N. U. TERZI et al.: EFFECTS OF TIRE CHIPS ON THE SHRINKAGE AND CRACKING ...
143–150
EFFECTS OF TIRE CHIPS ON THE SHRINKAGE AND CRACKING
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLAYEY SOILS
VPLIV DROBCEV PNEVMATIKE NA SKR^EK IN POKANJE
GLINENE ZEMLJINE
Niyazi Uður Terzi1, Mürüvet Ünlü Özsoy1, Ferruh Yilmaztürk2, Bahattin Güllü3,
Can Erenson1
1Aksaray University, Department of Civil Engineering, 68100 Aksaray, Turkey
2Aksaray University, Department of Geomatic Engineering, 68100 Aksaray, Turkey
3Aksaray University, Department of Geology Engineering, 68100 Aksaray, Turkey
niyaziterzi@gmail.com
Prejem rokopisa – received: 2017-05-16; sprejem za objavo – accepted for publication: 2017-08-11
doi:10.17222/mit.2017.057
Desiccation can be heavily detrimental and can adversely influence the performance of clayey soils in various engineering
applications such as compacted clay barriers in waste containments, dam cores, canal liners, and road pavements. Cracks may
affect the compressibility of soil, its rate of consolidation, its strength and the permeability rate, at which water can re-enter the
soil. In this study, we attempted to utilize tire monofilaments as the additive material to improve the anti-cracking properties of
compacted clay. To characterize crack patterns quantitatively, close-range digital-image-analysis techniques were used to
analyze the desiccation generation and propagation. The results show that there is a definite improvement in the cracking
characteristics of the clay material when it is mixed with tire monofilaments.
Keywords: intensity factor, drying shrinkage, desiccation cracking, image processing
Su{enje je lahko zelo {kodljivo in ima neugoden vpliv na glineno zemljino v razli~nih in`enirskih aplikacijah, kot so:
kompaktne glinene ovire v zadr`evalnikih odpadkov, jedru nasipov, prekopih in cestnih plo~nikih. Razpoke lahko vplivajo na
stisljivost zemljine, njeno hitrost konsolidacije, trdnost in prepustnost za vodo. V prispevku avtorji opisujejo {tudijo uporabe
drobcev pnevmatik kot dodatek, ki naj bi izbolj{al odpornost proti pokanju kompaktirane zemljine. Za to, da bi kvantitativno
okarakterizirali vzorce razpok, su{enje zemljine in napredovanje razpok so uporabili digitalno analizo slike. Rezultati {tudije so
pokazali nedvomno izbolj{anje odpornosti zemljine proti pokanju, ~e so bili glinenemu materialu dodani drobci oziroma vlakna
pnevmatik.
Klju~ne besede: faktor intenzitete, skr~ek med su{enjem, pokanje zaradi su{enja, obdelava slike
1 INTRODUCTION
Desiccation cracking may be perceived as a two-fold
process that entails a gradual loss of moisture from an
initially saturated porous body.1 It is commonly known
that desiccation clay soils crack when the tensile stress
develops in the soil due to the matric-soil suction
exceeding the tensile strength of the soil. Tensile stresses
only develop when the soil is, in some way, restrained
against shrinkage. The restraint can be external such as a
rough layer interface or internal; for example, sections of
soil undergoing non-uniform drying. The causes of
cracking could be either a volumetric change in the soil
body or a consequence of the pressure exerted on the soil
body. In line with the formation system, M. H. Maher
and D. H. Gray2 categorized the following two major
types of cracks:
• Mechanical cracks, which are formed via a deposi-
tion or due to an inappropriate construction. A good
example is cracks without a good linkage between
lifts and with poor compaction.
• Physicochemical cracks, which can be subdivided
into these three categories: cracks caused by syne-
resis, cracks caused by freeze-thaw cycles, and cracks
initiated by thorough drying of the material.
The most important crack category is the drying
process of the soil. The desiccation of an initially
saturated soil usually involves a gradual reduction in the
moisture content induced by evaporation from the soil
surface. The drying process can result in the develop-
ment of capillary suction in the upper layer because of
the effects of the meniscus surface tension. The suction
creates a new arrangement of soil particles and some
portions of the material tend to shrink. As a result,
considering the scale of particles and their interactions
within the soil surface layer, the particles undergo tensile
stresses attributable to the pore-fluid modulated move-
ment of the surrounding soil particles. This process
increases the horizontal tensile-stress field in the upper
layer of specimens during drying.
