Dowdell T. CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE GYMNASTICS COACHING
Vol. 2 Issue 1: 15-24
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE GYMNASTICS
COACHING
Trevor Dowdell
School of Education and Professional Studies, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
Original research article
Abstract
This study is investigating the characteristics of effective sports coaching. The breadth of study method has allowed a progressively greater and a more "grounded" understanding of the characteristics of effective gymnastics coaching. The use of different information retrieval methods moving from literature review through surveys, discourse analysis and, finally, eliciting expert practitioner's overt and tacit knowledge represents a more integrated attempt to understand the characteristics of effective coaching. The use of multiple methods of knowledge elicitation was recommended to constrain the effects of knowledge type (e.g. representations versus declarations; overt versus tacit understandings) and task-method-investigator moderators. This study produced a key list of gymnastic coaching attributions, these being planning, effective teaching, having sport specific knowledge, goal setting and "envisioned" excellence in an integrated practice. Other identified common tasks reflected learned practices while on-the-job. These tasks were inter-personal communication, leadership, "spotting", being able to visually analyze skill practice, predict desired outcomes and monitoring students.
Keywords: gymnastics, effective coaching, key list.
INTRODUCTION
This study is the third in a series of pilot studies investigating the characteristics of effective sports coaching. Each of the three pilot studies has investigated the characteristics of effective gymnastic coaching using different data collection and analytical methods. The breadth of study method has allowed a progressively greater and a more "grounded" understanding of the characteristics of effective coaching. This highlights the relevance of the use of a range of research paradigms that can reveal more findings about phenomena, than would a reliance on a single research perspective (Schulman, 1986).
The initial study comprised a survey of over 120 gymnastic coaches Australia wide and an extensive review of the Literature. The Literature Review list of
characteristics of effective coaching was, in the main, a list of tasks of coaching. The Literature review gleaned representational data (a list of tasks in context).
The second study investigated the opinions of a sample of expert coaches and their athletes from a group of top performing clubs in the State of Queensland. Data was collected via interview and the transcripts were analyzed using the Member Categorization Analysis (MCA) technique as described by Baker (1997) and Silverman (1993). The attributions derived from the second's study's interview analysis present a different perspective of effective coaching in sports classes. The coaches placed importance on the representative core culture of their classes, as well as the committed and inspirational nature of the
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coach. Many of the less highly ranked attributions (but never the less identified through the interviews) such as parents and gymnast are happy, gymnast & coaches having fun, and gymnast respecting coaches suggest the importance of an effective social and psychological climate to effective gymnastic classes.
This present study continues with the same sample of expert coaches as in the previous study, but elicits their tacit knowledge of the characteristics of effective gymnastics coaching using concept mapping and the use of repertory grid analysis. There is a reasonably large field of representational literature on what accounts for effective coaching, but very few examples found of a constructivist approach to studying coaching knowledge and experience (McGaha 2000, Spencer 2001 and Turner 2001). These few studies using a variety of qualitative methods (observation, reflective journals, interviews via the "Delphi" method, and stimulated recall) have led to some evident suggestions for better or more effective coaching competencies and concomitant education. Practical experience as opposed to knowledge of soccer, and the use of teaching cues was found to be important by soccer coaches (Turner, 2001), while conversely knowledge of sport regulations and event management was deemed critical by cheerleaders (Spencer, 2001). McGaha (2000) described coach behaviors as being similar to expert physical educators and highlighted the use of silence as an effective coaching behavior. This current study is the first to consider the question of effective gymnastic coaching by eliciting expert's knowledge via concept mapping and the use of repertory grid analysis.
The aim of this project is to use concept mapping and repertory grid analysis to identify what expert coaches of top performing gymnastic clubs consider are the characteristics of effective coaching.
1. To describe what characterizes effective sports (gymnastic) coaching based on
the hierarchical outcomes of concept maps created by expert coaches.
2.	To describe what characterizes effective sports (gymnastic) coaching based on the cluster analysis of repertory grids created by expert coaches.
