bible reports sealed, for example, personal correspondence, Age. Scaraboids were also made in old Israel, they how in the fifth year of King Rehoboam (ca. 931– trade contracts, military documents, administrati-have local typicalities and do not exhibit typical 913 B.C.), Solomon’s son, pharaoh Shishak I (ca. ve decrees and diplomatic agreements. The signet Egyptian forms. 945–924 B.C.) attacked Jerusalem with an army was impressed into wax or clay which guaranteed A popular motif in glyptics is the ibex (Cat. Nos. and how the king ransomed himself with the valu- the authenticity and intactness of the document 27–28), which also appears on pottery. These ables from the temple and the king’s palace (1 Ki or packaging content. The Israelites used signets signets could be made locally or in Egypt. 14:25-26). Thus according to Shishak’s inscription which were probably locally made, following the A testimony to the turbulent period of foreign on the wall of the temple in Karnak and according Egyptian influence, most often in the form of sca-influences with traces of Babylonian architec- to the archaeological data on the demolitions and rabs. The form originates from the Egyptian holy ture, is a brick with a signet with a name and arsons, it is obvious that Shishak devastated a beetle – scarab, which was a symbol of the Sun and king Nebuchadnezzar II‘s titles (Cat. No. 31). significant part of Canaan but the Egyptians did of resurrection and a new life. Therefore, a scarab Nebuchadnezzar‘s vast building programme not have enough power to retain their authority. is a strong amulet. Scarabs were often a part of required a lot of building material, therefore bricks However, the preserved signets with the engraved jewellery, and inserted into pendants and rings. were a frequent finding. The bricks with his name pharaoh’s name, testify to their influence and The inscriptions on scarabs were sometimes repla-and titles were of good quality. The inscription in developed bureaucracy. The signets with the names ced by simple ornaments, and sometimes they tried cuneiform was impressed into the brick in such of the pharaohs were also used after their deaths. to imitate hieroglyphs, which they probably did not a manner that it could be read in the impressed The collection includes two such examples with the understand. form. The signet was impressed into a still damp name of Thutmose III (ca. 1458–1425 B.C.), which The scaraboid form originates from scarab, they clay. The text reveals the king‘s most important shows the tradition and enduring use of signets are similar, but the scaraboid form is devoid of activity – the responsibility for the implementation (Cat. Nos. 29–30). anatomic details. It is an oval-shaped rock, lon-and maintenance of cults. Signets had a similar meaning as today’ signatures. gitudinally perforated, with an emphasized side desert to the table From the KING SHISHAK OF EGYPT FARAON ŠIŠÁK NAPADE JUDA INVADES JUDAH Druga kroniška knjiga 12,1-9 2 Chronicles 12:1-9 89 Soon after Rehoboam had control of his kingdom, he and everyone in Judah stopped Ko si je Roboám utrdil kraljevsko oblast in postal močan, je zapustil GOSPODOVO postavo, in z njim ves Izrael. V petem obeying the LORD. So in the fifth year of letu kralja Roboáma pa je prišel nad Rehoboam’s rule, the LORD punished them Jeruzalem egiptovski kralj Šišák – ker so se izneverili for their unfaithfulness and allowed King Shishak GOSPODU. […] Egiptovski kralj Šišák je torej šel of Egypt to invade Judah […] Shishak attacked nad Jeruzalem. Pobral je zaklade iz GOSPODOVE Jerusalem and took all the valuable things from the hiše in zaklade iz kraljeve hiše: vse je odnesel. temple and from the palace… Od puščave do mize Pečatnik v obliki skarabeja 26. z vgraviranim motivom vertikalnih in horizontalnih črt Najdišče: območje Hebrona (?) Mere: 1, 24 × 1 × 0,68 cm Inv. št.: 50 Datacija: starejša železna doba (1250–1075 pr. Kr.) 90 Signet in the form of a scarab with the engraved motif of vertical and horizontal lines Location: the area of Hebron (?) Dim.: 1. 24 × 1 × 0.68 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 50 Dated: Early Iron Age From the (1250–1075 B.C.) Konični pečatnik z vgraviranim motivom koze 27. s palmovo vejo (?) pred njim Najdišče: območje Hebrona (?) Mere: 1,9 × 1, 6 × 1,7 cm Inv. št.: 52 Datacija: starejša in mlajša železna doba (1200–900 pr. Kr.) 91 Conical signet with the engraved motif of a goat with a palm branch (?) in front of it Od puščave do mize Location: the area of Hebron (?) Dim.: 1.9 × 1.6 × 1.7 cm Inv. No.: 52 Dated: Early and Late Iron Age (1200–900 B.C.) Pečatnik v obliki 28. skaraboida z vgraviranim motivom dveh nasproti si stoječih koz Najdišče: območje Hebrona (?) Mere: 1,53 × 1, 05 × 0,6 cm Inv. št.: 47 Datacija: mlajša železna doba (1000–800 pr. Kr.) 92 Signet in the form of a scaraboid with the engraved motif of two goats standing opposite each other Location: the area of Hebron (?) Dim.: 1.53 × 1.05 × 0.6 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 47 Dated: Late Iron Age From the (1000–800 B.C.) Pečatnik v obliki skarabeja z vgraviranim imenom 29. Tutmozisa III., ki ga obdajata krilata sončna diska Najdišče: območje Hebrona (?) Mere: 1,79 × 1, 26 × 0,8 cm Inv. št.: 40 Datacija: mlajša železna doba (945–716 pr. Kr.) 93 Signet in the form of a scarab with the engraved name of Thutmose III between two solar discs Od puščave do mize Location: the area of Hebron (?) Dim.: 1.79 × 1.26 × 0.8 cm Inv. No.: 40 Dated: Late Iron Age (945–716 B.C.) Pečatnik v obliki skarabeja 30. z vgraviranim imenom Tutmozisa III., ki ga obdajata krilata sončna diska (?) Najdišče: območje Hebrona (?) Mere: 1,18 × 0, 88 × 0,7 cm Inv. št.: 45 Datacija: mlajša železna doba (945–716 pr. Kr.) 94 Signet in the form of a scarab with the engraved name of Thutmose III between two solar discs (?) Location: the area of Hebron (?) Dim.: 1.18 × 0.88 × 0.7 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 45 Dated: Late Iron Age From the (945–716 B.C.) Opeka z besedilom v klinopisu 31. Najdišče: neznano Mere: 7,8 × 8, 3 × 2,8 cm Inv. št.: 116 Datacija: novobabilonsko obdobje (605–562 pr. Kr.) 1. Nebukadnezar, 2. kralj Babilona, 3. zaščitnik Esagile 4. in Ezide, najstarejši sin 95 5. Nabopolasarja, 6. kralja Babilona. 1. [d AG-ku-dúr-ri]-ŠEŠ 2. [LUGAL ba-bi-i]-luKI 3. [za-ni-in É-SA]G.ÍL 4. [ú É-ZI.D]A DUMU.NITA 5. [a-ša-re-du ša dA]G-A-ŠEŠ 6. [LUGAL ba-bi-i-luKI] Brick with the cuneiform text Location: unknown Dim.: 7.8 × 8.3 × 2.8 cm Inv. No.: 116 Dated: Neo-Babylonian Period (605–562 B.C.) Od puščave do mize 1. Nebuchadnezzar, 2. the king of Babylon, 3. protector of Esagila 4. and Ezida, the oldest son 5. of Nabopolassar, 6. the king of Babylon. Krožnik iz terre sigilatte s kristogramoma (vidna desna stran; 440–500, kat. št. 33) Plate made of terra sigilatta, decorated with two christograms (as visible on the right side; 440–500, Cat. No. 33) OD KONCA JUDOVEGA KRALJESTVA DO »NEBEŠKEGA KRALJESTVA« Ezr, Neh, Ag, Zah, Mal, 1 Mkb, 2 Mkb, Dan 11, Mr, Mt, Lk, Jn NOVOBABILONSKA, PERZIJSKA, HELENISTIČNA IN ZGODNJA RIMSKA DOBA 587/86 pr. Kr. – 70 po Kr. 97 Padec Jeruzalema leta 587/86 pr. Kr. označuje opisanega v evangelijih, je bil rimski upravitelj nad okoliških narodov in ljudstev, je predpostavljalo, da konec Izraelovih političnih institucij – in premik v Palestino Poncij Pilat (26–36). Njegovi nasledniki Izrael za kralja nima človeka, temveč svojega Boga razumevanju Boga. Judeja je bila odtlej kot sestavni so bili do judovskega prebivalstva brezobzirni, zato (prim. Ps 47; 93–100). Ta besedila predstavljajo del novobabilonskega, perzijskega, ptolomejskega je bil odpor vedno močnejši; leta 66 je izbruhnila Boga kot »najvišjega«, »strašnega«, »velikega kralja in selevkidskega kraljestva – in končno rimskega prava vojna in zajela célo Palestino. Poveljnik nad vso zemljo«, »oblečenega v veličastvo in moč«, imperija – podvržena pravu in režimu okupatorjev; rimskih enot Vespazijan je upor postopoma in »sodnika zemlje«. Uporaba besedil hebrejskega ko so si Hasmonejci za kratek čas pridobili kruto zatiral. Ko je leta 69 po Kr. Vespazijan postal Svetega pisma v sinhronem dialogu z besedili samostojnost in kraljevsko krono (143–63 pr. Kr.), rimski cesar, je vodenje rimske vojske predal Nove zaveze, kot sta nasičenje pet tisoč mož (Lk so ostali vazali. svojemu sinu Titu. Leta 70 po Kr. je bil Jeruzalem 9,10-17) in prilika o veliki gostiji (Lk 14,15-24), je Palestina, kakor so Rimljani to območje uradno zavzet in mesto deloma, (drugi) tempelj pa želela svetopisemskemu Bogu nadeti materinsko poimenovali približno stoletje kasneje, je od leta ponovno v celoti porušen. Ker od tedaj v templju podobo, ki jo je dokončno potrdil Jezus Kristus v 63 pr. Kr. pripadala rimskemu cesarstvu, ki je v ni bil več mogoč daritveni obred, so farizeji podobi evharistije. Opise obedov v Stari zavezi, kot Jezusovem času predstavljalo »ves svet«. Vrhunec uvedli nov pogled na Sveto pismo kot podlago za sta pashalna večerja (2 Mz 12) in mesijanska gostija politične stalnosti je dosegla pod cesarjem judovsko vero in tako zagotovili nadaljnji obstoj (Iz 25,6-8), lahko tako razumemo kot predhodnico Avgustom (27 pr. Kr. – 14 po Kr.; prim. Lk 2,1). judovstva. zadnje večerje ali evharistije. V Stari zavezi Bog V njegovem času se je Mariji rodil sin, ki sta mu Po vnovičnem porušenju templja (leta 70) Izraela povabi »za mizo«, v prijateljski odnos, Nova z Jožefom dala ime Jezus (Ješua). Jezus je bil se je v Izraelu postopoma razvilo drugačno zaveza se sklene prav za mizo, in to tako, da Bog usmrčen pod Avgustovim naslednikom Tiberijem razumevanje Boga. Značilno teološko razmišljanje sam postane »kruh«, ki se »daje za vas« (Lk 22,19). (14–37). V času Jezusovega javnega delovanja, v starozavezni dobi, drugačno od razumevanja Od puščave do mize FROM THE END OF THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH TO THE »KINGDOM OF HEAVEN« Ezra, Ne, Hg, Zec, Ml, 1 Macc, 2 Macc, Dn 11, Mk, Mt, Lk, Jn NEo-BABYLONIAN, PERSIAN, HELLENISTIC AND EARLY ROMAN PERIOD 587/86 B.C.