https://doi.org/10.14528/snr.2023.57.4.3229
2023. Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
Key words: nutrition of 
adolescent; breakfast; fruits and 
vegetables; legumes; physical 
activity; sleep
Ključne besede: prehrana 
dijakov; zajtrkovanje; sadje in 
zelenjava; stročnice; telesna 
aktivnost; spanje
1 Forestry, Wood Technology 
and Nursing School Postojna, 
Tržaška 36, 6250 Postojna, 
Slovenia
2 University of Primorska, 
Faculty of Health Sciences, 
Department of Nutritional 
Counseling – Dietetics, Polje 
42, 6310 Izola, Slovenia
* Corresponding author/
Korespondenčni avtor:  
radivo.manca@gmail.com
Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek
Dietary patterns and lifestyle among Slovenian adolescents: A quantitative study
Prehranski vzorci slovenskih mladostnikov in njihov življenjski slog: kvantitativna 
raziskava
Manica Radivo1, *, Tamara Poklar Vatovec2
Received/Prejeto: 22. 1. 2023
Accepted/Sprejeto: 3. 9. 2023
© 2023 Avtorji/The Authors. Izdaja Zbornica zdravstvene in babiške nege Slovenije - Zveza strokovnih društev 
medicinskih sester, babic in zdravstvenih tehnikov Slovenije./Published by Nurses and Midwives Association 
of Slovenia. To je članek z odprtim dostopom z licenco CC BY-NC-ND 4.0./This is an open access article 
under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license.
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Healthy eating, physical activity and sleep are important determinants of the lifestyle of 
adolescents. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between adolescents' dietary patterns 
and their lifestyle, as well as to analyse the differences by gender and region of residence, and to establish 
associations between individual lifestyle patterns.
Methods: The study was conducted in the spring of 2019 on a group of third-year students (n = 1,563) from 
randomly selected secondary schools in Slovenia. The average age of the participants was 18 years. Data were 
collected using an anonymous questionnaire created with the 1KA online tool, comprising 30 questions. 
Descriptive and inferential statistics were calculated using SPSS software. The t-test was used to determine 
statistically significant differences, while χ2 statistic and Spearman's correlation coefficient were used to 
determine statistically significant associations.
Results: The study revealed a large deficit in the intake of vegetables, legumes and fish compared to the 
intake of fruit, as per recommendations, particularly in Eastern Slovenia. Statistically significant differences 
in nutritional status were identified between the two cohesion regions (U = 275.597, p = 0.003). A positive 
correlation was observed between the frequency of breakfast consumption during the week and the amount 
of sleep (rs = 0.177, p = 0.001), while a negative correlation was established between sedentary behaviour and 
regular physical activity among adolescents during their free time (rs = ‒0.113, p = 0.001).
Discussion and conclusion: The dietary habits of the adolescents participating in the study were not in line 
with the recommendations. Physical activity guidelines were also not followed by the adolescents. Future 
research should focus more on older adolescents (18 to 24 years) and examine the relationship between 
individual lifestyle factors.
IZVLEČEK 
Uvod: Zdravo prehranjevanje, telesna aktivnost in spanje so pomembne določilnice življenjskega sloga 
mladostnikov. Namen raziskave je bil preučiti povezave prehranskih vzorcev mladostnikov z njihovim 
življenjskim slogom, analizirati razlike glede na spol in regijo bivanja ter ugotoviti povezave med posameznimi 
vzorci življenjskega sloga.
Metode: Raziskava je bila opravljena spomladi 2019 na populaciji dijakov 3. letnikov (n = 1563) naključno 
izbranih srednjih šol v Sloveniji. Njihova povprečna starost je bila 18 let. Za namen raziskave je bil uporabljen 
anonimni anketni vprašalnik, izdelan v spletnem orodju 1KA, ki je vseboval 30 vprašanj. S programom SPSS 
je bila izvedena opisna in inferenčna statistika. Za testiranje statistično značilnih razlik smo uporabili t-test, 
statistično značilno povezanost smo preverjali s pomočjo statistike χ2 ter s Spearmanovim korelacijskim 
koeficientom.
Rezultati: Raziskava je pokazala, da je primanjkljaj vnosa zelenjave, stročnic in rib glede na priporočila 
večji kot pri vnosu sadja; poleg tega je večji v vzhodni regiji. Med regijama smo ugotovili razlike v stanju 
hranjenosti, ki so statistično značilne (U = 275,597, p = 0,003). Dokazali smo pozitivno povezavo med 
pogostostjo zajtrkovanja med tednom in količino spanja (rs = 0,177, p = 0,001) ter negativno povezavo med 
sedentarnim vedenjem in redno telesno aktivnostjo mladostnikov v prostem času (rs = –0,113, p = 0,001).
Diskusija in zaključek: Prehranske navade anketiranih mladostnikov niso skladne s priporočili. Prav tako 
mladostniki ne dosegajo priporočil za telesno aktivnost. Prihodnje raziskave bi se morale bolj osredotočiti na 
starejše mladostnike (18–24 let) ter na povezanost posameznih dejavnikov življenjskega sloga.
240Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
Introduction
The age group of 10‒24 year olds accounts for 24% 
of the world's population. Therefore, investing in the 
health of this significant demographic segment is not 
only crucial in terms of their impending adulthood, 
but also has far-reaching implications for future 
generations (van Sluijs et al., 2021). As young people 
mature and interact socially, their lifestyles change, their 
risk behaviours become more frequent and they are 
increasingly affected by social change and worsening 
social inequalities. Health-related behaviours such as 
healthy eating, physical activity and sleep developed 
during the transition to adulthood can persist into later 
life and have an important impact on the development 
of chronic non-communicable diseases (Due et al., 
2011; Frech, 2012; van Sluijs et al., 2021). 
Beyond personal health, the increasing human 
impact on climate and other environmental changes 
means that we need to empower and equip young 
people to adopt behaviours that are also beneficial to the 
planet. This includes, in particular, improving dietary 
habits that could eradicate all forms of malnutrition 
and mitigate negative impacts on the environment (de 
Pee et al., 2021). The Food and Agriculture Organization 
of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health 
Organization (WHO) define sustainable healthy diets 
as dietary patterns that promote all dimensions of 
individual health, have low environmental impact, 
and are accessible, affordable, safe, equitable, and 
culturally acceptable (FAO & WHO, 2019). To avoid 
unintended consequences, such diets should ensure 
optimal growth and development, sustain the health 
of all generations, including future ones, prevent all 
forms of malnutrition (undernutrition, micronutrient 
deficiencies, overnutrition), and reduce the risk of 
diet-related chronic non-communicable diseases 
(FAO & WHO, 2019). 
A predominantly plant-based (e.g., semi-vegetarian, 
flexitarian, pesco-vegetarian, or Mediterranean) diet 
encourages consumption of plant-based sources 
while reducing or excluding animal products. The 
adoption of a plant-based diet is associated with a 
lower risk of chronic non-communicable diseases 
and a positive impact on the gut microbiota (Craig et 
al., 2021). In addition to the proven health benefits, a 
plant-based diet also reduces environmental impacts 
and contributes to biodiversity conservation (FAO & 
WHO, 2019; Craig et al., 2021;  WHO, 2021). While 
a sustainable, predominantly plant-based diet can 
mitigate harmful impacts on the planet and reduce 
the risk of diet-related chronic non-communicable 
diseases, it has been shown that a purely plant-based 
(vegan) or other vegetarian diet may not be suitable 
for adolescents as it may not ensure the intake of all 
the nutrients necessary for growth and development. 
Nordic and Mediterranean diets, which include local, 
seasonal and fresh foods of predominantly plant 
origin, moderate amounts of fish, eggs and dairy 
products, and limit the consumption of red meat, have 
been shown to be more suitable for this segment of the 
population (Moreno et al., 2021). Along similar lines, 
Craig et al. (2021) conclude that a predominantly 
plant-based diet is suitable for all age groups, provided 
that recommendations and knowledge about plant-
based nutrient sources are taken into account.
Dietary habits are closely linked to patterns of 
physical activity. Beyond the school setting, the 
broader social environment also plays a cruical role 
in promoting regular physical activity and healthy 
leisure-time activities. It is vital that adolescents 
become accustomed to regular physical activities 
that extend beyond their school or extra-curricular 
commitments and also take place in their free time. 
The lifestyle of today's youth is characterised by a high 
prevalence of sedentary activities, such as the use of 
smartphones, tablets, computers and other modern 
technologies. In turn, the decline in physical activity, 
accompanied with an increase in sedentary behaviour, 
has detrimental effects on health (Cliff et al., 2016; 
LeBlanc et al., 2017).
Sleep is another important component of adolescent 
health. Healthy sleep requires adequate duration, 
appropriate timing, good quality and absence 
of sleep disturbances (Paruthi et al., 2016). For 
older adolescents in particular, increasing school 
commitments, workloads, evening activities and 
social interactions can disrupt their sleep patterns and 
affect sleep duration, quality and timing (Colrain & 
Baker, 2011; Bruce, Lunt, & McDonagh, 2017). Many 
adolescents do not get enough sleep. This deficiency 
has been linked to negative health outcomes such as 
obesity, mood swings (Colrain & Baker, 2011; Bruce 
et al., 2017), high blood pressure (Lee & Park, 2014), 
diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (Cappuccio 
& Miller, 2017). While much of the research tends 
to analyse patterns of physical activity, sedentary 
behaviour and sleep in isolation, the interconnected 
nature of these behaviours calls for a comprehensive 
approach that considers them collectively (Chastin, 
Palarea-Albaladejo, Dontje, & Skelton, 2015).
Aims and objectives
The aims of this study were to (1) investigate 
the frequency of fruit, vegetable, legume and fish 
consumption, (2) explore the relationship between 
breakfast frequency and sleep habits, (3) compare 
dietary patterns and assess the nutritional status 
of Slovenian adolescents from the two Slovenian 
cohesion regions: Eastern Slovenia and Western 
Slovenia, and (4) investigate habits related to physical 
activity and sedentary behaviours. To this end, we 
tested the following hypotheses:
H1: There is a correlation between breakfast 
frequency and sleep habits.
241 Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
H2: The deficiency in vegetable and legume 
consumption among adolescents, as per international 
guidelines, is greater than the deficiency of fruit intake.
H3: In accordance with international recommendations, 
the consumption of fruits, vegetables, legumes and fish 
is more frequent in Western Slovenia.
H4: Students from Eastern Slovenia have poorer 
nutritional status.
H5: The sedentary behaviour of adolescents correlates 
with their regular leisure-time physical activity.
Methods
The study employed a quantitative research design.
Description of the research instrument
Data were collected using the EnKlikAnketa online 
questionnaire, which included 30 questions. An 
updated and pre-tested questionnaire,  (Radivo, 2015), 
was distributed to secondary schools via email. The 
questionnaire consisted mainly of closed questions 
and a few multiple-choice questions with several 
different response options. Participants self-reported 
their body weight and height. Their body mass index 
– BMI (kg/m2) – was calculated based on their self-
reported measurements. To examine the correlations 
between participants' (self-)assessed nutritional status 
and other variables, the calculated BMI values were 
divided into four groups: undernourished (BMI < 
18.5 kg/m2), adequately nourished (BMI 18.5-24.9 kg/
m2), overnourished (BMI 25.0-29.9 kg/m2), and obese 
(BMI > 30.0 kg/m2).
