Scientific article Andragoška spoznanja/Studies in Adult Education and Learning, 2025, 31(1), 23-42 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4312/as/19861 Ana Guimarães Duarte, Natália Alves, KM Tanu, Lana Konstantinović, Uroš Kuzmanović, Vanja Bogdanović WOMEN IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION, AND STEM HIGHER EDUCATION: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF POLICIES ADDRESSING GENDER ISSUES IN INDIA, PORTUGAL AND SERBIA ABSTRACT Recognising the imperative in the 21st century for science, technology, and innovation (STI) to support economic growth and prepare citizens for future jobs, while also considering the gender disparities and biases prevalent in these fields, this research aimed to identify the mechanisms for improving female participation in science, technology, engi- neering, and mathematics (STEM) in higher education in India, Portugal and Serbia. The study analysed national policies on gender equality using documental deductive analysis structured around categories based on UNESCO’s SAGA Toolkit. Although the three countries have different geopolitical positions – Portugal is a member of the Euro- pean Union (EU), Serbia is a candidate for EU membership, and India is part of the BRICS economic alliance – the results revealed a principal similarity: none of the documents fully addressed all the categories promoting women in STEM higher education. Based on this finding, there is a need for broader gender mainstreaming in these policies. Keywords: gender equality policies, STEM in higher education, gender in STI, women in STEM, policy analysis Ana Guimarães Duarte, PhD candidate, Institute of Education, University of Lisbon, anaguimaraesduarte@outlook.com Natália Alves, PhD, Associate Professor, Institute of Education, University of Lisbon, nalves@ie.ulisboa.pt KM Tanu, PhD Scholar, National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA), New Delhi, kmtanu19111999@gmail.com Lana Konstantinović, MA student of Andragogy, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, konstantinoviclana@gmail.com Uroš Kuzmanović, MA student of Andragogy, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade and an Associate at the Qualifications Agency, qzmanovicuros@gmail.com Vanja Bogdanović, Research Fellow, Professorship for Adult and Continuing Education, Julius Maximilians Universität Würzburg, vanja.bogdanovic@uni-wuerzburg.de AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 23 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 24 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2025 ŽENSKE V ZNANOSTI, TEHNOLOGIJI, INOVACIJAH IN VISOKEM ŠOLSTVU STEM: PRIMERJALNA ANALIZA POLITIK SPOLA V INDIJI, NA PORTUGALSKEM IN V SRBIJI – POVZETEK Znanost, tehnologija in inovacije imajo v 21. stoletju ogromno vlogo pri zagotavljanju gospodarske rasti in pripravi državljanov na njihova bodoča delovna mesta. Hkrati pa se je treba zavedati razlik med spoloma in pristranskosti, ki prevladujejo na teh področjih. V članku je predstavljena raziskava, ki je želela identificirati mehanizme, s katerimi bi bilo mogoče povečati udeležbo žensk v znanosti, tehnologiji, inženirstvu in matema- tiki (STEM) v visokem šolstvu v Indiji, na Portugalskem in v Srbiji. Nacionalne politike za enakost spolov so bile analizirane z dokumentarno deduktivno analizo, strukturirano okoli kategorij, ki temeljijo na Unescovem orodju SAGA Toolkit. Čeprav se z vidika geopolitike omenjene tri države precej razlikujejo – Portugalska je članica Evropske unije (EU), Srbija je kandidatka za članstvo v EU, Indija pa je del gospodarskega združe- nja BRICS –, so rezultati razkrili načelno podobnost med vsemi tremi nacionalnimi politikami: nobeden od analiziranih dokumentov ni v celoti naslovil vseh kategorij za spodbujanje vključevanja žensk v visokošolsko izobraževanje na področjih STEM. Ugotovitve raziskave so tako pokazale, da je potrebno širše vključevanje načela enakosti spolov v te politike. Ključne besede: politike enakosti spolov, STEM v visokošolskem izobraževanju, spol in znanost, spol in teh- nologija, spol in inovacije, ženske na področjih STEM, analiza politike INTRODUCTION Science, technology, and innovation (STI) and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) play central roles in the discourse surrounding technological ad- vancement and economic competitiveness in the 21st century. Contemporary debates around the economic growth crisis are leading to the global recognition of the increasing significance of STEM fields in driving solutions and tackling pressing societal issues like gender inequality, climate change, healthcare, and sustainable development (Charles & Thébaud, 2018; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD] & Eurostat, 1995; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UN- ESCO], 2017a, 2017b). According to UNESCO (2017a, 2017b), STI encompasses the systems, actors, and activities that drive the advancement of knowledge and its application to address societal challenges. This highlights the crucial interplay between STI and its influence on modern societies. Higher education significantly impacts the STEM workforce, primarily through spe- cialised instruction and research in STEM fields. Based on the UNESCO SAGA (STEM and Gender Advancement) Toolkit Working Paper (UNESCO, 2017b), STEM disciplines are classified under the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) Framework, which encompasses Natural Sciences, Information and Commu- nication Technologies (ICT), Engineering, Mathematics and Statistics. These fields are fundamental to STEM education and training at higher education institutions worldwide and are the focus of gender-related interventions and policies analysed in this comparative AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 24 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 25Women in Science, Technology and Innovation, and Stem Higher Education study. The UNESCO Working Paper (2017b) highlights the importance of these areas in fostering a competitive, innovative, and inclusive workforce in the global economy. Nonetheless, there is a persistent gender imbalance in these fields, which hinders the full potential of women to contribute to and benefit from STEM advancements. The underrepresentation of women in STEM fields remains a significant global chal- lenge despite varied efforts to address gender disparities over the past several decades. According to the UNESCO SAGA Toolkit (UNESCO, 2017b), while women constitute a growing proportion of the workforce, their participation in STEM courses, particularly in higher education, remains disproportionately low in certain fields like ICT. The rea- sons for this underrepresentation are multifaceted and vary across different regions and cultures, and are often rooted in deep-seated gender norms, educational practices, and structural barriers within societies (Amâncio & Santos, 2021; Charles & Thébaud, 2018; European Institute for Gender Equality [EIGE], 2022; Gupta & Sharma, 2003; Saave- dra, 2010; Teixeira & Casaca, 2020). STEM fields are at the forefront of innovation and technological advancement in today’s knowledge-driven economies. Addressing gender imbalances in these fields is not only a matter of equity but also of economic necessity. The global economy faces a critical short- age of skilled workers in STEM fields, and women represent an untapped talent pool that could help bridge this gap (EIGE, 2022; OECD, 1995; UNESCO, 2017a, 2017b). In this way, gender inequalities in STEM fields are of concern not only from an equity perspec- tive but also due to the socio-economic implications of excluding a large portion of the population of women from these critical sectors with higher incomes that can be crucial for diminishing the gender income gap (EIGE, 2022). Although various national and transnational policies, orientations and initiatives aimed at increasing the participation of women in STEM exist, progress has been slow everywhere, especially in tackling the leaky pipeline and the glass ceiling. The leaky pipeline refers to the progressive attrition of women as they move through the various stages of STEM education and career trajectory. The metaphor describes how women “leak” out of the STEM pathway at different points, resulting in fewer women reaching the highest levels of education, research, and leader- ship in STEM fields (Saavedra, 2010). The glass ceiling concept pertains to the unseen but powerful obstacles that hinder women from progressing to top leadership roles and making significant decisions within organisations, particularly in STEM fields (UNES- CO, 2017b). In contrast to the leaky pipeline, which involves gradual loss, the glass ceil- ing centres on women’s challenges when striving to reach higher-level positions (EIGE, 2022). The effectiveness of all gender equality in STEM initiatives is often constrained by varied structural factors, as well as cultural resistance to change stereotypes (Amâncio & Santos, 2021; Charles & Thébaud, 2018; EIGE, 2022; Gupta & Sharma, 2003; Saavedra, 2010; Teixeira & Casaca, 2020; UNESCO, 2017a, 2017b). UNESCO’s efforts in gender equality in STI through initiatives like SAGA have shed light on the gender-based disparities in access to and involvement in STEM fields (UNESCO, AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 25 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 26 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2025 2017b). The STEM and Gender Advancement (SAGA) Initiative is a global UNESCO project funded by the Swedish Government through the Swedish International Develop- ment Cooperation Agency (SIDA). To achieve its objectives, SAGA employs two critical approaches: evaluating policies that impact gender equality in STEM and developing indicators related to STI policies to facilitate evidence-based policymaking. The SAGA Toolkit underscores the importance of integrating STEM practices and measures with gender mainstreaming into multilevel policies for the labour market, research, and educa- tion. This research aimed to identify the mechanisms for improving female participation in STEM in higher education in India, Portugal and Serbia. In this vein, we examine the policies and strategies implemented by these three geopolitically different countries to promote gender equality in STEM. Portugal is a European Union (EU) member, Serbia an EU member candidate and India a robust economy and founding member of BRICS (an economic alliance named after its founding members: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa). India, with its vast and diverse population, faces significant challenges in providing equitable access to STEM education, particularly for women from marginal- ised communities. As a member of the EU, Portugal benefits from transnational funding to promote gender equality in STEM but still struggles with persistent gender gaps, espe- cially in ICT. As a post-socialist state, Serbia has made great strides in gender equality in education but continues to face challenges in translating these gains into STEM working fields, as the country analysis will show. METHODOLOGY Several researches have focused on the relationships among gender, STEM fields, educa- tion, and the labour market, demonstrating the challenges women face in developing (and maintaining) careers in these areas, which are predominantly male-dominated globally (Amâncio & Santos, 2021; Charles & Thébaud, 2018; EIGE, 2022; Gupta & Sharma, 2003; Saavedra, 2010; Teixeira & Casaca, 2020; UNESCO, 2017a, 2017b). Given the lack of consensus on the definition of STEM, we have adopted UNESCO’s definition to support our study. The STEM fields, as classified under three broad groups in the International Standard Classification of Education of 2013 (ISCED-F 2013), include 05 - Natural Sciences and Mathematics; 06 - Information and Communication Technol- ogy; and 07 - Engineering, Manufacturing, and Construction (UNESCO, 2017a), which underpins our research. This study aims to answer two research questions: What are the policies/initiatives and na- tional mechanisms promoting and supporting women’s participation in STI and STEM higher education in India, Portugal and Serbia? How do they address gender issues in STI and STEM higher education? This research proposes to identify the similarities and differences in the efforts of these countries to promote gender equality in STEM higher education. The comparative study assesses national policies and strategies at the macro level, focusing on gender equality and seeking to find STEM and STI issues in India, Portugal and Serbia. AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 26 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 27Women in Science, Technology and Innovation, and Stem Higher Education To enable a comparison of national policies, it was necessary to select a transnational an- alytical framework capable of accommodating the differences between countries. For this purpose, we selected the SAGA Toolkit Framework (UNESCO, 2017b) to develop our categories of analysis. This framework provides a conceptual and methodological struc- ture designed to equip governments, policymakers, and stakeholders with tools aimed at narrowing the global gender gap in STI and STEM. The data collection method used in this research is the document deductive analysis based on indicators developed from the SAGA Toolkit (UNESCO, 2017b), also called the STI Gender Objective Lists (GOL). The analysis sought to assess the extent to which the policies encompass the indicators under STI GOL 3, which focuses on the attraction, access, and retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels (undergraduate and postgraduate), as illustrated in Table 1. Since only STI GOL 3 is related