Tensile stresses increase as the water evaporation
proceeds.3 In other words, the desiccation cracks are
primarily influenced by soil suction and tensile strength.
Thus, soil suction is the mechanical initiator of the
cracking process. The other main factors that influence
the shrinkage cracking activities of fine-grained soils in-
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 52 (2018) 2, 143–150 143
UDK 620.1:624.1:67.017:621.397.3 ISSN 1580-2949
Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni ~lanek MTAEC9, 52(2)143(2018)
clude clay mineralogy, activity and content, compaction
conditions, the drying process, wetting/drying cycles,
soil-particle orientation, unit weight, pore fluid, and
exchangeable ions.4 The probability of shrinkage and
swelling increases when the plasticity index of the clay
increases. However, the danger of shrinkage and crack-
ing can be minimized by fortifying clay soil with
coarse-grained materials.5
For the fabrication of a liner in arid sites, D. E. Da-
niel and Y. K. Wu6 suggested the use of clayey sand with
a low hydraulic conductivity and low shrinkage values.
Besides, C. H. Benson and S. R. Meer7 and F. Mazzieri8
examined the influence of wet-dry cycling on the
swelling and k behavior of GCL. The results of hyd-
raulic-conductivity tests carried out by B. A. Albrecht
and C. H. Benson9 on compacted and saturated soils
during wetting/drying cycles showed that the shrinkage
strain is directly proportional to the compaction effort
and closeness to the optimum water content. The
restriction of pressure is also a major factor in the crack-
ing phenomena.10 K. J. Witt and R. M. Zeh11 examined
cracks associated with desiccation of the cover lining
system and design strategies. H. Krisdani et al.12 studied
the effects of drying rates on the shrinkage characte-
ristics of the residual soil obtained from the Bukit Timah
granite (Singapore) and mixtures of the residual soil and
fine sand. The results of the shrinkage test showed that
drying rates affected the speed of the change in the void
ratio and the degree of saturation changes in the soil.
Finally, according to the results obtained by G. H. Omi-
di13, K. J. Osinubi and A. O. Eberemu14, T. Harianto et
al.15 and N. Talluri et al.16, the shrinkage strain depends
on three main parameters, the mold-water content, the
dry density (compaction effort) and the soil-plasticity
index.
Based on the research given above, considerable
work was undertaken to investigate soil treatment to
prevent desiccation cracks. There are different types of
treatments comprising traditional additives including
cement, lime, fly ash and new materials such as fiber.
The study conducted by Y. Guney et al.17 on the impact
of cyclic wetting-drying on the swelling behavior of
lime-stabilized soil showed that lime-stabilized soils are
negatively affected by the wetting/drying cycles. The
treatment materials were mostly lime, cement and
fly-ash mixtures used for the crack prevention. However,
they found that the additives of lime and cement used to
improve the resistance to desiccation were not effective
for treating liners. In addition, alternative laboratory
approaches to cyclic permeation-desiccation experiments
on specimens of geosynthetic clay liners (GCL) were
compared by F. Zangl and W. J. Likos.18 They observed
that their similarity indicates internal flaws in the
bentonite (e.g., reinforcing fibers), rather than external
stress conditions, preventing desiccation-crack initiation
and propagation. According to B. A. Maher et al.,19 M. S.
Nataraj and K. L. McManis20 and C. S. Tang et al.,21 one
of the best materials for preventing cracks is fiber. They
stated that an amount of fibers in a clay liner results in a
great reduction in the value of the crack-intensity factor.
Thus, in the current study, we report on our investigation
into the use of waste-tire chips as a source of fibers for
the prevention of desiccation cracks. The additive
material consisted of straw-shredded tire granules cut
into monofilament-fiber shapes used to improve the
anti-cracking properties of the clay material. The
cracking properties and crack nucleation of each
composite liner specimen were compared with digital
images. The decreasing of the soil-water content, drying
shrinkage, crack initiation and propagation were
monitored using an image-processing technique. The
geometric and kinematic characteristics of the surface
crack pattern obtained from the crack-intensity factor
(CIF) and crack-reduction factor (CR) are described.
