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67 – 100 |  h t tps: / /doi .org/10.3986/SMS20252804 |  CC BY 4.0
Gender Metamorphosis of Dives in the 
Qajar Era Illustrations: A Mythological 
and Sociological Analysis
 Nahid Jafari Dehkordi and Elaheh Panjehbashi*
There have been extensive studies on the gender metamorphosis of divs, monstrous creatures 
of widespread presence in Persian lore. An interpretation of the evolution of nature, su-
pernatural beings (including div), and the feminine presence within a historical backdrop 
indicate that humanity once perceived these as mysterious and menacing entities, believing 
their lives to be influenced by the will and intervention of sinister divs. However, over time, 
these entities have been emancipated from their ethereal, inscrutable realms and become 
subjected, instead, to the faculties of contemplation and judicious reasoning. Iranian society, 
as a longstanding part of the human tapestry, has also experienced this reassessment. The 
present study is an attempt to scrutinise the causality behind the manifestation of gender 
shifts in depictions of divs during the Qajar era. The Qajar era is widely regarded as the 
historical turning point in which the last remnants of Iran’s traditional societal structure 
began to fade, marking the dawn of a new world. Artworks from this key period attest to a 
profound transformation of the view toward nature, supernatural beings, and women. Div, 
as an epitome of the horrors of nature – and woman, as a symbol of the beauty and tender-
ness of nature, underwent a fusion. Divs, once petrifying entities, assumed more benign 
and distinctly feminine forms. We argue that this metamorphosis signifies a tendency to 
demythologise nature and the secularisation of feminine social life.
KEYWORDS: Qajar, gender, metamorphosis, mythological, div, illustration
O spolni metamorfozi divov, pošastnih bitij, ki so v perzijskem izročilu zelo razširjena, 
so bile opravljene obsežne študije. Razlaga razvoja narave, nadnaravnih bitij (vključno z 
divi) in ženske prisotnosti v zgodovinskem ozadju kaže, da jih je človeštvo nekoč dojemalo 
kot skrivnostne in grozeče entitete ter verjelo, da na njihova življenja vplivata volja in 
posredovanje zloveščih divov. Vendar so se te entitete sčasoma osvobodile iz eteričnih, 
nedoumljivih področij in postale podvržene sposobnostim kontemplacije in razsodnega 
razmišljanja. Tudi iranska družba je kot dolgoletni del človeške tapiserije doživela to 
ponovno vrednotenje. Pričujoča študija poskuša raziskati vzroke za pojavne spremembe 
med spoloma v upodobitvah bogov v obdobju Kadžarja. Kadžarsko obdobje na splošno 
velja za zgodovinsko prelomnico, v kateri so začeli izginjati zadnji ostanki tradicionalne 
družbene strukture v Iranu, kar je pomenilo začetek novega sveta. Umetniška dela iz tega 
ključnega obdobja pričajo o globoki preobrazbi pogleda na naravo, nadnaravna bitja in 
ženske. Div kot utelešenje grozot narave in ženska kot simbol lepote in nežnosti narave sta 
se združila. Divi, nekoč okamenela bitja, so prevzeli blagodejne in izrazito ženske oblike. 
Trdimo, da ta metamorfoza pomeni težnjo po demitologizaciji narave in sekularizaciji 
ženskega družbenega življenja.
KLJUČNE BESEDE: Kadžar, spol, metamorfoza, mitološki, div, ilustracija
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*68 
INTRODUCTION
The term “Metamorphosis” and its practical application in mythology originate from 
Ovid’s seminal work titled Metamorphoses, which delves into the transmutation and 
transfiguration of one entity into another. In Eastern cultures, this term encompasses 
broader and somewhat different notions and is expressed by terms such as Maskh (human 
transformation into animals), Faskh (human transformation into plants), and Raskh (human 
transformation into inanimate objects) among others (Ovidius Naso, 2010).
Traditionally, human societies formed their opinion regarding all entities – be they 
living beings, objects, or phenomena – in terms of their potential utility or detriment. 
Nature, perceived as the backdrop and stage for all entities known to humans, has always 
been teeming with creatures and concepts to which humans would assign evaluative labels. 
Each entity possessed mysterious aspects, which humans tended to simplify according to 
more straightforward criteria. All entities deemed as harmful and perilous were considered 
to represent unknown forces that were ostensibly insidious, menacing, and cunning – in 
brief, forces capable of negatively impacting human life. Our ancestors associated these 
entities with and felt their presence in such phenomena as darkness, pain, death, natural 
disasters, predatory animals, and even human “enemies”. This invisible realm was thought 
to house mythical evil creatures such as divs, aals, bakhtaks, and jinns.
On the opposite side were concepts, entities, and phenomena that were viewed as 
virtuous, fruitful, beneficial, and reassuring. Beauty, shelter, fruit trees, flowers, herbs, 
livestock, and hunting animals contributed to human survival and enhanced the pleasures 
of life. Maternal and feminine qualities, inherent within constrained human communities of 
ancient times, were synonymous with the above-mentioned positive aspects. This world-
view and understanding of life and nature, although continuously evolving and becoming 
more sophisticated, were largely shared across all cultures. Although numerous religions 
and ideologies have emerged and faded away through millennia, the original perceptions 
of our ancestors remained remarkably stable and are distinctly present in contemporary 
cultures. This research focuses on Iranian society during a specific historical period and 
the way it experienced a gradual metamorphosis and transition, without delving into a 
meticulous investigation of the subject from a broad perspective.
The Qajar era was a period of significant social transformations within Iranian society, 
one of which involved people’s belief in the supernatural. Divs were once considered 
as supreme omnipresent beings capable of influencing all aspects of daily life; entities 
that could not be explained in terms of human logic nor governed by human laws and 
mores. However, in this particular era, even the imperious div underwent a substantial 
shift in identity. No longer considered invincible, divs began to be reimagined either as 
abject beings or ones whose monstrous qualities were largely tamed. Numerous artworks 
attest to the profound mythological metamorphosis in the nature of supernatural beings, 
especially divs, during the Qajar era. This research will explore this very metamorphosis 
and its broader implications.
Throughout history, the cultural spectrum of Iran has not only witnessed conflicts between 
significant social forces and ethnicities but also served as the stage for the dawn, decline, 
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 69 
and transformation of supernatural forces. Political unrest and the lack of security often 
accompanied intellectual upheavals, further aggravating clashes of ideas. Although Iranians, 
for large parts of their history, have believed in the existence of an omnipotent deity as 
the creator of all and the one sovereign of all, the parallel belief that supernatural forces 
such as divs, jinns, aals, and bakhtaks exert an influence on their lives has never ceased 
to exist. These oft ominous forces, however, have undergone various transformations 
in form, nature, and function themselves, closely mirroring the social transformations 
of the time. Supernatural forces, then, have served as reflections of social forces and 
events. Documenting artworks as reliable records for historical examinations, especially 
in cases with limited written resources and historical reports, was therefore a necessity 
in this research.
This research is not concerned with any specific form, background, or manner of 
presentation; rather, it is focused on a particular notion of artworks and the term used 
in this paper for this purpose will henceforth be illustrative arts. To these authors, 
illustration encompasses all arts that involve visualisation, painting, engraving, and 
embodiment, which share the common goal of representing, imitating, or freely inter-
preting the forms existing in nature. In brief, the objective of this study is to discover 
why the divs portrayed in The Qajar era paintings underwent a gender metamorphosis. 
The authors seek to answer the question of whether these changes reflect intellectual 
and ideological transformations within society or merely signify transition toward a 
novel artistic experience. Evidently, addressing this question necessitates an in-depth 
study of the social and historical background of this transformation, as well as an 
artistic investigation to understand the context within which the works in question 
were produced.
The lack of independent and comprehensive studies in this field, the continued rele-
vance of the Qajar era today, and transference of the legacy and tribulations of Iranian 
society of the Qajar era to modern-day Iran, underscore the importance of such research 
projects. Establishing a meaningful connection between contemporary society and its final 
phase of traditionality during the Qajar era may assist us in developing a more accurate 
and comprehensive understanding of ourselves.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Evaluating an artwork from historical and cultural perspectives also requires a full ex-
amination of its sociological and mythological aspects, and this research is grounded in 
these considerations. By delving into the mythological and sociological background of 
the subject matter, the authors present their evaluation of the artistic and aesthetic aspects 
of the works and present their conclusions.