The questionnaire assessed participants' dietary 
habits using the food frequency assessment method, 
with portion sizes taken from the Food Frequency 
Questionnaire in the Open Platform for Clinical 
Nutrition (OPKP) online tool (Jožef Stefan Institute, 
n.d.). To indicate the amount of food consumed, 
students were given a pictorial representation of 
portion sizes. The number of meals consumed per day 
was self-entered by the participants, and three groups 
were formed for the purposes of statistical analysis: 1 
– two meals or less; 2 – three to five meals; 3 – six 
meals or more. The frequency of fruit, vegetable, 
legume and fish consumption was assessed using an 
eight-point scale: 1 – never; 2 – once a month; 3 – two 
to three times a month; 4 – once or twice a week; 5 – 
three to four times a week; 6 – five to six times a week; 
7 – once or twice a day; 8 – several times a day. For 
statistical analysis, these frequencies were combined 
on a five-point scale: 1 – never; 2 – one to three times 
a month; 3 – once or twice a week; 4 – three or more 
times a week; 5 – at least once a day. In addition to 
questions about the frequency of consuming certain 
foods and the dietary habits of the participants, the 
questionnaire also included a set of questions about 
their physical activity and sleep habits. To assess 
sedentary behaviour and physical activity levels, a six-
point scale was used to measure the amount of time 
students spent in front of screens on weekdays and 
weekends (1 – zero hours; 2 – half an hour; 3 – one 
hour; 4 – two hours; 5 – three hours; 6 – more than 
three hours), as well as the frequency of leisure-time 
physical activity (1 – never; 2 – once a month; 3 – once 
a week; 4 – two to three times a week; 5 – four to six 
times a week; 6 – every day). Sleep duration, expressed 
in hours, was assessed using a seven-point scale: 1 – 
less than five hours; 2 – five hours; 3 – six hours; 4 
– seven hours; 5 – eight hours; 6 – nine hours; 7 – ten 
hours or more. For statistical analysis, these durations 
were categorised into a three-point scale: 1 – less than 
six hours; 2 – seven to eight hours; 3 – nine hours or 
more. The questionnaire also included questions on 
socio-demographic factors (i.e., participants' region of 
residence, family structure, parental employment, and 
a subjective assessment of family well-being). 
Description of the sample
The study population comprised third-year 
secondary school students. The surveyed sample, 
representing 9.1% of the total Slovenian third-year 
student population in the 2018/2019 academic year 
(Statistični urad Republike Slovenije, 2019), consisted 
of 1,563 students, with a gender distribution of 902 
girls (57.7%) and 661 boys (42.3%). Geographically, 
55.0% of the students were from Eastern Slovenia, 
with girls constituting more than half of the sample 
(54.2%). The remaining 45.0% of the students surveyed 
were from Western Slovenia, with girls constituting 
61.9% of the sample. The average age of the students 
was 18 years. The sample was chosen on the basis of 
students' age and so as to facilitate a comparison with 
the HBSC survey, the latest iteration of which (HBSC, 
2018) was conducted on a sample which included not 
only younger adolescents but also third-year students. 
Physical measurements revealed an average student 
height of 173 cm (range: 140-204 cm), an average 
body weight of 67.2 kg (range: 40 - 150 kg), and an 
average BMI of 22.4 kg/m2 (range: 15.4‒46.2 kg/m2 
). The average BMI of students in Eastern Slovenia 
was 22.7 kg/m2, while in Western Slovenia it was 21.9 
kg/m2. The majority of the surveyed students lived 
in a two-parent family (81.8%), while 14.8% lived 
in a single-parent family. For 84.0% of the students, 
both parents were employed, while 13.1% reported 
that only one of their parents was employed. A small 
proportion (2.2%) reported that both of their parents 
were unemployed. Students' subjective assessment of 
their family's well-being revealed that more than a 
third of all students (35.8%) rated it as average, and 
42.2% rated it as fairly good. A small percentage of 
students rated their family's welfare as poor (0.6%), 
while 6.1% felt that their family was not doing very 
well. Regarding physical education, 8.4% of students 
242Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
were exempt from physical education, with a higher 
percentage of girls (57.6%). Only 8.6% of the students 
surveyed resided in a boarding school during the 
week. Overall, 74.3% of students reported having 
lunch at school, while 9.0% reported never having 
lunch at school.
Description of the research procedure and data 
analysis
The survey was conducted between 18 February 
and 10 April 2019. Prior to the survey, students were 
informed by their teachers objectives of the survey and 
received verbal instructions about the questionnaire. 
The survey was completed anonymously and 
voluntarily during class in the presence of the teacher, 
resulting in a high response rate and a serious 
approach to completing the questionnaire. Data 
analysis and processing were performed using MS 
Excel 2010 and SPSS version 22 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, 
Illinois, USA). Descriptive and inferential statistics 
were performed. The t-test and Mann Whitney U-test 
were used to test for statistically significant differences. 
To test for statistically significant correlations between 
individual descriptive variables the χ2-test was used at 
the α = 0.05 level of significance. To test for statistically 
significant associations between ordinal variables, 
Spearman's correlation coefficient was used. For the 
latter, the degree (strength) of statistical correlation 
was assessed on the following scale: 0 no correlation; 
0‒0.2 insignificant; 0.2‒0.4 weak; 0.4‒0.7 moderate; 
0.7‒0.9 high; 0.9‒1 very high; 1 perfect (functional) 
correlation (Rosner, 2015).
Results
The majority of students (84.8%) reported typically 
consuming between three and five meals per day. 
A smaller proportion of students (10.1%) reported 
eating two or fewer meals, with a higher percentage of 
girls (11.1%). A minority of students (5.1%) reported 
consuming six or more meals per day, with a higher 
percentage of boys in this group (7.0%).
On weekdays, 39.5% of students reported eating 
breakfast every day, while nearly a third (29.0%) 
reported never eating breakfast. On weekends, the 
proportion of students who had breakfast on both days 
increased to 74.3%, with the proportion of those who 
skipped breakfast accounting for 12.2%. We found 
a statistically significant weak positive correlation 
between the frequency of breakfast consumption 
on weekdays and weekends (rs = 0.361, p = 0.001). 
Students who did not eat breakfast during the week 
also skipped breakfast at weekends. 
The data disaggregated by gender show that a 
higher proportion of boys (43.3%) than girls (36.6%) 
ate breakfast regularly during the week. Among the 
students who never had breakfast during the week, 
29.3% were girls and 28.7% were boys. The correlation 
between the frequency of eating breakfast during the 
week and gender was statistically significant (χ2 (5) = 
19.631, p = 0.001), indicating that girls tend to skip 
breakfast during the week.
When comparing breakfast habits between the 
two regions, we found that in Western Slovenia, the 
proportion of students who had breakfast regularly 
during the week was higher (42.0%) than in Eastern 
Slovenia (37.4%). When it came to breakfast skipping, 
the trend was reversed: the percentage of students who 
never had breakfast during the week higher in Eastern 
Slovenia (30.0%) than in Western Slovenia (27.8%). 
Our study identified a statistically significant positive 
correlation between breakfast frequency during the 
week and sleep duration during the week (in hours) 
(rs = 0.177, p = 0.001). Students who slept longer 
during the week also ate breakfast more frequently. 
In both regions, we found statistically significant 
positive correlations between sleep duration during 
the week and the number of meals per day, as well as 
statistically significant positive correlations between 
sleep duration and the frequency of breakfast during 
the week. Students from Western Slovenia who slept 
longer also ate a higher number of meals (rs = 0.129, p 
= 0.001) and had breakfast more often during the week 
(rs = 0.209, p = 0.001). Students from Eastern Slovenia 
who slept longer also had breakfast more often during 
the week (rs = 0.152, p = 0.001) and consumed more 
meals during the day (rs = 0.127, p = 0.001). 
Consumption of fresh fruit once or more a day 
was reported by 27.3% of all students, with a higher 
proportion of girls (32.7%) than boys (19.8%). This 
pattern is more pronounced in Western Slovenia, where 
30.0% of students consumed fresh fruit daily, compared 
to 25.5% in Eastern Slovenia. Most students (41.4%) 
reported consuming fresh fruit at least three times a 
week, with a slightly higher proportion of boys (42.7%) 
than girls (40.5%). One fifth of all respondents (19.4%) 
consumed fresh fruit once or twice a week, while 
9.7% did so only one to three times a month. A small 
percentage of respondents (2.2%) never consumed fresh 
fruit, with more boys (3.9%) than girls (1.0%) falling in 
this category. The association between the frequency 
of fresh fruit consumption and gender was statistically 
significant (χ2 (4) = 47.398, p = 0.001), indicating that 
girls were more likely to consume fresh fruit. Of all 
students, 40.8% never consumed cooked fruit, while 
41.7% did so up to three times a month. A smaller 
percentage of students (7.5%) consumed cooked fruit 
once or twice a week and 7.0% did so three or more 
times a week. We found that girls consumed cooked 
fruit more frequently (χ2 (4) = 12.782, p = 0.012). The 
proportion of students who never consumed pickled 
fruit was 38.9%. Of all students, 45.9% reported 
consuming pickled fruit up to three times a month, 
7.9% once or twice a week, and 5.1% three or more 
times a week. We also found a statistically significant 
243 Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
association between the frequency of pickled fruit 
consumption and gender (χ2(4) = 15.880, p = 0.003), 
with girls consuming pickled fruit more frequently. 
The study found a statistically significant association 
between the frequency of pickled fruit consumption 
and the region of residence (χ2 (4) = 35.020, p = 0.001). 
Students from Eastern Slovenia were found to consume 
more pickled fruits. 
While only 3.0% of all students consumed dried 
fruit once or more a day, 8.8% did so three or more 
times a week and 10.3% consumed dried fruit once 
or twice a week. Almost half of the respondents 
(47.3%) reported consuming dried fruit only one to 
three times a month, while almost a third (30.5%) did 
not consume any dried fruit at all. The average fruit 
consumption per meal was 157.5 g for all students. 
In total, 1.9% of the students surveyed reported not 
consuming any fruit. 
Of the students surveyed, 3.1% never consumed 
vegetables. The average vegetable consumption per 
meal was 161.4 g. Overall, 26.6% of students eat 
fresh vegetables at least once a day. The proportion 
of students consuming fresh vegetables at least once a 
day was higher among girls (31.5%) than boys (19.8%). 
Overall, 42.9% of students reported consuming fresh 
vegetables three to six times a week, 14.5% of students 
once to twice a week and 9.9% up to three times a 
month. Fresh vegetables were never consumed by 
6.1% of all students, including 8.3% of boys and 4.5% 
of girls. We found a statistically significant association 
between frequency of fresh vegetable consumption 
and gender (χ2(4) = 36.282, p = 0.001). Girls were 
found to consume fresh vegetables more frequently. 
Cooked vegetables were consumed on a daily basis 
by 15.0% of all students, with a higher proportion of 
girls (68.4%) and more than one third of boys (31.6%). 