3.	To compare and contrast the described characteristics (attributions) with those of effective coaching presented in the previous pilot studies
A "user-pays" proviso for sports class participation is a recent and pervasive development that consequently demands positive results for the participating gymnasts.. Providing effective instruction for the student's potential growth through competitive gymnastics is a primary goal of each gymnastic club. Expectations may be varied, but it might be assumed that parents expect value for money, and that their child learns while having fun. The importance of the question of what constitutes effective coaching has not diminished, but increased over time.
Gymnastics class activity is heavily reliant on coach locus of control. Gymnastics is among the most complex (if not the most complex) of human physical endeavors (Salmela, Petiot, Halle and Regnier, 1980). A gymnastics coach is responsible for a lengthy period of instructing hundreds upon hundreds of varied and intricate skills to each of their students. The mastery of these skills would be impossible without the integrated control of the coach. (Dowdell, 2002a). It can be suggested that an "effective" coach can have a positive influence on class (skill learning) outcomes.
Often, an expert gymnastic coach is not fully aware of their tacit knowledge of effective coaching. A gymnastics coach's tacit knowledge, as well as their explicit (or easily verbalized) knowledge can be of great value to other practitioners. Effective transfer of tacit knowledge generally requires personal contact and trust. Eliciting expert gymnastic coach's knowledge of effective coaching via concept mapping and the use of repertory grid analysis can play
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an important role in defining what is effective gymnastic coaching.
Knowledge is central to human performance, and eliciting this knowledge is critical to understanding human performance. The traditional model of applying theory into practice in a "real-world" trial application has been progressively challenged. McMeniman, Cumming, Wilson, Stevenson, and Sim (2002) suggest that this applied research model may not be in accord with the realities of practice. They support a theory-practice model that is reflective of and informs about actual practice settings. Hence the use of "knowledge-in-action" investigative methods.
Research into sports' performance and training behavior over the second half of the twentieth century has been heavily influenced by positivist research methodology and a coach or athlete centered construct. Sport skill was to be "coached" and must therefore draw heavily on physiological and bio-mechanical review, with scant regard for the social psychology of the sport experience (Potrac, Brewer, Jones, Armour and Hoff 2000; Jones, Armour, and Potrac, 2002). The paucity of constructivist examinations of effective sports classes and teaching may have been a result of the popularity of personality surveys and quantitative measurement in sports settings. This is not to say that such investigations have been without merit - on the contrary. However, more varied methods of investigation of sports class settings; such as the case study approach, discursive analysis, and knowledge elicitation protocols may enrich the explanation of what constitutes effective sports coaching.
The variety of tools to elicit and model knowledge-in-action brings with them context, process and interpretative limitations. Interviews and observations, among the most frequently used of all methods, are useful for understanding broad aspects of knowledge-in-action. Stimulated re-call through use of video playback allows
the knowledge elicitation process to be enhanced by a delving into the "cognitive world" of the reflective practitioner. The use of multiple methods of knowledge elicitation is recommended to constrain the effects of knowledge type (e.g. representations versus declarations; overt versus tacit understandings) and task-method-investigator moderators (Cooke, 1999). Examples of these moderators to valid investigation can be interpretation of observed practice versus practitioner recall, and sequence and content limitations of interviews.
In this series of pilot studies the use of very different information retrieval methods moving from literature review through surveys, discourse analysis and, finally, eliciting expert practitioner's overt and tacit knowledge represents a more integrated attempt to understand the characteristics of effective coaching. Concept mapping and the use of repertory grids continue this process of connecting to the understandings and knowledge-in-action of competent practitioners. Concept mapping is a technique for externalizing concepts (in the form of propositions), and the relationships between concepts (Novak and Gowin, 1984). Simply put, concept mapping can show how an expert practitioner "organizes" their knowledge (Artiles and McClafferty, 1998). Concept mapping has been used to assess the veracity of recently acquired knowledge, to discover the links between "old" and "new" knowledge, as an evaluation tool, as a tool for reflection of changes in knowledge based on experience, and as a method for eliciting the expert's linked propositions about a topic or phenomena.
