Revija Slovenskega društva učiteljev tujega strokovnega jezika Journal of the Slovene Association of LSP Teachers ISSN: 1854-2042 2023 Letnik XVIII, številka 2 Volume XVIII, Number 2 Scripta Manent Revija Slovenskega društva učiteljev tujega strokovnega jezika Journal of the Slovene Association of LSP Teachers Letnik XVIII, številka 2/Volume XVIII, Number 2 Založnik/Published by: Slovensko društvo učiteljev tujega strokovnega jezika/The Slovene Association of LSP Teachers Glavna in odgovorna urednica/Editor in Chief: Violeta Jurković, Fakulteta za pomorstvo in promet, Univerza v Ljubljani/Faculty of Maritime Studies and Transport, University of Ljubljana Urednica/Editor: Stefania M. Maci, Univerza v Bergamu/University of Bergamo ISSN: 1854-2042 Elektronska revija/Online https://journals.uni-lj.si/scriptamanent This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (except photographs). / To delo je ponujeno pod licenco Creative Commons Priznanje avtorstva-Deljenje pod enakimi pogoji 4.0 Mednarodna licenca (izjema so fotografije). VSEBINA/CONTENTS EDITORIAL Stefania M. Maci 1 Plenarno predavanje/Keynote Speech DISCIPLINE, CULTURE AND COMMUNITY IN WRITING: GETTING SPECIFIC WITH EAP Ken Hyland 4 Izvirna znanstvena članka/Research Articles COULD ESP PRACTITIONERS HAVE AN ACTIVE ROLE IN MANAGING AND ALLEVIATING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION? Tatjana Marković, Dragica Mirković 16 ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON THE DELIVERY AND RECEPTION OF ESP EDUCATION FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS IN CROATIA Ivanka Ferčec, Yvonne Liermann-Zeljak 33 Strokovni članki/Teaching Reports ÉLABORATION D’UN COURS DE FOS MÉDICAL ET JURIDIQUE : DE L’ANALYSE DES BESOINS À L’ÉVALUATION EXTERNE DE LA FORMATION Anne-Cécile Lamy-Joswiak 46 CURRICULARE ENTWICKLUNG DES STUDIENBEGLEITENDEN DEUTSCHUNTERRICHTS IN SERBIEN – RÜCKBLICK UND AUSBLICK Karmelka Barić, Katalin Hegedűs 57 IL LESSICO ARCHITETTONICO NELL’ITALIANO DELLE ORIGINI Danijela Đorović, Slađana Stanojević 90 THE USE OF TASK-BASED LEARNING AND TEACHING IN ESP COURSES FOR TERTIARY STUDENTS OF KINESIOLOGY AND DIETETICS Barbara Jurša Potocco 107 Recenzija knjige/Book Review Danijela Đorović: Là dove il ‘sì’ suona: Italijanski jezik u istoriji umetnosti Darja Mertelj 118 1 Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023) EDITORIAL In education, teacher professional development is a cornerstone for enhancing teaching prac- tices and ultimately improving student learning outcomes. It involves structured learning ex- periences aimed at refining teaching strategies and fostering pedagogical development (Dar- ling-Hammond et al., 2017). This multi-faceted approach includes content-based instruction, active learning, collaboration, coaching, feedback and reflection. Prior to the pandemic, professional development was often characterised by intensive, episod- ic events, leaving educators struggling to effectively implement new strategies. Furthermore, the time available for professional development was a point of contention as educators often feel limited in their ability to fully engage in new strategies (Copeland, 2020). The outbreak of the pandemic led to a rapid shift to virtual platforms, resulting in a rise in innovative teaching practices and methods, and a re-evaluation of education as a whole. This is an unprecedented challenge that UNESCO (2021) emphasises, highlighting the urgent need for comprehensive and innovative approaches to professional development. Indeed, the use of virtual technolo- gies has the potential to transform professional development and promote lasting impact on teaching practice and student learning outcomes worldwide. As we navigate the post-pandem- ic landscape, it is crucial to reflect on the evolving needs of educators, particularly in specialised areas such as Language for Specific Purposes (LSP). This special issue of Scripta Manent emphasises these needs and their multifaceted expres- sions. By addressing issues such as new technologies, equity and evidence-based practices, our aim is to chart a course for LSP teacher education and professional development in the future. The issue begins with ken Hyland’s contribution, “Discipline, culture and community in writing: getting specific with EAP”, where he emphasizes the importance of understanding writing with- in its broader cultural and social contexts, particularly in academic settings. He argues that dis- ciplinary cultures significantly influence writing practices, shaping language choices and com- munication styles. Through analysing data from his research, Hyland highlights the necessity of identifying specific language features and discourse practices within academic disciplines. This specificity is crucial for effective English teaching in universities. Marković and Mirković’s paper, “Could ESP practitioners have an active role in managing and alleviating students’communication apprehension (CA)?”, investigates the role of ESP practi- tioners in managing students’ communication apprehension (CA). By analyzing self-perceived CA scores before and after intervention, the research highlights the effectiveness of anxiety-re- duction techniques integrated into ESP curriculum design. It advocates for ESP instructors to play an active role in developing students’ communication skills. DOI: 10.4312/SM.18.2.1-3 2 Maci / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 1–3 In the third contribution, “Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on the delivery and reception of ESP education for engineering students in Croatia”, Ferčec and Liermann-Zeljak examine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on English for Specific Purposes (ESP) education for engi- neering students in Croatia. Through surveys of students and instructors, they identify chal- lenges faced during the transition to online teaching and emphasize the importance of training for instructors to adapt effectively to online platforms. Lamy-Joswiak’s teaching report, “Élaboration d’un cours de fos medical et juridique: de l’analyse des besoins a l’evaluation externe de la formation”, focuses on the design of French for specific purposes (FSP) courses, particularly in the fields of law and medicine. The author discusses the methodological framework required for course design, emphasizing the importance of needs analysis, discursive analysis, and the use of authentic materials. The paper also highlights the challenges faced by teachers, such as defining the scope of the course and facilitating under- standing of complex concepts in multiple disciplines. Barić and Hegedüs explore the development of German language teaching curricula in Serbian universities in their paper “Curriculare Entwicklung des studienbegleitenden Deutschunterrichts in Serbien – Rückblick und Ausblick”. Theis contribution assesses the implementation of a frame- work curriculum published in 2010 and identifies challenges in incorporating its principles. The study reveals a focus on professional and subject-relatedness in curricula but indicates a need for further efforts to improve language competencies and alignment with market demands. The teaching report by Đorović and Stanojević, “Il lessico architettonico nell’italiano delle orig- ini”, explores architectural terminology in early Italian texts. Using the TLIO corpus, the au- thors analyse morphological, etymological, and semantic aspects of architectural terms. Their findings contribute to understanding the evolution of architectural language, emphasizing the importance of early linguistic influences. Jurše Potocco’s teaching report, “The use of task-based learning and teaching in ESP courses for tertiary students of kinesiology and dietetics”, discusses the application of task-based learning and teaching in ESP courses for tertiary students of Kinesiology and Dietetics. It outlines various language learning tasks used in these courses and reflects on their effectiveness and challeng- es from the teacher’s perspective. The last contribution is by Darja Mertelj, offering a review of the volume Là dove il ‘sì’ suona: Italijanski jezik u istoriji umetnosti written by Danijela Đorović, showing interesting insights about such diachronic analysis of how the Italian artistic language emerged during the Renaissance, both as an elite written language and as a language spoken by artisans. Its evolution was influ- enced by key figures who recognised the autonomy of the artistic language. This special issue of Scripta Manent serves as a testament to our commitment to addressing these needs head-on. In essence, the post-pandemic era presents us with an opportunity to redefine teacher professional development. It is a call to action to embrace innovation, foster collaboration, and prioritize the well-being of educators. Only by doing so can we ensure that teachers are equipped with the skills and support they need to navigate the challenges of today and shape the future of education. Stefania M. Maci Editor 3 Maci / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 1–3 References Copeland, K. (2020). Professional Learning and Teaching in the Post-Pandemic World. https://sites.udel. edu/eli/2021/05/20/professional-learning-and-teaching-in-the-post-pandemic-world/ Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective Teacher Professional Development. Learning Policy Institute. UNESCO. (2021). The Teaching Profession in the Post-pandemic Era. https://webarchive.unesco. org/20240306190439/https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/wtd-2021-5-oct-regional_webi- nar_for_central_america-cn-en.pdf 4 Ken Hyland School of Education and Lifelong Learning University of East Anglia DISCIPLINE, CULTURE AND COMMUNITY IN WRITING: GETTING SPECIFIC WITH EAP Abstract It is almost a cliché now to say that writing (and reading) are not abstract skills but only make sense within wider social and cultural practices. This means that we must see the social context of an event as more than just the immediate environment surrounding it. We have to look beyond specific acts of writing to recognise how wider institutions and social groups influence them. We must, in other words, see communities as cultures. Culture is a key dimension of writing and of writing differences, and it can influence every aspect of language use. In this paper I will explore some of the ways that disciplinary cultures influence writing in academic contexts by looking at repeated patterns of language choices as evidence of specific cultural beliefs and practices. I discuss some data which supports the importance of specificity by drawing on some of my research over the last decade, arguing that identifying the particular language features, discourse practices, and communicative skills of target groups is central to teaching English in universities. Keywords: specific EAP, lexis, teacher perceptions, disciplinary variation, assignments Paper received: 01.08.2023 Paper revised: 04.12.2023 Paper accepted: 04.12.2023 Paper published: 15.06.2024 Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023) Keynote Speech DOI: 10.4312/SM.18.2.4-15 5 Hyland / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 4–15 1 Introduction A text is a projection of a writer’s shared social world; a culture which he or she creates and reinforces through use of particular approved discourses. The use of corpora can help us see aspects of these cultures by revealing patterns of everyday language use. This can help us to: 1. understand something of the communicative and scholarly practices of particular communities; 2. underline the importance of communicating as an insider by identifying the familiar ways by which insiders talk about reality. In this paper I will argue for the importance of discipline in academic writing by showing that in writing we represent ourselves as members of academic cultures, and, by implication, for the need to adopt specific approaches when teaching English for Academic Purposes. 