Within theoretical focus of this study, the Qajar era may be viewed as the stage for 
profound transformation in three aspects that mutually influenced one another: nature 
came under the unprecedented dominance of humankind, women were prepared to come 
out of the confinement of domestic spaces where they had been virtually imprisoned 
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*70 
for centuries, and the belief in the absolute power of mysterious supernatural beings was 
fading away under the influence of the age of enlightenment and the advent of modernity.
This period marked the final stage of Iranians’ struggles with nature. With the ex-
ception of indomitable major events such as earthquakes and droughts, nature was all 
but conquered by humans. The transition toward the use of sophisticated methods, tools, 
and firearms in place of their increasingly obsolete counterparts rendered humanity more 
adept at dealing with predatory creatures in nature, leading to the unfortunate extinction 
of important indigenous species in Iran, such as lions and tigers. Prior to the Qajar era, 
hunting was almost exclusively considered as a skill and art belonging to the wealthy 
nobility, and the upbringing of future kings involved training in hunting and athleticism 
(Adinehvand, 2016). Whereas aristocrats, princes, and even kings showcased their 
prowess and resourcefulness by participating in royal hunting parties, the increasing ease 
with which animals could now be trapped and killed almost stripped hunting of its epic 
glory and heroic elements, turning it into an easily accessible and widespread pastime 
for the masses.
Visual arts like painting, illustration, and engraving served as advertising tools during 
the Qajar era, depicting heroic scenes of royal hunts. Sculpture, relief, and tilework would 
also frequently portray these scenes (Heidari Babakamal et al., 2016). Artists of the era 
found portrayals of hunting grounds to be a suitable platform for their artistic expression 
(Adinehvand et al., 2016). No significant artwork remains of the hunting exploits of the 
lower classes who were of no interest to the artists of the time; however, hunting was 
undertaken with increased interest among the people. Certain sections of society saw 
hunting as a means of sustenance, providing for their families and, at times, relatives and 
neighbors. The triumph over nature eradicated any mythical elements associated with 
hunting. Nature, once considered a sacred realm in the rituals of Mehr, Zoroastrianism, 
and Islam, was quick to lose its mystery, with modern science creating increasingly 
accurate maps and accounts of all its components and characteristics, while facilitating the 
utilisation of its resources. Therefore, sites of formerly mythical repute, such as valleys, 
caves, and wells, which were once regarded as the dwelling places of mythical creatures 
like divs and jinns lost much of their aura, no longer able to capture anyone’s imagination.
The Qajar era society was intensely religious. The leading figures of the time were not 
scholars or even religious intellectuals, but the superficial clergy who insisted on the ritual-
istic aspects of religion. The incessant impasses and failures, in addition to confrontations 
with the incomparably advanced foreign world over a prolonged period had instilled in 
the people the belief that many aspects of life were beyond human reach, that supernatural 
forces and metaphysical beings held the reins of world affairs. While the Qajar era left us 
with more reliable historical accounts for use as study resources compared to previous 
eras, it was nonetheless characterised by overwhelming belief in the occult, superstition, 
pseudoscience, and supernatural beings (Hatami, 2019). Notably, this backward attitude 
did not only plague ordinary people. Political figures and decision-makers shared such 
beliefs and practiced the same rituals. For instance, Zahir-al-Dawlah (1983) a prominent 
military leader and the governor of Kerman under Fatḥ Ali Shah, reported the use of 
talismans by Nāyeb-al-Saltana, Mohammad Ali Shah’s father-in-law.
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 71 
A conflicting trend, however, was also instigated during the Qajar era, where intel-
lectuals began to desacralise and demystify supernatural beings. This widespread belief 
contributed to the ultimate defiance and revolt against imaginary supernatural beings. In 
an era where invisible forces were widely thought to play a significant role in determining 
individuals’ actions and fates, artworks were being created that criticised these prevailing 
beliefs. Artists now depicted demonic entities as stripped of their powers and sinister 
attributes, giving them dejected, ineffectual, and passive appearances. Continued victories 
of humanity against nature, therefore, led to the demystification and demythologisation 
of nature itself. Once considered sacred, all-powerful, and frightening, nature now could 
no longer be represented by the harsh symbols of the past.
In the Qajar era, women were condemned to confined spaces. These constraints 
arose, primarily, from religious beliefs, and also the strong influence of centuries-old 
misconceptions, fantasies, customs, and rituals. It must be noted, however, that women 
were neither alien to these concepts nor their sole victims; rather, in most cases, women 
were willing agents and executors of these internalised norms. In addition to the spiritual 
constraints imposed by the prevailing culture and religion, the Qajar woman also had to 
endure frequent physical punishment – a common, widely accepted practice at the time 
(Zarrinsky, 1992). Any doubts regarding the miserable conditions under which lower-class 
women lived would be quashed if one also considered the unimaginable duress and hu-
miliation that they suffered as maids in aristocratic households. Guidelines crafted by a 
prominent landowner to govern the conduct of his servants depicts a clear picture of the 
prevailing circumstances of women:
The maid shall not speak with [male] servants. She shall not raise her voice 
or cause disputes. She shall not climb to the roof or go outside the yard 
to have a break, eat fruits, and so forth. If she fails to follow the rules and 
does anything other than her duty, a valet is authorised to strike her with 
a wooden bat. If the valet fails in this, my honourable brother, Mirza Ali 
Khan, will scalp him to establish the strict order I intend to have in my 
house. When maids set out to visit the holy shrine or visit the bathhouse, 
they must always be accompanied by several servants. They should never, 
under any circumstances, be left on their own. Even when maids have 
gone for pilgrimage or bathing, the house should never be left untended or 
unguarded, be it day or night. At night, two babas [elderly servants] shall 
sleep under the same roof [lest the maids leave the premises]. A valet and 
a gardener, by turn, shall sleep outside behind the door until the morning 
prayer, at which time they are allowed to return to their chambers (Naqdi, 
1979).
The narrow enclosure around the female human, which originated in primitive rituals, 
had become established as cultural norms. The threads that bound her to the supernatural 
world were still very much in place. Even Naser al-Din Shah, the one Qajar king who 
claimed to be an advocate for modernisation and sought to emulate the Western way 
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*72 
of life, remained a proponent of these norms and quite superstitious. According to some 
accounts, a number of women were expelled from his harem as “inauspicious”, having 
been blamed for some unfortunate incidents (Polak, 1989). It was this type of environment 
where The Qajar era women were molded.
In the unending list of supernatural entities in which Iranians (like other Eastern 
cultures) believed, there was another fearsome entity known as aal, whose sole function 
was to torment and harm women and their offspring (Rice, 2004; Churchill, 1891). Ap-
parently, women managed to reach a sort of understanding and compromise with these 
imaginary beings, either driving them away by force or getting them to fulfill their wishes. 
For instance, some women would plead to Satan through aal to resolve their infertility 
(Knanishu, 1899) or, alternately, sought help from the Queen of Fairies (Sykes, 1910).
Women’s emotional and sexual relationships, fertility, and reproductive prowess 
during this period significantly relied on bizarre beliefs deposited from prehistoric times. 
A piece of monkey liver or the vulva of hyenas and rabbits were used in specific ways 
as to create or enhance love. Alternately, oil extracted from the skin of wolves or wild 
hogs was applied to the garments of a husband and wife with the intent to diminish their 
sexual attraction to one another, ultimately leading to discord and the deterioration of 
their marriage (Amanat, 2004; Afzal al-Mulk, 1982). In traditional societies, fertility 
and reproduction are essential feminine traits and decisive in a woman’s fortunes. If a 
women exhibited any shortcoming in this regard, she risked losing her social or familial 
status. Therefore, adhering to the role ostensibly dictated by nature, which required her, 
to reproduce as all females should, was an archetypal and obligatory duty. According to 
various accounts, in the quest to become fertile, women would pass under an elephant’s 
belly (Morier, 1999), gathered under the statue of a tiger or slept beneath it (Yate, 1900), 
and used the gallbladder of wolves (Amanat, 2004; Morier, 1999). Additionally, in in-
stances where a woman endured intense childbirth pain and had difficulty delivering the 
baby, her husband resorted to placing feed on her bare breasts and having a horse eat 
from it (Dieulafoy, 1976).