2 EXPERIMENTAL PART
The testing procedure consisted of three main steps:
preparing composite-mixture specimens, drying the
specimens, obtaining images of cracks using close-range
digital-image-analysis techniques and a quantitative
analysis of the cracks. The tire-monofilament materials
were mixed with clayey soil at five different ratios.
After the preparation of the specimens, all the soil
samples were wetted with the targeted moisture content.
The prepared clay composite mixtures were placed in
polythene bags and sealed to prevent moisture leakage.
The samples were prepared manually and placed into
Plexiglas molds with dimensions of (30 × 60 × 8) cm
using a spatula. In order to observe the shrinkage and
crack propagation, the samples were kept in a well-
ventilated room to be air dried. The specimens were
weighed four times a day using a digital electronic
balance. The room temperature and relative humidity
were also recorded with a humidity-temperature data
logger. The surface geometric features of the cracks that
developed due to the wetting/drying cycles were
monitored using image-processing techniques and a
CCD digital camera (a lens of 12/120 mm) was used to
visually assess the extent of the cracking and the
decrease in the water content due to evaporation. The
camera was fixed at a height of 50 cm above the top
surface of the soil specimens. A specially designed
tripod set-up was used to ensure that all the close-range
images were obtained from the same height. All the
measurements and images were taken 6 d after the day
when the specimens were prepared. The visual
observations of the desiccation-cracking process were
quantified using CIF and CR in the MATLAB program.
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144 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 52 (2018) 2, 143–150
2.1 Material properties
2.1.1 Physical, mineralogical and geochemical charac-
teristics of the Avanos clay
The Kizilirmak clayey soil from the Avanos delta in
Central Anatolia was selected for the investigation. The
samples were obtained from a depth of 3–5 m from the
surface. The soil was classified as inorganic and plastic
clay and the basic properties of the liquid limit, plastic
limit, plasticity index, linear shrinkage and volumetric
shrinkage were (55, 36, 19, 14.8 and 16.45) % respec-
tively. To determine the mineralogical composition of the
Avanos clay, an X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was
carried out at the Earth Science Application & Research
Center at the Ankara University using an Inel Equinox
1000 device with a cobalt (Co-A1) tube with a wave-
length of (
 = 0.1788970 nm) as the X-ray source. The
clay sample was crushed with a tungsten carbide grinder
to a 200-mesh (20 micron) size. The resulting peaks
from the analysis were evaluated in the "search-match"
program. The results revealed that the Avanos clay con-
tains quartz, calcite, hematite, biotite and clay minerals
comprising montmorillonite, kaolinite and illite (Fig-
ure 1). A wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence
(WD-XRF) analysis was performed to compare the
chemical and mineralogical composition of the Avanos
clay. The analysis was carried out in the geochemical
laboratory of the Aksaray University, the Faculty of
Engineering, the Geological Engineering Department.
The results of the geochemical analysis of the
Avanos-clay samples are given in Table 1.
The geochemical analysis reveals that the main
elements of the Avanos clay are oxides SiO2, Al2O3,
Fe2O3 and CaO, with the K2O elements being dominant.
The comparison of the XRD analysis with the results of
the geochemical analysis shows that the SiO2 content can
be associated with free quartz and silicate compounds in
the samples. It was found that the clay is rich in smectite
minerals, which make the soil highly water absorbent,
resulting in an expansion of the material. These kinds of
soil show a significant change in the volume during
drying. These minerals play the central role in creating
the properties of the soil, such as plasticity and strength.