2 Culture, community and discipline Every community has its own distinctive culture. This culture is characterised by an ideologi- cal schema which influences its self-identification, knowledge, goals and conduct and which is expressed in the conventional actions of its members, particularly in their use of language. So texts are written or spoken to be understood within certain cultural contexts and thus re- veal shared group values and beliefs through their routine rhetorical patterns. A community, then, is more than a group with shared goals, but a way of ‘being in the world’, a means of interacting with colleagues and creating certain values and understandings. Essentially, com- munities provide the contexts where we craft our identities, cement relationships, achieve recognition and acquire the specialized discourse competencies to participate as members. The idea that disciplines should be seen as communities, however, is contentious. Discipline is a concept under attack from post modernism, which sees fragmentation and the collapse of disciplinary coherence (e.g. Gergen, & Thatchenkery, 1996), and from institutional changes such as the emergence of modular and practice-based degrees. Disciplines constantly evolve, their boundaries shift and dissolve and research problems often encourage multidisciplinary treatments. Each one, moreover, often embraces a range of specialisms, theories, methods and subject matters (Becher, & Trowler, 2000; Hyland, 2015). Disciplines, however, have a real existence for those who work and study in them and mem- bers have a sense of being part of something with others. This is done through communica- tion and, most centrally, through writing. Writing embodies basic assumptions concerning the nature of the world, so Wignell, Martin and Eggins (1993), for instance, characterize the sciences as reworking experience technically by establishing a range of specialist terms which are ordered to explain how things happen or exist. The humanities, like history and philoso- phy on the other hand, employ abstraction rather than technicality, moving from instances to generalizations by gradually shifting away from particular contexts to build ever-more ab- stract interpretations of events. Discipline is a term that helps us see academic cultures by joining writers, texts and readers together, providing the context within which we learn to communicate and to interpret each other’s talk in academic settings. Students do not learn 6 Hyland / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 4–15 in a cultural vacuum but are judged on their use of discourses that insiders are likely to find effective and persuasive. This underlines the contradiction in perceptions of EAP which often exist in universities and underpin a hierarchical relationship between content and language where language is viewed simultaneously as: something minor, to be dealt with in the final drafts of papers, and major, as engaging critically with intellectually challenging subject matter in a second language requiring an arduous process of developing linguistic proficiency’ (Northcott 2019, p. 218). For some faculty staff, however, the hierarchy is embedded in their thinking of academic work. The divergent philosophies of functionalism in EAP and realism in science can lead to the subordination of EAP to subject content. In what follows I challenge this hierarchical view and draw on four very different sources to show how language varies across disciplinary cultures, looking at preferred lexis, genre features, identity claims in bios, and undergraduate writing assignments. All reinforce the importance of specificity as a core principle which should inform our understanding and teaching of EAP. 3 Lexical variation Perhaps most obviously, each discipline draws on different lexical resources to create spe- cialized knowledge: they have different ways of naming and describing the world, and this makes it difficult to identify a common academic vocabulary. University students need to do a great deal of reading, presenting them with a huge vocabulary load. As readers, they need to understand around 95–98% of the words in a text in order to comprehend what they read, and a high proportion of this lexis is discipline specific (Hyland, & Tse, 2007). As a result, sev- eral discipline-specific vocabulary lists have been created, for example, for those studying plumbing (Coxhead, & Demecheleer, 2018) and agriculture (Munoz, 2015). Students are not only likely to encounter completely different content items but attempts to create general academic word lists suitable for students across a range of disciplines have also met with limited success. The Academic Vocabulary List (Gardner, & Davies, 2014) dis- criminates between academic and other registers and covers an impressive 14% of a 120-mil- lion-word academic corpus but does not help students with the fact that words may change meanings when they cross disciplines. A study by Hyland and Tse (2007), for example, shows that the so-called universal ‘semi-technical’ items which make up the earlier Academic Word List, actually have widely different frequencies and preferred meanings in different fields. For example: • ‘consist’ means ‘stay the same’ in social sciences and ‘composed of’ in the sciences. • ‘volume’ means book in applied linguistics and ‘quantity’ in biology. • ‘Abstract’ means ‘remove’ in engineering and ‘theoretical’ in the social sciences. So, words which seem to be the same have different meanings across different fields. Thus in a study of a 6.7 million word corpus of texts from economics and finance, Ha and Hyland 7 Hyland / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 4–15 (2017) identified over 800 words which had a meaning specific to those fields, even if they had a meaning in general use too, such as asset, interest and profit. The question of polyse- mous meanings becomes even more complex when we consider how everyday words take on discipline specific meanings through preferred collocations, such as ‘settling time’ and ‘load factor’ in engineering. 4 Genre features A second area where language evidence supports the need for specific EAP teaching is in gen- re features. Rhetorical choices vary enormously across disciplines because they express very different epistemological and social practices (e.g. Swales, 2004). This means that students learn their disciplines as they learn its discourses. While the hard-soft distinction is a blunt instrument to elaborate these differences, it helps reveal some of the ways that authoring in- volves writers relating their rhetorical choices to wider social and academic understandings. Here I refer to three of these feature differences. Hedges and directives in a 1.4-million-word corpus of 120 research articles in 8 disciplines (Hyland, 1996, 2002) and bundles in a 4-mil- lion-word corpus of 120 research articles and 120 post-graduate dissertations (Hyland, 2008). 4.1 Hedges First, hedges index the context in which they are used. These are devices which withhold complete commitment to a proposition, implying that a claim is based on plausible reasoning rather than certain knowledge. They indicate the degree of confidence the writer thinks it might be wise to give a claim while opening a discursive space for readers to dispute inter- pretations. Because they represent the writer’s direct involvement in a text, they are twice as common in humanities and social science papers than in hard sciences. We find more statements like this: (1) The existence of such networks did not go unnoticed by contemporaries, and it seems sensible to assume the men concerned were probably not unreflective about this pat- terned conduct either. (Soc) (2) With hindsight, we believe it might have been better to have presented the question- naire bilingually.