to the participation of women in STEM higher education, the primary focus of this study, it was chosen as the foundation for the deduc- tive analysis. Table 1 Categories of analysis STI GOL 3.1. Promote access of and attract women to STEM higher education (including master’s and PhD), including through specific scholarships and awards STI GOL 3.2. Prevent gender bias in the student admission and financial aid process. STI GOL 3.3. Promote retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels, including through gender-sensitive mentoring, workshops and networks. STI GOL 3.4. Prevent gender-based discrimination and sexual harassment at all levels, including master’s and PhD. STI GOL 3.5. Promote gender equality in international mobility of students. STI GOL 3.6. Promote daycare/childcare facilities for students, particularly at STEM higher education institutions. Ca te go rie s o f A na ly sis B as ed o n UN ES CO S AG A Fr am ew or k AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 27 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 28 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2025 An analytical matrix was constructed to identify the presence of STI GOL 3 in the na- tional policy texts selected from each country, using the identification criteria proposed by the SAGA Toolkit. The comparison followed Egetenmeyer’s (2012, 2016) proposal and consisted of descriptive juxtaposition, analytical juxtaposition, and descriptive compari- son. This structure focused on identifying the similarities and differences in the findings from the three countries at the macro level, concerning national policies. The macro level policies selected for this comparison include the National Policy for the Empowerment of Women 2001 from India, the National Strategy for Equality and Non-Dis- crimination and the Action Plan for Equality Between Women and Men for 2023–2026 from Portugal, and the National Strategy for Gender Equality 2021–2030 and the Action Plan for 2022–2023 from Serbia. We also mapped some national initiatives aimed at promoting and supporting women’s participation in STEM higher education in each country. Some limitations of this study pertain to the typologies of the policies. In India, there is a law addressing women’s specific rights and support mechanisms, whereas Portugal and Serbia have fixed-term national strategies accompanied by respective action plans. Another limitation concerns the lack of standardised statistical data across the countries, which restricts the comparability of the gender gaps in STEM fields. WOMEN IN STEM HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA Gender Equality and STI/STEM in India When it comes to education, more preference has been shown to boys as the education of girls is often seen as a waste of money because, after marriage, they will be going to anoth- er house and serving their husband’s family (Kohli, 2017). Higher education for women is sometimes seen as an investment in social status and additional quality for marriage. Getting into STEM or other professional courses requires more investment of time and money, and it becomes hard to find a suitable boy if the girl is overly educated (Chanana, 2006; Gupta & Sharma, 2002). But these days, as per the demands of the labour market, a slight change in the Indian patriarchal system has been observed, and the participation of women in professional courses, specifically computer-related courses and engineering, is increasing. The proportion of women in engineering can be compared with the highest in OECD countries (Gupta, 2015). The difference can also be seen in literacy rates; according to the Census 2011, with female literacy rates at 65.63%, whereas male literacy rates are at 80.9% according to the literacy and education information from the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implemen- tation of India (2017). The gap becomes more profound when the level of education increases. Women in higher education face under-participation and under-representation in higher level positions (Chanana, 2006; Ministry of Education of India [MEI], 2021). Participation in terms of enrolment is getting better, and India has gender parity in higher education in terms of general enrolment but not in STEM fields such as engineering and AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 28 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 29Women in Science, Technology and Innovation, and Stem Higher Education technology, where approximately 29% of the undergraduate level students are women. The emergence of private colleges has played an essential role in this, especially when we talk of STEM; as an example, there are 15 private engineering colleges for wom- en in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh (Gupta, 2015). However, enrolment also varies discipline-wise and level-wise. When looking at this data through a gender lens, there is gender parity at the undergraduate level, and the percentage of women is more than 50%, but if we examine the enrolment data across all levels and disciplines, the enrolment of women decreases with higher levels of education, and it is significantly less in some disciplines. The proportion of women in life science and medicine is still better, but in disciplines such as engineering and ICT, the proportion of women is extremely low. In mechanical engineering, women account for only 9% of the PhDs and 29% of the post- graduate degrees (MEI, 2021). However, gender is not the only factor that impacts the enrolment of women in higher education in India. There are caste, class, religion, and regional disparities also. Further- more, at the regional level, in Orissa, one of the states in India, there are 50 government colleges in the urban centres but not even one in the rural centres (Chanana, 2006; Sah- ni & Kalyan Shankar, 2012). In a study from Gupta and Sharma (2003), the data was collected from four reputed Indian technological institutes on women faculty members. Of the total 82 women faculty members contacted, 80 were Hindu, one was Muslim, and another one was Christian. These results show that religion-based disparities are also present when it comes to women in STEM. In the 2001–2002 school year, 36% of women were enrolled in the MPhil–PhD programme; among these, 5.9% belonged to the Schedule Caste, and 1.8% belonged to Schedule Tribes (Gupta & Sharma, 2003). Among the o fficially designated groups of people in India in the National Constitution of India, the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are among the most socio-eco- nomically disadvantaged. Overview of the Legal Framework on Gender Equality Policies In the Indian Constitution, various constitutional provisions ensure gender equality and women’s empowerment. Apart from the constitutional provisions, there are many schemes, policies, and initiatives which have been put in place