The basis for the use of repertory grid knowledge elicitation can be found in the work of Kelly's personal construct theories (1955). His essential conjecture was that; "A person's processes are psychologically channeled by the way in which he anticipates events" (Kelly, 1955, p.46). Kelly suggested that we all develop dichotomous "constructs" which are the
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basis for distinctive behavior. The repertory grid introduces a means of eliciting a respondent's knowledge by having them classify a set of significant other persons in terms of the respondent's personal constructs (Gaines and Shaw, 2002, 2007). This method attempts to elicit conceptual structures about phenomena indirectly. That is to say, without overtly eliciting concepts and their relationship. This tacit elicitation of knowledge is a useful addition to an integrated approach to understanding practitioner knowledge-in- action.
METHODS
The settings for this study were five gymnastic training organizations. Selection of these clubs was dependent on being ranked in the top dozen clubs (from approximately 90 women's gymnastics clubs in number) in the State and ease of entry and ability to interview key staff. One of the clubs is based in a regional area, while the other four are in the metropolitan area of south-east Queensland, Australia.
Each expert coach was given sufficient, but brief, instructions on constructing a concept map to answer the given question, "What do you understand as the important characteristics of effective gymnastics coaching?" The expert's conceptualizations were augmented with brief interviews conducted during the concept map constructions. Data from the concept maps were analyzed to identify commonalties. Concepts were, in the main, hierarchically presented as super-ordinate, ordinate and sub-ordinate concepts. This allowed a weighted comparison to be made between the five expert's concept maps.
The repertory grid protocol was administered as described by Hopper (1999). The WebGrid-2 software (Gaines and Shaw, 2002) was used to produce a cluster analysis (correlation) among the elements that described the five constructs of sample coaches. The characteristics of the "coach I want to become" gives a
potential list of effective coaching characteristics that may otherwise not be elicited by more representative means.
In previous pilot studies, a literature review of effective sports coaching and teaching articles from 1973 to 1995 was carried out by the author for publication (Dowdell, 2002b). Key effective coaching characteristics were collated and tabled. The question of the characteristics of effective coaching was again put to a cohort of expert coaches (five of who participated in this current study). Their interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed and analyzed using the Member Categorization Analysis (MCA) technique as described by Baker (1997). Each coach interviewee ranked the list of randomly ordered effective class attributions. The rankings were weighted so as to allow the addition of each to achieve a final score total (weighted ranking 1st= x17, 2nd= x16, 3rd= x15, 4th= x14, 5th= x13, 6th= x12, and so on) and a hierarchical list of effective coaching attributions.
The characteristics of effective gymnastics coaching discovered in the knowledge elicitation protocols of this study are tabled with information gleaned from the literature review and MCA.
The selection of expert coaches was non-random, and is a limitation in research method. The small number of expert coach respondents limits the generalizability of the report's findings. The absence of formalized and transcribed interviews with each of the expert practitioners following the development of their concept map has limited the depth of analysis of the concept maps.
RESULTS
The given super-ordinate concepts of effective coaching were of a coaching practice that is value-based and "vision" driven, with a clear grasp of the all-encompassing implementation of the process. Included are the ordinate concepts of having sport-specific knowledge, being an effective teacher, being well planned and organized, and leading.
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Dowdell T. CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE GYMNASTICS COACHING
Vol. 2 Issue 1: 15-24
Table 1. Listed and ranked weighted effective coaching concepts in descending order compared with the list of attributions of effective coaching discovered from a previous MCA study and the Literature review of effective coaching.