In contrast, certain methods were also popular as contraceptive solutions. For instance, 
women who wished to avoid pregnancy, placed a piece of a wolf’s body in their clothes 
prior to intercourse (Serena, 1983). This method was even practiced in royal circles. In 
one notorious case, the court jester of Naser al-Din Shah exposed a conspiracy involving 
some of the King’s wives who sought to render him sterile by slipping in some bear liver 
into his food (Etemad al-Saltaneh, 1966).
In all, historical data indicate that Qajar women’s upbringing, personality patterns, 
and code of social behavior practically directed them toward superstition and the occult. 
Not only were the majority of common women preoccupied with such beliefs and so-
called methods, but society at large, even at its highest level, namely the royal court, 
caused them to resort to supernatural solutions. On this basis, artists’ inclination to portray 
supernatural beings in the form of female humans could not be considered offensive or 
a violation of norms.
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 73 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This research is a theoretical exploration based on documentary studies whose statistical 
population consists of Iranian artworks featuring depictions of divs. By selecting 16 Qajar 
era artworks, the authors draw the readers’ attention to certain details in the artworks of 
that period. These details point to a significant change in the form, style, and function of 
the motifs of divs compared to past works. Through the course of this research, the data 
extracted from credible sources were ultimately developed into documented information 
by means of a qualitative method based on descriptive-historical analysis.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Bibliographic analyses indicate that no research has thus far been conducted on this 
particular subject matter. However, sources can be found that have addressed certain 
aspects of it, with some focusing on depictions of divs and others exploring the role and 
social status of women during the Qajar era.
According to Rice (2004), Iranian women during the Qajar era profoundly believed 
in supernatural forces, viewing them as active participants in their daily lives.
With a particularly keen eye for nuances of everyday life, D’Allemagne (1956) 
provided a detailed account of the social life of Iranians during the Qajar era. Primarily 
focused on Iranian women, this source has been particularly useful in shaping the current 
understanding of the social situation of women in the Qajar era.
Elm and Dinari (2019) worked on providing a clearer picture of the clothing of Qajar 
women by going through the field works of Western explorers. A valuable study based 
on eye observations and critical views from non-Iranian individuals looking in from the 
outside, this report sheds light on the social fabric of the era.
Mehrpooya et al. (2017) delved into the evolution of the div motif during the Qajar 
era. Aside from having a half-human half-animal body, the being was, for the first time 
in Qajar paintings, depicted as having four eyes.
Nategh (1979) referred to a code of conduct devised by the head of an aristocratic 
family. The document makes frequent use of imperative verbs to determine the behavioural 
boundaries of a family, thereby providing an accurate reflection of the institutionalised 
moral values of its era.
Hosseini-Nia (2021) posited that the composite beings illustrated in the Qajar era, 
although shaped in the imagination of the artists, were heavily inspired by the beliefs 
prevalent in pre-Zoroastrian Persia. This interpretation speaks of two groups of super-
natural forces descending on earth from another world: malevolent entities that engage 
in battles with humans and forces of good; and benevolent entities that support humans 
and other creatures on earth.
Mohammadi-Pour (2020) analysed div motifs in terms of form, structure, perspective, 
elements breaking out of the frame, proportional changes, circumvention, and composition 
with other elements in five prints of Chapsangi Shahnameh.
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*74 
Rashidi (2012) examined the mythical beings depicted in illustrations as surrounding 
the figure of Imam Ali, the first Imam of Shia Muslims, in terms of form and composition.
Radmehr (2011) investigated the perception of jinn in the collective consciousness 
of the people, as well as the role of these beings in the Quran and Islamic narratives. 
The author cites Islamic narratives and pop culture as the primary sources of this study.
Zakariayi (2006) argued that in addition to the mythical quality and inherent duality 
of nature in terms of good and evil, benevolent and malevolent forces, by extension, 
originate in human nature. According to the author, this duality has been manifested in 
diverse forms during different historical periods, including the Qajar era.
What distinguishes the present research from the studies reviewed in this section is 
its reliance on scientific studies within the framework of socio-cultural and mythological 
perspectives regarding the value of Qajar era artworks. Moreover, this investigation places 
the emphasis on the historical background of three key components: nature, supernatural 
beings, and women.
THE CONCEPT OF DIV IN SOCIAL AND INTELLECTUAL HISTORY
The cosmos and what human beings comprehend through their five senses have under-
gone continuous transformation, diversification, and reinterpretations throughout history. 
Although characterised by obscurity, secrecy, and complexity, unpleasant concepts have 
not been exceptions to this rule. Divs, as a highly diverse group of malevolent beings, 
have symbolised unpleasant forces of nature. This section investigates how natural forces 
are manifest in divs as symbolic entities and the transformation divs have undergone 
throughout history. In this context, particularly in ancient times, the term Div generally 
refers to imaginary supernatural entities, often portrayed as anthropomorphic beings 
that function as deities, that are responsible for overseeing various aspects of life, able 
to determine or alter the destinies of individuals, and create or affect natural phenomena. 
However, it is important to acknowledge that the contemporary perception of divs has 
evolved over the centuries and differs from the ancient understanding of these beings.
A) Belief in Divs in Prehistoric Times
The history of religion is one of the most complex aspects of human life. It is very difficult 
to find something that the humankind has not worshipped in one way or another at some 
point in its history (Hume, 1969). Harder still is to find a facet of human knowledge and 
understanding that has not been entangled with religious beliefs. At least up to this point 
in history, humanities as academic disciplines have been influenced by religious thought, 
although to various degrees. This is particularly true for ambiguous, non-empirical fields 
such as the occult (Eliade, 1997). Nature, as the setting and framework for the formation 
of human existence, has been an open ground for all sorts of analyses and explanations, 
including religious interpretations. When nature was to be feared, it was perceived as a 
roaring beast; and when the time was right to cherish nature, it was regarded as a charming 
lady who could alternately take on a motherly role or be a lover. Seeking to demystify 
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 75 
sacred texts, Spinoza stated that since the masses were unaware of the inner workings of 
nature, they were open to farfetched supernatural interpretations and, therefore, would 
readily accept any natural occurrence as a miracle (Spinoza, 1862).
Divs were among the first entities to be sanctified and worshipped by Aryans. The 
synonymity of the terms used to refer to divs and concepts like God, day, and light indi-
cates that Aryans lived with this religious belief before their ultimate dispersion and the 
great diaspora. According to linguistic studies on Indo-European languages, Dyēus pheter 
is the original term denoting the concept of deity. This deity was still recognisable for 
ancient peoples even after undergoing inevitable transformations in other lands. It became 
Dyáuṣ Pitā in Sanskrit, Zeùs Patḗr in Greek, and Jupiter in Latin. Evidently, these terms 
are derived from the word Div whose original meaning in Indo-European languages was 
day. It later transformed to Díva in Sanskrit, Tiv in Armenian, Diēs in Latin, and Die in 
Old Irish. It would gradually come to be used as the most common word for God: Dīvus 
or Deiuos in Old Latin, Deus in Latin, Deva in Sanskrit, Dievas in Lithuanian, Dia in 
Old Irish, Tvar (plural name) in Old Icelandic, and Dava in Avestan (Beekes, 2010: 78). 
The close proximity of the words div and day signifies the prehistoric inclination toward 
naturalism in primitive religions.
In those historical periods, nature, with all its obscure elements, was the chief source 
and stimulus of human thought. Nearly all other concepts and phenomena were either 
constructed in its image or understood in reference to it. Supernatural beings, including 
divs, embodied the frightening and mysterious side of nature, while women and feminine 
characteristics symbolised its gentle, beneficial, fertile, and motherly aspects.
B) Belief in Divs at the Dawn of Global Religions
During the formative periods of global religions, the concept of divs and the worship 
of divs as primitive deities had significantly different connotations compared to the 
organised religions that emerged later. Among primitive peoples, “sacred” beings were 
generally seen as frightening and furious entities capable of causing harm. In order to 
protect oneself from their malevolent intentions, it was necessary to seek their favor and 
mercy. This separation of negative aspects from the supreme divine power eventually led 
to the development of demonology and the belief in the existence of devils. This pivotal 
development likely took place during the Paleolithic period (Brandon, 1970).