(AL) The fact that there is less control of variables, more diversity of research outcomes, and fewer clear bases for accepting claims than in the sciences means that writers can’t report research with the same confidence of shared assumptions. So papers rely far more on rec- ognizing alternative voices. Arguments have to be expressed more cautiously by using more hedges. Some disciplines such as philosophy, literary criticism, and cultural studies, in fact, hold explicit reflection and subjectivity as a central part of their ideology. In the hard sciences, on the other hand, positivist epistemologies mean that the authority of the individual is subordinated to the authority of the text and facts are meant to ‘speak for themselves’. This means that writers often disguise their interpretative activities behind linguistic objectivity. They downplay their personal role to suggest that results would be the same whoever conducted the research. Less frequent use of hedges is one way of minimising 8 Hyland / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 4–15 the researcher’s role. Another is the preference for modals over cognitive verbs as these are more often used without explicit author subjects. So we tend to find far more hedges like 3 and 4 than 5 and 6 as they do not attribute agency to the researcher: (3) The deviations at high frequencies may have been caused by the noise measure- ments… (EE) (4) This shift could be partially caused by solvent-exposed helical segments… (BIO) (5) We interpret this as a potential consequence of the earlier decision. (AL) (6) It seems sensible to assume the men concerned were probably not unreflective about this patterned conduct. (Soc) Scientists tend to be concerned with generalisations rather than individuals, so greater weight is put on the methods, procedures and equipment used rather than the argument. In other words, claims for the originality of research have to be balanced against the beliefs of readers, taking into account their likely objections, background knowledge and rhetorical expectations. Modals are one way of helping to reinforce a view of science as an impersonal, inductive enterprise while allowing scientists to see themselves as discovering truth rather than constructing it. 4.2 Directives Another feature which reflects the difference between hard and soft knowledge areas regard- ing the extent to which succinctness and precision are valued, or even possible: directives. These instruct the reader to perform an action or to see things in a way determined by the writer and are expressed through imperatives (like consider, note, and imagine) and obligation modals (such as must, should and ought). They direct readers to 3 main kinds of activity: • textual acts direct readers to another part of the text or to another text; • physical acts direct readers how to carry out some action in the real-world; • cognitive acts instruct readers how to interpret an argument, explicitly positioning readers by encouraging them to note, concede or consider some argument in the text. Generally, explicit engagement is a feature of the soft disciplines, where writers are less able to rely on the explanatory value of accepted procedures, but directives are a potentially risky tactic as they instruct readers to act or see things in a certain way. As a result, if we exclude Philosophy, 60% of directives in the soft knowledge texts direct readers to a reference or ta- ble rather than telling them how they should interpret an argument. So examples like these are common: (7) See Steuer 1983 for a discussion of other contingencies’ effects. (Marketing) (8) Look at Table 2 again for examples of behavioristic variables. (Marketing) (9) For transcription conventions please refer to the Appendix. (App. Ling) Argument in the hard knowledge fields, in contrast, is formulated in a highly standardised code. The linear, problem-oriented nature of the natural sciences enables research to occur within an established framework, allowing authors to presuppose considerable background knowledge 9 Hyland / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 4–15 among their readers. Directives in the sciences allow writers to guide readers explicitly through an argument, emphasising what they should attend to and the way they should understand it: (10) What has to be recognized is that these issues... (Mech Eng) (11) Consider the case where a very versatile milling machine of type M5... (Elec Eng) (12) A distinction must be made between cytogenetic and molecular resolution. (Biology) 4.3 Bundles The final feature of academic genres I want to mention are lexical bundles – or frequently occurring word sequences. These are a key way of shaping text meanings and contributing to our sense of distinctiveness and naturalness in a register. So collocations like as a result of and it should be noted that, help identify a text as belonging to an academic register while in pursuance of, and in accordance with mark out a legal text. The most common bundles in academic writing are on the other hand, at the same time and in the case of, although there are considerable variations across disciplines. Of the four dis- ciplines in the corpus, the Electrical engineering texts were most dependent on bundles and used many sequences not found in the other disciplines. This could be because technical communication is relatively abstract and graphical. Language constructs an argument by linking data or findings in routinely patterned ways and so Engineering relies on formulaic sequences far more and uses more of them for stylistic variation. There are also considerable differences across disciplines in the 4-word bundles themselves. In fact, there are just two forms in all 4 disciplines (on the other hand and in the case of) and just a handful in 3. In fact, over half of all items in the top 50 bundles in each discipline don’t occur in the top 50 of any other discipline. The greatest similarities are between cognate fields. Business Studies and Applied Linguistics share 18 items in the top 50 with four se- quences exclusive to these two fields. Biology and Electrical Engineering have 16 bundles in common, again with four bundles which were not in the social science lists. These bundles are exclusive to papers in broad areas: Exclusive to social sciences On the basis of in the context of the relationship between the it is important to Exclusive to sciences it was found that is shown in figure as shown in figure is due to the the presence of the There are also differences in the functions that writers in different fields ask bundles to per- form. Here we find a split between research-oriented bundles, referring to real world activ- ities, comprising about half of all those in the sciences; and text-oriented bundles, focusing on the argument itself – comprising half those in the social sciences. These choices reflect the argument patterns in the two domains. Participant bundles concern the writer or reader of the text and are twice as common in the discursive fields. 10 Hyland / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 4–15 These are text-oriented examples from the social sciences: (13) The term ‘linguistics’ might be too narrow in terms of the diverse knowledge-base and expertise that is required. (AL) (14) The purpose of this paper is to investigate the perceptions of consumers in the Hong Kong market toward fast food. (BS) While these bundles largely connect aspects of argument, those in the sciences point to the research and findings: (15) The structure of the coasting-point model can be divided into three areas. (Bio) (16) The DNA was precipitated in the presence of 2.5 volumes of ethanol and 0.1 volume of 3.0 M sodium acetate pH. (Bio) These convey the grounded, experimental basis of work in the hard sciences. Finally, Partici- pant bundles imply the presence of the speaker or reader more explicitly: (17) Such a dilemma may be due to the fact that they generally are unable to get support on English difficulties. (AL) (18) Nevertheless, it is possible that greater social interaction between marketing and engineering managers would be beneficial. (BS) They express a stance and modality of statements – they are twice as common in soft sciences. I could continue to look at many other features, like stance, metadiscourse, personal pro- nouns, citation practices and so on but the point is that the rhetorical practices of each dis- cipline don’t just reflect a disciplinary epistemology but help construct it. It’s clear that writers in different disciplines represent themselves, their work and their readers in different ways, with those in the humanities and social sciences taking far more personal positions than those in the sciences and engineering. 5 Disciplinary variations in tutor expectations Another major disciplinary difference is tutors’ attitudes to writing and feedback. Surprising- ly, this is a relatively under-researched area of second language writing research as we have tended to focus our interest on the views of those that teach writing rather than those for whom most writing is done. To discover something of faculty expectations about student writing I conducted an inter- view study of 20 academics, five from each of four faculties comprising 8 disciplines at HKU (Hyland, 2013). The findings show broad differences in the attitudes and practices of these teachers. All teachers set written assignments – always as assessment and often as the only assessment. This is the principal means of establishing a visible and measurable form of quality control while developing skills of disciplinary appropriate description, argument and critique. Teachers in the soft knowledge fields, however, were agreed that this is not just a measure of quality control, but of developing skills of disciplinary argument. These quotes give some flavour of this: 11 Hyland / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 4–15 Writing is absolutely key, it embodies the discipline: the main discipline product. Teaching History is about teaching students to write. What I expect them to gain ultimately, as well as the ability to express themselves, is the ability to engage more effectively with discourses in the past. You can’t do that unless you can articulate precisely what the discourse means. (History) I think writing is very important. It reflects the ways which students structure and express their thoughts. So, I am less concerned about correct spelling and grammar, what I am very concerned about is teaching them to write logical essays which take a research question and address it in a structured and thoughtful way with evidence and logical conclusions. (Business) For teachers in the sciences writing was less important and the fact that students were writ- ing in a second language was often treated as a minor issue: If they have problems with language errors, that means they are not working hard enough. They are 21 years olds. I mean they should have a high level of ability al- ready, not just what they have learnt since coming here. When I assess their writing I have to treat everybody equally so grade grammar less, a very small percentage, maybe 5%. (Engineering) While science instructors recognised the difficulties students had in gaining control over dis- ciplinary writing conventions, they were more likely to blame their lack of experience in using academic English than their L2 backgrounds. Simply, many recognised that students’ prior learning experiences could not provide them with the skills required to successfully develop the kinds of elaborated arguments and expositions which are set as assignments. This was typically attributed to the school system: I found when students come in, organizing and making a clear argument was in fact pretty weak. Most of them haven’t experience writing or reading reports when they are in high school. (Biology) The biggest problem is they are not responsible for every sentence they write. May- be this is the writing they do in school? But it is very important that every sentence is evidence for Engineering or professional writing, like in a court. But they write it not to the point. That is not good technical writing. (Engineering) Looking at the