Listed and ranked (weighted )	Final ranking of Attributions		Attributions of effective sport	
effective coaching attributions from	of an effective sport (gymnastic) class - from		coaching - from a Literature review (Dowdell, 2002)	
practitioner's concept maps	MCA (Dowdell, 2002)			
1. Planning	1.	Classes demonstrate core culture (represents Goals/Objectives, Values)	1.	Provision of a totally planned system (11)
2. Effective (Competent)	2.	Coach is enthusiastic,	2.	Good (interpersonal)
Teaching		inspirational and committed to excellence		communication (10)
3. Sport specific knowledge (=2nd )	3.	Coach prepares Programs well	3.	Knowledge of the specific sport (9)
4. Goal setting	4.	Coach committed to measurable class change & outcomes	4.	Transfer of control to the group/athlete (8)
5. Has Big Picture (=4th)	5.	Coach In control & In charge	5.	Maximization of the instructional process (7)
6. "Do" - implementation	6.	Set and review fitness-skill goals	6.	Maximization of direction (6)
7. Has a vision of excellence	7.	Adjust or re-do program	7.	High levels of control (6)
(=6th)		to meet class needs		
8. Inter-personal	8.	Students demonstrates	8.	Maximization of
communication		changing performance		productivity (6)
9. Gives and accepts feedback (=8th)	9.	Maximum activity & participation	9.	Maximization of progress information / feedback (6)
10. Organized (=8th)	10. Coaches provide feedback to every student		10. Skill analysis (6)	
11. Leadership	11. Gymnast respect coaches and show positive attitude		11. Knowledge of sports sciences (5)	
12. Knowledge and use of good physical environment (=11th)	12. Gymnasts treated as individuals		12. Maximization of positive experiences (5)	
13. Understands and correct	13. Parents happy with and		13. Enthusiasm and energy in	
performance technique (=11th)		enjoying service		coaching (5)
14. Visually analyses (models) (=11th)	14. Same kids attending happy - not demoralized		14. Maximization of athlete's intrinsic motivation (4)	
15. Programming	15. Gym uncluttered and neat		15. Philosophy (of program) reflected in objectives (4)	
16. "Spotting"	16. Gymnast and coaches having fun		16. Set objectives (4)	
17. Monitor and evaluate	17. Low Noise level		17. Dedicated coach (3)	
students				
18. Empathetic coach (3)				
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Listed and ranked weighted effective coaching concepts in descending order are listed in Table 1 and compared with the list of attributions of effective coaching discovered from the previous MCA study and the Literature review of effective coaching. Each of the expert coaches expressed particular characteristics of the
"coach they would like most to become" in the repertory grid responses. Common effective coaching attributions were being sport knowledgeable, being well planned, predicting and getting results, hard working, and being able to visually analyze (skills). The repertory grid cluster analysis of these responses is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Elements of effective gymnastics coaching showing higher correlation.
Elements that correlate 100%, 95%, 90% and the lowest correlation of 80% or less
COACH	100%	95%	90%	80% or less
Expert	Well-planned	Skilled AND	Knowledgeable	Confidence
coach #1	AND Adaptive	Inspirational	AND Skilled and	and
			Inspirational AND	Energetic, AND
			Well-planned, Adaptive	All others
Expert	Analytical eye	Useful planning	Useful planning,	NA
coach #2	AND Predict and	AND	analytical eye, Predict	
	achieve results	Analytical eye	and achieve results AND Knowledgeable	
		Predict and	Prevents injuries,	
		achieve results		
			Creates champion	
			thinking AND	
			Open to ideas.	
Expert	Initiative,	Complete	NA	NA
coach #3	thorough	planning		
	knowledge AND	commitment and		
	life long learning	hard work AND		
		A quality		
	Being committed	character		
	AND hard-			
	working			
Expert	NA	Seeks knowledge	Good visual analysis	NA
coach #4		AND motivational	AND successful	
			Humorous and assertive	
Expert	Structured	Hard working	Good time management	Good time
coach #5	lessons, good	AND	AND clear short	management
	class controls and	Structured	instructions.	AND
	outcome oriented	lessons, good	Hard working AND	Relates well to
		class control and	clear short instructions	children
outcome oriented
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DISCUSSION
The selected coach practitioners are each similarly expert in the field of gymnastics coaching. However, each "organized" differently their concepts of the important characteristics of effective gymnastics coaching. Coach #1, #2, and #4 clearly saw coaching practice as integrated and vision driven, while coach #3 saw key values predicating practice in a simple map beginning with "Being" and "Doing" the role of an effective coach. Coach #5 reflected a three-dimensional model that was difficult to justify in a two-dimensional concept map. This coach (the business owner) reflected the ownership and responsibility of the business of gymnastic coaching more so than the other coaches who were staff or consultants.