In ancient Near-Eastern religions, particularly early Judaism (Angelini, 2021), as well 
as in Christian demonology during the Middle Ages, Satan was perceived as a malevolent 
supernatural being who could possess individuals and required exorcism. Much of Jewish 
demonology, which greatly influenced Christianity and Islam, was influenced by ancient 
Persian teachings, particularly those of later Zoroastrianism (Boyce, 1987).
The abstraction of negative traits from primitive deities was not absolute, and some 
of these traits were preserved and even celebrated in certain religions. In the case of 
Iranian culture, these deities were originally divs who underwent a transformation in 
their conceptual function over time. Initially appearing as gods, these entities were later 
dethroned and replaced by Ahura (or Asuras). They then became ostensibly powerful 
malevolent beings whose might was matched by heroes but ultimately faced defeat against 
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*76 
forces of good. In the final stage of the transformation of divs, they became peripheral 
and powerless entities in feminine forms, who were defeated not by mighty warriors but 
by pampered kings and love-struck courtiers.
The concept of “femininity” and the role of women have also undergone various 
transformations throughout history. From the early matriarchal era, where goddesses 
held supreme authority and enjoyed widespread popularity, to centuries of progressively 
patriarchal societies where male gods dominated, the history of femininity has been marked 
by constant changes. However, during the period spanning from the formation of early 
civilisations to the Age of Enlightenment, men assumed the position of the “primary“ 
sex, relegating women to the unenviable role of the “second” sex.
For centuries, many civilisations have personified the earth as a goddess. In Greek 
mythology, the goddess Gaia, colloquially referred to as mother earth, is synonymous 
with the earth and nature (De-Gaia, 2018: 43). To those who hold this belief, interac-
tions with the environment and caring for the earth represent devotion or prayer to this 
goddess. Furthermore, the earth and all the beings it supports are seen as a network of 
life embodying Gaia (Parsons, 2002).
The decline of the golden age of goddesses and the dominance of specialised deities 
led to the decline of women’s overall status. The matriarchal era had also come to an end. 
In this period, women often appeared in the role of a beloved, mothers, or at best, queens. 
However, with the emergence of major global religions, including Abrahamic religions, 
respect for women and their vital role in family life was restored. However, this was 
far from implying complete equality with men (Klingorová, Havlíček, 2015; Inglehart, 
Norris, 2005). Notable progress was also made in the position of women in Islamic 
thought. While virtually no women, perhaps except for Hagar, were addressed by divine 
revelation or supernatural forces in the teachings of religions, by some Islamic accounts, 
it was Khadijah who first conveyed the message of revelation to the Prophet of Islam.
The social system of the period maintained its longstanding foundation based on 
patriarchy and religion. Indeed, religion and patriarchy are fundamental social structures 
that largely operate based on social organisation (Attoh, 2017). The patriarchal system, 
which targets the position of women, persisted in most religions. Religions rooted in 
patriarchy served to solidify the hegemony of male humans. The relationship between 
an ostensibly male God and humanity, as established within the internal system of these 
religions, would naturally extend into families in terms of the man-woman relationship 
dynamics (Slusser, 2009). This is exemplified in Christianity, wherein the male authority 
in the household and the church is founded upon and informed by the system of creation, 
and salvation is only attainable to those who remain faithful to this hierarchy. From this 
perspective, God has endorsed – an continues to consider – patriarchy as the optimal 
structure for human societies (Waltke, 1995).
In tandem with the transformations in the concept of femininity, humanity’s per-
ceptions, assumptions, and fantasies regarding themselves and the universe have also 
undergone significant changes. Two particular concepts, which are closely linked to the 
notion of “woman” and have continuously evolved with it, are nature and divs. In the 
past, these three were intertwined with each other. That is, nature was conceived as both 
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 77 
a woman and a div; woman symbolised both nature and embodied elements associated 
with divs; and divs symbolised nature and were portrayed as women-like creatures. 
With the intellectual and physical development of humanity, these concepts, along with 
other human thoughts and perceptions, have arguably undergone five stages of evolution 
and metamorphosis: 1. Worship, 2. Compromise, 3. Challenge, 4. Subjugation, and 5. 
Realism. From this perspective, the present research examines the concept of Div in its 
fourth stage of metamorphosis in Iranian culture and art.
The process of associating women with demonic qualities was, on the surface, only a 
pretext for applying sexual violence. However, the psychological rationale behind this as-
sociation was more rooted in the mysterious nature of women and divs. Within a somewhat 
bizarre syllogistic line of reasoning, just as humanity turned to the occult to comprehend 
and explain the enigmatic wonders of nature, women’s resemblance to nature in terms of 
fertility led to their association with supernatural beings. Therefore, the conceptual position 
of woman underwent transformations that paralleled these associated qualities. As a result, 
the fourth stage of the conceptual metamorphosis of women, characterised by subjugation, 
ultimately worked to their disadvantage. Women came to be viewed in a negative light 
and were subjected to submission and obedience. Alongside the constant threat of sexual 
violence that many of them faced, women were now antagonised for their presumed super-
natural qualities, which were now viewed as sinister and menacing, rather than fascinating.
The prevailing belief among patriarchs was that women, as a result of their perceived 
emotional nature, were more prone to arousal and seduction than men, and were less 
hesitant to indulge in sinful conduct to gratify their fleshly desires. This belief was often 
cited as the reason behind women being more susceptible to the temptations of devils and 
their predisposition to engage in sorcery. The notion that the majority of sorcerers were 
women, and that they were typically picked from among disobedient and rebellious women, 
further reinforced the association of femininity with sinister supernatural qualities (Dunn, 
2017). In medieval Europe, a connection was even established between sexual crimes and 
female demonology, leading many to believe that the relations between witches (female) 
and demons (male) were of a sexual nature, as well (Broedel, 2013). As a result of being 
labeled with this characterisation, some women felt compelled to double down on this 
misconception by emphasising their “ugly” and socially deviant behaviors in order to 
showcase their supreme metaphysical and magical powers. This, in turn, contributed to 
a heightened sense of betrayal associated with these women (Bardsley, 2007).
C) Belief in Divs in the Qajar Era
Qajar art, with its unique characteristics distinguishing it from earlier periods, is rec-
ognised to have originated around the reign of Naser al-Din Shah in 1848 AD. Prior to 
that time, during the rule of Agha Mohammad Khan, Fath Ali Shah, and the brief rule of 
Mohammad Shah, the Qajar dynasty had not achieved the level of stability in its borders 
and society necessary to shape the prevailing social discourse encompassing religious, 
political, literary, and artistic aspects. It was during this period that the Qajar kings defined 
their ideals and established their desired state, which soon became prevalent in society 
through endorsement or synthesis. It is crucial to also recognise that the Iranian society 
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*78 
of The Qajar era, was strongly influenced by the tumultuous periods of the Safavid, 
Afsharid, and Zand dynasties; it thus had the propensity for – and had displayed symptoms 
of – impending cultural shifts. Therefore, the examples selected and examined in this 
study of Qajar art are not limited to any specific period within the rule of this dynasty.
The Qajar era marked the beginning of a fateful historical phase for Iranian society. It 
navigated cultural influences from other regions, acknowledged its scientific and technological 
backwardness, as well as outdated lifestyle, in comparison to the rapidly advancing outside 
world, and grappled with its intellectual and managerial inefficiencies. Ultimately, these 
circumstances led to the recognition that immediate reform was necessary, culminating in 
the Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911). Beneath these changes were motives 
accumulated over several thousand years of Iranian culture, resulting in the emergence of 
a modern “equivalent”: the ancient nature, once teeming with predatory animals such as 
lions, tigers (formerly known to Persians as “red lions”), leopards, and eagles, was now 
subdued and dominated by Iranians through the introduction of firearms. The institution of 
monarchy and the longstanding structures attached to it, which for millennia had claimed 
to be the masters of Iranians’ fate, were gradually stripped of their dignity and splendor. 