feedback itself, teachers in the humanities and social sciences tended to offer more explicit commentary on language. These comments, moreover, were largely seen as aspects of disciplinary writing rather than just aiming for correct grammar. They seemed to be seeking an outcome of their feedback and teaching which involved students gaining a con- ceptual understanding of the discipline which included both ideational and rhetorical aspects. I suppose my feedback focuses on trying to help them clearly state a claim or idea and then how they can develop it in an appropriate style. So, it’s about encouraging clarity of thought and clearly defining a question to discuss. (English) Well, when I think about giving feedback, I reflect on what I received as a student as I would think that the comments didn’t reflect the amount of work I put into the project. So when I give feedback, I break it down, I give them feedback on the overall 12 Hyland / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 4–15 impact of the piece, the argument in an essay. Then I would look at whether they got the basic structure, and then look at content. What about historical content? Is it accurate? Has it been persuasively argued? Are they thinking the right way? (History) In the sciences, however, feedback was typically less frequent and more cursory, often just ticks or question marks and more commonly just a grade. The texts seem hurriedly checked, rather than carefully read. Tutors rarely required drafts and gave no feedback. Actually I don’t ask for a draft. Their report is an assignment and they are graded on this. If we give them a chance to write a draft, if we correct a draft, we are just giving a grade to our own work. We don’t write their exams for them so why write their reports? (Engineering) In fact, tutors often delegated feedback to teaching assistants and several did not see im- proving students’ disciplinary literacy as their job at all: They go to the postgraduates first and then to me if necessary. If the students send them their drafts then the demonstrator will give them feedback. But this isn’t com- pulsory. It’s up to them. (Chemistry) How helpful is the written feedback for improving students work? I’ve no idea. I don’t teach them how to write. They go to academic writing classes I think. I don’t think my feedback would help them to write. (Engineering) While reflecting the ideas of individual faculty members, the views reported here neverthe- less display clear patterns of attitudes and practices towards writing by tutors acting as com- munity members. Again, there are differences which underpin the need to adopt a specific approach to English language teaching as a way of best meeting the needs of students. 6 Variation in assignment types Perhaps specificity is most obvious in the kinds of writing that students are asked to do. In most higher education contexts students are not attending academic writing courses in or- der to learn to “write”; they are learning to write for purposes which lay outside the English class. For them, writing is a tool they need in order to participate in their disciplines and to demonstrate their learning to readers in those disciplines. Writing therefore contributes to learning in areas other than writing itself: instruction relates to the acquisition of an academic competence in both disciplinary knowledge and the ability to discuss it appropriately. This kind of writing often takes a very different form to that which goes on in writing classes, evoking a distinction made by Manchón (2011) between Learning- to-Write (LW), where students are learning to express themselves in writing, and Writing-to- Learn (WL), where they are using writing to develop their expertise in the practices of the discipline. A Writing-to-Learn perspective, then, sees writing as a mode of learning, of both content and the way to talk about that content, which means that teaching should account for the knowledge learners already possess and be situated in the context in which it is used. The most obvious expression of this difference is the fact that different fields value different kinds of argument and set different writing tasks. Learners are required to think their way into 13 Hyland / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 4–15 their fields through writing, and professors across the curriculum seek to initiate students into these particular styles of thinking by setting specific writing assignments (e.g. Currie, 1993). Instruction in the concepts and content of a subject involves students gaining a familiarity with the norms, expectations and conventions of writing of that interpretive community and this social and epistemological diversity is the context in which second language students experi- ence writing at university. Written genres themselves become the tools by which knowledge and learning are articulated for students. Because of this, writing has come to be seen as a social practice rather than a skill and specific genres are recognised as having a powerful influ- ence on how students understand and engage with their disciplines (e.g. Lillis, 2001). Thus, the humanities and social sciences stress analysing and synthesising multiple sources while the sciences value activity-based skills like describing procedures, defining objects, and planning solutions. We also know that different fields make use of different genres, so that in their large scale corpus study of 30 disciplines in UK universities, Nesi & Gardner (2012) found 13 different “genre families”, ranging from case studies through empathy writing to reports. These differ considerably in their social purpose, genre structure and the networks they form with other genres. Even in fairly cognate fields students write quite different texts. In looking at the assignments given to medical students, for instance, Gimenez (2009) found that nursing and midwifery students were given very different writing assignments. Our own research for our ED courses has discovered that students in the Speech & Hearing sciences write reflective journals, jour- nalism students write narratives and pharmacy students produce drug profile presentations. Simply, different fields value different kinds of argument and set different writing tasks for their students. Again, this underlines the different ways students are assessed and different expectations of how they should write. 7 Conclusions The idea of disciplinary specificity has become important in EAP as we have become more sensitive to the ways students write as members of social groups. This research shows that scholarly discourse is not uniform and monolithic but an outcome of different practices and strategies, where argument and engagement are crafted within specific disciplines that have different ideas about what is worth communicating and how this should be done. The fact that subject teachers are generally unwilling, for various reasons, to teach these practices encourage EAP teachers to bring their courses as close as they can to their students’ reasons for learning English. This is likely to make teaching more effective as students will be able to make use of it in their subject classes. Equally importantly, students are likely to be more motivated if they can see that their English course is directly related to their subject course. To summarise: While many university administrators, and some faculty members, continue to see EAP as either a remedial exercise for weak students or as providing a service for more serious academic work in the disciplines, it has very little to do with topping up generic lan- guage skills. It is, in essence, about developing new kinds of literacy: providing a door to en- ter new worlds of understanding for learners. The most effective, and time-economical, EAP courses are therefore likely to be those which seek to equip students with the communicative skills to participate in particular academic cultures. 14 Hyland / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 4–15 References Becher, T., & Trowler, P. (2001). Academic Tribes and Territories: Intellectual Inquiry and the Cultures of Disciplines. SRHE and Open University Press. Coxhead, A., & Demecheleer, M. (2018). Investigating the technical vocabulary of Plumbing. English for Specific Purposes, 51, 84–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2018.03.006 Currie, P. (1993). Entering a disciplinary community: conceptual activities required to write for one introductory university course. Journal of Second Language Writing, 2(2), 101–117. Gardner, D., & Davies, M. (2014). A new Academic Vocabulary List. Applied Linguistics, 35(3), 305–327. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amt015 Gergen, K.J., & Thatchenkery, T.J. (1996). Organization science as social construction: postmodern po- tentials. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 32(4), 356–377. Gimenez, J. (2009). Beyond the academic essay: discipline-specific writing in nursing and midwifery. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 7(3), 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2008.03.005 Ha, A.Y.H., & Hyland, K. (2017). What is technicality? A Technicality Analysis Model for EAP vocabulary. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 28, 35–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2017.06.003 Hyland, K. (1996). Writing without conviction? Hedging in scientific research articles. Applied Linguistics, 17(4), 433–454. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/17.4.433 Hyland, K. (2002). Directives: argument and engagement in academic writing. Applied Linguistics, 23(2), 215–239. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/23.2.215 Hyland, K. (2008). As can be seen: lexical bundles and disciplinary variation. English for Specific Purpos- es, 27(1), 4–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2007.06.001 Hyland, K. (2013). Faculty feedback: perceptions and practices in L2 disciplinary writing. Journal of Sec- ond Language Writing. 