at both the national and state levels to empower women, motivate them to pursue an education, ensure their security and their rights, and protect them from sexual abuse, abuse in the workplace, and domestic violence (Tripathy & Raha, 2019). There is a National Mission for the Empowerment of Women and a National Policy for Women Empowerment 2001 (Gov- ernment of India, 2001). Many initiatives have been put in place to motivate girls and women to pursue STEM subjects and work in this field, as reported by Haynes (2023): Women International Grants Support (WINGS), which provides opportunities to In- dian women scientists to undertake research in international research labs and institu- tions; Vigyan Jyoti, which encourages women to pursue higher education and careers in STEM; Women in Science and Engineering – Knowledge Involvement in Research Advancement Through Nurturing (WISE-KIRAN), promoted by the Ministry of AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 29 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 30 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2025 Science and Technology; the WISE Fellowship for PhD, which provides support to those women who want to pursue a PhD in STEM subjects; the WISE Post-Doctoral Fellowship; Women’s Instinct for Developing and Ushering in Scientific Heights & Innovations (WIDUSHI), which encourages and supports senior women scientists to conduct research in interdisciplinary areas of science and technology; Gender Advance- ment for Transforming Institutions (GATI); and the Indigenous Charter for Gender Equality in STEM, which brings transformational changes at the institute level. There has been a draft of a policy proposal as a National Policy for Women since 2016, but it has not been approved. Policy Analysis Applying the UNESCO Saga Framework The National Policy for the Empowerment of Women 2001 (Government of India, 2001) was analysed for the present study as it is the national level policy presented for the empower- ment of women and covers many areas, such as health, education, mainstreaming a gender perspective in the developmental process and their rights, etc. Creating a positive environ- ment, strengthening the legal system, and providing equal access to women are among the primary objectives of the policy. The National Policy for the Empowerment of Women 2001 covers aspects such as policy perspective, and the economic and social empowerment of women, where education, health, and nutrition are given importance. In the document, there is one paragraph on education specifically where much importance is given to equal access, a gender-sensitive education system and facilitating lifelong learning with the de- velopment of skills. Another paragraph focuses on science and technology and stresses the development of programmes to improve the participation of women in these two fields, to motivate girls to take up science in their further studies, etc. Table 2 below shows which parts of STI GOL 3 are addressed in this policy. Table 2 STI GOL 3. Attraction, access to, and retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels in India STI GOL 3. Attraction, access to and retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels Excerpts from the National Policy and the related STI GOL 3 subcategories 3.1. Promote access to and attract women to STEM higher education (including master’s and PhD levels), including through specific scholarships and awards. Programmes will be strengthened to bring about a greater involvement of women in science and technology. These will include measures to motivate girls to take up science and technology for higher education and also ensure that development projects with scientific and technical inputs involve women fully (p. 4, point 6.1). 3.2. Prevent gender bias in the student admission and financial aid process. Not specified. AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 30 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 31Women in Science, Technology and Innovation, and Stem Higher Education STI GOL 3. Attraction, access to and retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels Excerpts from the National Policy and the related STI GOL 3 subcategories 3.3. Promote retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels, including through gender- sensitive mentoring, workshops, and networks. Equal access to education for women and girls will be ensured. Special measures will be taken to eliminate discrimination, universalise education, eradicate illiteracy, create a gender-sensitive educational system, increase enrolment and retention rates of girls and improve the quality of Education to facilitate life-long learning as well as development of occupation/vocation/technical skills by women (p. 4, point 6.1). 3.4. Prevent gender-based discrimination and sexual harassment at all levels, including master’s and Ph D. Special measures will be taken to eliminate discrimination, universalise education, eradicate illiteracy, and create a gender- sensitive educational system (p. 4, point 6.1). 3.5. Promote gender equality in the international mobility of students. Not specified. 3.6. Promote daycare/childcare facilities for students, particularly at STEM higher education institutions. The provision of support services for women, like childcare facilities, including crèches at work places and educational institutions and homes for the aged and the disabled, will be expanded and improved to create an enabling environment and to ensure their full cooperation in social, political and economic life (p. 4, point 5.8). WOMEN IN STEM HIGHER EDUCATION IN PORTUGAL Gender Equality and STI/STEM in Portugal In the past decade, Portugal has seen tangible improvements in the Gender Equality Index, which has risen to 61.3 in 2022, marking a 5.2 percentage point increase (EIGE, 2022), but there are still disparities, particularly in leadership positions, wage parity, and un- paid caregiving. Women’s participation in the workforce stands at approximately 50%, but there remains a significant wage gap, with women earning about 11% less than men, even with similar qualifications, according to the National Institute of Statistics (Instituto Nacional de Estatística [INE], 2022). Furthermore, only 34.4% of management roles are held by women, highlighting unequal access to leadership positions (INE, 2022). Women also bear a disproportionate burden of unpaid domestic work, dedicating more time to these responsibilities compared to men (EIGE, 2022). The progress on gender equality is evident in the growing representation of women in higher education, where they now constitute around 55% of university students. How- ever, despite these advancements, women continue to be significantly underrepresented in STEM fields, accounting for only 28% of STEM graduates (Direção-Geral de Es- tatísticas da Educação e Ciência, 2023). In the ICT