–70 A.D. 98 The fall of Jerusalem in 587/86 B.C. indicated the was Pontius Pilate (26–36 A.D.). His successors presupposes that Israel’s king was not a human but end of Israel’s political institutions – and a change were unscrupulous towards the Jewish people, the-its God (comp. Ps 47; 93–100). These texts refer to in understanding God. From this point onwards, refore the resistance was growing stronger; a real God as the »Most High«, »fearsome«, »the ruler of Judea would be a component part of the Neo-war broke out in 66 A.D. and spread over the who-all the earth«, »the judge of all the earth«. The use Babylonian, Persian, Ptolemaic and Seleucid kin-le Palestine. Roman forces commander Vespasian of the text of the Hebrew Bible in the synchronous gdoms – and finally the Roman Empire – subjected gradually and cruelly suppressed the rebellion. dialogue with the texts of the New Testament, like to the law and regime of the occupants. When the When in 69 A.D. Vespasian became the Roman the feeding of the five thousand (Lk 9:10-17) and Hasmoneans would gain independence and the emperor, he handed the leadership of the Roman the parable of the great feast (Lk 14:15-24), tries king’s crown (143–63 B.C.) for a short time, they army to his son Titus. In 70 A.D., Jerusalem was to give the biblical God a maternal image, which would still stay vassals. occupied, and the city was partly and the (second) is finally confirmed by Jesus Christ in the form of Palestine, as the Roman officially named the area temple again totally destroyed. Since then rituals of the Eucharist. Descriptions of the meals in the Old approximately a century later, after 63 B.C. belo-sacrifice could not be carried out in the temple, the Testament, such as the Passover meal (Ex 12) or the nged to the Roman Empire, which in the time of pharisees introduced a new aspect to the Bible as Messianic feast (Is 25:6-8), can thus be understood Jesus represented the »whole world«. It reached its the basis for Judaism and thus ensured its further as the predecessors of the Lord's last supper, i.e. the peak of political stability under Emperor Augustus existence. Eucharist. In the Old Testament, God invites Israel (27 B.C.–14 A.D.; comp. Lk 2:1). At this time Mary After the re-destruction of the temple (in 70 A.D.), »to the table«, into a friendly relationship, and the bore a son whom she and Joseph named Jesus gradually a different understanding of God de- New Testament concludes just at the table by God (Yeshua). Jesus was killed under Augustus’s succes-veloped in Israel. The typical theological thinking himself becoming »bread«, »which is given for you« sor, Tiberius (14–37 A.D.). In the time of Jesus's in the age of the Old Testament, different from the (Lk 22:19). public ministry, the Roman procurator of Palestine thinking of the surrounding nations and peoples, desert to the table From the THE LORD'S SUPPER PASHALNA VEČERJA IN Gospel of Matthew 26:17-29 POSTAVITEV GOSPODOVE VEČERJE Evangelij po Mateju 26,17-29 99 On the first day of the Festival of Thin Bread, Jesus’ disciples came to him and asked, »Where do you want us to Prvi dan nekvašenega kruha so prišli k Jezusu učenci in mu rekli: »Kje hočeš, da ti pripravimo, da boš jedel pashalno jagnje?« prepare the Passover meal?« Jesus told Dejal jim je: »Pojdite v mesto k temu in them to go to a certain man in the city and tell him, temu in mu recite: ›Učitelj pravi: Moj čas je blizu, pri »Our teacher says, ›My time has come! I want to tebi bom obhajal pasho s svojimi učenci.‹« In učenci so eat the Passover meal with my disciples in your storili, kakor jim je Jezus naročil, in pripravili pashalno home.‹« They did as Jesus told them and prepared jagnje. Ko se je zvečerilo, je sédel z dvanajsterimi. […] the meal. […] Medtem ko so jedli, je Jezus vzel kruh, blagoslovil, During the meal Jesus took some bread in his hands. razlomil, dal učencem in rekel: »Vzemite, jejte, to je He blessed the bread and broke it. Then he gave it moje telo.« Nato je vzel kelih, se zahvalil, jim ga dal to his disciples and said, »Take this and eat it. This in rekel: »Pijte iz njega vsi. To je namreč moja kri is my body.« Jesus picked up a cup of wine and gave zaveze, ki se preliva za mnoge v odpuščanje grehov. thanks to God. He then gave it to his disciples and A povem vam: Odslej ne bom več pil od tega sadu said, »Take this and drink it. This is my blood, and vinske trte do tistega dne, ko bom z vami pil novega with it God makes his agreement with you. It will be v kraljestvu svojega Očeta.« poured out, so that many people will have their sins forgiven. From now on I am not going to drink any wine, until I drink new wine with you in my Father’s kingdom.« Od puščave do mize Enoročajni vrč z izbočenim 32. dnom in horizontalno narebrenim trupom Najdišče: neznano Višina: 22,7 cm Premer ustja: 3,7 cm Inv. št.: 114 Datacija: zgodnja rimska doba (37 pr. Kr. – 70 po Kr.) 100 One-handled jug with a rounded base and horizontally ribbed body Location: unknown Height: 22.7 cm Opening diameter: 3.7 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 114 Dated: Early Roman Period From the (37 B.C.–70 A.D.) Krožnik iz terre sigilatte s kristogramoma, okrašen z 33. radialnimi kanelurami ter koncentričnimi žlebovi in vtisi Najdišče: Egipt Višina: 6,5 cm Premer ustja: 35,5 cm Inv. št.: 107 Datacija: pozna rimska doba (440–500) 101 Plate made of terra sigilatta, decorated with two christograms, radial fluting, concentric grooves and impressions Od puščave do mize Location: Egypt Height: 6.5 cm Opening diameter: 35.5 cm Inv. No.: 107 Dated: Late Roman Period (440–500) KOMENTAR K ARHEOLOŠKEMU GRADIVU IN IZBRANIM EKSPONATOM Helenistično in rimsko obdobje sta v izdelavo posod prinesla številne novosti tako v tehnologiji kot v oblikah. Posledično je lončenina tega časa mešanica izdelkov lokalnih tradicij, prevzetih novosti in uvoženih predmetov. Vrč s kat. št. 32 sodi med t. i. herodsko lončenino, za katero je značilna horizontalno narebrena površina. Tako posodje je bilo priljubljeno v prvem stoletju. Zaobljeno dno zahteva podstavek za pokončno lego, je pa zato nadvse primerno za prenašanje na glavi. 102 Terra sigillata je rimsko fino namizno posodje z značilno rdečo površino. Izdelano je bilo v kalupih ali na lončarskem kolesu, včasih neokrašeno, pogosto pa okrašeno v različnih tehnikah, med katerimi izstopata žigosanje s pečati in lepljenje v kalupu izdelanih aplik. Takšno posodje je bilo proizvedeno v specializiranih delavnicah na različnih koncih imperija. Najstarejše so bile v Italiji, v pozni antiki pa so terro sigillato izdelovali predvsem v severni Afriki. Po prevladi krščanstva so bile posode velikokrat okrašene z verskimi simboli ali motivi iz Svetega pisma. Globoki krožnik iz Biblične arheološke zbirke (kat. št. 33) so lahko uporabljali pri prazničnih večerjah, vsekakor pa sta kristograma klicala blagoslov na postrežene jedi in ljudi, ki so jih zaužili. A COMMENTARY ON THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND THE SELECTED ARTEFACTS The Hellenistic and Roman Period introduces into the production of pottery numerous novelties, both in technology and in forms. Therefore the pottery of this time is a blend of the products of local traditions, borrowed novelties and imported objects. The jug under Cat. No. 32 belongs among the so-called Herodic pottery for which horizontally ribbed surfaces are typical. Such vessels were popular in the 1st Century. The rounded base requires a pedestal, but it is very suitable for carrying on the head. Terra sigillata are Roman fine table vessels with a typical red surface. They are made in moulds or on a pottery wheel, sometimes they stay undecorated but often they are decorated with different techniques, among which imprinting with signets and the adding of appliques made in moulds are most prominent. Such pottery was produced in specialized workshops in different parts of the empire. The oldest were made in Italy, while in Late Antiquity terra sigillata was produced most of all in Northern Africa. With the predominance of Christianity, the vessels often were ornamented with religious symbols or desert