22, 240–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2013.03.003 Hyland, K. (2015). Academic Publishing: Issues and Challenges in the Production of Knowledge. Oxford University Press. Hyland, K. (2016). General and specific EAP. In K. Hyland & P. Shaw (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of EAP (pp. 17–29). Routledge. Hyland, K., & Tse, P. (2007). Is there an “academic vocabulary”? TESOL Quarterly, 41(2), 235–253. https:// doi.org/10.1002/j.1545-7249.2007.tb00058.x Lillis, T. (2001) Student Writing: Access, Regulation, Desire. Routledge. Manchón, R. M. (Ed.). (2011). Learning-to-write and Writing-to-learn in an Additional Language. John Ben- jamins. Munoz, V. L. (2015). The vocabulary of agriculture semi-popularization articles in English: a corpus-based study. English for Specific Purposes, 39, 26–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2015.04.001 Nesi, H., & Gardner, S. (2012). Genres across the Disciplines. Student Writing in Higher Education. Cam- bridge University Press. Northcott, J. (2019). Academic writing feedback: collaboration between subject and EAP specialists. In Hyland, K. & Wong, L. (Eds.), Specialised Englishes (pp. 214–227). Routledge. Swales, J. (2004). Research Genres. Cambridge University Press. Wignell, P., Martin, J., & Eggins, S. (1993). The discourse of geography: ordering and explaining the experiential world. In M. Halliday & J. Martin (Eds.), Writing Science: Literacy and Discursive Power. Falmer. 15 Hyland / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 4–15 Izvleček Stroka, kultura in skupnost pri pisanju: specifičnost angleščine za študijske namene Dandanes je že skoraj kliše reči, da pisanje (in branje) nista abstraktni spretnosti, temveč smisel dobita le, če ju umestimo v okvir širših družbenih in kulturnih praks. To pomeni, da moramo družbeni kon- tekst nekega dogodka razumeti drugače kot le neposredno okolje, v katerega je dogodek umeščen. Konkretna dejanja pisanja moramo pogledati širše in ugotoviti, kako nanje vplivajo institucije in druž- bene skupine, torej moramo na skupnosti gledati kot na kulture. Kultura je ključna razsežnost pisanja, ki temeljno vpliva na razlike v pisanju prek vseh vidikov jezikovne rabe. V prispevku bomo raziskali nekatere načine, na katere strokovne kulture vplivajo na pisanje v akademskem okolju, in sicer tako, da bomo preučili ponavljajoče se vzorce jezikovnih izbir kot izkaz posebnih kulturnih prepričanj in praks. Oprli se bomo na nekatere podatke iz lastnih raziskav v zadnjem desetletju, ki potrjujejo pomen specifičnosti, in potrdili, da je opredelitev jezikovnih značilnosti, diskurzivnih praks in sporazumevalnih spretnosti ciljnih skupin osrednjega pomena pri poučevanju angleščine za študijske namene v visoko- šolskem okolju. Ključne besede: specifičnost angleščine za študijske namene, leksika, dojemanje učiteljev, razlike med strokami, naloge 16 Tatjana Marković Belgrade Business and Arts Academy of Applied Studies (BBAA) Dragica Mirković Belgrade Business and Arts Academy of Applied Studies (BBAA) COULD ESP PRACTITIONERS HAVE AN ACTIVE ROLE IN MANAGING AND ALLEVIATING STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION? Abstract Communication apprehension (CA) has profound implications for individuals across various settings, impacting emotional, relational, educational, professional, and financial aspects. This study investi- gates the extent of CA among 115 second-year students, exploring changes in self-perceived CA scores before and after a pedagogic intervention. The research addresses the prevalence of CA among IST and management students, advocating for an expanded role for ESP instructors. It also highlights gender and program-related disparities and identifies specific communication scenarios influencing CA. Utilizing the PRCA-24 instrument, the study assesses self-perceived CA levels in group discussion, meetings, interpersonal communication, and public speaking. The findings demonstrate the effective- ness of the carefully designed course, emphasize the positive influence and importance of incorporat- ing anxiety-reduction techniques into ESP curriculum design and teaching strategies, and point to the active role of ESP instructors in developing students’ communication and soft skills to improve industry readiness. Keywords: communication apprehension, PRCA-24, ESP, communication skills, higher education Paper received: 12.09.2023 Paper revised: 23.12.2023 Paper accepted: 23.12.2023 Paper published: 15.06.2024 Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023) Research Article DOI: 10.4312/SM.18.2.16-32 17 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 1 What is communication apprehension (CA)? In recent years, there has been a growing concern about the skills gap between the compe- tencies of recent graduates and the demands of the labor market. One of the most significant skills required by employers, frequently found lacking, across the world and across profes- sional fields, is effective communication (Shwabb, 2019; Bartlet & Uvalic, 2016; Mourshed et al., 2014; World Economic Forum, 2018; Manyika et al., 2017; Burghin et al., 2018). However, developing communication skills solely is often found ineffective, as poor commu- nication or avoidance of communication may stem from different reasons (Byrne et al., 2012), one of them being communication apprehension (CA). This is what we as teachers often see in our students and what students have described as “nervousness and fear, even phobia of public speaking”, “shyness” and “the barrier in speaking in front of smaller and larger groups”. So, we have to dig deeper. CA has been extensively researched in the field of communication studies in both the general population and the student population. McCroskey (1977) was the first to define CA as “an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons”, and this definition remains the standard definition of CA among researchers (p. 78). CA is “the way a person feels about communication, not how they communicate” (Berger, McCroskey & Baldwin, 1984, p. 47). It must be separated from communication skills and per- formance and although it may stem from lack of communication skills or practice, it can be experienced by persons who have high language proficiency. High CA individuals may be very effective communicators and public speakers, but the feelings of anxiety during communica- tive encounters may lead them to avoid communication opportunities that may benefit them (Blume et al., 2013). CA is a ubiquitous phenomenon across all demographics, regardless of status, culture, gen- der, or age. It can be experienced by children as well as high-status professionals. It can be experienced in a variety of communicative settings, in common day-to-day interactions, or during high anxiety-inducing situations such as the public speaking scenario, or even in im- agined interactions (Blume et al., 2013; Bodie, 2010). Emotionally it may manifest as feelings of unease or nervousness. Physically it may manifest as sweating, muscle tension, butterflies in the stomach, sweaty palms, shaky hands, hindered breathing, racing heart, dizziness or confusion, cognitively as negative self-talk, but interest- ingly and paradoxically, it is often unobservable - it is an internal, subjective experience, not visible on the outside. High levels of CA lead to significant relational, emotional, and financial difficulties, as CA inter- feres with the quality of an individual’s life and behavior, social opportunities and life choices, personal and professional relationships and job performance (McCroskey & Beatty, 1986, pp. 286-288). Studies have shown that high CA individuals are perceived less positively, as less assertive, less sociable, and even less competent and attractive (McCroskey, 1977, p. 88). Extensive studies of college student populations have estimated that 20% of college students in major universities report high levels of communication apprehension with even higher 18 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 percentages existing in some smaller colleges and community colleges (McCroskey & Rich- mond, 2006). High trait CA can have a detrimental impact on a student’s college experience. Their academic performance may suffer, and they may feel disconnected from the campus community (Francis & Miller, 2008; Blume et al., 2013; Blume et al., 2010). Students who experience communication apprehension may struggle to participate in class discussions (low participation frequency) (Frymier & Houser, 2017). They might appear quiet and uninterested, avoid interacting with others, they may have difficulties forming relation- ships with their peers, and seeking help from faculty or staff (Blume et al., 2013). Research has also found that students perceived as apprehensive by their teachers are judged to be less intelligent, they are likely to learn less, to dislike school, and are more likely to drop out of college than those who are less apprehensive (see Beebe and Frei (2017) for a comprehensive list of research studies). Evidence also exists that CA negatively influences students’ presentations (Allen & Bourhis, 1996) and interview outcomes (Ayres & Crosby 1995; Daly & Leth, 1976; McCarthy & Goffin, 2004). Their GPAs (as a conventional measure of academic performance) may not be directly affect- ed, but CA may manifest in more subtle ways, in their unwillingness to take on leadership roles or their adaptability, and the impact of CA on professional outcomes may be even great- er (Bodie et al., 2013). There are different types of communication apprehension (McCroskey, 1982): 1. Trait-like CA - a general fear or anxiety experienced by an individual in most communica- tion situations. It is often considered a personality trait, and individuals who experience this type of communication apprehension may find it challenging to communicate in any context. 2. Context-based CA - fear or anxiety experienced in specific communication situations, such as public speaking or group presentations. 3. Audience-based CA - fear or anxiety experienced in the presence of a specific audience or individual, regardless of the context. It may be related to the audience’s status, knowl- edge, or perceived expectations. 4. Situation-based CA - fear or anxiety experienced in a specific communication situation, such as conflict resolution or giving feedback. 2 Remediation Mastering and practicing skills helps individuals develop self-confidence and a sense of their abilities, self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). There are different views on whether and how com- munication apprehension may be treated. The best approach may depend on the individual’s level of anxiety, personal preferences, and the specific communication situation. The follow- ing approaches have been found to be effective in reducing communication apprehension and improving communication effectiveness: 19 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 1. Cognitive-behavioral approach: The cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is aimed at cognitive restructuring. It focuses on iden- tifying and changing negative thoughts and beliefs related to communication. It involves teaching individuals to reframe their thoughts and beliefs about communication to reduce anxiety and increase confidence. CBT can also provide individuals with strategies to manage their physical and emotional reactions to communication situations, such as deep breathing and relaxation techniques (McCroskey & Beatty, 1986). 