Kings and their entourage were now not only subject to incessant criticism, but also seen as 
completely deserving to perish at the hands of armed insurgents like Mirza Reza Kermani.
METAMORPHOSIS OF PRE-QAJAR ARTISTIC MOTIFS
The depiction of encounters between humans and demonic entities, even prior to the 
emergence of Qajar dynasty, was a consistent theme in Iranian art. In pre-Qajar art, divs 
were depicted as powerful beings whose most notable characteristic was their humanoid 
forms. The beings would often be illustrated with terrifying faces, heads like carnivorous 
animals, horns and tails resembling those of herbivores, and adorned with armbands, 
leg bindings, saddles, and other accessories (see Figs. 1–10). The most popular demonic 
creatures for pictorial representations among artist were divs and dragons. However, in 
the pre-Islamic era, sphinx-like motifs, often depicted as a combination of carnivores, 
herbivores, and birds, had the strongest presence. This trend to illustrate metamorphosed 
beings continued after the advent of Islam, as well, with artworks often featuring compos-
ite creatures. Figure 1 depicts a div with a repugnant face and talons like gigantic birds.
Divs were sometimes illustrated in painting as wielding a mace, a detail especially 
prominent in depictions of battle scenes (see Figs. 2, 3, and 4).
The physical anatomy of divs mirrored that of heroes; however, divs were made to 
look more robust and formidable, emphasising the hero’s inner struggle against their own 
negative and animalistic qualities (Figs. 5–7).
Divs in pre-Qajar illustrations were often depicted as unmistakably male, a detail 
that was underlined in many instances by artists through an explicit depiction of the 
male genitalia (Figs. 8–10). The popular derogatory term narreh-ghoul, literally “male 
ghoul”, which is used in Persian in reference to heavyset young men, is thought to have 
been inspired by such illustrations.
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 79 
Figure 1: A div carries the Queen of Sheba’s 
throne, from Ajayeb al-Makhluqat, watercolor, 
16th century, Shiraz or Qazvin, Iran. (Bibliothèque 
nationale de France)
Figure 2: Battle of Imam Ali with subterranean 
divs, from Ahsan al-Kibar, watercolor, 1580 AD. 
(Golestan Palace Museum)
Figure 3: Battle of Rostam with a div, from 
Shahnameh Tahmasbi, watercolor, 1600 AD. 
(Aga Khan Museum)
Figure 4: Sultan Muhammad, Battle of Tahmuras 
with divs, from Firdawsi’s Shahnameh, watercolor, 
1525 AD, Tabriz, Iran. (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*80 
Figure 6: Battle of Rostam with a div, from Firdawsi’s Shahnameh, watercolor, 1330–1340 AD, 
Isfahan, Iran. (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Figure 5: Battle of Rostam with a div, from Firdawsi’s Shahnameh, watercolor, 1300–1330 AD, 
Iran. (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Figure 7: A div tossing Rostam into the sea, watercolor, from Firdawsi’s Shahnameh, 1330–1340 
AD, Isfahan, Iran. (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 81 
Figure 8: A div tossing Rostam into the sea, from Firdawsi’s Shahnameh, watercolor, 1500 AD, Iran. 
(Library of Congress)
Figure 9: Moein Mosavar, A div tossing Rostam into 
the sea, from Firdawsi’s Shahnameh, watercolor, 1660 
AD, Isfahan, Iran. (Metropolitan Museum of Art)
Figure 10: Battle of Rostam with a div, from 
Firdawsi’s Shahnameh, watercolor, 1560–1580 
AD, Iran. (Metropolitan Museum)
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*82 
METAMORPHOSIS OF ARTISTIC MOTIFS IN THE QAJAR ERA
Before exploring instances of metamorphosis, it should be reminded that in pre-Qajar art 
demonology, male divs, or other malevolent beings with masculine traits, were prevalent. 
While this type of divs was depicted comparatively less often, when ordinary people 
discussed murderous or destructive divs, they were in fact referring to male divs who 
were ostensibly devoid of feminine tenderness and maternal instincts. Masculinity, having 
traditionally been associated with warfare, competitiveness, and sexual dominance since 
ancient times, was evidently more aligned with the depiction of invisible vicious creatures. 
At any rate, the same divs whose masculinity had traditionally been emphasised, began 
to be depicted by Qajar era artists as having feminine shapes and attitudes.
During The Qajar era, women, in particular, experienced a significant phase in the 
evolution of their nation’s spirit. On one hand, they witnessed the persistence of radical 
religious beliefs and the survival of customs that had lasted for millennia. On the other 
hand, the totemic psychological aspects associated with women’s gender were being 
discarded. Whereas the increasing weight of societal, economic, and political constraints 
forced women to maintain their quiet existence within the walls of their house, geographical 
and cultural doors were being opened to foreigners, who had transformed from infidel 
enemies to affluent trail-blazers of the civilisation, compelling women to reconsider their 
perception of femininity. One of the outcomes of this duality was the trend to portray 
malevolent beings in feminine shapes in artworks of the period.
The formerly ferocious-looking divs, who were described as twisting and turning 
and levitating in disturbing allegories and folk tragedies, were now being portrayed in a 
quasi-comedic light. Consequently, the female form became a more suitable vessel for 
these beings in artworks. Qajar artists dispensed with conventional demonological forms 
and began to present divs in distinctly feminine shapes. The new divs possessed prom-
inent breasts, feminine thighs and buttocks, and wore short skirts that accentuated their 
curves. The faces and features of divs now looked gentler. Once portrayed as imperious 
warriors, divs now merely went through the motions in their confrontations with those 
looking to claim their lives, looking quite beatable against the adversary (Figs. 11–25).
Male heroes known for their demon-slaying skills also underwent a transformation. Char-
acters like Rostam, who had often looked exceedingly masculine and muscular, were now 
being portrayed as the ideal Qajar youth: dressed in light-color clothing, with slender waists 
and kind faces. This transformation can be observed in lithographic prints (Figs. 11 and 12), 
ceramic work on public buildings (Figs. 13 and 14), and epic illustrations (Figs. 14 and 15).
In pulp illustrations of this era (figures 17 and 18), we see a young man with a glowing 
face and lithe physique engaged in a solemn and worthy ritualistic task.
Qajar era artists also depicted Fath Ali Shah in the same idealised fashion, with a lean 
figure, delicate hands, and royal attire, solemnly bringing divs to their demise (see Figs. 
19 and 20). Were the div motifs eliminated from these illustrations, it is highly likely 
that an unsuspecting Iranian from the Qajar era would have had difficulty differentiating 
a valiant hero grappling with divs from a young man portrayed as heading to his new 
bride’s chambers to consummate their marriage.
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 83 
Figure 11: Battle of Rostam and the Div, from Firdawsi’s Shahnameh, lithograph, late 19th century, 
Iran. (Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Asian Art)
Figure 12: Slaying of a div by a 
folk hero, lithograph, Qajar era. 
(Zolfaghari, Heidari, 2012: 1981)
Figure 13: Battle of Rostam and the White Div, underglaze tile, Nasser 
al-Din Shah era, Sa’adabad Palace, Iran. (Archives of the authors)
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*84 
Figure 14: Mousazadeh, Battle of Rostam and the White Div, seven-color tile, 
mid-14th century, bathhouse in Afifabad Garden, Shiraz, Iran. (Seif, 1997: 163)
Figure 15: Battle of Rostam and Akvan Div, from 
Firdawsi’s Shahnameh, watercolor, 1800–1850 AD, 
Iran. (Smithsonian Institution, National Museum 
of Asian Art)
Figure 16: Battle of Rostam and the White Div, 
from Firdawsi’s Shahnameh, watercolor, c. 1900 
AD, Qajar Persia. (Bonhams Auction House)
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 85 
Figure 17: A young Qajar hero punishing a div, gouache on paper, 
1750 AD. (Wellcome Collection)
Figure 18: A young Qajar man confronting a div, gouache on paper, 
1750 AD. (Wellcome Collection)
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*86 
Figure 19: Battle of Fath Ali Shah and the Div, gouache on board, Qajar era. (Wellcome Collection)
Figure 20: Battle of Fath Ali Shah and the Div, gouache on board, Qajar era, (Wellcome Collection)
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 87 
During the Qajar era, the attire of divs, typically reduced to a short skirt, did not 
undergo significant changes. However, it did align with the clothing worn by lower 
social classes. According to some accounts, women’s clothing gradually became shorter 
during this period, with skirts reaching just above the knees, which was in line with the 
artistic trends of the time.