Overall, 39.0% of all students (58.5% of girls and 41.5% 
of boys) reported consuming cooked vegetables three 
to six times a week. Of the students surveyed, 10.5% 
never consumed cooked vegetables. This proportion 
was higher among boys (58.5%) than girls (41.5%). We 
found a statistically significant association between 
gender and frequency of consumption of cooked 
vegetables (χ2(4) = 28.876, p = 0.001). Girls were found 
to consume cooked vegetables more frequently. While 
29.7% of all students (53.0% of girls and 47.0% of boys) 
never consumed pickled vegetables, 31.3% did so up to 
three times a month, 8.5% once or twice a week, 15.9% 
three to six times a week, and 4.5% on a daily basis. 
A comparison by gender showed that the consumption 
of pickled vegetables was greater among girls. 
This association was statistically significant (χ2(4) = 
14.220, p = 0.007).
Our study also found a statistically significant 
association between the frequency of eating pickled 
vegetables and the region of residence (χ2(4) = 33.612, 
p = 0.001). Notably, students from Eastern Slovenia 
consumed pickled vegetables more frequently. In 
addition, we found a statistically significant association 
between the amount of vegetables consumed per meal 
and gender (χ2 (2) = 13.197, p = 0.001). It was observed 
that girls consumed a greater amount of vegetables per 
meal.
Our study showed a statistically significant moderate 
positive association between the frequencies of fresh 
fruit and fresh vegetable consumption (rs = 0.448, p = 
0.001). This suggests that students who consumed 
fresh fruit more frequently also tended to reach for 
fresh vegetables more often. 
Overall, 19.1% of all students consumed beans once 
or twice a week, with a higher proportion of boys 
(21.0%) than girls (17.6%). The proportion of those 
consuming beans three or more times a week was 
11.7% (with 13.5% of boys and 10.5% of girls). Almost 
half of the students (46.3%) consumed beans at least 
three times a month, while over a fifth (21.4%) did not 
consume beans at all. The association between gender 
and frequency of bean consumption was found to 
be statistically significant (χ2(4) = 12.509; p = 0.014). 
Regarding regional differences, the proportion of 
students who never consumed beans was higher in 
Eastern Slovenia (22.5%) than in Western Slovenia 
(21.4%).
A total of 9.9% of all students reported consuming 
peas three or more times a week (10.4% of boys 
and 9.5% of girls). The proportion of students who 
consumed peas once or twice a week was 19.5% (19.2% 
of boys and 19.7% of girls). Half of all respondents 
(50.3%) consumed peas up to three times a month. 
Overall, 19.0% of students never consumed peas, 
with a higher proportion of boys (20.1%) than girls 
(18.2%). Comparing regional differences, we found 
that the proportion of students who never consumed 
peas was slightly higher in Eastern Slovenia (20.3%) 
than in Western Slovenia (17.5%). Overall, 9.3% of 
respondents reported never consuming legumes. The 
average amount of legumes consumed per meal was 
119.9 g. 
In terms of seafood consumption, 13.2% of students 
reported consuming whitefish once or twice a week, 
with a slightly higher proportion of boys (14.2%) 
than girls (12.4%). The majority of students (61.9%) 
consumed whitefish up to three times a month, 
while 21.7% did not consume whitefish at all, with a 
higher proportion of girls (23.1%) than boys (19.8%). 
As for oily fish, 13.4% of all students consumed oily 
fish once or twice a week. More than half of the 
respondents (55.4%) consumed oily fish up to three 
times a month, and a quarter (25.2%) never consumed 
oily fish at all (27.4% of girls and 22.2% of boys). We 
found a statistically significant association between 
the frequency of oily fish consumption and the region 
of residence (χ2(4) = 10.067, p = 0.001). A higher 
proportion of students who reported never consuming 
oily fish were from Eastern Slovenia (27.8%) compared 
to those from Western Slovenia (22.0%). 
244Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
Consumption of freshwater fish once or twice a 
week was reported by 5.1% of students, with a higher 
proportion of boys (6.5%) than girls (4.1%). Overall, 
50.4% (55.5% of boys and 46.6% of girls) consumed 
freshwater fish up to three times a month, while 42.6% 
did not consume it at all (with 48.1% of girls and 
35.2% of boys). Slightly more than half of all students 
(50.4%, with 55.5% of boys and 46.6% of girls) reported 
consuming freshwater fish up to three times a month, 
while 42.6% did not consume it at all (48.1% of girls and 
35.2% of boys). Of the students who never consumed 
freshwater fish, 45.5% were from Western Slovenia 
and 40.4% from Eastern Slovenia. Overall, 13.9% of 
the students surveyed did not consume fish at all. The 
average amount of fish consumed per meal was 150.1 
g. Table 1 shows the characteristics of the consumption 
patterns of the surveyed students' by BMI and gender. 
The proportion of adequately nourished students 
is comparable. The association between gender and 
nutritional status is statistically significant (χ2 (3) = 
41.397, p = 0.001).
A comparison of nutritional status between the 
two regions (Table 2) shows poorer nutritional status 
in Eastern Slovenia. The study found statistically 
significant differences in nutritional status between 
the two regions (U = 275.597, p = 0.003). 
Moreover, 43.7% of students reported sleeping 
less than six hours during the week, with a higher 
proportion of girls (45.6%) than boys (40.9%). This 
proportion was significantly lower at weekends (6.6%). 
Seven to eight hours of sleep during the week was 
reported by half of all students (51.4%). At weekends, 
35.8% of all students (38.2% of boys and 14.0% of 
girls) reported sleeping seven to eight hours. During 
the week, 4.3% of students (5.0% of girls and 3.5% of 
boys) slept nine hours or more. The amount of time 
students spent watching television and other screens 
during the week in shown in Table 3. 
Table 1: Nutrition status by gender
BMI (kg/m )2
Boys (n = 661) Girls (n = 902) Total (n = 1563)
n % n % n %
< 18.50 26 3.9 96 10.6 122 7.8
18.5–24.9 500 75.6 676 74.9 1176 75.2
25.0–29.9 92 13.9 111 12.3 203 13.0
30.0 and over 43 6.5 19 2.1 62 4.0
Legend: n ‒ number; % ‒ percentage
Table 2: Breakdown of the sample into BMI groups by region of residence
BMI (kg/m )2
Eastern Slovenia (n = 859) Western Slovenia (n =704) Total (n = 1563)
n % n % n %
< 18.50 56 6.5 66 9.4 122 7.8
18.5–24.9 635 73.9 541 76.8 1176 75.2
25.0–29.9 118 13.7 85 12.1 203 13.0
30.0 and over 50 5.8 12 1.7 62 4.0
Legend: n ‒ number; % ‒ percentage
Table 3: Sedentary behaviour during the week by gender
Gender 
Sedentary time during the week 
None Half an hour 1 hour 2 hours 3 hours More than 3 hours
Boys (%) 1.4 4.2 9.2 24.7 20.3 40.2
Girls (%) 0.8 2.0 10.8 23.4 25.2 37.9
Total (%) 1.0 2.9 10.1 23.9 23.1 38.9
Legend: % ‒ percentage
Table 4: Frequency of physical activity by gender
Gender
Frequency of physical activity engagement
Never Once a month Once a week Two to three times a week
Four to six 
times a week Daily
Boys (%) 2.3 7.9 16.3 26.8 22.4 24.4
Girls (%) 8.2 15.7 22.1 30.9 13.1 10.0
Total (%) 5.7 12.4 19.6 29.2 17.0 16.1
Legend: % ‒ percentage
245 Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
As can be seen in Table 4, boys engaged in more 
physical activity than girls. The proportion of inactive 
students was higher among girls.
Our study found an association between sedentary 
behaviour during the week and frequency of leisure-
time physical activity (rs = ‒0.113, p = 0.001). Students 
who spent more time in sedentary behaviour during 
the week were less likely to be physically active during 
leisure time. There is a statistically significant positive 
association between sedentary behaviour on weekdays 
and at weekends (rs = 0.679, p = 0.001), indicating that 
students have the same lifestyle habits on weekdays 
and weekends.
Discussion
Our study show that the proportion of adolescents 
who eat breakfast regularly during the week (39.5%) 
is in line with the 2018 national average for 17-year-
olds (35.3%) (Jeriček Klanšček et al., 2019). We found 
that girls more frequently skip breakfast during the 
week. This pattern is consistent with other HBSC 
studies conducted among younger adolescents in 
Europe (Băban, Tăut, Balazsi, & Dănilă, 2020; Brooks, 
Klemera, Chester, Magnusson, & Spencer, 2020; 
Moreno et al., 2020; Nardone et al., 2020) and Slovenia 
(Jeriček Klanšček et al., 2019), which also reported 
that there was a higher proportion of regular breakfast 
consumption during the week among boys and that the 
proportion of individuals who skip breakfast appears 
to increase with age. This trend was also confirmed by 
the first longitudinal HBSC (2020) study conducted in 
Slovenia, which focused on young people included in 
the HBSC 2018 sample (Jeriček Klanšček et al., 2021). 
A systematic review of studies conducted between 
2008 and 2018 among young people aged 18 years and 
younger across 33 countries confirms that girls are 
more likely to skip breakfast and that the proportion 
of those who do not eat breakfast regularly increases 
with age. This research also shows that skipping 
breakfast is associated with the choice of less healthy 
foods and, consequently, with the occurrence of 
overeating in adolescents (Monzani et al., 2019; Ober 
et al., 2021). As demonstrated by Croezen, Visscher, 
Ter Bogt, Veling, & Haveman-Nies (2009) in their 
study on a sample of Dutch adolescents aged 13-16 
years, skipping breakfast is a significant risk factor for 
the development of obesity in adolescents. Conversely, 
a review of studies by Giménez-Legarre, Flores-
Barrantes, Miguel-Berges, Moreno, & Santaliestra-
Pasías (2020) demonstrated that regular consumption 
of breakfast is associated with a healthier diet and 
higher intake of fruits and vegetables. 
Our study supports the link between breakfast 
consumption and sleep habits. The association 
between shorter sleep duration and skipping breakfast 
has also been confirmed by research conducted 
among adolescents in Palestine (Badrasawi, 
Anabtawi, & Al-Zain, 2021), Greece (Tambalis, 
Panagiotakos, Psarra, & Sidossis, 2018) and China 
(Liu et al., 2022). In recent decades, there has been 
a trend towards sleep deprivation accompanied by 
an increase in overnutrition. Several studies have 
confirmed the association between sleep duration and 
the development of obesity and diabetes (Knutson, 
Spiegel, Penev, & Van Cauter, 2007; Knutson & Van 
Cauter, 2008). In future research, it would be beneficial 
to investigate the reasons for skipping breakfast, 
especially in girls. Greater attention should be paid 
to the links between skipping breakfast and eating 
disorders in this population. One possible reason for 
skipping breakfast among Slovenian adolescents could 
be the provision of an organised school lunche, an 
aspect that was not investigated in our study.