2. Visualization (VIS) and systematic desensitization (SD): SD and VIS were developed as separate cognitive modification techniques but are often used together as a combined mitigation strategy (Choi et al., 2015). The VIS method is used to help people with high levels of CA visualize success in a hypothetical communicative context by anticipating and preparing for situations that could potentially cause anxiety, such as pub- lic speaking, job interviews, or first dates (Ayres & Hopf, 1993). It may also include work on imagined interactions which allow “an individual to address the nervousness that may come from an anticipated communicative encounter, to manage and plan for the specific content of a message, and to ensure that the actual performance or delivery of that message is effi- cient” (Choi et al., 2015, p. 26). Systematic desensitization involves gradual imagined or real exposure to anxiety-inducing scenarios while teaching individuals relaxation techniques to manage anxiety (deep breath- ing, progressive muscle relaxation, meditation). It is based on the idea that anxiety can be reduced through gradual exposure to the feared situation, while providing coping skills. It can be self-administered (Ayres and Hopf, 1993). 3. Communication Oriented Motivation (COM) therapy: COM therapy is aimed at helping the high CA individual reframe their perception of public speaking as a conversation with an audience rather than as a performance where they may be judged and evaluated (Bodie et al., 2010). 4. Skills training (ST) or rhetoritherapy: ST provides communication specific techniques on how to communicate effectively in differ- ent situations (Francis & Miller, 2008), including rehearsal, speech preparation (identifying goals and objectives, anticipating potential challenges or objections), modeling, feedback, and reinforcement, vocal and non-verbal delivery, assertiveness, active listening, and non- verbal communication (McCroskey, 1992; Allen, Burrell & Bourhis, 2010). However, ST is re- garded as only moderately effective in substantially reducing trait-like CA but it can aid in the overall improvement of a person’s communication behavior (McCroskey & Beatty, 1986) or as the least effective method for reducing CA when used alone, without combination with COM or SD (Allen, Hunter, & Donohue, 1989). 5. Support groups: Support groups involve individuals with similar experiences coming together to share their thoughts and feelings about communication apprehension. The group provides a safe space to practice communication skills and receive support and feedback from others. 20 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 6. Practicing empathy: Practicing empathy by considering the audience’s perspective and needs, researching the audience beforehand to understand their expectations and adjust their communication accordingly. 7. Humor: Humor has been shown to be an effective CA remediation technique (Francis & Miller, 2008). Although CA may prove to be resistant to intervention (McCroskey, 1977), an effort needs to made to develop effective pedagogical methods, encouraging and supportive classroom en- vironments and practices to assist students in managing their CA. When it comes to both the short-term and long-term decrease of CA, utilizing a combination of a variety of treatments (VIS, IIs, SD, ST, and rehearsal, known as blended therapy in communication studies), has been found to be the most efficient remediation strategy (Bodie, 2010) and it is best to start with SD or CM and end with ST (Ibid.) The question raised here is what the role of educators and ESP teachers is in particular in addressing this issue. How do we more adequately prepare students for the complex re- quirements of the global workplace? CA definitely falls outside the typical borders of the role of ESP, yet the problem is unavoidable and requires us to first of all be aware of the impact of CA on students’ academic and professional success and step outside our traditional roles in developing proficiency only and step into the role of counselors and mentors, step into a more psychological arena where we can implement strategies to help our students address and alleviate CA, and build more positive self-images and beliefs in their abilities and skills. Both theory and practice show that it is not enough to teach language skills to make students effective communicators. That is why we set out to explore the construct of CA among stu- dents to identify their CA profile - determine its extent (initial value), and study and measure the effects of a pedagogic treatment in managing CA. We have entered an extremely fuzzy field, leaving the comfort zone of ESP teaching, but this is such an urgent and pressing ques- tion that it is worth exploring and trying to come to the aid of high CA students. 3 Methodology 3.1 Research questions To accomplish this aim we have formulated the following research questions: RQ1: What is the level of CA among students of IST and Management at Belgrade Business and Arts Academy of Applied Studies (BBAA)? RQ2: Which category of oral communication (group discussion, meeting, interpersonal and public speaking) produces the least and which one the highest CA? RQ3: What is the difference between CA levels of IST and Management students? RQ4: Do the reported CA levels differ significantly by gender? RQ5: What is the effect of the communication training on students’ CA? 21 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 3.2 Participants The participants of this study were second-year students in the Information Systems and Technology (IST) and Management study departments at the BBAA at the beginning and at the end of the semester which included the training experience (in October 2022 and January 2023). The sample consisted of 68 students of IST (22 female, 44 male, 2 unspecified) and 47 students of Management (35 female, 12 male). Participation was on a voluntary basis and students responded anonymously using codenames. 3.3 Setting In the second-year English syllabus, the focus is on improving communicative competences, linguistic, sociolinguistic (issues of style and register) and pragmatic competences (language functions and speech acts, interaction scenarios, issues of discourse, cohesion and coher- ence) (Council of Europe, 2001, pp. 108-130). We explore topics of entrepreneurship, management and different aspects of IT. Entrepreneur- ship is suitable for researching numerous topics related to many other aspects, such as existen- tial competences, issues of temperament and personality traits (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 12). In the IST study program, students are required to do two team presentations. The first one is a simulation of a television reality program in which entrepreneurs present their business ideas to a panel of investors with the aim of raising funds (Dragon’s Den and Shark Tank). The second one is an argumentative presentation of an IT topic. In the Management study program, students are required to do an interactive team pres- entation (three to maximum five members) on any topic related to management, marketing, logistics, information technology in business, accounting or finances. The presentation in- cludes topic related discussion with other teams. The pedagogic intervention was a mixture of skills training, cognitive restructuring and relax- ation techniques, through practice and discussion. The skills and functions on which we put the greatest emphasis are the strategies and skills of preparing and performing presenta- tions, verbal and non-verbal communication skills, organization of the presentation and its rhetorical structure. The work included a series of activities and role-playing games related to speaking skills and verbal interaction, presenting business proposals, negotiating, describing product characteristics, using language persuasion. Students were also shown or referred to different techniques for coping with their apprehen- sion: communication orientation motivation, relaxation techniques, visualization, physical self-regulation, preparation, practice. Different strategies for coping with CA were introduced and suggested using videos and different TED talks. 3.4 Instrument The instrument used to assess students’ level of CA was the Personal Report of Communica- tion Apprehension (PRCA- 24) (McCroskey, 1982). This is the standardized and most widely 22 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 used measure of trait-like CA in studies addressing this construct. It has evolved and under- gone several revisions and updates since its inception in the 1970s and the most recent and popular version, the PRCA-24, has been demonstrated to have high content validity, high reliability (alpha regularly > .90) and high predictive validity (McCroskey, Beatty, Kearney & Plax, 1985; Levine & McCroskey, 1990). It is a Likert-type self-report questionnaire that consists of 24 items ranging from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree that measures an individual’s level of apprehension across four communication areas: public speaking, small group communication, meetings (class- room environment), and one-on-one interpersonal (dyadic) encounters, each consisting of 6 items. The study employed the pre-test/post-test design at the beginning and end of a single se- mester of an ESP course. Participants’ responses were compiled into an Excel spread sheet and the results were calculated using the PRCA 24 scoring system (McCroskey, 1982), and analyzed using descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations, independent sample t-test for gender differences). 5 Results 5.1 RQ 1: What is the level of CA among IST and Management students at the BBAA? Table 1 Overall Pre-test CA levels for IST and Management students juxtaposed to US students Pre-test scores IST students Management students US norm N = 68 N = 47 N = 40,000 Response Categories Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Overall CA 65.7 17.1 63.9 15.7 65.6 15.3 Low CA - <50 12 (17.65%) 6 (12.76%) Average CA - 50-80 41 (60.30%) 31 (65.95%) High CA - >80 15 (22.05%) 10 (21.27%) 20 % In answering the first research question, descriptive analysis using means and percentage was conducted based on the PRCA-24 descriptors. PRCA-24 overall scores can range from 24-120. Scores below 50 represent people who have very low CA. Scores between 50 and 80 indicate the average CA, whereas scores above 80 indicate a very high level of trait CA ( McCroskey, 1982). 