There were instances, however, where divs were depicted wearing women’s trousers 
and dresses. For instance, in Figure 21, an angel is illustrated wearing traditional clothing 
associated with affluent women, while the two divs in the scene are depicted wearing 
tight trousers, with the lines of their trousers discernible on their calves. Women during 
that era would reportedly wear a tight and delicate red garment called Arkhalig, whose 
distinguishing feature was its corset-like waist panel (Soltikoff, 2002). Similar to the 
figures in the image, women were often seen wearing tight trousers with short skirts 
known as Shaliteh (D’Allemagne, 1956).
It is highly likely that these tight trousers were influenced by Western cultures, as Naser 
al-Din Shah, in particular, ordered such trousers and short jackets to imitate the fashion 
trends he had observed during his travels to Europe (Alam, Dinary, 2019). However, there 
are other accounts whose description of traditional Iranian trousers are consistent with 
what the angel in the image is wearing. D’Allemagne mentions that Iranian women, when 
venturing outside their homes and into public places, would wear Chaqchour, which were 
peculiar trousers wide in the thigh area and narrow in the calves (D’Allemagne, 1956).
In Qajar era art, divs were generally depicted in a passive state. However, when it 
came to depictions of the court of Prophet Solomon (Figs. 22–25), which was a popular 
subject among artists of that time, there was a coinciding period of renewed public interest 
in the narrative of Imam Hussein’s uprising against the oppressive Umayyad caliph, 
Yazid I (Najmi, 1977). According to certain religious historical accounts, Imam Hussein 
not only called on all people to join him in his fight against oppression, he also sought 
supernatural assistance to aid him and his family in the Battle of Karbala (Majlisi, 1983). 
Consequently, in all of these images, divs are not portrayed as submissive or obedient 
beings. Instead, the artists gave them imposing physiques, as if suggesting their capability 
to undertake arduous, decisive tasks on behalf of a king.
The reaction of divs towards heroes (Imam Ali: Fig. 2; Rostam: Figs. 11, 13, 14, 15, 
16; Qajar young princes: Figs. 17 and 18; Fath Ali Shah: Figs. 19, 20; a folk hero: Fig. 
12) seems to follow the same sensibility. They had all become passive, powerless, ma-
nipulable beings, mirroring the depiction of Qajar women against “men privileged with 
institutionalised behavioral patterns”. In Qajar illustrations, the divs were often depicted 
without typical masculine characteristics like fierceness and brutality. They showed no 
resistance when confronted by the heroes alongside whom they were portrayed. This 
characterisation style was widely accepted by the Qajar audience to the extent that, in 
some instances, artists would go so far as depicting a Qajar teenager without a heroic 
physique or armor effortlessly slaying a div (Figs. 17 and 18). Fath Ali Shah himself 
was not an exception to this rule: with a mustache flowing like a maiden’s tresses, a 
stretched physique resembling the Persian Leopard, and a graceful face like a bridegroom, 
he charges forward and triumphantly overpowers any divs on sight (Figs. 19 and 20). 
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*88 
Figure 22: Divs at the of Prophet Solomon, 
lithograph, Qajar era. (Farhang Razi, 1949: 559)
Figure 23: Divs carrying the throne of Prophet 
Solomon, lithograph, Qajar era (Meem Gallery)
Figure 21: A div and an angel in the court of Prophet Solomon, steel engraving, 19th century, Iran. 
(The British Museum)
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 89 
In this particular instance, it would be inaccurate to state that the artist depicting the Qajar 
king had not been influenced by illustrations of ancient Iranian demons. There are frank 
imitations of Shahnameh illustrations like Rostam and the White Div of Mazandaran 
where, instead of half-human and half-div offspring, two bound divs are placed lifelessly 
within the frame.
Figures 2 to 10 can serve as cases that exemplify the above-mentioned imagery. In 
all these examples, which date back to pre-Qajar periods but follow the prevailing Qajar 
sensibility, the hero’s triumph and the div’s downfall are inevitable. However, pre-Qajar 
divs had a distinctively aggressive body language, with terrifying facial features and 
bodies like carnivorous animals. Another point is that, unlike the classic “captive in the 
king’s court” motif (Figs. 21 to 25), in the pre-Qajar illustration (Fig. 4), the div appears 
to be a fearsome and irrepressible creature that has not yet been reduced to servitude by 
the all-conquering king.
If we consider passivity and subjugation as the predominant female characteristics 
in the Qajar era society of Iran, there are other indicators that can be examined to un-
derstand the significant gender metamorphosis of divs in the artworks of that time. The 
gender metamorphosis of divs in the Qajar era may be identified through the following 
three components.
Figure 24: Divs in the court of Prophet Solomon, 
mirror frame, lacquer, Qajar era. (The Michael 
Collection)
Figure 25: Divs in the court of Prophet Solomon, 
mirror frame, lacquer, Qajar era. (The Michael 
Collection).
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*90 
A) Morphology and appearance
In artworks, divs were often depicted with feminine breasts (see Figs. 13 and 15), which 
easily differentiated them from male warriors who were depicted with robust muscular 
chests. Divs’ figures exhibit graceful feminine curves, particularly with full thighs and 
broad hips (see Fig. 19), which were commonly depicted characteristics during this era. 
These creatures were never portrayed as agile, dynamic, or proactive. In some instances 
(Figs. 14 and 21), even the div’s face is adorned with the erotic makeup style associated 
with the era. However, it is important to note that the artist did not mean to imply that 
the human hero was confronting a “female” div; ironically, the hero’s face appears 
more heavily made up than the div’s (as shown in Fig. 17). Among epic illustrations, 
Figure 15 takes a step further in this regard. The div’s feminine physique and clothing 
in this image are complemented by seductive tints, lending the artwork a distinct color 
spectrum. Notably, the triumphant hero neither has the same skin tone as the div, nor 
does it possess the same full limbs. What gives the creatures a non-human appearance 
are their semi-animal faces and long tails.
B) Attitude and actions
The depiction of divs’ reactions and behavior toward the hero in Qajar era paintings 
presents a notable departure from earlier portrayals. Unlike pre-Qajar paintings where 
defeated and subjugated divs were often shown submerged in blood, trapped in mud, or 
in chains, the divs of this period exhibit distinct and meaningful reactions. In contrast 
to past depictions where heroes sought to brutalise and tear apart the limbs of the 
divs, the heroes in Qajar era artworks appear on the verge of kissing the subdued divs. 
Remarkably, the divs do not display any inclination to fight off the hero’s advances, 
let alone retaliate aggressively. It is important to note that the passive, welcoming 
body language of the divs also existed in visual artworks and epic literary works of 
preceding eras (see Fig. 6).
The epic hero’s final triumph has long been considered an essential and inevitable 
element of the narrative. In illustrative arts, divs were often portrayed as proactive and 
ready for battle, emphasizing the gravity of the precarious situation in which the hero 
found himself. However, Qajar era artists clearly, and consciously, deviated from these 
conventions, choosing instead to depict the hero as poised to hurl the div to the ground 
and stand triumphantly over it.
C) Clothing and equipment
Another significant feature in div paintings during the Qajar era is the clothing, weapons, 
accessories, and ornaments that accompany the divs. Similar to the Qajar era women, divs 
are depicted wearing a short skirt known as tonban or shalteh which only covers their 
genitals. In some cases, divs are also depicted as wearing skin-colour trousers traditionally 
worn by Qajar era women (Fig. 17). In contrast, in pre-Qajar periods, divs were often 
portrayed with exposed torsos and protruding stomachs. Some artists even placed the 
divs’ uncovered genitalia in full display to accentuate their shameless and dishonourable 
nature, considering that being fully covered was a traditional hallmark of feminine purity 
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 91 
and self-restraint in Qajar culture (and most other Eastern cultures) (Figs. 1–10). In Qajar 
artworks, divs were not equipped with deadly weapons or other terrifying tools; and if 
they did, the artists often gave the accessories a deliberately comic appearance (Figs. 