As predicted, the deficit in the intake of vegetables 
and legumes according to the dietary guidelines is 
greater than that in the intake of fruits. Due to their 
numerous benefits for growth and development, as 
well as their content of dietary fibre and protective 
substances, the recommended daily intake of fruits 
and vegetables is 400 g (FAO & WHO, 2019), with 
vegetables highlighted for their stronger protective 
properties and lower sugar content. Sustainable 
planetary diets typically recommend higher intakes 
of fruits and vegetables, with recommended amounts 
ranging from 200‒600 g for vegetables and 100-300 g 
for fruits (Willett et al., 2019). It is critical to identify 
the factors that influence adolescents' consumption 
of fruits and vegetables in order to meet these daily 
intake recommendations (Darfour-Oduro, Andrade, 
& Grigsby-Toussaint, 2020). Data from the HBSC 
international survey from previous years show that 
younger Slovenian adolescents tend to have a lower 
intake of vegetables compared to fruits (Stergar, 
Scagnetti, & Pucelj, 2006; Gabrijelčič Blenkuš, 
Gregorič, & Fajdiga Turk, 2007; Fajdiga Turk, 2011; 
Drev, 2015). The most recent HBSC surveys in Slovenia 
confirm these findings and show that vegetable 
consumption not only remains lower compared to 
fruit consumption, but also tends to decrease with age 
(Jeriček Klanšček et al., 2019, 2021). 
Our study shows that the proportion of students 
who consume fruits and vegetables at least once a day 
is higher among girls. This pattern is consistent with 
those identified in younger Slovenian adolescents 
(Jeriček Klanšček et al., 2019) and adolescents from 
other countries (Băban et al., 2020; Brooks et al., 2020; 
Moreno et al., 2020; Nardone et al., 2020). Research 
on adolescents' dietary habits has found a significant 
correlation between fruit and vegetable consumption 
and family socioeconomic status, food availability, 
parental example and encouragement, as well as age and 
gender, with the latter being more pronounced among 
younger adolescents. In contrast, health and school 
policies play a more important role in promoting fruit 
and vegetable consumption among older adolescents 
246Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
(Darfour-Oduro et al., 2020). A review of studies 
examining the dietary habits of adolescents (aged 
10‒19 years) in North America, Europe and Oceania 
over the past decade found that adolescents generally 
do not meet the recommendations for fruit and 
vegetable intake, and that not much is known about 
their consumption of legumes (Rosi, Paolella, Biasini, 
Scazzina, & SINU Working Group on Nutritional 
Surveillance in Adolescents, 2019). Similar deviations 
from a healthy, balanced diet, particularly in the 
intake of fruits, vegetables, and legumes, have also 
been observed among Slovenian adolescents (Kobe, 
Štimec, Ribič, & Fidler Mis, 2012). 
Our study confirms the hypothesis that the deficit 
in the intake of vegetables, legumes and fish is more 
pronounced than the deficit in the intake of fruits 
compared to the recommendations. Fish, especially 
oily marine fish, represent an important source of 
protein, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins (e.g., vitamin 
D) and minerals (e.g., iodine and selenium). Fish 
intake recommendations vary across European 
countries, mainly due to the accessibility of seafood 
and the associated tradition of fish consumption 
(Lofstedt, de Roos, & Fernandes, 2021). In general, 
these recommendations recommend that adolescents 
consume fish once or twice a week, but at least 200 g 
per week (Lofstedt et al., 2021). Our study found that 
fish consumption among schoolchildren falls short 
of these recommendations and that schoolchildren 
who never consume oily fish are more likely to 
reside in Eastern Slovenia. The association between 
the frequency of oily fish consumption and region 
of residence is statistically significant, which can 
be attributed to the inclusion of fish in traditional 
cuisine in Western Slovenia. A report on the quality 
of students' meals in Slovenia (Gregorič, Gabrijelčič 
Blenkuš, Klančar, & Fajdiga Turk, 2011) also found 
that fish was underrepresented in meals across all 
regions. 
Our study confirms the hypothesis that the 
consumption of fruits, vegetables, legumes and fish, 
as per the dietary guidelines, is higher in Western 
Slovenia. A greater proportion of students from 
Western Slovenia consume fresh fruits and vegetables 
on a daily basis, while students from Eastern Slovenia 
show a higher consumption of pickled fruits and 
vegetables. The proportion of students who reported 
never consuming beans and/or peas and fish is higher 
in Eastern Slovenia. The average amount of fruit, 
vegetables, legumes and fish consumed per meal is 
also higher in Western Slovenia.
According to physical activity guidelines from the 
WHO (2020), the recommended weekly duration of 
moderate-intensity physical activity for adolescents 
aged 18 years is 150 minutes or at least 75 minutes 
of vigorous-intensity physical activity, or an 
equivalent combination of both. The health benefits 
of regular physical activity during the transition from 
adolescence to adulthood (18‒24 years) need further 
investigation (van Sluijs et al., 2021). With regard to the 
recommendations on sedentary behaviour, 18-year-
olds are classified as adults. Sedentary behaviour is 
thus defined as the time spent in activities that require 
low energy expenditure, whether awake, sitting or 
lying down, for the purposes of education, occupation 
and transport. To mitigate the negative health 
effects of sedentary behaviour, it is recommended 
that sedentary time be limited or interrupted by 
physical activity of any intensity (WHO, 2020). 
Evidence shows that sedentary behaviour has adverse 
health effects and increases the risk of chronic non-
communicable diseases. However, research on the 
health effects of sedentary behaviour needs to take 
into account that individuals have different patterns 
of sedentary behaviour and different methods of 
interrupting sedentary behaviour (WHO, 2020). 
Among adolescents, sedentary behaviour associated 
with the use of various screens is of particular concern 
(Saunders et al., 2022). 
Our study confirmed the association between 
sedentary behaviour during the week and frequency 
of leisure-time physical activity, suggesting a recurrent 
pattern of time spent on physical activity and sedentary 
activities. Students in our study who spent more time 
on sedentary activities (reading, watching TV, using 
a computer or mobile phone) during the week were 
less physically active. Studies focusing on younger 
Slovenian adolescents show that 13.5% of 17-year-olds 
are physically active every day. These studies also show 
that boys engage in regular physical activity more 
frequently than girls, and that the proportion of boys 
who are regularly physically active decreases with age 
(Jeriček Klanšček et al., 2019, 2021). These findings 
are consistent with our study, which also confirmed 
that boys engage in regular physical activity more 
frequently than girls. This pattern is consistent with 
several other studies (Croezen et al., 2009; Carson et 
al., 2016; van Sluijs et al., 2021). A 2018 study focusing 
on Slovenian adolescents found that more than four 
hours of sedentary behaviour per day was reported 
by 42.4% of 17-year-old adolescents, almost half 
of whom were girls (48.5%), and 36.4% were boys 
(Jeriček Klanšček et al., 2019). The study by Darfour-
Oduro et al. (2020) confirms that physical inactivity 
is also associated with insufficient intake of fruits and 
vegetables. 
A predominantly sedentary lifestyle, coupled with low 
levels of physical activity, contributes significantly to the 
development of overnutrition. Similar to many other 
European countries, Slovenia is witnessing an increase 
in the number of overweight adolescents (WHO, 2013). 
Overweight is associated with several lifestyle factors, 
including skipping breakfast, ochoosing less healthy 
foods, picky eating habits, and shorter sleep duration 
(Monzani et al., 2019; Ober et al., 2021; Špindler, Cilar 
Budler, Klanjšek, & Kegl, 2021). 
247 Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
Our study confirmed the hypothesis that students 
from Eastern Slovenia have poorer nutritional status. 
The higher proportion of overnourished students from 
this region can be linked to other findings of our study. 
We found that students from Eastern Slovenia, which is 
considered less developed with higher unemployment 
rates and risk of poverty (Statistični urad Republike 
Slovenije, 2022), are more likely to skip breakfast and 
consume lower amounts of fruits, vegetables, legumes, 
and fish. Future research should therefore investigate the 
impact of social inequalities on the dietary behaviour of 
Slovenian youth.
Conclusion
Our study confirmed the hypotheses about 
the inadequate dietary habits of older Slovenian 
adolescents, which were slightly worse in Eastern 
Slovenia. Overall, the proportion of overnourished 
students was higher in Eastern Slovenia. The 
consumption of fruits, vegetables, legumes and fish 
was more adequate in Western Slovenia. Girls skipped 
breakfast more often. Sleep duration was found to be 
associated with regular breakfast consumption. The 
results of our study also highlight irregular physical 
activity patterns among adolescents, with a tendency 
towards spending more time in sedentary activities. 
Girls were less physically active. The role of health 
education and dietetics is indispensable in promoting 
healthy lifestyles among adolescents. Nutrition 
education needs to focus primarily on different dietary 
patterns, recommendations, and sources of specific 
nutrients. There is an urgent need to raise awareness 
of the importance of a predominantly plant-based diet 
for human and planetary health.
Slovenian translation/Prevod v slovenščino
Uvod
Mladi v starosti od 10. do 24. leta predstavljajo 24 % 
svetovnega prebivalstva, zato je naložba v njihovo 
zdravje pomembna tudi za odraslost ter za prihodnje 
generacije (van Sluijs et al., 2021). Vzporedno z 
rastjo in socializacijo se pri mladostnikih spreminja 
življenjski slog, pogostejša so tvegana vedenja, hkrati 
pa imajo nanje vse večji vpliv družbene spremembe 
ter povečevanje družbene neenakosti. Z zdravjem 
povezana vedenja, kot so zdravo prehranjevanje, 
telesna aktivnost in spanje, ki nastanejo na prehodu v 
odraslost, se lahko ohranijo skozi obdobje odraslosti in 
pomembno vplivajo na razvoj kroničnih nenalezljivih 
obolenj (Due et al., 2011; Frech, 2012; van Sluijs et al., 
2021). 
Poleg skrbi za lastno zdravje moramo zaradi vse 
večjih človeških vplivov na podnebne in druge 
okolijske spremembe mlade opolnomočiti in 
pripraviti na izbiro vedenjskih vzorcev, ki so prijazni 
tudi planetu. Slednje vključuje predvsem izboljšanje 
prehranskih navad, ki bi lahko odpravljale slabo 
hranjenost v vseh oblikah, hkrati pa blažile negativne 
vplive na okolje (de Pee et al., 2021). Organizacija 
Združenih narodov za prehrano in kmetijstvo 
(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United 
Nations – FAO) in Svetovna zdravstvena organizacija 
(World Health Organization – WHO) sta trajnostno 
zdravo prehrano opredelili kot prehranske vzorce, ki 
spodbujajo vse razsežnosti zdravja posameznikov in 
imajo majhen vpliv na okolje; so dostopni in cenovno 
ugodni, varni in pravični ter kulturno sprejemljivi 
(FAO & WHO, 2019). Trajnostna zdrava prehrana 
mora v izogib nenamernim posledicam zagotoviti 
optimalno rast in razvoj, ohranjati zdravje vseh 
generacij, tudi prihodnjih, ter preprečiti vse oblike 
neprimerne hranjenosti (podhranjenost, pomanjkanje 
mikrohranil, prekomerna hranjenost) in zmanjšati 
tveganje za kronične nenalezljive bolezni, povezane s 
prehrano (FAO & WHO, 2019). 
Pretežno rastlinska prehrana (semivegetarijanstvo ali 
fleksitarijanstvo, pescovegetarijanstvo, mediteranska) 
predstavlja različne prehranjevalne vzorce, s 
poudarkom na rastlinskih virih, z manjšo porabo ali 
izključitvijo živalskih proizvodov. Uživanje rastlinske 
prehrane zmanjšuje tveganje za razvoj kroničnih 
nenalezljivih bolezni ter ugodno vpliva na črevesni 
mikrobiom (Craig et al., 2021). Poleg dokazanih 
pozitivnih učinkov na zdravje ima rastlinska prehrana 
manjši vpliv na okolje in ohranja biotsko raznovrstnost 
(FAO & WHO, 2019; Craig et al., 2021; WHO, 2021). 