23 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 The mean value of communication apprehension among the IST respondents was 65.7, rang- ing from 24 to 105. The mean value of communication apprehension among the Manage- ment respondents was 63.9. The highest was 99 and the lowest 29. The results show that the majority of the respondents (60.30 % IST, 65.95% M) reported having average level of communication apprehension. However, the percentage of those who admitted experienc- ing high CA levels is not negligible (22.05% IST and 21.27% M). Management students seem to be less apprehensive than IST students which is to be expected. Our students have reported similar scores to a large 40,000 sample of US college students whose mean was 65.6 (McCroskey 1982) with 20% reporting high levels of communication apprehension (McCroskey & Richmond, 2006). 5.2 RQ2: Which category of oral communication produces the least and which one the highest CA? and RQ3: What is the difference between CA levels of IST and Management students? Table 2 Pre-test CA level by category of communication and study program Pre-test scores IST students Management students US norm N = 68 N = 47 N = 40,000 Response Categories Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Group Discussion 15.65 5.59 14.55 4.66 15.4 4.8 Meetings 16.36 5.25 16.81 4.46 16.4 4.2 Interpersonal Conversations 15.47 5.46 14.02 3.89 14.2 3.9 Public Speaking 18.22 5.33 18.55 5.83 19.3 5.1 Overall CA 65.7 17.1 63.9 15.7 65.6 15.3 In answering RQ2 and RQ3, descriptive analysis utilizing mean and standard deviation was carried out in a manner similar to RQ1. Scores on the four contexts (group discussions, meetings, interpersonal conversations, and public speaking) can range from a low of 6 to a high of 30 and any score above 18 indicates some degree of apprehension (McCroskey, 1982). In general, the IST respondents reported that the communication setting that produces the lowest apprehension was interpersonal communication (M= 15.47), followed by group dis- cussion (M= 15.65). The communication category that produces the highest apprehension was public speaking (M= 18.22), followed by meetings (M= 16.36). Although the Management results slightly differ, the same trend is evident – the lowest ap- prehension can be found in interpersonal communication (M= 14.02) and group discussion (M= 14.55), whereas, the highest apprehension refers to public speaking (M= 18.55), followed by meetings (M= 16.81). 24 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 Students have shown similar scores to their American peers in all the four areas, cf. group discussion (M15.4), meetings (M16.4), interpersonal (dyadic) communication (M14.2) and public speaking (M19.3) (Ibid). What is noticeable is that IST students are more apprehensive in interpersonal communica- tion and group discussions. Based on these findings we can infer that CA depends on the type of communication. CA is lower when communication is less formal. Conversely, more formal communication, such as public speaking, fosters greater CA. Public speaking always induces the highest level. These results also support previous research (McCroskey, 1992) that re- vealed that regardless of the context utilized, public speaking is the most difficult mode of communication for most people. There is a possibility of further classifying students in terms of low, moderate, high, and very high levels of CA for the four communication contexts. However, the cutoffs vary across stud- ies, and different measures and interpretations were used in different studies depending on a specific population or purpose of the assessment. These categories are not absolute but rather provide a general guideline for interpreting PRCA scores. Therefore, we have not add- ed this further classification in our analysis as it is complex and may be misleading at times. 5.3 RQ 4: Do the reported CA levels differ significantly by gender? We noticed that the female students in our research groups had higher PRCA-24 scores than their male peers. To explore whether these differences in means across gender are statisti- cally significant, we ran an analysis using the independent-sample t test in SPSS. The results are presented in Tables 3 and 4. Table 3 Communication apprehension by gender (IST students) Group Statistics Gender No. Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Score female 22 74.41 17.52 3.74 male 44 60.82 15.25 2.30 Independent samples test for IST students Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Equal variances assumed .120 .731 3.246 64 .002 Equal variances not assumed 3.098 37.313 .004 Although the sample size was not very large, since the p-value reported from the t-test is lower than 0.05, we may tentatively assume that the difference for this sample is statistically significant. 25 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 Table 4 Communication apprehension by gender (Management students) Group statistics GENDER No. Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Score female 35 65.51 15.68 2,65 male 12 59.33 15.39 4.44 Independent samples test for IST students Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Equal variances assumed .000 .986 -1.184 45 .243 Equal variances not assumed -1.195 19.429 .246 Since the p-value for the analysis run for Management students is higher than 0.05 this dif- ference is not deemed statistically significant. 5.4 RQ5: What is the effect of the communication training on students’ CA? When comparing pre and post-tests scores (Table 5) for IST students, Group Discussion scores dropped insignificantly from 15.65 to 15.64, Meetings scores rose slightly from 16.36 to 16.39, as well as Interpersonal Conversations scores, from 15.47 to 15.73, whereas Public Speaking scores lowered from 18.22 to 17.39. Overall CA scores lowered from 65.70 to 65.20. On the other hand, pre and post-tests scores for Management students show that Group Discussion scores rose insignificantly from 14.55 to 14.85, as well as Interpersonal Conversa- tions scores, from 14.02 to 14.36, while Meetings scores dropped slightly from 16.81 to 15.94, whereas Public Speaking scores lowered from 18.55 to 16.83. Overall CA scores also lowered but noticeably, from 63.94 to 61.98. Overall CA scores have not dropped statistically significantly. We can see an increase in the low CA group, yet the high CA group has remained the same. The public speaking score has dropped, most probably because the intervention has focused mostly on the public speaking context. This could explain the lowering of the scores in this category. It might be due to several reasons: • the post-test was delivered at an inconvenient time and students signed them differently • the intervention program aimed specifically at reducing CA was short and was a mix- ture of skills training and referring to other techniques, but not administering them class due to constraints • according to the author of the test, McCroskey himself, trait-like CA might appear to be resistant to intervention 26 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 A paired t test could not be conducted as the students were using different codenames, but presumably it would not detect any statistically significant difference. Table 5 Pre and Post-Test Communication Apprehension Mean Scores for IST and Management Students IST students Management students PRE-test scores n=68 POST-test scores n=68 PRE-test scores n=47 POST-test scores n=47 Response Categories mean SD mean SD mean SD mean SD Group Discussion 15.65 5.59 15.64 5.51 14.55 4.50 14.85 4.44 Meetings 16.36 5.25 16.39 5.32 16.81 4.52 15.94 5.35 Interpersonal Conversations 15.47 5.46 15.73 5.45 14.02 3.78 14.36 4.66 Public Speaking 18.22 5.33 17.39 4.65 18.55 5.80 16.83 4.77 Overall CA 65.70 17.06 65.20 19.11 63.94 15.68 61.98 16.11 Low CA - (<50) 12 (17.65%) 17 (25%) 6 (12.76%) 7 (14.89%) Average CA (50-80) 41 (60.30%) 36 (52.95%) 31 (65.95%) 30 (63.82%) High CA (>80) 15 (22.05%) 15 (22.05%) 10 (21.27%) 10 (21.27%) 6 Discussion The importance of effective communication skills for both empowerment and employment cannot be overstated. Communication, one of the most important 21st-century skills, is fre- quently regarded as lacking in recent graduates. Communication apprehension (CA) is one of the barriers impeding successful and confident communication. Studies and surveys in the U.S. and abroad show that prospective employers and hiring managers alike seek and pri- oritize applicants with good communication and public-speaking abilities (Beebe and Beebe, 2017; Lawson, Gill, Feekery, & Witsel, 2019). According to the research conducted by the so- ciologist Andrew Zekeri (Zekeri, 2004), former college graduates rated oral communication skills, including effective public speaking skills, to be the most useful skills in their business world careers. However, the communication skills gap between recent graduates’ competencies and the expectations of the labor market, is an increasing source of concern. This is a wake-up call for educational institutions to restructure their curricula and teaching approaches in the area of interactive and communication skills to more adequately prepare students for the complex requirements of the global workplace and raise their employability and job-readiness (Burgh- in et al., 2018; Bartlet et al, 2016; Manyika et al., 2017; Mourshed et al. 2014; World Economic Forum, 2018). 