to the table biblical motifs. The plate from the Biblical Archaeological Collection (Cat. No. 33) could be used at so-lemn suppers, in any case the christograms called for a blessing to the served food and the people who From the ate it. Krožnik iz terre sigilatte s kristogramoma (vidna leva stran; 440–500, kat. št. 33) Plate made of terra sigilatta, decorated with two christograms (as visible on the left side; 440–500, Cat. No. 33) 104 BREAD J esus celebrated the Passover dinner »on the first day of the Festival of Thin Bread« (Mt 26:17). The Jews celebrated the Passover for seven days. The Passover is regarded as the beginning of the Festival of Thin Bread, and they together form a single festival lasting seven days. Since the Jews cannot do the offering in the temple, after its demolition in 70, they do not eat lamb for the Passover dinner, only a leg remains on the table in remembrance of the Passover sacrifice. The Jews associate unleavened bread with the so-called »poor man's bread« which was eaten in Egypt (Dt 16:3). It is reminiscent of the Exodus, the departure from Egypt which is represented as a model of salvation. For the Christians, the unleavened bread which Jesus broke at the Last Supper, is reminiscent of Jesus's sacrifice on the cross and redemption. The remembrance in the biblical sense is not only the restoration of the past, but making it present; in the celebration, the past becomes the present. I n the biblical times, bread was made of wheat or barley. Barley grows ripe earlier than wheat, therefore first spring bread was made of barley flour. Bread was baked on fire, on hot stones or hot coals. In the time when they did the temple worship, Jews baked bread from the best flour every Saturday and put it fresh in front of God in the temple (the sacred loaves). I n Judaism, there is a special blessing used before a meal made of one of five corns which grow in Israel. When this blessing (of bread) is said, the rest of food and drink is blessed at the same time, therefore it can be consumed without saying other blessings; only wine and fruits have to be blessed using a special blessing. T he Hebrew expression meaning bread »lehem«, is used for food in general, it comprises everything that is needed for a living. Thus God says to Adam after he had sinned: »By the sweat of your face will you eat bread (lit. food) until you return to the ground« (Gn 3:19 WEB). The Talmud metaphor of a fool is a man eating bread with bread (as if eating a sandwich with a slice of bread in the middle). desert to the table I n Judaism, the expression »breaking bread« means to share the loaves of bread at the beginning of the meal, which the father of the family broke and said his prayers of thanks and blessing. This ritual is the basis of Jesus's Last Supper. Therefore in the first Christian communities, the ritual at which they From the celebrated the Eucharist was called breaking of bread. KRUH 105 Jezus je obhajal pashalno večerjo »prvi dan nekvašenega kruha« (Mt 26,17). Judje so pasho praznovali sedem dni. Pasha je razumljena kot začetek praznika nekvašenega kruha, povezana pa tvorita en sam praznik, ki traja sedem dni. Odkar Judje ne morejo več opravljati daritev v templju, po porušenju leta 70, pri pashalni večerji ne uživajo več jagnjeta, na mizi je samo njegova noga v spomin na pashalno daritev. Jude nekvašen kruh spominja na »kruh zatiranih«, ki so ga jedli v Egiptu (5 Mz 16,3). Spominja in ponavzoča eksodus, izhod iz Egipta, ki se predstavlja kot model osvoboditve. Kristjane nekvašen kruh, ki ga je Jezus razlomil pri zadnji večerji, spominja na Jezusovo daritev na križu in odrešitev. Spominjanje v svetopisemskem smislu ni le obnavljanje preteklosti, ampak ponavzočanje; preteklost v obhajanju postane sedanjost. V bibličnih časih so kruh pripravljali iz pšenice ali ječmena. Ječmen dozoreva bolj zgodaj kot pšenica, zato so prvi pomladni kruh pekli iz ječmenove moke. Kruh so pekli na ognju, na vročem kamenju oziroma žerjavici. Judje so v času, ko so opravljali tempeljsko bogoslužje, vsako soboto pekli kruh iz najboljše moke in ga svežega postavljali pred Božje obličje v templju (položni hlebi). V judovstvu obstaja poseben blagoslov, ki se izgovarja pred jedjo, narejeno iz enega od petih žit, ki rastejo v Izraelu. Ko se izgovori ta blagoslov (nad kruhom), se z njim blagoslovi tudi preostala hrana in pijača, ki se lahko uživa brez izgovarjanja drugih blagoslovov, le za vino in sadje je treba posebej izgovoriti poseben blagoslov. Hebrejski izraz za kruh, lehem, se uporablja tudi za hrano nasploh, oznaka za vse tisto, kar je potrebno za življenje. Tako Adamu po grehu Bog reče: »V potu svojega obraza boš jedel kruh (db. hrano), dokler se ne povrneš v zemljo.« (1 Mz 3,19) Talmudska prispodoba za tepca je človek, ki uživa kruh s kruhom (kakor da bi jedel sendvič z rezino kruha na sredi). Od puščave do mize Izraz »(raz)lomi kruh« je v judovstvu izraz za razdelitev hlebcev kruha na začetku obeda, ki jih je družinski oče razlomil in ob tem izrekel zahvalo, blagoslov. Ta običaj je osnova Jezusove zadnje večerje. Zato so tudi prve krščanske skupnosti obed, pri katerem so slavile evharistijo, imenovale lomljenje kruha. Zdi se, da izraz prvotno ni imel nujno istega pomena kot evharistija. Poudarek je bil na socialni skrbi, ki je določala liturgično življenje prvotne Cerkve. Oljenke različnih datacij Oil lamps of different dates ŠIRJENJE KRŠČANSTVA Apd, Pavlova in druga pisma ZGODNJA IN POZNA RIMSKA DOBA, BIZANTINSKA DOBA 70–638 107 Čas po Jezusu je zaznamovalo delovanje apostolov Krščanstvo se v tako stanje ni moglo vključiti, ker po »lomljenju kruha«, kar vključuje evharistijo, in evangelistov in širjenje nove vere po imperiju. je imelo dve bistveno drugačni lastnosti: strog ki so jo obhajali pri skupnih obedih. Lomljenje Mož, ki je imel posebno mesto v zgodnjem monoteizem, ki je izključeval mnogoboštvo, ter kruha je osrednji del vsakega judovskega obeda. obdobju in širjenju krščanstva, je bil (apostol) nadkulturni (narodni) univerzalizem oziroma vero, Obredno lomljenje kruha pri pashalni večerji Pavel. Veliko spisov Svetega pisma Nove zaveze ki je presegala narodne okvire. pomeni spominjanje mogočnih Božjih del v predstavlja prav Pavlovo misijonsko dejavnost, Ker se kristjani niso udeleževali poganskih času egiptovskih stisk (prim. 2 Mz 16). Na večer ki je evangelij ponesel »do konca sveta«, kar je obredov, so v javnosti kmalu veljali za brezbožneže, pred svojim trpljenjem je Jezus z istim obredom takrat pomenilo do Rima, prestolnice Rimskega sovražnike cesarjev in države. Čaščenje bogov je spominjanja rešitve napovedal dokončno Božjo imperija. Rimljani so povsod gradili trdne ceste, ki veljalo kot nujen pogoj za nadaljnji obstoj cesarstva odločenost, da bo med svojim ljudstvom ne samo so omogočale mobilnost rimskih legij in trgovanje. in javne blaginje. Za kristjane je to pomenilo stanje, kot Rešitelj, ampak kot Kruh sam. Lomljenje kruha Isti sporazumevalni jezik v celotnem imperiju in ki je neizogibno vodilo v krvava preganjanja v je tako postalo najstarejši izraz vere Cerkve v trajno dobre prometne zveze so bistveno pripomogli k prvih stoletjih. Krščanstvo so si prizadevali uničiti Gospodovo navzočnost in znamenje njihove hitremu širjenju evangelija. predvsem trije cesarji, Neron (54–68), Decij pripravljenosti, da uresničujejo njegovo besedo v Do nastopa Kristusove Cerkve v javnosti rimska (249– 251) in Dioklecijan (284–305). Novo obdobje vsakdanjem življenju: »Bili so stanovitni v nauku država ni poznala verskih nemirov in neredov. je zaznamovala vladavina Konstantina I. (306–337), apostolov in v občestvu, v lomljenju kruha in v Podjarmljeni narodi so prešli pod njeno oblast ki je z verskim tolerančnim razglasom iz leta 313, molitvah.