19 and 20). In contrast, in pre-Qajar periods, divs were usually illustrated holding large 
weapons (Fig. 3) or possessing physical characteristics reminiscent of predatory animals, 
symbolising their proclivity for violence.
Figure 22, a lithographic work from the Qajar era, showcases a scene where a group 
of divs stands on the right side, while a group of naked women stands on the left, all 
prepared to serve the royal court in an unidentified land. The depiction of both the divs 
and women wearing identical short skirts conveys a hidden message. Firstly, it evokes 
the imagery of Prophet Solomon’s court for Muslim Iranians, where the array of servants 
extended beyond humans to include animals and supernatural beings. Secondly, it alludes 
to the notoriously hedonistic lifestyle of the Qajar kings. Lastly, it signifies the command 
of humanity over nature, depicting divs and other supernatural entities humbly under the 
legal authority of a human being.
Women are portrayed as street girls resembling European dolls. More importantly, 
divs appear as both terrifying symbols of nature and as sex slaves catering to the desires 
of lustful men. The same divs, it should be noted, that Prophet Solomon had employed 
for labor and entrusted with challenging tasks. The portrayal of divs in this context 
showed them as unarmed beings with gentle faces, small non-threatening jaws, short 
feminine skirts, and seductive smiles, suggesting a shift in belief whereby divs were no 
longer suitable representations of the violent and frightening aspects of nature, as they 
had been in the past.
In Figure 26, we encounter what could be considered the quintessential piece in this 
collection, which contains all the aspects of the metamorphosis in question. The artwork 
features a group of divs, each holding a mace, which resemble a chorus. Their relaxed 
and seductive postures do not evoke the image of battle-hardened warriors. The maces, 
perfunctorily given to them by the artist, resemble honey spoons, bearing no resemblance 
to heroes’ lethal weapons. Ironically, their pseudo-weapons further diminish their per-
ceived grandeur. Nonetheless, there is little doubt that they inhabit an Iranian artwork, as 
they are even depicted wearing tonban, trousers adorned with intricate patterns typically 
worn by Qajar women.
To better evaluate gender metamorphosis in this example, let us consider Figure 27, 
a complementary artwork displayed in the same museum aisle. This piece portrays a 
group of female divs. Interestingly, the divs in this artwork bear a striking resemblance 
to their male counterparts from the previous image, characterised by distinctively 
unusual eyes and animal paws instead of human feet. A comparative analysis of the 
two images reveals a significant blurring of gender distinctions among the divs, as all 
of them have acquired distinctly feminine human forms. Both male and female divs are 
depicted wearing similar attire, and their physical appearances and postures are nearly 
indistinguishable. The only discernible gender marker is the presence of a male tail, 
which, in the absence of additional evidence, serves as the sole indicator to determine 
the gender of these creatures.
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*92 
Figure 26: Divs with pitchforks, tilework. (Musée du Louvre)
Figure 27: Feminine div, tilework. (Musée du Louvre)
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 93 
From a broad perspective, the components and instances of the gender metamorphosis 
of divs in the Qajar era can be shown in Table 1.
Component Example Figure number
Appearance
Feminine breasts 13, 15, 19, 26, 27
Soft and curved lines instead of broken lines 
and sharp angles 
15, 17, 18, 19, 22, 23, 24, 
25, 26
Inverted lower body volume with upper 
body 
19, 20, 22, 25, 26
Feminine makeup 14, 17
Human-like skin colour 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 
24, 25
No frightening or ferocious features 11, 13,14,15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 
20, 22, 23, 24, 25
No emphasis on masculine features 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 
20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26
Attitude
Non-aggressive posture 21, 22, 23, 24,25 26
Propensity for subjugation 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20
Emphasis on usefulness and ability to do 
manual labor instead of harmful intentions 
18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26
Clothing and 
equipment
Short skirts in alignment with contemporary 
fashion 
18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 26
Being unarmed or possessing ineffective 
weapons 
11, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 
23, 24, 25, 26, 27
Table 1: Components and examples of gender transformation of demons in the Qajar era.
CONCLUSION
Throughout history, humans have valued, conceptualised, and replicated natural phenom-
ena, objects, and living beings to facilitate their understanding of nature. Our ancestors 
attributed mystical aspects to all harmful, incomprehensible, or frightening entities, 
considering them capable of exerting dominance over human life. In this way, mysteri-
ous and ominous beings emerged in the human mind that were associated with natural 
phenomena and the universe. The virtuous, helpful, beneficent, and comforting aspects of 
these beings were identified and symbolised, with the distinction that they were tangible 
and could be observed in the external world.
The female human, endowed with the gift of fertility, encompassed and embodied all 
of these positive aspects due to her nurturing, supportive, and beautiful nature. Nature and 
the female human, despite their continuous evolution and changes, have maintained their 
fundamental meaning and significance in the collective consciousness of humanity. One 
significant phase of transformation regarding these concepts occurred during the Qajar 
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*94 
era in Iran, where they were demystified. Scientific progress and humanity’s triumph 
over nature led to the diminishing of the divine and celestial aspects associated with 
nature, supernatural beings, and women, relegating them to a secular and earthly realm.
Examining this topic through written records, oral literature, and scant historical 
material sources may present notable limitations. However, we have chosen visual 
artworks from this period as our primary sources, as they provide well-documented and 
revealing insights into the subject.
The demystification and desacralisation of nature also had an impact on the mytholog-
ical and supernatural aspects associated with femininity. Toward the end of the Qajar era, 
nature had ceased to be seen as sacred or possessing mythic feminine qualities. Through 
a gradual shift, the earth lost its feminine aura and, paradoxically, women became more 
grounded in earthly realms. The encounter of Iranian society with modernity sparked a 
revolution in the nation’s worldview. As the reverence and enigma surrounding nature 
diminished, supernatural beings that were once believed to have dominion over the 
natural world and posed threats to humanity were no longer perceived in the same light.
Ultimately, Iranian women, in the face of societal constraints in a patriarchal society 
on one hand, and the global wave of women’s liberation on the other, gradually lost their 
traditional and mythic gender roles as “goddess”, “mother”, “beloved”, and “queen”, 
and began to assume more conventional and worldly roles. The consequences of these 
changes are evident in the oral and material culture of that period.
The depiction of divs during the Qajar era exemplifies how artists of the period, perhaps 
unconsciously, incorporated all three levels of social transformation into their works. 
The feminisation of divs in the Qajar era art was a reflection of the shifting perception 
of nature, supernatural beings, and the female gender. The appearance, clothing, equip-
ment, and physical attributes of divs all resembled the feminine form. These mythical 
beings, once symbols of the supernatural forces or dark aspects of nature, now appeared 
in – and were regarded as – feminine beings. Both within the confined households of the 
Qajar era and in the modern, Western-influenced tendencies of the day, women no longer 
resembled their perennial “nature” and were undergoing a deep-rooted transformation. 
Nature, divs, and the female gender, were all made earthly to proclaim the existence of 
terrestrial femininity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This article is taken from Nahid Jafari Dehkordi’s post-doctoral project entitled “Gender 
metamorphosis in the demonology of Qajar painting art” under the guidance of Dr. Elaha 
Panjebashi at Al-Zahra University.
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 95 
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LIST OF FIGURES
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Fig. 4: Sultan Muhammad, Tahmuras Defeats the Divs, folio 23v from Firdawsi’s Shahnameh 
(Book of Kings) of Shah Tahmasp, watercolor, 28.3 × 18.6 cm, 1525 AD, Tabriz, Iran. 
Metropolitan Museum of Art, No. 1970.301.3. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/
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Fig. 5: Rostam kills the White Div, folio from Firdawsi’s Shahnameh (Book of Kings), watercolor, 
5.2 × 11.9 cm, 1300–1330 AD, Iran. Metropolitan Museum of Art, No. 69.74.7. https://
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4.9 × 10.9 cm, 1330–1340 AD, Isfahan, Iran. Metropolitan Museum of Art, No. 1974.290.7. 
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/452632 (accessed 17.4.2023).