sector, the situation is even more AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 31 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 32 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2025 concerning, with women constituting less than 20% of professionals in the ICT sector. The proportion of women in these fields has declined over time, from 17.1% in 2005 to 14.7% in 2018. Additionally, only about 0.2% of Portuguese adolescent girls express aspi- rations to pursue careers in ICT (EIGE, 2022; Eurostat, 2018). Lingering stereotypes about gender roles in technical and scientific careers contribute to this imbalance (Amâncio & Santos, 2021). Cultural norms persist in portraying men as primary breadwinners and women as caregivers, influencing decisions related to careers and education. Women are more inclined to pursue roles in healthcare and education, while men dominate fields such as engineering and ICT. The perception that technical disciplines are “male-oriented” perpetuates occupational segregation, as evidenced by the fact that only 21% of engineers in Portugal are women (Teixeira & Casaca, 2020). Overview of the Legal Framework on Gender Equality Policies and Initiatives Portugal has established a comprehensive legal framework to promote gender equality, aligning with EU directives and international conventions. The Constitution of the Por- tuguese Republic (1976) was a foundational step, guaranteeing equality between men and women. Over the years, multiple action plans and policies have been developed to address gender disparities. The National Strategy for Equality and Non-Discrimination 2018–2030 (ENIND 2018–2030), also known as “Portugal + Equal”, outlines objectives for pro- moting gender equality across various sectors, including employment, education, and healthcare. One of the three pillars of ENIND specifically targets equality in decision-making and work-life balance, focusing on gender mainstreaming in policies and eliminating inequal- ities in the workplace. ENIND 2018–2030 is implemented by the Action Plan for Equal- ity Between Women and Men 2022–2026 (PAIMH 2022–2026), which prioritises gender equality in education, the labour market, and political representation. Regarding STEM fields, the ENIND strategy addresses women’s participation in these areas through broad- er educational and employment measures. However, no standalone national policy focuses exclusively on women in STEM or STI. Two notable initiatives promoting women in STEM in higher education include Engenheiras por um dia (2023; Engineers for a Day), a project aimed at encouraging young girls to pursue careers in engineering, and the Gender Balance @ Técnico initiative by Instituto Superior Técnico (2022), which provides mentorship and creates a supportive environment for female students in STEM courses. These initiatives are essential steps in tackling gender stereotypes and encouraging female participation in traditionally male-dominated fields. Despite efforts to bridge this gap, such as scholarships and public campaigns, the gender imbalance in STEM fields persists, underscoring the need for further action to dismantle these stereotypes (Amâncio & Santos, 2021; Teixeira & Casaca, 2020), yet their presence in STEM fields remains disproportionately low. AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 32 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 33Women in Science, Technology and Innovation, and Stem Higher Education Policy Analysis Applying the SAGA Framework For Portugal's context, we analysed the two central gender equality policies. The first one is the ENIND 2018–2030 (Council of Ministers, 2018) and the second is the PAIMH 2022–2026, which operationalises ENIND 2018–2030 goals and aims to define “the con- crete measures to be developed between 2023 and 2026, as well as the respective product indicators, annual goals, coordinating entity and entities involved and associated budget” (Council of Ministers, 2023, p. 13). Following the UNESCO SAGA Toolkit (2017b) categories of analysis, both documents are national gender policies with STI and STEM components and impact. They were implemented by the Council of Ministers of Portugal, legislating all Portuguese districts. The PAIMH 2022–2026 activities are expected to be financed by the government budget but often implemented through partnerships with business enterprises (public and pri- vate), higher education institutions, private non-profit organisations, and foreign partner institutions. As both are complementary policies, they were analysed as one, following the STI GOL 3 Higher Education. Although these two policies aren’t specifically for STI and STEM, ENIND 2018–2030 directly and indirectly addresses these topics in two of the axes included in PAIMH 2022–2026 : Axis E2 - Full and equal participation in the public and private sphere, and Axis E3 - Equal, inclusive, and future-oriented scientific and technological development and their guidelines. In Table 3, it’s possible to verify some excerpts from PAIMH 2022–2026 in which most aspects of STI GOL 3 were identified, although STI GOL 3.5 and 3.6 couldn’t be found in any of the policies. Table 3 STI GOL 3. Attraction, access to, and retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels in Portugal STI GOL 3. Attraction, access to and retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels Excerpts from the policies and their related STI GOL 3 subcategories 3.1. Promote access to and attract women to STEM higher education (including master’s and PhD), including through specific scho- larships and awards. Code OE3 / Strategic Objectives: Promote equality between men and women and non-discrimination in R&D and the digital world. Specific Objectives Code 31: Increase the participation of girls and women in the digital area. Measure 311: Initiatives to deconstruct professional gender ste- reotypes in the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and information and communication tech- nologies (ICT). Specific Objectives Code 32: Map in a georeferenced way measures and actions to promote girls and women in the STEM, ICT and AI areas. AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 33 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 34 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2025 STI GOL 3. Attraction, access to and retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels Excerpts from the policies and their related STI GOL 3 subcategories 3.2. Prevent gender bias in the student admission and financial aid process. Code OE2 / Strategic objectives: Ensure that conditions for educati- on and training are free from gender stereotypes. Specific Objectives Code 21: Effectively mainstream equality between men and women in school education, actively countering sexual segre- gation in the school paths and professional options of boys and girls. Measure Code 212: Development of projects, in partnership, to deconstruct stereotypes in the educational system (from pre- school to higher education). Specific Objectives Code 22: Promote collective and organisational dynamics that guarantee the experience of equal relationships bet- ween girls and boys in schools and other educational institutions. Measure Code 223: Award to HEIs with exemplary practices in the area of gender equality. 