« (Apd 2,42; 2,46; 20,7.11; 27,35; 1 Kor hkrati s svojimi bogovi. Čeprav so veljali rimski s t. i. Milanskim ediktom, kristjane v Rimskem 10,16) Kljub dejstvu, da ni dokazov o liturgični rabi bogovi za močnejše, so Rimljani sprejemali imperiju izenačil s pripadniki drugih verstev. To svetilk v prvih dveh stoletjih, je bila njihova raba božanstva podvrženih narodov med svoja. Verska je za kristjane pomenilo svobodo verovanja in zelo razširjena, saj so bile najdene v vseh antičnih strpnost je ohranila mir v državi brez posebnih prenehanje preganjanj. Krščanstvo je postalo središčih zgodnjega krščanstva. V Apostolskih Od puščave do mize verskih zakonov. Vzporedno s krščanstvom se uradna vera leta 391 v času Teodozija I. (379–395). delih beremo, da je v gornji izbi pri lomljenju je začel uveljavljati kult cesarjeve osebnosti, ki Od najstarejših virov naprej je izpričano, da so bile kruha gorelo veliko svetilk (20,7-12). so ga na Zahodu združevali s čaščenjem Rima. prve krščanske skupnosti v okolici prepoznavne SPREADING OF CHRISTIANITY Ac, Paul’s and other Epistles EARLY AND LATE ROMAN PERIOD, BYZANTINE PERIOD 70–638 108 The time after Jesus is characterized by the opera-Rome in the West. Christianity could not integrate first Christian communities were recognizable by tion of the apostles and the evangelists and spreadin such a state, since it had two fundamentally dif- »breaking of bread«, which includes the Eucharist ing of the new religion across the empire. ferent characteristics; the strict monotheism which which they celebrated at common meals. Breaking The man who had a special place in the early excluded polytheism and supercultural (national) of bread represents the central part of each Jewish period and in the spreading of Christianity, was universalism, i.e. faith which exceeds national meal. The ritual breaking of bread at the Passover (apostle) Paul. Many writings of the Bible of the borders. dinner commemorates the mighty God’s works in New Testament represent just Paul’s missionary Since the Christians did not participate in pagan the time of Egyptian distress (comp. Ex 16). In the activities, which bring the Gospel »to the end of the rites, they soon started to be seen as impious, hos-evening before his suffering, Jesus announced the world«, which in those times meant to Rome, the tile towards the emperor and the state in public. final God’s decision that he would come to his peo-capital of the Roman Empire. The Romans every- The worship of gods was regarded as a necessary ple not only as a Saviour but as Bread itself with where constructed steady roads, which enabled condition for the further existence of the empire the same ritual of commemoration of the salvation. mobility of Roman legions and trade. The common and the common well-being. For Christians, this Breaking of bread thus became the oldest expres- language of communication in the whole empire state inevitably brought to bloody persecution in sion of the Church’s belief in permanent God’s and good transport infrastructure significantly the first centuries. Three emperors especially strived presence and a sign of their readiness to realize helped to spread the Gospel fast. to destroy Christianity: Nero (54–68), Decius his word in the everyday life: »They spent their time Up to the appearance of Christ’s Church in pub- (249–251) and Diocletian (284–305). The new learning from the apostles, and they were like fam-lic, the Roman state did not know any religious era is characterized by the rule of Constantine I ily to each other. They also broke bread and prayed turmoil and riots. The subjugated nations were (306–337), who equalled the Christians within the together.« (Ac 2:42; 2:46; 20:7.11; 27:35; 1 Co subjected to its authority together with their gods. Roman Empire with the followers of other religions 10:16) Despite the fact that there are no proofs of Even though the Roman gods were regarded as with the religious tolerance proclamation of 313, the liturgical use of lamps in the first two centuries, more powerful, the Romans accepted the deities the so-called Edict of Milan. For the Christians, their use was widespread, since they were found in of the subjugated nations among their own gods. it meant the freedom of religion and cessation all antique centres of the early Christianity. In the Religious tolerance kept peace in the empire with-of persecution. Christianity became the official Acts of the Apostles, it is stated that in the breaking desert to the table out special legislation. In parallel to Christianity, religion of the empire in the time of Theodosius I of bread, in the upstairs room, there were a lot of the cult of the emperor’s personality started to (379–395) in 391. lamps (20:7-12). From the establish, which was joined with the worship of the Since the oldest sources, it has been testified that the PAUL'S LAST VISIT PAVLOV POSLOVILNI OBISK TO TROAS V TROÁDI Acts of the Apostles 20:7-12 Apostolska dela 20,7-12 109 On the first day of the week we met to break bread together. Paul spoke to the people until midnight because he was Ko smo se prvi dan v tednu zbrali k lomljenju kruha, se je Pavel pogovarjal z njimi. Ker je nameraval naslednji dan odpotovati, se je leaving the next morning. In the upstairs njegov govor zavlekel do polnoči. V gornji room where we were meeting, there were a lot of izbi, kjer smo bili zbrani, je gorelo veliko svetilk. Na lamps. A young man by the name of Eutychus was oknu je sedèl mladenič, po imenu Evtih, ki je med sitting on a window sill. While Paul was speaking, Pavlovim dolgim govorom trdnó zaspal. V spanju je the young man got very sleepy. Finally, he went to padel s tretjega nadstropja in pobrali so ga mrtvega. sleep and fell three floors all the way down to the Pavel je stopil dol, se sklonil nadenj, ga objel in rekel: ground. When they picked him up, he was dead. »Ne delajte hrupa! Še je življenje v njem.« Nato se Paul went down and bent over Eutychus. He took je povzpel nazaj, lomil kruh, ga zaužil ter še dolgo him in his arms and said, »Don't worry! He's alive.« govoril, vse dokler se ni zdanilo. Potem je odšel. After Paul had gone back upstairs, he broke bread, Mladeniča pa so pripeljali živega domov in to jim je and ate with us. He then spoke until dawn and left. bilo v nemajhno tolažbo. Then the followers took the young man home alive and were very happy. Od puščave do mize Odprta svetilka školjkaste 34. oblike z izvihanim ustjem, na sprednji strani stisnjenim v nosek Najdišče: neznano Višina: 2,7 cm Dolžina: 11,5 cm Inv. št.: 33 Datacija: mlajša železna doba (720–587/86 pr. Kr.) 110 Open lamp of a shell-shaped form with a folded rim pinched at front to form a spout Location: unknown Height: 2.7 cm Length: 11.5 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 33 Dated: Late Iron Age From the (720–587/86 B.C.) Odprta svetilka školjkaste oblike z blago nakazanim 35. ustjem, na sprednji strani stisnjenim v nosek Najdišče: neznano Višina: 5,5 cm Dolžina: 14,9 cm Inv. št.: 34 Datacija: mlajša železna doba (720–587/86 pr. Kr.) 111 Open lamp of a shell-shaped form with only indicated rim pinched at front to form a spout Od puščave do mize Location: unknown Height: 5.5 cm Length: 14.9 cm Inv. No.: 34 Dated: Late Iron Age (720–587/86 B.C.) Svetilka z okroglim trupom 36. in majhnim zaobljenim noskom, okrašena z nizom vtisnjenih S-spiral Najdišče: neznano Višina: 2,2 cm Dolžina: 8 cm Inv. št.: 27 Datacija: zgodnje rimsko obdobje (100–300) 112 Lamp with a spherical body and a small rounded nozzle, decorated with a sequence of imprinted S-formed spirals Location: unknown Height: 2.2 cm Length: 8 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 27 Dated: Early Roman Period From the (100–300) Svetilka z okroglim trupom in majhnim zaobljenim 37. noskom, okrašena z nizom vtisnjenih polkrogov Najdišče: Hebron (?) Višina: 2,5 cm Dolžina: 7,4 cm Inv. št.: 102 Datacija: zgodnje rimsko obdobje (100–300) 113 Lamp with a spherical body and a small rounded nozzle, decorated with a sequence of imprinted semicircles Od puščave do mize Location: Hebron (?) Height: 2.5 cm Length: 7.4 cm Inv. No.: 102 Dated: Early Roman Period (100–300) Svetilka s hruškastim 38. trupom, zaobljenim noskom in zgolj nakazanim držajem, okrašena z izstopajočimi krožci in kvadrati Najdišče: Hebron (?) Višina: 3 cm, Dolžina: 8,3 cm Inv. št.: 104 Datacija: zgodnje rimsko obdobje 114 (200–300) Lamp with a piriform body, a rounded nozzle and an only indicated handle, decorated with prominent circles and squares Location: Hebron (?) Height: 3 cm Length: 8.3 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 104 Dated: Early Roman Period From the (200–300) Svetilka s hruškastim trupom in jezičastim 39. držajem, Okrašena z izstopajočimi krožci in polkrožnimi liki Najdišče: Hebron (?) Višina: 3 cm Dolžina: 9,3 cm Inv. št.: 105 Datacija: pozno rimsko obdobje (200–400) 115 Lamp with a piriform body and a tongue-shaped handle, decorated with prominent circles and semi- circular shapes Od puščave do mize Location: Hebron (?) Height: 3 cm Length: 9.3 cm Inv. No.: 105 Dated: Late Roman Period (200–400) Svetilka s hruškastim trupom, 40. okrašena z izstopajočimi krožci, polkrožnimi liki in smrekovo vejico ter stiliziranim križem nad zaobljenim noskom Najdišče: Tayibeh (?) Višina: 3,4 cm Dolžina: 10,6 cm Inv. št.: 100 Datacija: pozno rimsko obdobje 116 (200–400) Lamp with a piriform body, decorated with prominent circles, semi-circular shapes, a pine branch and a stylized cross above the rounded nozzle Location: Tayibeh (?) Height: 3.4 cm Length: 10.6 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 100 Dated: Late Roman Period From the (200–400) Svetilka s hruškastim trupom, okrašena z 41. izstopajočimi rebri Najdišče: Ramala Višina: 4 cm Dolžina: 10,4 cm Inv. št.: 99 Datacija: bizantinsko obdobje (400–700) 117 Lamp with a piriform body, decorated with prominent ribs Od puščave do mize Location: Ramallah Height: 4 cm Length: 10.4 cm Inv. No.: 99 Dated: Byzantine Period (400–700) Svetilka z ovalnim trupom 42. in jezičastim držajem, Okrašena z izstopajočim motivom smrekove vejice Najdišče: Hebron (?) Višina: 3,3 cm Dolžina: 9,1 cm Inv. št.: 106 Datacija: bizantinsko obdobje (400–700) 118 Lamp with an oval body and a tongue-shaped handle, decorated with a prominent motif of a pine branch Location: Hebron (?) Height: 3.3 cm Length: 9.1 cm desert to the table Inv. No.: 106 Dated: Byzantine Period From