The weighting of concepts via hierarchical levels produced a key list of effective coaching attributions being planning, effective teaching, having sport specific knowledge, goal setting and "visioned" excellence in an integrated practice. This list corresponds with the literature review and survey findings that suggests totally planned systems, sport specific knowledge, and maximization of the instructional process are among the top five characteristics of effective coaching.
However, it is the differences between the three lists in table 1 that are enlightening. The Literature Review list of characteristics of effective coaching is mainly a list of tasks of coaching. Only numbers 2 and 18 refer directly to the interactional nature of coaching. The attributions derived from the MCA and concept mapping present a different perspective of the "world" of effective gymnastic classes. There are common tasks between the Literature Review findings and the MCA findings highlighted as important, such as a well-planned coaching program. However, the MCA outcomes stress more of the social-psychological interactions among coach, student and class. For example, interpersonal communication, inspired leadership, "spotting" and monitoring
students are aspects of learned practice that cannot be accomplished outside the world of practitioner experience.
This difference may point to the Literature review gleaning representational data (list of tasks out of context), while the methods used in this study brought forth the practitioner's everyday understandings of their "world" of gymnastic coaching. Interestingly, the expert coaches repertory grid -responses to the question "the coach I would like most to become" showed a commonality among coaching attributions. Being knowledgeable and having a complete and useful coaching plan were common to four coaches. The ability to visually analyze skill practice and predict desired outcomes, as well as being hard working was common in at least two of the five practitioners.
The cluster analysis of elements (results in Table 2) grouped comprehendible (even predictable) attributions. Examples are "well planned" and "adaptive" (coach #1), and "good time management" and "clear short Instructions" (coach #5). Of interest is some correlation between attributions that may bear future scrutiny. These are "skilled' and "inspirational" from coach #1, "prevents injuries" and "creates champion thinking" from coach #2, and "humorous" and "assertive" from coach #4. Future analysis of this type would benefit greatly by post grid response interviews as to why the practitioners selected particular bi-polar constructs and why these constructs clustered together as they did.
This current study is the first to consider the question of effective coaching by eliciting expert's tacit knowledge via concept mapping and the use of repertory grid analysis. These knowledge elicitation methods seem ideally suited to coach practitioners, as "real-world" practice is more than often reflective rather than representative of theoretical models. Past constructivist methods of effective sports practice investigation have been mostly representational (observations and document analysis) with little applicability to expert "reflection in practice" (Byra and Karp, 2000). The current knowledge-in-
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action protocols are ideally suited to further probing of the overt and tacit knowledge of expert coach practitioners. The list of attributions of effective gymnastic coaching both confirms past studies and provides a more comprehensive view by adding some key learned practices such as visual analysis of skills, "spotting", outcome predication and monitoring students.
CONCLUSION
This study is the third in a series of a pilot group of studies investigating the characteristics of effective gymnastics coaching. These studies are to establish dimensions of coaching behavior relevant to a key study to produce a measuring instrument for sports class learning climate.
Each of the three pilot studies has investigated the characteristics of effective sports (gymnastic) coaching using different data collection and analytical methods. The breadth of study method allows a progressively greater and a more "grounded" understanding of the characteristics of effective coaching. The use of very different information retrieval methods moving from literature review through surveys, discourse analysis and, finally, eliciting expert practitioner's overt and tacit knowledge represents a more integrated attempt to understand the characteristics of effective coaching. The use of multiple methods of knowledge elicitation is further recommended to constrain the effects of knowledge type (e.g. representations versus declarations; overt versus tacit understandings) and task-method-investigator moderators.
This study produced a key list of gymnastic coaching attributions, these being planning, effective teaching, having sport specific knowledge, goal setting and "envisioned" excellence in an integrated practice. Other identified common tasks reflected learned practices while on-the-job. These tasks were inter-personal communication, leadership, "spotting", being able to visually analyze skill practice, predict desired outcomes and monitoring students. Future analysis of this knowledge-
in-action elicitation type would benefit greatly by post response interviews as to why the practitioners selected particular constructs and why these constructs clustered together as they did.
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