As expected, when the water content of the clayey soil
decreases or increases, the soil shrinks or swells. This
may cause soil damage ranging from small hairline
cracks to a serious structural distress. It is therefore
important to study the shrinkage properties of clay. The
Avanos Kizilirmak specimen used for the volumetric-
shrinkage test (Figure 2), was prepared according to BS
1377. Based on the standards, the specimen weight was
measured periodically and external dimensions were
N. U. TERZI et al.: EFFECTS OF TIRE CHIPS ON THE SHRINKAGE AND CRACKING ...
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 52 (2018) 2, 143–150 145
Table 1: Geochemical-analysis results for the Avanos-clay samples
Element Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO4 K2O CaO TiO2 MnO Fe2O3 Cl LOI Total
Dimension %
Clay1 0.371 2.103 17.098 38.481 0.105 0.178 4.565 5.691 0.425 0.133 7.988 0.055 21.8 99.09
Element Ba V Ni Zn As Pb Ce Cr Cu Ga Rb Sr Y Zr
Dimension % μg/g
Clay1 0.098 113.1 89.3 106 152.2 61 270.8 112.1 94.1 37.5 223.5 499.7 29.8 108.7
Figure 3: Tire monofilaments
Figure 2: Shrinkage curve for Avanos solo clay
Figure 1: The mineralogical composition of the Avanos Clay
measured using a Vernier caliper until a further decrease
in the moisture content was observed. As shown in
Figure 2, the shrinkage limit for the Avanos clay was
18.85 %.
2.1.2 Tire chips
After removing steel wires from the tire cross-sec-
tion, the pure tire material was chopped into elongated
shapes similar to the monofilament fiber used commer-
cially. As shown in Figure 3, it was then added to the
Avanos clay. The specific gravities and unit weight of the
tire material were 0.912 and 6.3 kN/m3, respectively. The
tire chips were a hydrophobic and chemically inert
material that did not absorb or react with the soil
moisture or leachate.
3 CRACK MONITORING
Desiccation cracking can be characterized with the
dimensions of individual cracks or the surface area of the
soil covered with cracks. The crack dimensions need to
be measured at certain time intervals. Different measures
can be employed ranging from low-accuracy methods
such as cards with graded lines and a ruler or gauge
wires to highly accurate image-processing methods.22,23
The evaporation behavior of soils when subject to
desiccation cracking can be highly affected by the width
and depth of the cracks; thus, an accurate measurement
of the geotechnical parameters of soil shrinkage cracks is
not easy to achieve with direct methods. A large measu-
rement error should be expected due to the irregular
shape and complex crack pattern. Desiccation cracking
also occurs in the form of a random network with various
widths and depths. In recent years, image-analysis
techniques have been extensively used to characterize
crack networks with an improved accuracy. CIF is the
descriptor of the extent of desiccation racking used by
many researchers. It is calculated based on the definition
by H. Mi24 and C. J. Miller et al.25 as the ratio of the area
of cracks (Ac) to the total surface area (A) of a drying
soil mass.
Most crack-detection algorithms using image-pro-
cessing techniques are based on these two primary
assumptions:
1) crack pixels can be distinguished from their sur-
rounding area since they usually have a lower inten-
sity value, i.e., crack pixels are usually darker than
their neighborhood;
2) cracks are usually continuous within a certain neigh-
borhood, that is, crack pixels are connected with each
other to form curves rather than being isolated.
These assumptions are true for 2D intensity images
and two primitive crack-segmentation approaches used
in 26 were based on this thresholding and edge detection.
The core logic of thresholding methods is to compare
each pixel to its neighborhood; if the value of a pixel is
significantly lower, then it is determined to be a crack
pixel. Our approach to extracting crack information is
based on the thresholding assumption. The image-pro-
cessing steps that we applied to detect cracks consist of
the following procedures:
1) the transformation of the acquired digital color image
into a gray-level image;
2) an improved subtraction method for the image in uni-
form brightness;
3) binarization; and
4) morphological processing using erosion and dilation.
Figure 4 shows the result of the whole image
processing from the gray-level transformation to the
morphological processing.
4 TESTING PROCEDURE
The experimental procedure consisted of two main
steps:
1) soil preparation and compaction and
2) a simulation of wetting/drying cycles.
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146 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 52 (2018) 2, 143–150
Figure 5: Compaction characteristics of mixed Avanos clay
Figure 4: Result of the proposed image processing
Mixture preparation and compaction process
The compaction of the composite soil mixtures
required special attention to ensure the uniformity of
density and moisture conditions throughout the testing.