Čeprav lahko s trajnostno, pretežno rastlinsko 
prehrano omilimo škodljive učinke na planet in 
zmanjšamo tveganje za kronične nenalezljive bolezni, 
povezane s prehrano, je izključno rastlinska (veganska) 
ali druge vrste vegetarijanska prehrana neprimerna 
za mladostnike, saj ne zagotavlja vnosa vseh za rast 
in razvoj potrebnih hranil. Kot primernejši sta se 
izkazali nordijska in mediteranska: obe vključujeta 
lokalna, sezonska in sveža živila, pretežno rastlinskega 
izvora, zmerne količine rib, jajc in mlečnih izdelkov 
ter omejujeta uživanje rdečega mesa (Moreno et 
al., 2021). Craig et al. (2021) ugotavljajo, da je ob 
upoštevanju priporočil ter poznavanju rastlinskih 
virov hranil pretežno rastlinska prehrana primerna za 
vsa starostna obdobja.
V tesni povezavi s prehranskimi navadami so tudi 
vzorci telesne aktivnosti. Pri spodbujanju redne telesne 
aktivnosti in zdravih prostočasnih dejavnosti ima poleg 
šolskega prostora pomembno vlogo širše družbeno 
okolje. Za mladostnike je pomembno navajanje na 
redno telesno aktivnost, ki jo lahko neobvezujoče 
izvajajo v prostem času in ni del šolskih ali obšolskih 
obveznosti. Današnji način življenja mladih v prostem 
času vključuje veliko sedečih dejavnosti, kot je uporaba 
pametnih telefonov, tablic, računalnikov in druge 
sodobne tehnologije. Opuščanje telesne aktivnosti in 
248Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
povečevanje trajanja sedečega vedenja imata neugoden 
vpliv na zdravje (Cliff et al., 2016; LeBlanc et al., 2017).
Bistvenega pomena za zdravje mladostnikov je 
tudi spanje. Zdrav spanec zahteva ustrezno trajanje, 
časovni interval, kakovost in odsotnost motenj spanja 
(Paruthi et al., 2016). Zlasti pri starejših mladostnikih 
se zaradi povečanja šolskih obveznosti, obremenitev, 
večernih dejavnosti in socialnih interakcij spremenijo 
trajanje, kakovost in obdobja spanja (Colrain & Baker, 
2011; Bruce et al., 2017). Številni mladostniki ne spijo 
dovolj, kar se povezuje z negativnimi zdravstvenimi 
posledicami, kot so debelost, motnje razpoloženja 
(Colrain & Baker, 2011; Bruce et al., 2017), povišan 
krvni tlak (Lee & Park, 2014), sladkorna bolezen ter 
bolezni srca in ožilja (Cappuccio & Miller, 2017). 
Večina raziskav vzorce telesne aktivnosti, sedentarnega 
vedenja in spanja obravnava ločeno, vendar so ta 
vedenja soodvisna in jih moramo obravnavati hkrati 
(Chastin, Palarea-Albaladejo, Dontje, & Skelton, 
2015).
Namen in cilj
Raziskavo smo izvedli z namenom (1) preučitve 
pogostosti uživanja sadja, zelenjave, stročnic in rib, 
(2) preučitve pogostosti zajtrkovanja v povezavi 
z navadami spanja, (3) primerjave prehranskih 
vzorcev ter ocene stanja hranjenosti med slovenskimi 
mladostniki vzhodne in zahodne kohezijske regije ter 
(4) raziskave navad telesne aktivnosti in sedentarnega 
vedenja. Za doseganje namena raziskave smo 
preverjali sledeče hipoteze:
H1: Obstaja povezava med pogostostjo zajtrkovanja 
in navadami spanja.
H2: Primanjkljaj vnosa zelenjave in stročnic je pri 
mladostnikih glede na mednarodna priporočila 
večji, kot je pri vnosu sadja.
H3: Glede na mednarodna priporočila je uživanje 
sadja, zelenjave, stročnic in rib pogostejše v zahodni 
kohezijski regiji.
H4: Dijaki, ki prihajajo iz vzhodne kohezijske regije, 
imajo slabšo oceno stanja hranjenosti.
H5: Obstaja povezava med sedentarnim vedenjem 
mladostnikov in redno telesno aktivnostjo v 
prostem času.
Metode
Raziskava temelji na kvantitativni metodi raziskovanja.
Opis instrumenta
Za pridobivanje podatkov je bil uporabljen 
vprašalnik, izdelan v spletnem orodju EnKlikAnketa, 
ki je vseboval 30 vprašanj. Posodobljen in predhodno 
testiran vprašalnik, (Radivo, 2015), je bil srednjim 
šolam poslan po elektronski pošti. Vprašanja so bila v 
večini zaprtega tipa in deloma izbirnega tipa, pri čemer 
je bilo ponujenih več različnih odgovorov. Podatki o 
telesni masi in višini so bili zbrani s samoporočanjem. Iz 
samoocene telesne mase in telesne višine smo izračunali 
indeks telesne mase – ITM (kg/m2). Za preverjanje 
povezav med (samo)oceno stanja hranjenosti in 
drugimi spremenljivkami smo dobljene vrednosti 
ITM združili v štiri skupine: podhranjeni (ITM < 18,5 
kg/m2), normalno hranjeni (ITM 18,5–24,9 kg/m2), 
prekomerno hranjeni (ITM 25,0–29,9 kg/m2) in debeli 
(ITM > 30,0 kg/m2).
V vprašalniku smo prehranske navade ocenjevali 
z metodo pogostosti uživanja posameznih živil, pri 
čemer smo pri določenih živilih navedli velikosti 
porcij, ki smo jih povzeli po Vprašalniku o pogostosti 
uživanja živil v spletnem orodju Odprta platforma za 
klinično prehrano – OPKP (Inštitut Jožef Stefan, n. d.). 
O količini živil so dijaki poročali s pomočjo slikovnega 
prikaza velikosti porcij. Število zaužitih dnevnih 
obrokov so dijaki vpisali sami, za statistično analizo 
smo oblikovali tri skupine (1 – dva obroka ali manj; 
2 – od tri do pet obrokov; 3 – šest obrokov ali več). 
Pogostost uživanja sadja, zelenjave, stročnic in rib je 
bila merjena z osemstopenjsko lestvico (1 – nikoli; 2 
– enkrat na mesec; 3 – od dva- do trikrat na mesec; 
4 – enkrat ali dvakrat na teden; 5 – od tri- do štirikrat 
na teden; 6 – od pet- do šestkrat na teden; 7 – enkrat 
ali dvakrat na dan; 8 – večkrat na dan). Za statistično 
analizo smo oblikovali petstopenjsko lestvico (1 – 
nikoli; 2 – od enkrat do trikrat na mesec; 3 – enkrat ali 
dvakrat na teden; 4 – trikrat ali večkrat na teden; 5 – 
enkrat ali večkrat na dan). Poleg vprašanj o pogostosti 
uživanja posameznih živil ter prehranskih navadah se 
sklop vprašanj v anketi nanaša tudi na navade glede 
telesne aktivnosti in spanja. Za ovrednotenje sedečega 
vedenja in telesne aktivnosti smo s šeststopenjsko 
lestvico ugotavljali čas, ki ga dijaki pred zasloni 
presedijo med tednom in ob koncu tedna (1 – nič; 2 
– pol ure; 3 – eno uro; 4 – dve uri; 5 – tri ure; 6 – več 
kot tri ure) in pogostost rekreiranja v prostem času (1 
– nikoli; 2 – enkrat na mesec; 3 – enkrat na teden; 4 
– od dva- do trikrat na teden; 5 – od štiri- do šestkrat 
na teden; 6 – vsak dan). Trajanje (ure) spanja smo 
ugotavljali s sedemstopenjsko lestvico (1 – manj kot 
pet ur; 2 – pet ur; 3 – šest ur; 4 – sedem ur; 5 – osem 
ur; 6 – devet ur; 7 – deset ur in več ur). Za statistično 
analizo smo oblikovali tristopenjsko lestvico (1 – manj 
kot šest ur; 2 – od sedem do osem ur; 3 – devet ur 
in več).V vprašalnik smo vključili tudi vprašanja o 
sociodemografskih dejavnikih (regija bivanja, tip 
družine, zaposlenost staršev in subjektivna ocena 
družinskega blagostanja). 
Opis vzorca
V raziskavi smo preučevali populacijo dijakov, ki 
obiskujejo 3. letnik srednješolskega izobraževanja. 
Vzorec anketiranih dijakov predstavlja 9,1 % celotne 
populacije dijakov 3. letnikov srednješolskega 
249 Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
izobraževanja v Sloveniji v šolskem letu 2018/2019 
(Statistični urad Republike Slovenije, 2019). Vzorec je 
zajemal 1563 dijakov, od tega 902 deklet (57,7 %) in 
661 fantov (42,3 %). 55,0 % dijakov je bilo iz vzhodne 
kohezijske regije, med njimi je bila več kot polovica 
deklet (54,2 %); 45,0 % anketiranih dijakov je bilo iz 
zahodne regije, več je bilo deklet (61,9 %). Povprečna 
starost je bila 18 let. Vzorec za raziskovalno populacijo 
smo izbrali zaradi starosti dijakov in aktualne 
primerjave z raziskavo HBSC, ki je v zadnji opravljeni 
raziskavi (HBSC, 2018) poleg mlajših mladostnikov 
zajela tudi dijake 3. letnikov. Povprečna telesna 
višina anketiranih dijakov je 173 cm (najvišja 204 
cm, najnižja 140 cm), povprečna telesna masa je 67,2 
kg (najnižja 40 kg, najvišja 150 kg). Povprečen ITM 
je 22,4 kg/m2 (najnižji 15,4 kg/m2, najvišji 46,2 kg/
m2). Povprečen ITM dijakov v vzhodni regiji je 22,7 
kg/m2, v zahodni pa 21,9 kg/m2. Največ anketiranih 
dijakov živi v dvostarševski družini (81,8 %), v 
enostarševski družini živi 14,8 % anketiranih. 84,0 % 
dijakov ima zaposlena oba starša, 13,1 % navaja, da 
je zaposlen zgolj eden od staršev. Brezposelnost obeh 
staršev navaja 2,2 % anketiranih dijakov. Subjektivna 
samoocena družinskega blagostanja kaže, da dobra 
tretjina vprašanih dijakov (35,8 %) ocenjuje družinsko 
blagostanje kot povprečno, 42,2 % kot še kar dobro, kot 
slabo družinsko blagostanje ocenjuje 0,6 % vprašanih. 
6,1 % jih meni, da njihovi družini ne gre preveč 
dobro. Pouka športne vzgoje je opravičenih 8,4 % 
dijakov, med njimi je več deklet (57,6 %). Zgolj 8,6 % 
anketiranih dijakov med tednom živi v dijaškem 
domu. 74,3 % dijakov vsakodnevno malica v šoli, 9,0 % 
vprašanih nikoli ne malica v šoli.