3.3. Promote retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels, including through gender- -sensitive mentoring, workshops, and networks. 3.4. Prevent gender-based discri- mination and sexual harassment at all levels, including master’s and Ph D. Even though Measure 241 does not explicitly mention STI and STEM, it references the European Strategy for Gender Equality 2020–2025 and the Horizon Europe Framework Program (2021–2027). There- fore, it can be inferred that it encompasses STI goals 3.3 and 3.4, given that these EU policies include specific orientations regarding gender equality in these fields. The alignment of these broader EU frameworks with gender equality initiatives in science, technology, and innovation strengthens this interpretation, as these policies provide clear guidance on addressing gender disparities within STEM disciplines. Code OE2 / Strategic objectives: Ensure that conditions for educati- on and training are free from gender stereotypes. Specific Objectives Code 24: Support HEIs in combating and pre- venting sexism in all communication and relational contexts and in integrating equality between men and women into all cycles of scientific training. Measure 241: Support for the development of plans for equality in HEIs, in line with the European Strategy 2020–2025 for Gender Equality and the Horizon Europe framework program (2021–2027). 3.5. Promote gender equality in the international mobility of students. 3.6. Promote daycare/childcare facilities for students, particularly at STEM higher education insti- tutions. Not specified. AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 34 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 35Women in Science, Technology and Innovation, and Stem Higher Education WOMEN IN STEM HIGHER EDUCATION IN SERBIA Gender Equality and STI/STEM in Serbia The traditional patriarchal model of gender roles, which is still highly present in Ser- bia, implies restrictions on women’s economic activity and employment. Lower economic activity, lower employment rates, and a gender wage gap, among other things, are con- ditioned by family responsibilities (Šobot, 2019). A subordinate position in terms of employment opportunities also affects young women, and not even a higher education degree eliminates economic gender inequality (Pantović et al., 2017, as cited in Šobot, 2019). The selection of an occupation is often based on inherited stereotypes that women are not capable of work in technical occupations, and thus they are more often than men directed toward occupations requiring social science and humanities backgrounds (Kolin, 2010). According to the gender statistical report, women’s tertiary education degrees are still predominantly in the fields of arts and humanities, social sciences and services, which is a trend that’s been present in recent decades, but there is a growing percentage of female graduates in engineering, manufacturing, and construction (45%; Đoković Papić, 2024). Although Serbia was the first non-EU country to produce a Gender Equality Index in 2016 (Lončar, 2024), progress in its overall score has been slow in recent years . This is evident from the increase from 52.4 points in 2016 to 58.0 points in 2021 (EIGE, 2022). Overview of the Legal Framework on Gender Equality Policies and Initiatives in Serbia On the national level, there are three documents related to gender equality: the Law on Gender Equality (Government of the Republic of Serbia [GRS], 2021), The Gender Equal- ity Strategy (GRS, 2022b), and the Action Plan for 2022 and 2023 (GRS, 2022a) for its implementation. In every document that is mentioned, education is an essential part of solving the problem of gender inequality. Education is seen as something that should be accessible for every woman, but also as a tool to overcome gender equality issues in society. Unfortunately, there are no documents in Serbia that are specifically about women in STI/ STEM. In the abovementioned law there is only one sentence that refers to promoting the inclusion of young people, especially girls, in the STEM and ICT sector (GRS, 2021). Still, we found valuable data that can be related to STEM, even if it is not recognised in that way in these policies. “ST(R)E(A)M IT: Guiding Women and Girls into STEAM, Innovation, and Research” is a public initiative that is a part of a European project funded under the HORIZON WIDERA programme (Udruženje poslovnih žena Srbije, 2024). This programme is formulated for both girls and boys, and it has a vision of making equal opportunities in education and STEM professions a reality, especially keeping in mind that the awareness of inequality is rising and the importance of equality in STEM pro- fessions of the future is becoming increasingly critical. From 2024 to 2026, it should be working on developing gender-sensitive, inclusive, and innovative STE(A)M tools and approaches, supporting STEM educational institutions to address gender challenges. The Association of Female Scientists of Serbia “SRNA” was founded in 2021 as an NGO, AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 35 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 36 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2025 with the primary goal of providing support for increasing the visibility of female scientists and educators in the broader social community. They want to fight against the stagnation of women’s careers after getting a higher education degree. They organise different events with the aim of increasing the visibility of female scientists who have achieved outstand- ing results in their scientific fields (Grahovac et al., 2022). Policy Analysis Applying the SAGA Framework In our analysis, we investigated two national documents: the Action Plan for 2022 and 2023 for the Implementation of The Gender Equality Strategy for the Period From 2021 to 2030 (GRS, 2022a), and The Strategy for Gender Equality (GRS, 2022b). In Serbia, there is a national Law on Gender Equality (GRS, 2021), and The Strategy for Gender Equality (GRS, 2022b), which was formulated in accordance with that law, aiming at concrete goals in improving gender equality for the 2021–2030 period. More concrete- ly, there is an Action Plan for 2022 and 2023 (GRS, 2022a) to implement this strategy. The action plan is renewed every two years, which shows a conscious effort to improve gender equality on a national level. Regardless of some policies concerned with gender equality, we can see