Fig. 7: Rostam is thrown into the sea by the Div Akvan, folio from a Firdawsi’s Shahnameh (Book 
of Kings), watercolor, 4.8 × 10.8 cm, 1330–1340 AD, Isfahan, Iran. Metropolitan Muse-
um of Art, No. 1974.290.17. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/452642 
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Fig. 8: The Div Akvan throws Rostam into the sea, illustrated manuscript page from Firdawsi’s 
Shahnameh (The Book of Kings), watercolor, 21 × 19 cm, 1500, Iran. Library of Congress, 
No. 2019714668. https://www.loc.gov/item/2019714668 (accessed 29.3.2023).
Fig. 9: Moein Mosavar, A div tossing Rostam into the sea, folio 158v from Firdawsi’s Shahnameh 
(Book of Kings), watercolor, 25.2 × 14.3 cm, 1660, Isfahan, Iran. Metropolitan Museum of 
Art, No. 1974.290.43. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/452668 (accessed 
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Fig. 10: Rostam Slays the White Div, folio from Firdawsi’s Shahnameh (Book of Kings), water-
color, 37.1 × 19.7 cm, 1560–1580, Iran. Metropolitan Museum of Art, No. 65.7.3. https://
www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/451783 (accessed 10.4.2023).
Fig. 11: Rostam killing the White Div, a scene from the Shahnameh (Book of kings) by Firdawsi, 
lithograph, 20.7 × 34.9 cm, late 19th century, Iran. Smithsonian Institution, National 
Museum of Asian Art, Arthur M. Sackler Collection, No. S1986.392. https://asia.si.edu/
explore-art-culture/collections/search/edanmdm:fsg_S1986.392/ (accessed 19.5.2023).
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Heidari, Adabiyat-e Maktabkhanei-ye Iran [Old-Fashioned Scholastic Literature of Iran], 
Tehran: Roshdavaran, 2012, 198.
Fig. 13: Battle of Rostam and the White Div, underglaze tile, Nasser al-Din Shah era, Sa’adabad 
Palace, Iran. Archives of the authors.
GENDER METAMORPHOSIS OF DIVES IN THE QAJAR ERA ILLUSTRATIONS: A MYTHOLOGICAL ... 99 
Fig. 14: Mousazadeh, Battle of Rostam and the White Div, seven-color tile, 420 × 380 cm, mid-
14th century, bathhouse in Afifabad Garden, Shiraz. Hadi Seif, Naghashi-ye Ruy-e Kashi 
[Persian Painted Tiles], Tehran: Soroush, 1997: 163.
Fig. 15: Battle of Rostam and Akvan Div, watercolor, 35.5 × 24.5 cm, c. 1800–1850, Iran. Firdawsi, 
Shahnameh (Book of Kings), 1612. Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Asian 
Art, No. S2014.17.4_021. https://asia.si.edu/explore-art-culture/collections/search/edan-
mdm:fsg_S2014.17.4/ (accessed 19.4.2023).
Fig. 16: Rostam kills the White Div, illustrated leave from a dispersed manuscript of Firdawsi’s 
Shahnameh, 37 × 24 cm, 18th/19th century, Qajar Persia. Bonhams Auction House. 
https://www.bonhams.com/auction/26589/lot/14/six-illustrated-leaves-from-a-dispersed-
manuscript-of-firdausis-shahnama-qajar-persia-late-18thearly-19th-century6/ (accessed 
19.4.2023).
Fig. 17: A Persian man beats a div (demon) with a stick, gouache on paper, 11 × 12 cm, c. 1750. 
Wellcome Collection, No. 582580i. https://wellcomecollection.org/works/cnajqaqj (ac-
cessed 19.4.2023).
Fig. 18: A Persian man stands alongside a div (demon), gouache on paper, 11 × 12 cm, c. 1750. 
Wellcome Collection, No. 582579i. https://wellcomecollection.org/works/x7ttwmy6 
(accessed 19.4.2023).
Fig. 19: Fath Ali Shah in the guise of Rostam, fighting the White Div, gouache on board, 35 × 44 
cm, Qajar era. Wellcome Collection, No. 582784i. https://wellcomecollection.org/works/
uub3294t (accessed 19.4.2023).
Fig. 20: Fath Ali Shah in the guise of Rostam, slaying the White Div, gouache on board, 62 × 43 
cm, Qajar era. Wellcome Collection, No. 582819i. https://wellcomecollection.org/works/
j3gbagjh (accessed 19.4.2023).
Fig. 21: Steel peacock, steel engraving, 80 cm, 19th century, Iran. The British museum, No. 
1912,0716.1. https://www.bmimages.com/preview.asp?image=00030546001 (accessed 
19.4.2023).
Fig. 22: Divs at the of Prophet Solomon, lithograph, Qajar era. Mussa Farhang Razi, Hezar va Yek 
Shab [Thousand and One Nights], translated into Persian by Abdolatif Tasouji, Tehran: 
El, 1949, 559.
Fig. 23: Solomon, lithograph, 21.6 × 17.6 cm, Qajar era. Meem Gallery. https://www.meemart-
gallery.com/artworks/1135-qajar-era-solomon (accessed 19.4.2023).
Figs. 24 & 25: A Qajar lacquered papier-mâché mirror case, 37 × 24.5 cm, 19th century, Iran. The 
Michael Collection. https://www.mutualart.com/Artwork/A-QAJAR-LACQUERED-PAPI-
ER-MACHE-MIRROR-CA/5132BF2BE0870849 (accessed 15.4.2023).
Fig. 26: A tile from the “Wonders of Creation” panel: the divs, 19th century, Iran. Musée du Louvre, 
Département des Arts de l’Islam, No. MAO 1192 ; 5 ; 70.2013.1.3 D. https://collections.
louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010319020 (accessed 27.1.2023).
Fig. 27: A tile from the “Wonders of Creation” panel: the devils, 19th century, Iran. Musée du 
Louvre, Département des Arts de l’Islam, No. MAO 1194 ; 6 ; 70.2013.1.4 D. https://
collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010319022 (accessed 25.5.2023).
 NAHID JAFARI DEHKORDI AND ELAHEH PANJEHBASHI*100 
ПОЛОВАЯ МЕТАМОРФОЗА ДИВОВ В ИЛЛЮСТРАЦИЯХ 
КАДЖАРСКОГО ПЕРИОДА: МИФОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ И 
СОЦИОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ АНАЛИЗ
В персидской традиции дивы – это устрашающие сверхъестественные 
существа, которые часто становятся предметом обсуждения, а их половая 
метаморфоза была темой многих исследований. Анализ развития природы, 
сверхъестественных сил (включая дивов) и женского начала в историческом 
контексте показывает, что в прошлом их воспринимали как таинственные и 
пугающие силы, способные воздействовать на человеческую жизнь посред-
ством злонамеренных вмешательств. Со временем эти существа утратили свою 
непостижимую, эфирную природу и стали объектом разума, наблюдения и 
размышления. Иранское общество, как древняя часть мировой цивилизации, 
также пережило эту трансформацию восприятия.
В настоящем исследовании мы рассматриваем причины появления 
половых преобразований в образах дивов в искусстве каджарской эпохи. 
Период Каджаров считается важным поворотным моментом, когда начали 
исчезать последние остатки традиционной иранской социальной структу-
ры, что открыло путь новому взгляду на мир. Произведения искусства того 
времени отражают глубокое изменение отношения к природе, сверхъесте-
ственным существам и женщинам. Дивы, как воплощение ужаса природы, 
и женщины, как символ красоты и нежности, постепенно сливаются в этих 
образах. Некогда устрашающие дивы приобретают более мягкие и отчетливо 
женственные формы. Эта метаморфоза отражает тенденцию к демифологи-
зации природы и секуляризации положения женщин в обществе.
Nahid Jafari Dehkordi, Post-Doctoral Researcher, Alzahra University, Faculty 
of Art, Department of Art Research, Vanak Village Street, IR-1993893973 
Tehran, N. jafari@alzahra.ac.ir
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1828-9159
Elaheh Panjehbashi*, Associate Professor, Alzahra University, Faculty of 
Art, Painting Department of Art, Responsible Author, Vanak Village Street, 
IR-1993893973 Tehran, e.panjehbashi@alzahra.ac.ir
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5631-8622