Opis poteka raziskave in obdelave podatkov
Raziskava je potekala med 18. februarjem in 10. 
aprilom 2019. Pred anketiranjem so bili dijaki seznanjeni 
z nameni in cilji raziskave, učitelji so jim podali ustna 
navodila glede vprašalnika. Anketiranje je potekalo 
anonimno in prostovoljno v času pouka ob prisotnosti 
učitelja, iz česar izhaja dobra odzivnost in resen 
pristop k reševanju vprašalnika. Od vseh vključenih 
dijakov jih je anketo v celoti izpolnilo 75,0 %. Analiza 
in obdelava pridobljenih podatkov je bila izvedena v 
programih MS Excel 2010 in SPSS, različica 22 (SPSS 
Inc., Chicago, Illinois, ZDA). Izvedli smo opisno in 
inferenčno statistiko. Za testiranje statistično značilnih 
razlik smo uporabili t-test in Mann Whitneyjev U-test. 
Statistično značilno povezanost med različnimi 
opisnimi spremenljivkami smo preverjali s pomočjo 
χ2 statistike pri stopnji značilnosti α = 0,05, med 
urejenostnimi spremenljivkami pa s Spearmanovim 
korelacijskim koeficientom. Pri slednjem smo stopnjo 
(moč) statistične povezanosti ovrednotili po lestvici: 0 
ni povezanosti; 0–0,2 neznatna; 0,2–0,4 šibka; 0,4–0,7 
zmerna; 0,7–0,9 visoka; 0,9–1 zelo visoka; 1 popolna 
(funkcijska) povezanost (Rosner, 2015).
Rezultati
84,8 % dijakov običajno zaužije od tri do pet obrokov 
na dan. Dva obroka ali manj zaužije 10,1 % dijakov, 
med njimi je več deklet (11,1 %). 5,1 % dijakov navaja, 
da zaužijejo šest obrokov ali več, med njimi je več 
fantov (7,0 %). 
Med tednom vsakodnevno zajtrkuje 39,5 % dijakov, 
medtem ko jih skoraj tretjina (29,0 %) nikoli ne 
zajtrkuje. Ob vikendih je delež dijakov, ki zajtrkujejo 
oba dneva, večji (74,3 %), delež tistih, ki med 
vikendom zajtrk opuščajo, je 12,2 %. Ugotovili smo 
statistično značilno šibko pozitivno povezavo med 
pogostostjo zajtrkovanja med tednom in ob koncu 
tedna (rs = 0,361, p = 0,001). Dijaki, ki opuščajo zajtrk 
med tednom, tudi ob koncu tedna ne zajtrkujejo. 
Podatki glede na spol kažejo, da je med dijaki, ki 
redno zajtrkujejo med tednom, več fantov (43,3 %) 
in manj deklet (36,6 %). Med dijaki, ki med tednom 
nikoli ne zajtrkujejo, je 29,3 % deklet in 28,7 % fantov. 
Povezava med pogostostjo zajtrkovanja med tednom 
in spolom je statistično značilna (χ2(5) = 19,631, p = 
0,001). Dekleta med tednom pogosteje opuščajo 
zajtrk.
V primerjavi navad zajtrkovanja med regijama smo 
ugotovili, da je delež dijakov, ki med tednom redno 
zajtrkujejo, večji v zahodni regiji (42,0 %); v vzhodni 
regiji redno zajtrkuje 37,4 % dijakov. Ravno obratno je 
pri opuščanju zajtrka. V vzhodni regiji je delež dijakov, 
ki med tednom nikoli ne zajtrkujejo, večji (30,0 %) kot 
v zahodni regiji (27,8 %). 
Dokazali smo statistično značilno neznatno 
pozitivno povezanost med spremenljivkama glede 
pogostosti zajtrkovanja med tednom in količino 
spanja med tednom (trajanje v urah) (rs = 0,177, 
p = 0,001). Dijaki, ki med tednom več spijo, tudi 
pogosteje zajtrkujejo. V obeh regijah smo ugotovili 
statistično značilne pozitivne povezave med trajanjem 
spanja med tednom in številom obrokov v dnevu ter 
statistično značilne pozitivne povezave med trajanjem 
spanja in pogostostjo zajtrkovanja med tednom. 
Dijaki iz zahodne regije, ki več spijo, zaužijejo večje 
število obrokov (rs = 0,129, p = 0,001) in med tednom 
pogosteje zajtrkujejo (rs = 0,209, p = 0,001). Tudi dijaki 
iz vzhodne regije, ki več spijo, med tednom pogosteje 
zajtrkujejo (rs = 0,152, p = 0,001) in čez dan zaužijejo 
več obrokov (rs = 0,127, p = 0,001). 
Sveže sadje enkrat ali večkrat na dan uživa 27,3 % 
dijakov, med njimi je več deklet (32,7 %); 19,8 % je 
fantov. Pogosteje sveže sadje vsakodnevno uživajo 
dijaki iz zahodne regije (30,0 %), v vzhodni regiji je ta 
delež 25,5%. Največ vprašanih dijakov (41,4 %) uživa 
sveže sadje trikrat ali večkrat na teden. Med njimi je 
nekoliko več fantov (42,7 %); 40,5 % je deklet. Petina 
(19,4 %) vprašanih uživa sveže sadje enkrat ali dvakrat 
na teden. Zgolj od enkrat do trikrat mesečno uživa 
sveže sadje 9,7 % dijakov. 2,2 % vprašanih nikoli ne 
uživa svežega sadja, med njimi je več fantov (3,9 %); 
250Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
1,0 % je deklet. Povezava med pogostostjo uživanja 
svežega sadja in spolom je statistično značilna (χ2(4) = 
47,398, p = 0,001); dekleta pogosteje uživajo sveže 
sadje. 40,8 % dijakov nikoli ne uživa kuhanega sadja. 
41,7 % vprašanih kuhano sadje uživa do trikrat 
mesečno, 7,5 % enkrat ali dvakrat na teden in 7,0 % 
trikrat ali večkrat na teden. Ugotovili smo, da dekleta 
pogosteje uživajo kuhano sadje (χ2(4) = 12,782, p = 
0,012). Delež dijakov, ki nikoli ne uživajo vloženega 
sadja, je 38,9 %. Do trikrat mesečno uživa vloženo 
sadje 45,9 % dijakov, 7,9 % enkrat ali dvakrat na teden 
in 5,1 % tri- ali večkrat na teden. Tudi med pogostostjo 
uživanja vloženega sadja in spolom smo ugotovili 
statistično značilno povezavo (χ2(4) = 15,880, p = 
0,003). Dekleta pogosteje uživajo vloženo sadje. 
Raziskava je pokazala statistično značilno povezavo 
med pogostostjo uživanja vloženega sadja in regijo 
bivanja (χ2(4) = 35,020, p = 0,001). V vzhodni regiji 
dijaki zaužijejo več vloženega sadja. 
Suho sadje enkrat ali večkrat dnevno uživa 3,0 % 
dijakov, trikrat ali večkrat tedensko 8,8 % dijakov, 10,3 % 
vprašanih jih uživa suho sadje enkrat ali dvakrat na 
teden. Skoraj polovica (47,3 %) vprašanih uživa suho 
sadje le od enkrat do trikrat mesečno, slaba tretjina 
(30,5 %) suhega sadja ne uživa. Povprečna količina 
zaužitega sadja v obroku med vsemi dijaki je 157,5 g. 
1,9 % anketiranih dijakov sadja ne uživa. 
Med dijaki jih 3,1 % nikoli ne uživa zelenjave. 
Povprečna količina zaužite zelenjave v obroku med 
vsemi dijaki je 161,4 g. Svežo zelenjavo enkrat ali 
večkrat na dan uživa 26,6 % dijakov. Pri uživanju sveže 
zelenjave je delež tistih, ki uživajo svežo zelenjavo vsaj 
enkrat na dan, večji med dekleti (31,5 %); pri fantih 
je 19,8%. 42,9 % dijakov uživa svežo zelenjavo od tri- 
do šestkrat tedensko, 14,5 % dijakov enkrat ali dvakrat 
na teden in 9,9 % do trikrat mesečno. Sveže zelenjave 
nikoli ne uživa 6,1 % dijakov, med njimi je 8,3 % fantov 
in 4,5 % deklet. Povezava med pogostostjo uživanja 
sveže zelenjave in spolom je statistično značilna (χ2(4) = 
36,282, p = 0,001). Dekleta pogosteje uživajo svežo 
zelenjavo. Kuhano zelenjavo vsak dan uživa 15,0 % 
dijakov, med njimi je več deklet (68,4 %) in dobra 
tretjina fantov (31,6 %). Od tri- do šestkrat tedensko 
uživa kuhano zelenjavo 39,0 % dijakov (58,5 % 
deklet in 41,5 % fantov). 10,5 % anketiranih dijakov 
nikoli ne uživa kuhane zelenjave. Delež teh je večji 
med fanti (58,5%), pri dekletih je 41,5%. Ugotovili 
smo statistično značilno povezavo med spolom in 
pogostostjo uživanja kuhane zelenjave (χ2(4) = 28,876, 
p = 0,001). Kuhano zelenjavo pogosteje uživajo 
dekleta. Vložene zelenjave nikoli ne uživa 29,7 % 
dijakov (53,0 % deklet in 47,0 % fantov), 31,3 % jih 
vloženo zelenjavo uživa do trikrat mesečno. Enkrat 
do dvakrat na teden uživa vloženo zelenjavo 18,5 % 
dijakov, 15,9 % od tri- do šestkrat tedensko, 4,5 % pa 
vsakodnevno. Primerjava glede na spol je pokazala, 
da več vložene zelenjave pojedo dekleta. Povezava je 
statistično značilna (χ2(4) = 14,220, p = 0,007).
Ugotovili smo statistično značilno povezavo med 
pogostostjo uživanja vložene zelenjave in regijo bivanja 
(χ2(4) = 33,612, p = 0,001). Več vložene zelenjave 
uživajo dijaki iz vzhodne regije. Povezava med 
količino zelenjave v obroku in spolom je statistično 
značilna (χ2(2) = 13,197, p = 0,001). Dekleta v obroku 
zaužijejo večjo količino zelenjave. 
Raziskava je pokazala statistično značilno zmerno 
pozitivno povezavo med pogostostjo uživanja svežega 
sadja in sveže zelenjave (rs = 0,448, p = 0,001). Dijaki, 
ki pogosteje uživajo sveže sadje, pogosteje uživajo tudi 
svežo zelenjavo. 
Enkrat ali dvakrat na teden uživa fižol 19,1 % 
dijakov, med njimi je več fantov (21,0 %); 17,6 % je 
deklet. Delež tistih, ki uživajo fižol trikrat ali večkrat 
tedensko, je 11,7% (13,5 % fantov in 10,5 % deklet). 
Vsaj trikrat na mesec uživa fižol 46,3 % dijakov, dobra 
petina (21,4 %) fižola ne uživa. Med slednjimi je več 
deklet (23,2 %). Povezava med spolom in pogostostjo 
uživanja fižola je statistično značilna (χ2(4) = 12,509, 
p = 0,014). V vzhodni regiji je delež dijakov, ki nikoli 
ne uživajo fižola, večji (22,5 %) kot v zahodni regiji 
(21,4 %).