a problem when we focus on STEM. In our national framework, we do not have STEM in higher education as an independent subject but rather as a field of interest that falls under ICT. The second problem we face is that there is an extensive list of measures that are put in place by the policies, but by the time a policy is updated, not many of these measures will have been achieved. Nevertheless, we analysed The Strategy for Gender Equality and the Action Plan because they include clear goals and measures related to gender equality in higher education, with STEM elements present under more general names (such as ICT, research work, etc.). As we can see below in Table 4, we found STI GOL 3.3 in both documents. STI GOL 3.1 and 3.4 were found only in the strategy, whereas STI GOL 3.6. was present only in the action plan. STI GOL 3.2. and 3.5. were not found in either of the analysed documents. Table 4 STI GOL 3. Attraction, access to, and retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels in Serbia STI GOL 3. Attraction, access to and retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels Excerpts from the policies and their related STI GOL 3 subcategories 3.1. Promote access to and attract women to STEM higher education (including master’s and PhD), including through specific scho- larships and awards. 1.8.1. Number of laws containing gender-sensitive standards and procedures for accreditation of study programs and higher educati- on institutions (p. 192). 3.2. Prevent gender bias in the student admission and financial aid process. Not specified. AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 36 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 37Women in Science, Technology and Innovation, and Stem Higher Education STI GOL 3. Attraction, access to and retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels Excerpts from the policies and their related STI GOL 3 subcategories 3.3. Promote retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels, including through gender- -sensitive mentoring, workshops, and networks. Measure 1.5: Establishing systemic support to encourage women's participation in social and technological innovations and increase the benefits of innovative activities. (p. 23). 1.8.5. Development of studies and gender-sensitive analyses of the content of syllabi and university textbooks (p. 39). 1.8.6. Development of studies and gender analyses to determine the representation of a particular subject of gender studies in study programs (p. 39). 1.8.4. Number of studies and analyses in which gender-stereotyped and discriminatory contents in syllabi and university textbooks were determined and corrected (p. 192). 1.8.5. Number of scientific research projects in the field of gender equality (p. 192). 3.4. Prevent gender-based discri- mination and sexual harassment at all levels, including master’s and Ph D. 2.3.1. The number of adopted or amended regulations that impro- ve the effectiveness of institutions in preventing and protecting women and men, girls and boys, in the public and private sphere, from all forms of gender-based violence (p. 203). 2.1.7. The percentage of trained professionals who have enhanced knowledge and skills related to human rights protection, particular- ly the rights of vulnerable groups, anti-discrimination legislation, and gender equality (p. 203). 2.2.11. The number of CSOs involved in the creation and implemen- tation of measures, monitoring, and reporting on human rights violations against women and girls in conflicts, including sexual exploitation and abuse, harassment/sexual harassment, and other forms of sexual and gender-based violence, including violent extre- mism (p. 203). 2.3.3. The number of adopted or amended regulations that enhance the coordinated institutional response to all forms of gender-based violence (p. 203). 2.3.10. The number of preventive programs/interventions working with perpetrators of violence aimed at preventing violence (p. 203). 2.3.11. The number of studies on the prevalence of violence, public campaigns to change public awareness and attitudes towards gen- der-based violence, and gender-sensitive media coverage of cases of gender-based violence (p. 203). AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 37 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 38 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2025 STI GOL 3. Attraction, access to and retention of women in STEM higher education at all levels Excerpts from the policies and their related STI GOL 3 subcategories 3.5. Promote gender equality in the international mobility of students. Not specified. 3.6. Promote daycare/childcare facilities for students, particularly at STEM higher education insti- tutions. 1.4.2. Development of proposals for measures and activities that would assist in better balancing work and family life (p. 21). COMPARISON AND DISCUSSION This research study aims to compare the gender equality policies in STEM higher ed- ucation in India, Portugal, and Serbia, with a focus on how they align with the STI Gender Objectives List (GOLs) 3 from the UNESCO SAGA Toolkit (2017b). Despite the distinct geopolitical, economic, and socio-cultural contexts of these nations, several similarities and differences have become visible in the analysis, demonstrating both every- day challenges and country-specific approaches in encouraging women’s involvement in STEM fields. India, Portugal and Serbia all address STI GOL 3.1 (promotion of access and attraction of women to STEM higher education), but the emphasis tends to be on scholarships and general encouragement rather than systemic reforms. Only the Portuguese policies address STI GOL 3.2 (prevent gender bias in the student admission and financial aid process) in an ample spectre but do not clearly mention the admission or financial processes. All three countries recognise STI GOL 3.3 (promotion of retention through mentoring and support), but there is still a scarcity of mentoring programmes, especial- ly those customised for women in STEM, and they lack institutional support. Although India, Portugal and Serbia’s documents address the matters dealt with in STI GOL 3.4 (prevent gender-based discrimination and sexual harassment at all levels, including master’s and PhD) at different levels, none of them specify measures for HE institu- tions. There is a lack of measures addressing STI GOL 3.5 (promote gender equality in the international mobility of students) in all three countries, indicating a gap in poli- cies supporting mobility experiences for women pursuing an education in STEM. The findings for STI GOL 3.6 (promotion of daycare facilities for students, particularly in STEM fields) are different for each country; the Indian policy is the one which clearly mentions daycare facilities. The two Portuguese policies do not mention this matter, and the Serbian documents just stress the need