the (400–700) KOMENTAR K ARHEOLOŠKEMU GRADIVU IN IZBRANIM EKSPONATOM 119 Glinene svetilke so bile najobičajnejši vir svetlobe v starih bližnjevzhodnih kulturah. Zaradi Vse predstavljene oljenke pomena luči so močan simbol in se kot take omenjajo tudi v Svetem pismu (npr. Pavlov ne datirajo v čas zgodnjega poslovilni obisk v Troádi v Apostolskih delih 20,7-12; prilika o nespametnih devicah v Evangeliju krščanstva, temveč po Mateju 25,1-13). Kot gorivo zanje se je uporabljalo oljčno olje ali živalska maščoba. Oljenke služijo za ponazoritev so lahko bile bolj zaprte, lojenke pa so zahtevale bolj odprt trup za lažji dovod zraka. Najstarejše razvoja oljenk preprostih so preproste svetilke »školjkaste« oblike, izdelane iz odprte skledice, ki ji je lončar z uvijanjem oblik iz železne dobe do oboda oblikoval nosek, v katerem leži stenj. Takšne svetilke poznamo že iz zgodnje bronaste manufakturne natančnosti dobe, oblika pa se je ohranila vse do srednjega veka. V Biblični arheološki zbirki zastopane (kat. rimskega, bizantinskega št. 34 in 35) so iz mlajše železne dobe. in zgodnjega islamskega S helenizmom in v rimskem obdobju so se uveljavile zaprte oblike svetilk z ločenima odprtinama obdobja. za gorivo in stenj. Izdelane so bile v kalupih in imajo vidno površino pogosto okrašeno z reliefnim ornamentom. Uvožene ali v rimskih delavnicah izdelane oljenke imajo v osrednjem medaljonu pogosto mitološke prizore, lokalne delavnice pa so zaradi verskih razlogov take prizore odklanjale in uporabljale geometrijsko ali stilizirano rastlinsko ornamentiko (kat. št. 37 in 38). V poznorimskem in bizantinskem obdobju so oljenke postajale večje in bolj podolgovate, razvilo se je tudi več tipov, značilnih le za območje starega Izraela (kat. št. 39 in 40). Najmlajši svetilki iz zbirke sta okrašeni z motivom smrekove vejice (kat. št. 42) oziroma z rebri, ki na nosku Not all the exhibited oil tvorijo stilizirano menoro – judovski sedmeroramni svečnik (kat. št. 41). lamps date back to the time of Early Christianity, but serve as an illustration Od puščave do mize of the development of oil lamps of simple forms from the Iron Age to the manufactural precision of the Roman, Byzantine and the Early Islamic period. Oil lamp Olive press A COMMENTARY ON THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND THE SELECTED ARTEFACTS 120 OIL Clay lamps were the commonest source of light in old Middle-Eastern cultures. Due to the meaning of light, they are a strong symbol and are mentioned in the Bible as such (e.g. Paul’s Last O il was extracted from olives. Olive trees grow all across the Mediterranean. In the Visit to Troas in the Acts of the Apostles 20:7-12; a story about ten girls in the Gospel of Matthew area of Israel where the soil is especially suitable 25:1-13). Olive oil or animal fat was used as fuel for them. Oil lamps could be more closed, while for olive trees, several types of olive trees are tallow lamps required a more open body for an easier air flow. The oldest are simple »shell-sha-found (Dt 28:40; 33:24). They are collected by ped« lamps, made out of an open bowl, the rim of which was formed into a nozzle in which the shaking the branches or by beating them with a wick was put. Such lamps are known from the Early Bronze Age, and the form is preserved up to stick (Is 17:6; 24:13). the Middle Ages. The lamps from the Biblical Archaeological Collection (Cat. Nos. 34–35) origi-Oil was used in food sacrifices (comp. Lv 2), nate from the Late Iron Age. for lamps (comp. Lv 24:1-4) and for anointing With Hellenism and in the Roman Period, closed forms of lamps with separated openings for the (comp. Lv 8:2.12). fuel and the wick were established. They were made in moulds and had the visible surface often The »purest olive oil«, means oil which had been covered with relief decorations. The imported oil lamps or oil lamps produced in the Roman strained from the crushed olives before they workshops often displayed mythological scenes, while local workshops, due to religious rea-were put into the oil press, was used for lamps sons, rejected mythological scenes and used geometrical or stylized plant ornaments (Cat. Nos. and especially the temple candelabrum (meno- 37–38). In the Late Roman and Byzantine Period, oil lamps became larger and longer, several rah): »Command the people of Israel to supply types typical of the area of old Israel (Cat. Nos. 39–40), developed. The youngest lamps from the you with the purest olive oil. Do this so the lamp collection are decorated with the motif of a pine branch (Cat. No. 42) or with ribs which formed will keep burning…« (Ex 27:20) In the old East, a stylized menorah – the Jewish seven-lamp candelabrum – at the nozzle (Cat. No. 41). subjects and people, especially kings, were ano- inted and thus consecrated (1 S 10:1). The medicine of that time also used oil for ea- sing pain (comp. Lk 10:34), and in the Bible it often symbolizes abundance. The oil cake was a very appreciated kind of swe- desert to the table et pastry (Nu 11:8), made of unleavened bread, to which oil was added or which was coated From the with oil (Lv 2:4; 1 Ki 17:12-16). Oljenka Stiskalnica za olive OLJE 121 Olje so pridobivali iz oliv. Oljka raste po vsem Sredozemlju, na območju Izraela, kjer je zemlja zanjo še posebej primerna, najdemo več vrst oljke (5 Mz 28,40; 33,24). Nabirajo jih tako, da veje tresejo ali jih otepajo s palicami (Iz 17,6; 24,13). Olje so uporabljali pri jedilnih daritvah (prim. 3 Mz 2), za svetilke (prim. 3 Mz 24,1-4) in za maziljenje (prim. 3 Mz 8,2.12). Za svetilke in predvsem tempeljski svečnik (menoro) so uporabljali »čisto olje«, to je olje, ki so ga odcedili iz zdrobljenih oliv, preden so jih dali v stiskalnico: »Zapovej pa Izraelovim sinovom, da ti prinesejo čistega olja iz stolčenih oliv za svečnik, da prižgejo svetilko, ki bo stalno gorela.« (2 Mz 27,20) Na starem Vzhodu so z oljem mazilili (in s tem posvečevali) predmete in ljudi, posebno kralje (1 Sam 10,1). Olje je tedanje zdravilstvo uporabljalo Od puščave do mize tudi za blažitev bolečin (prim. Lk 10,34), v Svetem pismu je pogosto podoba izobilja. Zelo cenjeno pecivo je bil oljnat kolač (4 Mz 11,8) iz nekvašenega, z oljem umesenega ali premazanega kruha (3 Mz 2,4; 1 Kr 17,12-16). An ancient winepress was a rock-hewn open-air system. Grapes were pressed by being Winepress in trodden underfoot in a treading floor. The juice would pour through a channel into a vat, Ancient Israel where it would ferment. It would then be collected in jars. 1 - Grapes. The yeast from the skin of the grapes would begin fermenting the grape juice at the time of pressing. 2 - Pressed plant fibres were used to filter the grape juice. 3 - Plug rock. 4 - Vat. The fermentation would take a few days, bubbling vigorously, especially during the first day. When the bubbling stopped, the juice – now wine – was ready to be taken out. 5 - Channel. 6 - Wine jars were often stoppered with unfired clay. 7 - The chalk/ limestone bedrock in Israel makes excellent winepress – it cuts easily and holds liquid well. 122 WINE » The LORD your God is bringing you to a good land with streams that flow from springs in the valleys and hills […] Wheat and barley fields are everywhere, and so are vineyards…« (Dt 8:7-8) Wine was a very important part of the alimentary culture (Sir 39:26) of the whole Mediterranean area. There was no (official) meal without wine. Since the water was impure and caused stomach illnesses, people often drank wine (or grape juice). Paul taught Timothy to stop drinking water (which most probably caused his stomach problems) and start to drink wine: »Stop drinking only water. Take a little wine to help your stomach trouble and the other illnesses you always have.« (1 Ti 5:23) At feasts, they usually added various spices to the wine, so that it was tastier and more intoxicating 1 2 (Is 5:22). Vinegar, diluted with water (dry wine), was a common drink in Mediterranean countries (Mt 27:48), while together with bread, dipped in vinegar, it was a common meal (Ru 2:14). The medicine at that time used wine for disinfection after injuries; thus the good Samaritan went over to the dying man, and »treated his wounds with olive oil and wine and bandaged them« (Lk 10:34). Vines and vineyards were popular images for the chosen people. A vineyard was a metaphor for the chosen people and it was cared for by God like a plantation (comp. Is 5:1-7; 28:23-29). The vine in the Old Testament often illustrates the people of Israel, while the winegrower illustrates God who planted his vine 4 and protected it, so that it could bring him the fruits of justice and holiness, and threatens it with destruction at the eschatologic judgement in case it does not meet his expectations (comp. Is 5:1-7; Jr 2:21). The abundance of wine in the Old Testament was a sign of eschatologic fullness (comp. Ho 14:8; Am 9:13-14). Jesus expressed this same reality with the use of the metaphor of the vine and branches: »I am the vine, and you are the branches.