Trikrat ali večkrat tedensko uživa grah 9,9 % dijakov 
(10,4 % fantov in 9,5 % deklet). Delež dijakov, ki 
uživajo grah enkrat ali dvakrat na teden, je 19,5 % 
(19,2 % fantov in 19,7 % deklet). 50,3 % vprašanih 
uživa grah do trikrat na mesec. 19,0 % dijakov nikoli 
ne uživa graha, med njimi je več fantov (20,1 %) kot 
deklet (18,2 %). Delež dijakov, ki nikoli ne uživajo 
graha, je večji v vzhodni regiji (20,3%) kot v zahodni 
(17,5%). Med anketiranimi je 9,3 % dijakov, ki nikoli 
ne uživajo stročnic. Povprečna količina zaužitih 
stročnic v obroku je 119,9 g. 
Enkrat do dvakrat tedensko uživa bele morske ribe 
13,2 % dijakov, med njimi je nekoliko več fantov (14,2 %); 
12,4 % je deklet. Največji delež dijakov (61,9 %) uživa 
bele morske ribe do trikrat na mesec, 21,7 % jih nikoli ne 
uživa belih morskih rib (23,1 % deklet in 19,8 % fantov). 
Plave morske ribe enkrat ali dvakrat tedensko uživa 
13,4 %. Več kot polovica vprašanih (55,4 %) uživa plave 
morske ribe do trikrat mesečno, četrtina (25,2 %) jih 
nikoli ne uživa plavih morskih rib (27,4 % deklet in 22,2 % 
fantov). Ugotovili smo statistično značilno povezavo med 
pogostostjo uživanja plavih morskih rib in regijo bivanja 
(χ2(4) = 10,067, p = 0,001). Dijakov, ki nikoli ne uživajo 
plavih morskih rib, je več iz vzhodne regije (27,8 %); 
22,0 % jih je iz zahodne regije. Sladkovodne ribe enkrat 
do dvakrat tedensko uživa 5,1 % dijakov, med njimi je 
več fantov (6,5 %); deklet je 4,1 %. 50,4 % (55,5 % fantov 
in 46,6 % deklet) uživa sladkovodne ribe do trikrat 
mesečno, 42,6 % pa nikoli (48,1 % deklet in 35,2 % 
fantov). Med dijaki, ki nikoli ne uživajo sladkovodnih 
rib, jih 45,5 % prihaja iz zahodne regije in 40,4 % iz 
vzhodne. 13,9 % anketiranih dijakov ne uživa nobenih 
rib. Povprečna količina rib v obroku je 150,1 g. Tabela 1 
prikazuje značilnosti vzorca anketiranih dijakov glede 
na kategorije ITM in spol. 
251 Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
Delež ustrezno hranjenih dijakov je primerljiv. 
Povezava med spolom in stanjem hranjenosti je 
statistično značilna (χ2(3) = 41,397, p = 0,001).
Primerjava stanja hranjenosti med regijama (Tabela 
2) pokaže slabše stanje hranjenosti v vzhodni regiji. V 
raziskavi smo med regijama ugotovili statistično značilne 
razlike v stanju hranjenosti (U = 275,597, p = 0,003).
O manj kot šestih urah spanja med tednom poroča 
43,7 % dijakov, med njimi je več deklet (45,6 %); fantov 
je 40,9 %. Med vikendom je ta delež bistveno nižji (6,6 
% dijakov). Od sedem do osem ur spanja med tednom 
navaja polovica dijakov (51,4 %). Ob vikendih od 
sedem do osem ur spi 35,8 % dijakov (38,2 % fantov 
in 14,0 % deklet). Med tednom 9 ur in več spi 4,3 % 
dijakov (5,0 % deklet in 3,5 % fantov). Čas, ki ga dijaki 
med tednom porabijo za gledanje televizije in uporabo 
drugih zaslonov, je prikazan v Tabeli 3. 
Iz Tabele 4 je razvidno, da se pogosteje rekreirajo 
fantje. Med neaktivnimi dijaki je večji delež deklet.
Ugotovili smo povezavo med sedentarnim vedenjem 
med tednom in pogostostjo rekreiranja v prostem času 
(rs = ‒0,113, p = 0,001). Dijaki, ki med tednom namenijo 
več časa sedečemu vedenju, so v prostem času redkeje 
telesno aktivni. Obstaja statistično značilna pozitivna 
povezava med sedentarnim vedenjem med tednom in 
med vikendom (rs = 0,679, p = 0,001), kar nakazuje, 
da imajo dijaki enake navade življenjskega sloga ob 
delavnikih in med vikendi.
Tabela 1: Stanje hranjenosti glede na spol
ITM  
(kg/m2)
Fantje (n = 661) Dekleta (n = 902 ) Skupaj (n = 1563)
n % n % n %
< 18,50 26 3,9 96 10,6 122 7,8
18,5–24,9 500 75,6 676 74,9 1176 75,2
25,0–29,9 92 13,9 111 12,3 203 13,0
30,0 in več 43 6,5 19 2,1 62 4,0
Legenda: n – število; % – odstotek
Tabela 2: Porazdelitev vzorca v skupine ITM-ja glede na regijo bivanja
ITM 
(kg/m2)
Vzhodna regija 
(n = 859)
Zahodna regija 
(n =704)
Skupaj  
(n = 1563)
n % n % n %
< 18,50 56 6,5 66 9,4 122 7,8
18,5–24,9 635 73,9 541 76,8 1176 75,2
25,0–29,9 118 13,7 85 12,1 203 13,0
30,0 in več 50 5,8 12 1,7 62 4,0
Legenda: n – število; % – odstotek
Tabela 3: Sedeče vedenje med tednom glede na spol
Spol 
Čas sedečega vedenja med tednom
Nič Pol ure 1 uro 2 uri 3 ure Več kot 3 ure
Fantje (%) 1,4 4,2 9,2 24,7 20,3 40,2
Dekleta (%) 0,8 2,0 10,8 23,4 25,2 37,9
Skupaj (%) 1,0 2,9 10,1 23,9 23,1 38,9
Legenda: % – odstotek
Tabela 4: Pogostost rekreiranja glede na spol
Spol
Pogostost rekreiranja
Nikoli Enkrat na mesec
Enkrat na 
teden
Dva- do trikrat 
na teden
Štiri- do šestkrat 
na teden Vsak dan
Fantje (%) 2,3 7,9 16,3 26,8 22,4 24,4
Dekleta (%) 8,2 15,7 22,1 30,9 13,1 10,0
Skupaj (%) 5,7 12,4 19,6 29,2 17,0 16,1
Legenda: % – odstotek
252Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
Diskusija
Delež mladostnikov, ki med tednom redno 
zajtrkujejo (39,5 %), je primerljiv s slovenskim 
povprečjem za sedemnajstletnike za leto 2018 (35,3 %) 
(Jeriček Klanšček et al., 2019). Ugotovili smo, da 
zajtrkovanje med tednom pogosteje opuščajo dekleta. 
Podobno kot nekatere druge raziskave HBSC v 
Evropi (Băban, Tăut, Balazsi, & Dănilă, 2020; Brooks, 
Klemera, Chester, Magnusson, & Spencer, 2020; 
Moreno et al., 2020; Nardone et al., 2020), opravljene 
med mlajšimi mladostniki, tudi v Sloveniji (Jeriček 
Klanšček et al., 2019) ugotavljajo, da med tednom 
redno zajtrkuje več fantov ter da s starostjo narašča 
delež tistih, ki zajtrk opuščajo. Slednje potrjuje tudi 
prva longitudinalna raziskava HBSC (2020), izvedena 
v Sloveniji, ki je zajela mlade, vključene že v vzorec 
raziskave HBSC 2018 (Jeriček Klanšček et al., 2021). 
Sistematični pregled raziskav, opravljenih med letoma 
2008 in 2018 med mladostniki iz 33 držav do 18 leta, 
potrjuje, da zajtrk pogosteje opuščajo dekleta in da s 
starostjo narašča delež tistih, ki ne zajtrkujejo redno. 
Prav tako dokazuje, da je opuščanje zajtrka povezano 
z izbiro manj zdravih živil ter posledično s pojavom 
prekomerne hranjenosti pri mladostnikih (Monzani 
et al., 2019; Ober et al., 2021). Da je opuščanje zajtrka 
pomemben dejavnik tveganja za razvoj debelosti pri 
mladostnikih, so v svoji raziskavi med nizozemskimi 
mladostniki, starimi med 13 in 16 let, potrdili tudi 
Croezen, Visscher, Ter Bogt, Veling, & Haveman-Nies 
(2009). Pregled raziskav, ki so jih opravili Giménez-
Legarre, Flores-Barrantes, Miguel-Berges, Moreno, 
& Santaliestra-Pasías (2020), dokazuje, da je redno 
zajtrkovanje povezano z bolj zdravim načinom 
prehranjevanja ter večjim vnosom sadja in zelenjave. 
V raziskavi smo potrdili povezavo med pogostostjo 
zajtrkovanja in navadami spanja. Povezavo med 
krajšim časom spanja ter opuščanjem zajtrka so 
potrdili tudi v raziskavi med mladostniki v Palestini 
(Badrasawi, Anabtawi, & Al-Zain, 2021), Grčiji 
(Tambalis, Panagiotakos, Psarra, & Sidossis, 2018) ter 
na Kitajskem (Liu et al., 2022). V zadnjih desetletjih 
je zaznati trend pomanjkanja spanja, hkrati pa 
narašča pojav prekomerne hranjenosti. Več raziskav je 
potrdilo povezavo med trajanjem spanja in razvojem 
debelosti ter sladkorne bolezni (Knutson, Spiegel, 
Penev, & Van Cauter, 2007; Knutson & Van Cauter, 
2008). V prihodnje bi bilo smiselno raziskati razloge 
za opuščanje zajtrka, predvsem pri dekletih. Pri 
slednjih je treba nameniti več pozornosti povezavi 
med opuščanjem zajtrka ter motnjami hranjenja. Eden 
od razlogov za opuščanje zajtrka med slovenskimi 
mladostniki bi bila lahko tudi organizirana šolska 
malica, česar v raziskavi nismo preučevali.
Kot smo domnevali, je primanjkljaj vnosa zelenjave 
in stročnic glede na priporočila večji, kot je pri vnosu 
sadja. Zaradi številnih za rast in razvoj koristnih 
snovi, prehranskih vlaknin ter zaščitnih snovi je 
zaželeno uživanje dnevno priporočenih količin (400 
g) sadja in zelenjave (FAO &WHO, 2019), pri čemer 
ima uživanje zelenjave zaradi močnejšega zaščitnega 
učinka in manjšega vnosa sladkorjev večji pomen. 
Trajnostna, planetarna prehrana ima za vnos sadja 
in zelenjave višja priporočila, v razponu 200–600 
g zelenjave in 100–300 g sadja (Willett et al., 2019). 
Za doseganje priporočila dnevnega vnosa sadja in 
zelenjave je ključno prepoznavanje dejavnikov, ki 
pri mladostnikih vplivajo na vnos sadja in zelenjave 
(Darfour-Oduro, Andrade, & Grigsby-Toussaint, 
2020). Po podatkih mednarodne raziskave HBSC iz 
preteklih let je med mlajšimi slovenskimi mladostniki 
vnos zelenjave v primerjavi s sadjem manjši (Stergar, 
Scagnetti, & Pucelj, 2006; Gabrijelčič Blenkuš, 
Gregorič, & Fajdiga Turk, 2007; Fajdiga Turk, 2011; 
Drev, 2015). Tudi zadnji opravljeni raziskavi HBSC 
v Sloveniji ugotavljata, da je pogostost uživanja 
zelenjave v primerjavi s sadjem še vedno manjša ter da 
s starostjo upada (Jeriček Klanšček et al., 2019, 2021). 