to propose measures to allow for the balance between work and family life. AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 38 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 39Women in Science, Technology and Innovation, and Stem Higher Education The variations among the countries are rooted in their distinct socio-cultural, economic, and educational environments, which influence how gender equality policies are formu- lated and put into practice. In India, the implementation of gender equality in STEM faces unique challenges due to the country’s vast and diverse population. Progress has been made in promoting women’s participation in STEM higher education through diverse initiatives. The influence of pa- triarchal societal norms, particularly in rural areas, continues to discourage women from pursuing higher education, especially in fields like engineering and technology. India has taken steps to meet STI GOL 3.1 by providing scholarships and creating programmes to encourage female students, but gender bias in admissions processes (STI GOL 3.2) re- mains a significant issue. Additionally, there is a lack of sufficiently developed policies that promote gender-sensitive mentoring and networks to retain women in higher levels of STEM education, leading to high attrition rates at the postgraduate and doctoral levels. This is consistent with the leaky pipeline phenomenon (Saavedra, 2010), where women leave STEM fields at higher rates as they progress through their education. Portugal receives support and funding from the EU and is implementing policies such as ENIND and PAIMH. With a considerable proportion of women enrolled in universities, the low representation of women in STEM disciplines (only 28% of STEM graduates) highlights enduring gender stereotypes and societal barriers that discourage women from pursuing technical fields, particularly in ICT. Portugal has taken steps to advance gender equality in STEM through initiatives such as Engineers for a Day and Gender Balance @ Técnico, which address STI GOL 3.3 by offering gender-sensitive mentoring and sup- port networks. However, efforts to reduce gender bias in admissions (STI GOL 3.2) and promote international mobility for female STEM students (STI GOL 3.5) are less advanced. Furthermore, the availability of childcare facilities at educational institutions isn’ t addressed in ENIND, limiting the full participation of women with caregiving re- sponsibilities in STEM education and research. As a potential EU member, Serbia is currently undergoing a period of transition, im- plementing significant changes to comply with EU gender equality standards. Progress has been made in increasing the presence of women in STEM fields at the tertiary lev- el, particularly in engineering and technology, positioning the country in the first five with gender parity in these fields of knowledge. Nevertheless, the traditional patriarchal culture continues to hinder women’s involvement in higher-paying STEM professions. The Gender Equality Strategy and Action Plan for 2022–2023 in Serbia indirectly address various STI GOLs, focusing on STI GOL 3.3, which aims to support the retention of women in STEM through mentoring and assistance. However, like India and Portugal, there is a lack of developed infrastructure for providing daycare facilities (STI GOL 3.6) and promoting gender equality in international mobility (STI GOL 3.5). While specific initiatives such as SRNA strive to enhance the visibility of female scientists, there remains a lack of systematic support for retaining women in STEM careers. AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 39 5. 05. 2025 11:10:24 40 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2025 The fact that all three countries address one or more STI GOLs in their policies clear- ly highlights the prominence of STEM fields as a key global tool to foster economic growth and to provide solutions for various societal issues, as emphasised by UNESCO (2017a, 2017b). Similarly, as all three countries have implemented initiatives and policies to promote the participation of women in STEM higher education, it is possible to observe a global spot- light on the gender gap in STEM fields as a pressing issue that needs to be addressed. This concern is particularly linked to the expectation that reducing the gender gap in STEM will help mitigate workforce shortages in these fields, as suggested by OECD (1995). While it is evident that the countries have addressed STI GOL 3.1 and STI GOL 3.3 to some extent, there is a clear focus on increasing women’s participation and retention in these courses. However, this approach lacks a more holistic perspective to address the multiple factors perpetuating the gender gap in STEM, as Amâncio and Santos (2021), Charles and Thébaud (2018), EIGE (2022), Gupta and Sharma (2003), Saavedra (2010), and Teixeira and Casaca (2020) have shown in their work on the structural factors under- pinning gender disparities in STEM fields. CONCLUSION This comparative policy analysis of gender equality in STEM higher education in India, Portugal and Serbia makes it possible to answer the two research questions from this study, firstly, by identifying the policies/initiatives and national mechanisms promoting and supporting women’s participation in STI and STEM higher education in India, Por- tugal and Serbia, and secondly, by analysing how they address gender issues in STI and STEM in higher education by applying the SAGA Framework to structure these policy analyses. Although each country has different document typologies – India has national leg- islation, while Portugal and Serbia have national strategies and corresponding action plans as their primary mechanisms for promoting gender equality – the selected doc- uments give a macro level perspective of the research topic and allowed comparison juxtaposing them. In India, Portugal and Serbia, there is a common observation of the inadequate achievement of STI GOLs, particularly those aimed at enhancing access to and retention of women in STEM higher education. In Portugal, the policies ana- lysed include specific measures for women in STEM, whereas Serbia’s documents do not contain such direct provisions. These findings suggest that all three countries have national policies designed to enhance gender equality in general, but measures specific to STEM are often integrated within broader gender equality frameworks instead of being independent initiatives. This indicates a necessity for a stronger focus on STEM in national gender policies. AS_2025_1_FINAL.indd 40 5. 05. 2025 11:10:25 41Women in Science, Technology and Innovation, and Stem Higher Education REFERENCES  Amâncio, L., & Santos, M. H. (2021). Gender equality and modernity in Portugal: An analysis of the obstacles to gender equality in highly qualified professions. 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