« (Jn 15:5) In the Jewish tradition, wine became one of the important sym-bolic signs for God’s word, the Law. In the Messianic context (Jn 1:17) the old wine of the Law of Moses became »the best wine« of the announcement about Jesus Christ. The Bible states that Noah was the first who planted vines (Gn 9:20). A rabbinic opinion exists that the desert to the table tree of knowledge from which Adam and Eve consumed the forbidden fruit, was a vine. The collected grapes were trodden underfoot on a treading floor and the juice collected in jars (Jr From the 13:12) and wineskins (Mt 9:17). Antične stiskalnice grozdja so bile vsekane v skalnato podlago na prostem. Sok grozdja, ki so ga stiskali z nogami, je po kanalu pritekel v kad in v njej fermentiral. Vino so nato shranjevali v (glinenih) vrčih. 1 - Grozdje. Fermentacijo grozdnega soka je sprožil kvas na grozdnih kožicah (olupkih). 2 - Za filtriranje grozdnega soka so uporabili trnje ali druga rastlinska vlakna. 3 - Kamniti čep. 4 - Kad. Fermentacija z močnim brbotanjem (zlasti prvi dan) je trajala nekaj dni. Ko se je brbotanje ustavilo, je bil sok, zdaj vino, pripravljen. 5 - Kanal. 6 - Vinske vrče so pogosto začepili (zamašili) z nežgano glino. 7 - Apnenčasta podlaga v Izraelu je omogočala odlične stiskalnice – apnenec se enostavno obdeluje in dobro zadržuje tekočino. VINO 123 Stiskalnica za grozdje v Izraelu iz bibličnih časov »Kajti GOSPOD, tvoj Bog, te pelje v lepo deželo, v deželo potokov, studencev in podzemskih vodá, ki izvirajo po dolinah in gorah; v deželo pšenice, ječmena, vinske trte …« (5 Mz 8,7-8) Vino je bilo zelo pomemben del prehrambne kulture (Sir 39,26) v celotnem sredozemskem območju. Brez njega ni bilo (svečanega) obreda. Zaradi nečiste vode, ki je povzročala bolezni želodca, so ljudje pogosto pili vino (ali grozdni sok). Pavel je učil Timoteja, naj preneha piti vodo (ki je najverjetneje povzročala njegove trebušne težave) in začne piti vino: »Ne pij več le 3 vode, temveč popij malo vina zaradi želodca in svojih pogostih bolezni.« (1 Tim 5,23) 4 Pri gostijah so običajno dodajali vinu razne dišave, da je bilo bolj okusno in opojno (Iz 5,22). Z vodo razredčen kis (trpko vino) je bil običajna pijača v sredozemskih deželah (Mt 27,48), 5 skupaj s kruhom, ki so ga namakali v kis, pa običajen obrok (Rut 2,14). 6 Tedanje zdravilstvo je pri poškodbah vino uporabljalo za razkuževanje; tako je usmiljeni Samarijan pristopil k napol mrtvemu človeku, »zlil olja in vina na njegove rane in jih obvezal« (Lk 10,34). Trta in vinograd sta priljubljeni podobi za izvoljeno ljudstvo. Vinska gorica je prispodoba za izvoljeno ljudstvo, za katero skrbi Bog kakor za svoj nasad (prim. Iz 5,1-7; 28,23-29). Vinska trta v Stari zavezi večkrat ponazarja izraelsko ljudstvo, vinogradnik pa Boga, ki je zasadil svojo vinsko trto in jo varuje, da bi mu prinašala sadove pravičnosti in svetosti, ter ji grozi z uničenjem ob eshatološki sodbi, če ne bo izpolnila njegovih pričakovanj (prim. Iz 5,1-7; Jer 2,21). Obilje vina je bilo v Stari zavezi znamenje eshatološke polnosti (prim. Oz 14,8; 7 Am 9,13-14). Jezus je izrazil to isto resničnost s podobo trte in mladik: »Jaz sem trta, vi mladike.« (Jn 15,5) Od puščave do mize V judovski tradiciji je vino postalo ena pomembnih simbolnih oznak za Božjo besedo, za Postavo. V mesijanskem kontekstu (Jn 1,17) je staro vino Mojzesove postave postalo »dobro vino« oznanila o Jezusu Kristusu. V Svetem pismu beremo, da je Noe prvi sadil vinsko trto (1 Mz 9,20). Obstaja rabinsko mnenje, da je bilo drevo spoznanja, s katerega sta Adam in Eva zaužila prepovedan sad, vinska trta. Zbrano grozdje so steptali v tlačilnici ter s sokom napolnili vrče (Jer 13,12) in mehove (Mt 9,17). Trinožna skodelica (720–587/86 pr. Kr., kat. št. 24) Tripod cup (720–587/86 B.C., Cat. No. 24) RECENZIJA Od puščave do mize – od gline do življenja 125 Razstava Biblične arheološke zbirke Teološke postopen razvoj materialne kulture, na katerem v svoje obrede vključevala hrano in hranjenje. knjižnice Maribor in spremljajoči katalog z temelji tudi naša civilizacija. Drugi prehod tvori Na tem ozadju lahko torej razumemo veliko naslovom Od puščave do mize, ki sta nastala izbor bibličnih tekstov, ki bralca povede od angažiranost in ustvarjalnost, ki jo je judovsko- v sodelovanju Teološke fakultete in Sinagoge devteronomistične tradicije, preko evangelijev, do krščanska civilizacija posvečala izdelavi posodja Maribor, predstavljata uspešen primer ustvarjalne poznih pavlinskih pisem. Tretji prehod ustvarjajo in priprav, ki so jih uporabljali pri obedih in pri interdisciplinarnosti, ki odpira iščočemu človeku zgodovinski opisi obdobij, v katerih je potovalo bogoslužju. nove poglede in nove pristope. Ko sedejo za izvoljeno ljudstvo. Začne se s prihodom Abrahama Estetsko dovršeno in vsebinsko argumentirano skupno mizo arheolog, zgodovinar, biblicist in na območje Kánaana v 17. stoletju pr. Kr. in zaključi prepletanje teh štirih tokov, ki popeljejo teolog, lahko tudi tisočletja stari predmeti in teksti z opisom življenja novih pavlinskih skupnosti v obiskovalca skozi tisočletja rasti in zorenja zasijejo v novi luči in spregovorijo na nov način. Mali Aziji in drugod po Rimskem imperiju. Četrti človeškega duha, je posrečena izvirnost te razstave. Da je to uspelo v tako dovršeni obliki, sta svoj prehod, v katerem najdejo presečišče tudi preostali Njen namen gotovo ni samo odstirati detajle pomemben delež prispevala tudi avtor vrhunskih trije, pa je tematsko-teološki. Razstava sledi podobi zgodovinskega potovanja »od puščave do mize«, fotografij ter mojster grafike in oblikovanja. prehranjevanja kot temeljni človeški dejavnosti, v ki jih je izvoljeno ljudstvo zapustilo kot duhovno Avtorjem razstave in kataloga je uspelo ustvariti kateri se križajo človekova materialna, duhovna dediščino človeštvu, temveč tudi pričevati o veličini prepričljive prehode, ki bodo gledalca in bralca in družbena dimenzija. Ob človekovem odnosu duha, ki navdihuje te prehode, da iz mrtve gline večplastno nagovorili in vključili v vznemirljivo do hrane se je razvijal tudi njegov odnos do spregovori živa podoba, da se v puščavi porodi popotovanje od davne preteklosti do aktualne najbližjih, do družbe in do svetega. Ob hranjenju življenje, da se iz posameznika prerodi človek, ki sedanjosti. Prvi prehod zaznamuje že sama se ni razvijala le tehnika pridelovanja in priprave lahko ustvarja, ljubi in občuduje. arheološka zbirka različnih posod, ki zajema hrane, temveč tudi morala, etika in teologija. predmete od bakrene dobe (ok. 4000 pr. Kr.) Človek je prav ob hrani doživljal tako svojo Izr. prof. dr. Maksimilijan Matjaž, Od puščave do mize do predmetov iz pozne bizantinske dobe (do končnost in odvisnost kot tudi svojo ustvarjalnost predstojnik Katedre za Sveto pismo in judovstvo ok. 700 po Kr.). Ker je lončenina najboljša priča ter poklicanost v presežno – v odnos. Odnos do Teološke fakultete UL tehnološkega, gospodarskega in družbenega hrane je odslikaval odnos do vira življenja, zato razvoja, bo lahko pozoren gledalec opazoval je judovsko-krščanska tradicija od vsega začetka PEER REVIEW From the desert to the table – from clay to life 126 The exhibition of the Biblical Archaeological economic, and social development, an attentive spiritual – the relationship. The attitude towards Collection of the Theological Library Maribor and viewer will observe the gradual development of food reflected the attitude towards the source of the accompanying catalogue titled From the desert material culture, which is the basis of our civiliza-life, therefore the Jewish-Christian tradition inclu-to the table, which were created with the cooperation. The second transition is represented by the ded food and nourishment into its rituals from the tion of the Faculty of Theology and the Synagogue selection of biblical texts which accompanies the very beginning. With this background, one can Maribor, represents a successful example of crea-reader from the deuteronomist tradition, across understand the great engagement and creativity tive interdisciplinarity which opens up new per- the gospels to the late Paulinian epistles. The third which the Jewish-Christian civilization devoted to spectives and new approaches for someone who transition is the historical descriptions of the peri-the production of vessels and devices which were is searching. When an archaeologist, historian, ods in which the Chosen People travelled. It starts used in rituals and worship. Bible scholar and theologian sit together at a table, with the arrival of Abraham to the area of Canaan The perfect aesthetics and well-justified content of thousands of years old artefacts and texts can start in the 17th Century B.C. and concludes with the the interplay of the four streams which carry the to shine in a new light and start talking in a new description of the life of the new Paulinian com-visitor through the thousands of years of growth way. Also the author of the excellent photographs munities in Asia Minor and elsewhere across the and the maturing of the human spirit, is the felici-and the master of graphics and design significantly Roman Empire. The fourth transition when all the tous originality of this exhibition. It aim