Naša raziskava je pokazala, da je delež tistih, ki 
uživajo sadje in zelenjavo vsaj enkrat na dan, večji 
med dekleti. Enake so ugotovitve raziskav med 
mlajšimi slovenskimi mladostniki (Jeriček Klanšček et 
al., 2019) in med mladostniki iz drugih držav (Băban 
et al., 2020; Brooks et al., 2020; Moreno et al., 2020; 
Nardone et al., 2020). Raziskave o prehranskih navadah 
med mladostniki ugotavljajo, da je uživanje sadja 
in zelenjave poleg povezanosti s starostjo in spolom 
pomembno povezano tudi s socialno-ekonomskim 
statusom družine, dostopnostjo živil ter z zgledom 
in spodbudo staršev. Slednje je izrazitejše pri mlajših, 
medtem ko sta pri starejših mladostnikih pomembnejša 
zdravstvena in šolska politika, ki spodbujata uživanje 
sadja in zelenjave (Darfour-Oduro et al., 2020). Pri 
pregledu raziskav, ki obravnavajo prehranske navade 
mladostnikov (10 do 19 let) v Severni Ameriki, Evropi 
in Oceaniji, opravljenih v preteklem desetletju, je bilo 
ugotovljeno, da mladostniki ne dosegajo priporočil 
za vnos sadja in zelenjave ter da je glede uživanja 
stročnic pri mladostnikih znanega zelo malo (Rosi, 
Paolella, Biasini, Scazzina, & SINU Working Group on 
Nutritional Surveillance in Adolescents, 2019). Med 
slovenskimi mladostniki so odstopanja od zdrave, 
uravnotežene prehrane, posebej pri vnosu sadja, 
zelenjave in stročnic, ugotovili tudi Kobe, Štimec, 
Ribič, & Fidler Mis (2012). 
Potrdili smo domnevo, da je primanjkljaj vnosa 
zelenjave, stročnic in rib glede na priporočila večji, 
kot je pri vnosu sadja. Ribe, predvsem mastne morske 
ribe, so pomemben vir beljakovin, omega 3 maščobnih 
kislin, vitaminov (vitamin D) in mineralov (jod, selen). 
Priporočila za uživanje rib se v evropskih državah 
razlikujejo predvsem zaradi dostopa do morske hrane 
in s tem povezano tradicijo prehranjevanja z ribami 
(Lofstedt, de Roos, & Fernandes, 2021). Po priporočilih 
naj bi mladostniki uživali ribe enkrat ali dvakrat na 
teden oziroma minimalno 200 g tedensko (Lofstedt 
253 Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
et al., 2021). V raziskavi smo ugotovili, da je uživanje 
rib med dijaki glede na priporočila neustrezno ter da 
je dijakov, ki nikoli ne uživajo plavih morskih rib, več 
v vzhodni regiji. Povezava med pogostostjo uživanja 
plavih morskih rib in regijo bivanja je statistično 
značilna, kar povezujemo z dejstvom, da tradicionalna 
kuhinja v zahodni regiji vključuje ribe. Tudi v poročilu 
o kakovosti dijaških obrokov v Sloveniji (Gregorič, 
Gabrijelčič Blenkuš, Klančar, & Fajdiga Turk, 2011) 
ugotavljajo, da so bile ribe v vseh regijah v obrokih 
premalo zastopane. 
V raziskavi smo potrdili domnevo, da je uživanje 
sadja, zelenjave, stročnic in rib glede na priporočila 
večje v zahodni regiji. Vsakodnevno uživa sveže sadje in 
svežo zelenjavo več dijakov iz zahodne regije, medtem 
ko več vloženega sadja in zelenjave uživajo dijaki iz 
vzhodne regije. Delež dijakov, ki nikoli ne uživajo 
fižola in/ali graha ter rib, je večji v vzhodni regiji. Tudi 
povprečne količine zaužitega sadja, zelenjave, stročnic 
in rib v obroku so večje v zahodni regiji.
SZO za mladostnike nad 18 let priporoča 150 minut 
zmerno intenzivne telesne aktivnosti na teden ali 
vsaj 75 minut zelo intenzivne telesne aktivnosti ali 
enakovredno kombinacijo obeh intenzivnosti (WHO, 
2020). Kakšne so koristi redne telesne aktivnosti za 
zdravje v prehodu iz mladostništva v odraslost (18–24 
let), bo v prihodnosti treba natančneje raziskati (van 
Sluijs et al., 2021). Tudi pri priporočilih glede sedečega 
vedenja se osemnajstletniki uvrščajo v skupino 
odraslih. Sedeče vedenje je tako opredeljeno kot čas 
z nizko porabo energije v času budnosti, sedenja 
ali ležanja z namenom izobraževanja, opravljanja 
poklica in prevoza. Da bi zmanjšali negativne učinke 
sedečega vedenja na zdravje, se priporoča čas sedenja 
omejiti oziroma ga prekinjati s telesno aktivnostjo 
kakršnekoli intenzivnosti (WHO, 2020). Dokazano 
je, da ima sedeče vedenje neugoden vpliv na zdravje 
in povečuje tveganje za kronične nenalezljive bolezni. 
Vendar je pri raziskovanju vpliva sedentarnosti na 
zdravje treba upoštevati, da gre pri posameznikih za 
različne vzorce sedečega vedenja in načine prekinjanja 
sedenja (WHO, 2020). Med mladostniki je posebej 
zaskrbljujoče sedeče vedenje, ki je povezano z uporabo 
različnih zaslonov (Saunders et al., 2022). 
Potrdili smo povezavo med sedentarnim vedenjem 
med tednom in pogostostjo rekreiranja v prostem 
času. Ugotovitev nakazuje ponavljajoč vzorec porabe 
časa za telesno aktivnost ter sedentarne dejavnosti. 
Dijaki iz naše raziskave, ki med tednom namenijo 
več časa sedečim oblikam preživljanja časa (branje, 
televizija, računalnik, mobitel), so manj telesno aktivni 
oziroma se redkeje rekreirajo. Raziskave, opravljene 
na mlajših slovenskih mladostnikih, so pokazale, da je 
vsak dan telesno aktivnih 13,5 % sedemnajstletnikov. 
Ugotavljajo, da je redno telesno aktivnih več fantov 
ter da delež redno telesno aktivnih s starostjo upada 
(Jeriček Klanšček et al., 2019, 2021). Tudi naša 
raziskava je potrdila, da je redno telesno aktivnih več 
fantov kot deklet. Enako ugotavljajo nekatere druge 
raziskave (Croezen et al., 2009; Carson et al., 2016; 
van Sluijs et al., 2021). Raziskava med slovenskimi 
mladostniki (2018) ugotavlja več kot štiri ure sedečega 
vedenja dnevno med 42,4 % sedemnajstletnikov, med 
njimi je skoraj polovica deklet (48,5 %); 36,4 % je 
fantov (Jeriček Klanšček et al., 2019). Darfour-Oduro 
et al. (2020) so v svoji raziskavi potrdili, da je telesna 
neaktivnost povezana tudi z nezadostnim vnosom 
sadja in zelenjave. 
Pretežno sedeči način življenja skupaj z nizko telesno 
aktivnostjo pomembno prispeva k razvoju prekomerne 
hranjenosti. Tako kot v mnogih drugih evropskih 
državah tudi v Sloveniji narašča število mladostnikov 
s prekomerno telesno maso (WHO, 2013). S slednjo 
je povezanih več dejavnikov življenjskega sloga, med 
katere sodijo tudi izpuščanje zajtrka, izbira manj zdravih 
živil, izbirčnost ter krajši čas trajanja spanja (Monzani 
et al., 2019; Ober et al., 2021; Špindler, Cilar Budler, 
Klanjšek, & Kegl, 2021). Domnevo, da imajo dijaki, ki 
prihajajo iz vzhodne kohezijske regije, slabšo oceno 
stanja hranjenosti, smo potrdili. Večji delež prekomerno 
hranjenih dijakov iz vzhodne kohezijske regije lahko 
povezujemo tudi z drugimi ugotovitvami iz naše 
raziskave. Ugotovili smo, da dijaki iz vzhodne regije, ki 
velja za manj razvito, z višjo stopnjo brezposelnosti ter 
višjo stopnjo tveganja revščine (Statistični urad Republike 
Slovenije, 2022) pogosteje izpuščajo zajtrk, uživajo manj 
sadja, zelenjave ter stročnic in rib. V prihodnje bi med 
slovenskimi mladostniki veljalo raziskati vpliv družbene 
neenakosti na prehransko vedenje.
Zaključek
V raziskavi smo potrdili domneve o neustreznih 
prehranjevalnih navadah starejših slovenskih 
mladostnikov, slednje so nekoliko slabše v vzhodni 
kohezijski regiji. Delež prekomerno hranjenih dijakov 
je večji v vzhodni regiji. Uživanje sadja, zelenjave, 
stročnic in rib je v zahodni regiji ustreznejše. 
Zajtrkovanje pogosteje opuščajo dekleta. Pokazalo 
se je, da je dolžina spanja povezana z rednim 
zajtrkovanjem. Ugotovitve naše raziskave kažejo 
tudi na neredno telesno aktivnost, mladostniki 
več časa namenijo sedečim dejavnostim. Dekleta 
so manj telesno aktivna. Pri promociji zdravega 
življenjskega sloga mladostnikov je nepogrešljivo 
sodelovanje zdravstvene vzgoje in dietetike. Predvsem 
na področju prehranske vzgoje je ključno znanje o 
različnih prehranskih vzorcih, priporočilih ter virih 
posameznih hranil. Potrebno je ozaveščanje o pomenu 
pretežno rastlinske prehrane, ki ima ugoden učinek na 
zdravje ljudi in planet. 
Conflict of interest/Nasprotje interesov
The authors declare that no conflicts of interest 
exist./Avtorici izjavljata, da ni nasprotja interesov.
254Radivo et al. (2023)/Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), pp. 239–257.
Funding/Financiranje
The study received no funding./Raziskava ni bila 
finančno podprta.
Ethical approval/Etika raziskovanja
The study protocol was approved by the Medical 
Ethics Committee of the Republic of Slovenia (NO 
0120-631/2017/2)./Protokol raziskave je odobrila 
Komisija Republike Slovenije za medicinsko etiko 
(NO 0120-631/2017/2).
Author contributions/Prispevek avtorjev
Both authors contributed equally to study design, 
literature search and writing the manuscript./Avtorici 
sta enako prispevali zasnovi raziskave, pregledu 
literature in pisanju besedila.
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Cite as/Citirajte kot: 
Radivo, M., & Poklar Vatovec, T. (2023). Dietary patterns and lifestyle among Slovenian adolescents: A quantitative study. 
Obzornik zdravstvene nege, 57(4), 239–257. https://doi.org/10.14528/snr.2023.57.4.3229