The installation processes were also important variables
in monitoring the strength, hydraulic conductivity and
crack desiccation. In this study, the composite test spe-
cimens were compacted at 3 % above the optimum water
content. For the tire monofilaments used as the additive
to the Avanos clay, the prescribed amount of tire shreds
was mixed into the air-drilled soil in small increments by
hand, making sure all the tire shreds were mixed
thoroughly to achieve a fairly uniform mixture, and then
the required amount of water was added. Then, as
mentioned above, as with the clay samples, the mixture
specimens were sealed in plastic bags and allowed to
hydrate for 48 h prior to compaction. The prepared
specimens were then placed into molds. A square steel
pad with an area of 25 cm2 and a weight of 4.5 kg under
a free fall of 20 cm to the specimen surfaces was used to
compact the specimens. Through this procedure, a series
of compaction processes were performed involving
20-mm tire-shred fibers mixed with the Avanos clay. The
results obtained with the standard Proctor compaction
tests for the tire-shred clay composite material are
presented in Figure 5.
It is quite evident from Figure 5 that the addition of
tire filaments into the clay has a relative effect on the
maximum dry density as well as on the optimum water
content. The optimum moisture content for the soil with
added tire shreds is 22–25 %. The maximum dry density
occurred at 0.6 % of the tire monofilament in the mix-
ture. The lowest dry density was obtained at 1.5 % of the
added monofilament. There was no direct relationship
between the tire amount and the maximum dry density.
Hydraulic conductivity
Low hydraulic conductivity is an essential characte-
ristic when assessing the acceptability of soil and soil
mixtures for containment structures such as landfill
covers, bottom liners or dam cores. In general, the
hydraulic behavior of fine soils is influenced by the inte-
raction between the pore fluid and minerals.27 Therefore,
the effect of tire-shred clay mixtures on the hydraulic
conductivity of the clayey soils selected for the study is
of primary concern and needs to be carefully evaluated.
The results of the tests conducted with 6.12-kPa and
25-kPa consolidation pressure are given in Figure 6. As
seen, at 25 kPa, the hydraulic conductivity of the mix-
tures was approximately 1 × 10–9 to 3 × 10–9 m/sec for all
the portions of the tire monofilaments. There is also a
slight decrease in the hydraulic conductivity as the tire-
monofilament content is increased from 0 % to 1.0 %.
The magnitude of the hydraulic conductivity rose with
the increase in the tire-monofilament content as shown in
Figure 6, revealing an approximate increase of 4 times
in the hydraulic conductivity. As all the evaluated per-
meabilities were of the same order of magnitude
(10–9 m/s), it can be concluded that a random tire-mono-
filament inclusion did not produce a significant effect on
the hydraulic conductivity of the clay. This observation
is in agreement with the results reported by B. A. Maher
et al.19 and M. R. Abdi et al.28
Wetting/drying
Tests were conducted with mixed and compacted
samples to determine the duration of drying and wetting
periods. The soil samples were weighed every 12 h. In
order to determine the duration of the wetting period,
two soil samples were compacted, dried for five days and
then water was pounded on the top of each sample by
placing the collar around the mold. Every two days, the
soil specimens were removed from the mold to deter-
mine of the amount of water content at the base of the
mold. After 6 days of wetting, the soil was fully satu-
rated and therefore a 6-day period was considered to be
appropriate for the wetting period. The experiments
included 3 W-D cycles for the pure-Avanos-clay
N. U. TERZI et al.: EFFECTS OF TIRE CHIPS ON THE SHRINKAGE AND CRACKING ...
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 52 (2018) 2, 143–150 147
Figure 7: CIF for Avanos clay amended with tire monofilaments
Table 2: Crack reduction
Fiber (%) Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Cycle 5
0.00 68.9 – – – –
0.15 75.7 3.6 9.1 3.8 5.4
0.30 53.9 55.4 96.8 64.8 72.4
0.60 70.4 44.7 73.1 41.3 39.7
1.00 68.9 46.5 19.1 30.6 7.1
Figure 6: Hydraulic conductivity of mixed Avanos clay
samples, while the mixed samples of the amended soils
required between 1–3 W-D cycles.