is not only contributed their share, that the final result comes other three intersect, is the thematic and theological to reveal the details of the historical journey »from in such a perfect form. one. The exhibition follows the culture of nourithe desert to the table«, which the Chosen People The authors of the exhibition and the catalogue shment as the basic human activity in which man’s left to humanity as the spiritual heritage, but to have managed to create convincing transitions material, spiritual and social dimensions meet. testify to the greatness of the spirit which inspired which will address the viewer and the reader at Next to man’s attitude towards food, their attitudes the transitions, so that a live image speaks from the many levels and bring them to the exciting jour-towards his closest people, towards society and that dead clay, so that life is born in the desert, so that ney from the ancient past to the present. The first which was sacred developed. Nourishment suppor-an individual becomes a human who can create, transition is characterized by the archaeological ted not only the development of the technology of love and admire. collection of pottery which includes artefacts from food production and its preparation, but also mo-desert to the table the Copper Age (ca. 4000 B.C.) to the artefacts of rality, ethics, and theology. Just for nourishment, Maksimilijan Matjaž, PhD, Assoc. Prof. the Late Byzantine Period (up to ca. 700 A.D.). man has experienced both his finality and depen- Head of Department of Biblical Studies and Judaism, From the Since pottery is the best proof of the technological, dence, and also creativity and the appeal into the University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Theology RECENZIJA Ko posoda približuje besedo 127 Razstava in razstavni katalog Od puščave do mize pismu. Ta je glede na gradivo, ki je na razpolago v bralca dosledno opozarjajo na razkorak med iz prihajata v Sinagogo Maribor ob obeleževanju zbirki, izbrana zelo umestno in omogoča prav tisto Stare zaveze znanim in današnjim prevladujočim petdesete obletnice delovanja Enote v Mariboru povezovanje znanstvenih disciplin, ki sem ga že mnenjem zgodovinarjev, denimo pri sodnikih, Teološke fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani. Že takoj omenil. pri katerih je jasno izpostavljeno, da je njihova na začetku je mogoče reči, da gre za posrečeno Drugi del kataloga je najobsežnejši in podoba voditeljev vseh izraelskih rodov močno izbiro. Predmeti svetopisemske arheološke zbirke, najpomembnejši. Odlikuje ga najprej pregledna pretirana. Za obiskovalke in obiskovalce razstave ki jih sicer hranijo v knjižnici te izobraževalne struktura. Predstavitvi obdobja, vezanega na pa bodo kajpak najpomembnejše navezave ustanove, je namreč eno najzanimivejših pričevanj svetopisemsko pripoved, sledijo fotografije predmetov iz arheološke zbirke na povedano o o delovanju Enote. predmetov iz zbirke in zanimivosti, ki svet Stare prehrani v svetopisemskih besedilih. Četudi je šlo Kot glavno odliko razstave in kataloga bi izpostavil zaveze povezujejo s sodobnostjo, pa tudi z Novo tukaj verjetno za najtežji del naloge pripravljavcev dosledno povezovanje arheoloških, zgodovinskih zavezo. Nepogrešljiv del predstavitve so slednjič razstave in predstavitev, so mu bili več kot kos in in teoloških vidikov. Za to je zaslužno sodelovanje odlomki starozaveznih besedil, za katere je so predmetom, predvsem keramiki in svetilkam, biblicista dr. Sama Skralovnika, arheologov značilna srečna roka pri izbiri. dejansko vdihnili življenje. S tem niso le omogočili Aleksandre Nestorović in Andreja Preložnika Pisati o zgodovinskem ozadju starozaveznih dostopa do ene pomembnejših arheoloških zbirk ter zgodovinarja Borisa Hajdinjaka pri pripravi tekstov je vedno zahtevna naloga, tudi zato, ker v Mariboru širši javnosti, marveč so tudi potrdili gradiva. Nespregledljiv je tudi delež teologinje dr. ni lahko uskladiti obsežnih naracij z arheološkim relevantnost biblicistike in teologije nasploh za Fanike Krajnc-Vrečko, skrbnice zbirke. gradivom. Zapisom v katalogu je lastno, da zmerno sodobnost. V skladu z okvirom postavitve predstavljata vozijo slalom med skrajnimi možnostmi. Po eni ogrodje kataloga dva poglavitna razdelka. V strani se oklepajo razmeroma tradicionalne, na Doc. dr. Aleš Maver, prvem razdelku se pisec kratko ustavi ob genezi in knjigah Stare zaveze utemeljene kronologije, a Oddelek za zgodovino, Filozofska fakulteta UM Od puščave do mize strukturi svetopisemske arheološke zbirke, nato pa po drugi strani jasno ločijo med zgodovinsko in spregovori o rdeči niti razstave, prehrani v Svetem teološko plastjo svetopisemskega sporočila. Tako PEER REVIEW When the vessel approaches the word 128 The exhibition and the exhibition catalogue From Collection and then the leitmotif of the exhibition, historical and the theological layer of the biblical the desert to the table come to the Synagogue the food in the Bible. According to the available message. Thus they consistently draw the reader’s Maribor on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary materials, the topic has been chosen very appropri-attention to the difference between the statements of the operation of the Unit in Maribor, Faculty ately and enables the cooperation of disciplines, as of the Old Testament and the opinion of today’s of Theology of the University of Ljubljana. Right I have mentioned above. historians; for example in the judges, where it is from the beginning, it could be said that a fortu-The second part of the catalogue is the most com-clearly stated that the image of the leaders of all nate choice was made. Artefacts from the Biblical prehensive and most important. It has a clear stru-Israelite generations is greatly exaggerated. For Archaeological Collection which are held in the cture. The presentation of the age, connected to the the visitors of the exhibition, the connection of the library of this educational institution, represent biblical narrative, is followed by photographs of the artefacts from the Archaeological Collection to the one of the most interesting testimonials on the ope-artefacts and interesting details which connect the facts about the diet in the biblical texts will be most ration of the unit. world of the Old Testament to the present, as well important. Even though this was the most difficult The main distinction of the exhibition and the ca-as to the New Testament. An indispensable part of part of the preparation of the exhibition and the talogue is the consistent linking of archaeological, the presentation is the passages of texts from the presentation, the creators were equal to the task historical and theological aspects. It is the result of Old Testament; they were well-chosen after much and they breathed life into the artefacts, especially the cooperation of Bible scholar, Samo Skralovnik, consideration. the pottery and lamps. Thus they did not only ena-PhD, archaeologists Aleksandra Nestorović and It is always a difficult task to write on the histori-ble access to the public for one of the most impor-Andrej Preložnik and historian Boris Hajdinjak cal background of texts of the Old Testament, also tant archaeological collections in Maribor, but also in the preparation of the material. Fanika Krajnc-for the same reason it is difficult to harmonize the confirmed the relevance and theology in general in Vrečko, PhD, the curator of the collection, also extensive narratives with the archaeologic mate-modern times. contributed a significant share. rials. The texts of the catalogue moderately switch In accordance with the framework, the concept between the extreme options. On the one hand, Aleš Maver, PhD, Assist. Prof. of the catalogue is represented by two main secti-they follow the rather traditional chronology, based Department for History, University of Maribor, ons. The first section briefly describes the genesis on the books of the Old Testament, while on the Faculty of Arts desert to the table and the structure of the Biblical Archaeological other hand, they clearly distinguish between the From the Literatura Literature 129 Abernathy, A. T. 2014. Eating in Isaiah: Curtis, A., ur./ed. 2009. Oxford Bible Atlas. Oxford: Keel, O. 1997. Corpus der Stempelsigel–Amulette Approaching the Role of Food and Drink in Oxford University Press. aus Palästina/Israel. Orbis Biblicus et Isaiah's Structure and Message. Leiden: Brill. Dayagi-Mendels, M., Rozenberg, S., ur./ed. 2016. Orientalis 13. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Abu Rabia, A. 1994. The Negev Bedouin and Chronicles of the Land. Archaeology in The Ruprecht Verlage. Livestock Rearing. Oxford: Berg. Israel Museum Jerusalem. Jerusalem: Israel Levy, T. E., ur./ed. 1998. The Archaeology of Society Altmann, P. 2011. Festive Meals in Ancient Israel: Museum. in the Holy Land. London; Washington: Deuteronomy's Identity Politics in their De Vaux, R. 1997. Ancient Israel: Its Life and Leicester University Press. Ancient Near Eastern Context. Berlin: De Institutions. Grand Rapids; Michigan: McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Gruyter. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Perspectives. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. Amiran, R. 1969. Ancient Pottery of the Holy Land. Finkel, I. L., Seymour, M. J., ur./ed. 2009. Babylon – MacDonald, N. 2008. Not Bread Alone: The Uses of Jerusalem: Massada Press. Myth and Reality. London: The British Food in the Old Testament. Oxford: Oxford Aubelj, B., ur./ed. 1999. Zakladi tisočletij: zgodovina Museum Press. University Press. Slovenije od neandertalcev do Slovanov. Foxhall, L. in H. A. Forbes. 1982. Sitometreia: The Matjaž, M. 2015. Klic v novo življenje: prevod Ljubljana: Modrijan. Role of Grain as a Staple Food in Classical in komentar Pavlovega Prvega pisma Boer, R. 2015. The Sacred Economy of Ancient Antiquity. Chiron 12: 41–90. Korinčanom. Ljubljana: Teološka fakulteta Israel. Louisville: Westminster John Knox. Harris, R. L. 1995. Exploring the World of the Bible UL. Broshi, M. 2001. Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls. Lands. London: Thames & Hudson, Ltd. Matjaž, M. 2017. Eksegeza evangelijev: »Kaj pa Sheffield: Sheffield Academic. Jelinčič Boeta, K. 2009. Kratka zgodovina Judov. vi pravite, kdo sem?« (Mr 8,29). Ljubljana: Brumberg-Kraus, J. 1999. »Not By Bread Alone. .«: Celovec: Mohorjeva. Teološka fakulteta UL. The Ritualization of Food and Table Talk in Keel, O. 1995. Corpus der Stempelsigel–Amulette Postgate, J. N. 2007. Early Mesopotamia: Society Od puščave do mize the Passover Seder and in the Last Supper. aus Palästina/Israel. Orbis Biblicus et and Economy at the Dawn of History. Semeia 86: 165–191. Orientalis 10. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & London; New York: Routledge. Claasens, J. 2004. The God Who Provides: Biblical Ruprecht Verlage. Pritchard, J. B., ur./ed. 1990. Biblijski atlas. Images of Divine Nourishment. Nashville: Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba (orig.: Abingdon Press. Pritchard, J. B., ur./ed. 1989. The Times Atlas of the Bible. London: Times Books). Čutara s sledovi okrasa koncentričnih krogov (720–587/86 pr. Kr., kat. št. 23) Pilgrim flask with traces of decoration of concentric circles (720–587/86 B.C., Cat. No. 23) 131 Sasson, A. 2008. Reassessing the Bronze and Iron Stone, K. 2005. Practicing Safer Texts: Food, Sex Sveto pismo Stare in Nove zaveze: slovenski Age Economy: Sheep and Goat Husbandry and Bible in Queer Perspective. London: standardni prevod iz izvirnih jezikov: in the Southern Levant as a Model T&T Clark International. študijska izdaja. 2005. Ljubljana: Case Study. V/In: A. Fantalkin, A. Yasur- Sussman, V. 1983. The Samaritan Oil Lamps from Svetopisemska družba Slovenije. Landau, ur./ed. Bene Israel: Studies in the Apollonia–Arsuf. Tel Aviv 10: 71–96. Van de Mieroop, M. 2016. A History of the Ancient Archaeology of Israel and the Levant during Sutton, D. E. 2001. Remembrance of Repast: An Near East ca. 3000–323 BC. Chichester: the Bronze and Iron Ages, 117–121. Leiden: Anthropology of Food and Memory. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. Brill. Berg. Van der Toorn, K. 2007. Scribal Culture and the Schafer-Elliott, C. 2014. Food in Ancient Judah: Sveto pismo. Nova zaveza in Psalmi: jeruzalemska Making of the Hebrew Bible. London: Domestic Cooking in the Time of the Hebrew izdaja. 2010. Ljubljana: Družina, Teološka Harvard University Press. Bible. New York: Routledge. fakulteta. Wexler, L., Gilboa, G. 1996. Oil Lamps from the Śliwa, J. 1989. Egyptian Scarabs and Magical Gems Sveto pismo. Modrostne in preroške knjige: Roman Period from Apollonia–Arsuf. Tel from the Collection of Constantine Schmidt– jeruzalemska izdaja. 2013. Ljubljana: Aviv 23: 115–131. Ciażyński. Warszawa; Kraków: Uniwersytet Družina, Teološka fakulteta. Ziegler, C., ur./ed. 2002. The Pharaohs. Milano: Jagielloński, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Sveto pismo. Peteroknjižje: jeruzalemska izdaja. Bompiani Arte. Naukowe. 2014. Ljubljana: Družina, Teološka fakulteta, Soler, J. 1997. The Semiotics of Food in the Bible. Slovenska škofovska konferenca. Svetopisemsko besedilo je vzeto iz Slovenskega V/In: C. Counihan, P. Van Estrik, ur./ed. Food Sveto pismo. Zgodovinske knjige: jeruzalemska standardnega prevoda Svetega pisma (SSP). and Culture: A Reader, 55–66. New York: izdaja. 2015. Ljubljana: Družina, Teološka The biblical text is cited from the Contemporary Routledge. fakulteta, Slovenska škofovska konferenca. English Version of the Bible (CEV) and the Od puščave do mize World English Bible (WEB) where indicated. Od puščave do mize. Razstava Biblične arheološke zbirke Teološke knjižnice Maribor ob 50. obletnici Enote v Mariboru Teološke fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani From the desert to the table. Exhibition of the Biblical Archaeological Collection of the Theological Library Maribor on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the Unit in Veleposlaništvo Maribor, Faculty of Theology, University of Ljubljana Države Izrael Katalog razstave Exhibition catalogue 132 Avtor Author Slikovno gradivo Graphic material Izdala in založila Published by doc. dr. Samo Skralovnik Zemljevidi Maps (17–19, 61): Sveto pismo. Nova zaveza Center judovske kulturne dediščine Sinagoga Drugi avtorji Other authors in Psalmi: jeruzalemska izdaja. 2010. Ljubljana: Maribor Knjiga vseh knjig, Časovnica Družina, Teološka fakulteta. Teološka fakulteta UL, Enota v Mariboru The Book of books, Timeline Koriander Coriander (31): picturepartners/Bigstock.com Urednika Editors Boris Hajdinjak (ID: 113288567). doc. dr. Samo Skralovnik Katalogu na pot Catalogue preface Bdelij Bdellium (31): PrashantZI/Bigstock.com Marjetka Bedrač doc. dr. Mateja Pevec Rozman (ID: 104889983). Tisk Printing Opisi in komentarji artefaktov Descriptions and Šotor Tent (49): brekelm/Bigstock.com (ID: 202033366). Dravski tisk, d. o. o. commentaries on the artefacts Kruh Bread (49): Naltik/Bigstock.com (ID: 136543934). Naklada Edition Aleksandra Nestorović, Andrej Preložnik Mrtvo morje (zgoraj) Dead Sea (above) (70–71): Djamil 300 Risbe artefaktov Drawings of the artefacts Al-Halbouni/imaggeo.egu.eu. Andrej Preložnik, Aleksandra Nestorović Mrtvo morje (spodaj) Dead Sea (below) (70–71): © 2018 Center judovske kulturne dediščine Sinagoga Recenziji Peer reviews SeanPavonePhoto/Bigstock.com (ID: 32099612). Maribor, Teološka fakulteta UL, Enota v Mariboru izr. prof. dr. Maksimilijan Matjaž Duhovnik Priest (84–85): Henry Davenport Northrop/ doc. dr. Aleš Maver Treasures of the Bible. Vse pravice pridržane. All rights reserved. Avtor fotografij Photographs by Jezus lomi kruh Jesus breaks the bread (104–105): Pripravo razstave in izdajo kataloga sta finančno pod-Tomo Jeseničnik Antonio Gravante/Bigstock.com (ID: 61931927). prla Mestna občina Maribor in Veleposlaništvo Države Prevod Translation Oljenka Oil lamp (121): LDS Media Library/lds.org/ Izrael. The preparation of the exhibition and the pub-Valerija Trojar Fras media-library?lang=eng. lishing of the catalogue were financially supported by Lektoriranje slovenskih besedil Stiskalnica za olive Olive press (121): prescott09/ the Municipality of Maribor and the Israeli Embassy to Proof-reading of Slovene texts Bigstock.com (ID: 160635881). Slovenia. mag. Darja Gabrovšek Homšak Stiskalnica za grozdje (zgoraj) Winepress (above) (123): Lektoriranje angleških besedil Ron Havilio/wikimedia.org. Brezplačna publikacija Free publication Proof-reading of English texts Stiskalnica za grozdje (spodaj) Winepress (below) desert to the table Kristina Alice Waller (122–123): Copyright 2014 Faithlife; Logos Bible Oblikovanje in prelom Design and lay-out Software/logos.com. drugaOblika.com From the »Človek ne živi samo od kruha.« (5 Mz 8,3) םָדָאָה הֶיְחִי ֹוּדַבְל םֶחֶּלַה־לַע אֹל »People need more than food to live.« (Dt 8:3) From Od the desert puščave to the table do mize Document Outline _Hlk518476506 _Hlk518556695 _GoBack Knjiga vseh knjig Katalogu na pot Sestava Svetega pisma in uporabljene kratice Časovnica Biblična arheološka zbirka Teološke knjižnice Maribor Pomen hrane v Svetem pismu OČAKI IZHOD IZ EGIPTA IN NASELITEV KÁNAANA DOBA SODNIKOV: OD PLEMENSKE UREDITVE DO KRALJESTVA DOBA KRALJEV: OD KRALJESTVA DO IZGNANSTVA DOBA KRALJEV: TUJI VPLIVI OD KONCA JUDOVEGA KRALJESTVA DO »NEBEŠKEGA KRALJESTVA« ŠIRJENJE KRŠČANSTVA RECENZIJA Od puščave do mize – ​od gline do življenja RECENZIJA Ko posoda približuje besedo Literatura The book of books Catalogue preface Composition of the Bible and abbreviations Timeline The Biblical Archaeological Collection of the the Theological Library Maribor The meaning of food in the Bible PATRIARCHS THE DEPARTURE FROM EGYPT AND THE SETTLEMENT IN CANAAN THE AGE OF JUDGES: FROM THE TRIBAL ORDER TO THE KINGDOM THE AGE OF KINGS: FROM THE KINGDOM TO THE EXILE THE AGE OF KINGS: FOREIGN INFLUENCES FROM THE END OF THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH TO THE »KINGDOM OF HEAVEN« SPREADING OF CHRISTIANITY PEER REVIEW From the desert to the table – from clay to life When the vessel approaches the word Literature