Desiccation test results
The desiccation tests included five cycles of
wetting/drying periods. Images of the desiccated samples
were taken four times a day and at the end of each drying
period. The tests were performed on replicate samples of
the Avanos clay with a specific portion of the tire
monofilaments to check the repeatability of the results.
To verify the effect of the tire-monofilament content as a
measure of reducing cracks, the Avanos clay was mixed
with amounts of (0.15, 0.30, 0.60 and 1.0) % filaments.
Each mixture was analyzed separately and close-range
images were being captured until the desiccation process
was completely finished. Based on the threshold images,
CIF was calculated through the ratio of the surface area
of the cracks (the white area) and the total surface area of
the images (A). The variation of CIF during the
wetting/drying cycles is given in Figure 7.
As shown in Figure 7, in the first desiccation
process, the filament additive has almost no effect on the
cracking formation. However, after the first cycle, a
distinctive effect of the tire monofilaments on the
cracking mechanism is evident. The distribution shape of
the gradient indicates an šS’ curve and the minimum
crack-intensity factor occurs when 0.3 % of the tire
monofilaments was added to the clay. The percentage of
the crack reduction in the specimens is shown in Table
2. It can also be clearly seen that for the Avanos clay, the
most effective percentage of the tire shreds is 0.3 %. The
desiccation process, the patterns of the crack mechanism
and additive percentages are shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8 presents typical final (the end of the 6th day)
crack openings of tire-monofilament-reinforced clay
specimens with different fiber contents. It can be seen
that the morphology of the crack patterns was
significantly influenced by the inclusion of the fibers and
W-D cycles. In particular, the fiber content increases the
number of wide cracks and the number of fine cracks.
Furthermore, the crack networks gradually change from
an apparent regular structure to an irregular structure and
many dead-end cracks or single cracks that do not
intersect other cracks are identified. This observation is
in agreement with the results reported by T. Chaosheng
et al.29; however, the propagation of shrinkage cracks
cannot be categorized as purely orthogonal or non-ortho-
gonal patterns. According to J. K. Kodikara et al.30 and J.
H. Li et al.31, generally, the final stage of the crack
patterns is basically a mixture of orthogonal, non-ortho-
gonal, simultaneous and sequential cracks. On the
images from Figure 10, it is interesting to observe that
all our test specimens produced predominantly sequen-
tial, orthogonal crack patterns, leading to a subdivision
of the crack area into smaller cells.
5 CONCLUSION
Desiccation is a set of processes that includes drying,
shrinkage and cracking. The most important process
taking place in earth-based embankments such as dam
cores, dikes or landfill liners, is the cracking of the clay
material. The process of predicting and, thus, preventing
the cracking of clay is extremely complex because of
many degrees of freedom and the effects of various
parameters on the suction forces on the surface of clay.
In order to understand this complex behavior of the
cracking mechanism of the Avanos clay, experiments
with different tire-monofilament mixtures were carried
out. The desiccation and cracking behaviors of the
clay/tire-monofilament mixtures with the optimum water
content were investigated through five wetting/drying
(W-D) cycles. A quantitative evaluation of the crack
mechanism was determined using the image analysis and
time-interval close-range photography. Based on the
experimental studies, the following conclusions can be
drawn;
• Multiple wetting/drying cycles resulted in changes in
the clay structure and cracking characteristics.
N. U. TERZI et al.: EFFECTS OF TIRE CHIPS ON THE SHRINKAGE AND CRACKING ...
148 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 52 (2018) 2, 143–150
W-D Cycle1 W-D Cycle2 W-D Cycle3 W-D Cycle4 W-D Cycle5
Figure 8: Photographs of desiccated samples
• The minimum density and optimum water content
were reduced by adding tire monofilaments to the
clay.
• There was no remarkable effect on the hydraulic
conductivity when the amount of tire monofilaments
in the clay was increased.
• According to the CIF results, a 0.2–0.3 % tire-mono-
filament content considerably reduced the extent of
cracks and shrinkage when added to the Avanos clay.
• The optimum tire-monofilament content was
0.2–0.3 %, resulting in the maximum crack reduc-
tion, minimum shrinkage and an acceptable hydraulic
conductivity within the range of mixing workability.
• Image processing provided useful information on the
geometric characteristics of the crack patterns.
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