27 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 Although there is a vast corpus of research on CA related to exploring different avenues of helping students overcome this situational anxiety in the context of university public speaking courses (Philips, 1991; Hunter et al., 2014), scant research has been done in ESP classes and the effect an ESP course may have on reducing students’ communication fears. This study aimed to fill the gap and add and provide evidence-based insights from the ESP perspective. Among 115 participants, 57 females vs. 56 males, responding to a Likert-type self-report questionnaire (PRCA-24) that measures an individual’s level of apprehension across public speaking, small group communication, meetings (classroom environment), and one-on-one interpersonal (dyadic) encounters, 60.30 % of IST and 65.95% of Management students at Belgrade Business and Arts Academy of Applied Studies (BBAA) reported having average CA level, and 22.05% IST and 21.27% Management students admitted experiencing high CA lev- els, thus presenting similar scores to a large 40,000 sample of US college students. While Management students seem to be less apprehensive than IST students, which is to be ex- pected, the results also indicate male students in both departments to be less apprehensive than female students. At the same time, supporting previous research findings in which public speaking has been underlined as the most difficult mode of communication, this research confirmed that CA depends on the type of communication, i.e. on the level of formality, and that public speaking fosters greater CA. According to the students in both departments, the lowest apprehension was interpersonal communication and the highest public speaking category, which is also comparable with the scores of their American peers in all the four areas. Interesting findings are evident when comparing pre and post-tests scores. The decrease in mean scores between the pre-test and post-test suggests that the course content and prac- tice employed between the pre-test and post-test assessments had an impact on reducing CA among the participants, particularly in the public speaking domain. While Public Speaking scores lowered in both departments, Management department decrease was more signifi- cant in this category probably due to rising awareness of the necessity of mastering public speaking skills due to the context of executive positions. Although, the public speaking score decrease could be explained by the fact that this catego- ry was the focus of the interventions, the results also demonstrate the effectiveness of the carefully designed course using a combination of skills training (theory and practice/exposure), cognitive modifications and introduction to anxiety management techniques, in a supportive environment, in addressing and alleviating public speaking anxiety. Practice, skill training, in isolation or in combination with coping techniques have been shown to be effective in reducing CA levels, with integrated approaches being the most effective (Rose, Rancer, & Crannell, 1993; Dwyer & Davidson, 2012; Hunter, Westwick, & Haleta, 2014; Allen, Hunter & Donohue, 1989). Although without a statistically significant drop, overall CA scores also lowered in both de- partments, with noticeable difference among the students of Management department. In the long-term, the results are very optimistic, showing that CA is a treatable issue and miti- gating students’ CA levels can have a cascading effect on their willingness to engage in com- munication situations and can contribute to their personal, academic and future professional growth. They may be better equipped to excel in job interviews, leadership roles, and other situations requiring effective communication. 28 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 7 Limitations and future research Our study has, like all action research studies, encountered obstacles and limitations. It proved difficult to track individual CA scores to measure the level of potential change/im- provement for each student. Due to classroom and curriculum limitations, we could not ad- dress all communication contexts in our intervention phase, we have mainly concentrated on PS (Public Speaking) in the intervention as the results basically show. We did not compare it to CA in L1 (some studies have shown that it does not differ, some that it is higher in L2). Also, the study was conducted at a single higher education institution, using a limited con- venience sample of second-year IST and Management students. The study did not have a control group, making it difficult to tell if the intervention variable was responsible for the decrease in CA. In addition, it did not account for concurrent practice in other classes, as this exposure could interfere with the observed variable. These limitations should be considered when interpreting the results, and future research can address these limitations for a more comprehensive understanding of CA in higher education. Further research might involve a longitudinal study on how CA levels change over time dur- ing college, following students from first year till graduation and what the impact of CA on academic success and student performance may be. It may also be interesting to investigate the effectiveness of specific techniques or components of the intervention that were most effective in order to help tailor future interventions to be even more impactful in reducing CA in college students. A qualitative study could provide more insights by combining CA assess- ment tools with other instruments as well as interviews, in order to capture different facets of the construct, and its possible correlation with self-efficacy, self-perceived or perceived com- petence and confidence. Comparison among larger samples of student populations from different departments, universities and professional study institutions may also build upon comprehension strategy research. 8 Concluding remarks Experienced in a variety of communicative settings and even in imagined interactions, although often unobservable, communication apprehension interferes with the quality of life leading to emotional, relational, educational, professional and financial implications since high CA individuals are often perceived as less assertive, less sociable and even as less competent. As high CA can have a detrimental impact on a student’s college experi- ence resulting in low class participation frequency, avoidance of peer or teacher interac- tion, negative impact on students’ presentations and exam scores, it can also affect foreign language learning and even potentially lead to dropping out of college. Additionally, the focus of the second-year English syllabus should be on improving communicative compe- tences, linguistic, sociolinguistic (issues of style and register) and pragmatic competences (language functions and speech acts, interaction scenarios, issues of discourse, cohesion and coherence). Thus, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) practitioners could and should play an active role in managing and alleviating communication apprehension (CA) among their students by: 29 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 • being aware of the CA problem and using communication apprehension assessment tools, such as the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24), to iden- tify students who may be experiencing CA, who are at-risk students, and tailor their teaching strategies accordingly, • always striving to create a safe, inclusive and supportive learning environment where students feel comfortable expressing themselves, • providing students with opportunities to practice communication skills and offering regular feedback, positive reinforcement, constructive criticism and guidance to help them as this could help students identify areas for improvement and build confidence in their communication abilities, • encouraging students to apply different mitigation techniques (remediation strategies) for coping with their apprehension such as communication orientation motivation, re- laxation techniques, visualization, physical self-regulation, preparation, rehearsal or a combination of a variety of treatments (blended therapy). Despite the limitations of the study, this research contributes to a better understanding of CA among students and provides insights into potential strategies to address this issue in edu- cational settings. The findings suggest that educators and institutions can make a difference in students’ lives by using effective interventions, such as the one employed in this study, to improve students’ communication skills and reduce anxiety levels. This has significant impli- cations for curriculum design and teaching strategies, as it underscores the importance of incorporating anxiety-reduction techniques into the ESP curriculum. It also raises the issue of extending the responsibilities of ESP instructors in the areas of communication and soft skills in order to improve students’ industry readiness. ESP teachers may have to go farther and cultivate a wider variety of soft skills and competences in their learners, providing training and mentorship in both skills and confidence areas addressing social anxiety. They could help students build more positive self-images and beliefs in their abilities and skills in an encouraging and inclusive learning environment. References Allen, M., Hunter, J. E., & Donohue, W. A. (1989). Meta-analysis of self-report data on the effectiveness of public speaking anxiety treatment techniques. Communication Education, 38(1), 54–76. https:// doi.org/10.1080/03634528909378740 Allen, M., & Bourhis, J. (1996). The relationship of communication apprehension to communication behavior: a meta-analysis. Communication Quarterly, 44 (2), 214–226. Allen, M., Burrell, N. & Bourhis, J. (2010). Coping with the needs of presentation. In G. Rickheit & H. Strohner (Eds.), Handbook of Communication Competence (pp. 343–359). Mouton de Gruyter. Ayres, J., & Hopf, T. (1993). Coping with Speech Anxiety. Ablex. Ayres, J., & Crosby, S. (1995). Two studies concerning the predictive validity of the personal report of communication apprehension in employment interviews. Communication Research Reports, 12(2), 145–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824099509362050 Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. 30 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 Bartlett, W., & Uvalic, M. (2016). Learning from transition economies: assessing EU policy on higher education and research cooperation with the Western Balkans. European Journal of Higher Edu- cation, 6(2), 151–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/21568235.2016.1177015 Beebe, S. A., & Beebe, S. J. (2017). Public Speaking: An Audience-centered Approach. Pearson. Beebe, S. A., & Frei, S. S. (2017). Student orientations toward communicating in the classroom. In M. L. Houser & A. Hosek (Eds.), Handbook of Instructional Communication (pp. 80–93). Routledge. Berger, C. R., McCroskey, J. C., & Baldwin, P. (1984). Reducing communication apprehension: is there a better way? Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 32(2), 105–119. Blume, B. D., Baldwin, T. T., & Ryan, K. C. (2013). Communication apprehension: a barrier to students’ leadership, adaptability, and multicultural appreciation. Academy of Management Learning & Ed- ucation, 12(2), 158–172. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2011.0127 Blume, B. D., Dreher, G., & Baldwin, T. T. (2010). Examining the effects of communication apprehension within assessment centers. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(3), 663–671. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317909X463652 Bodie, G. D. (2010). A racing heart, rattling knees, and ruminative thoughts: defining, explaining, and treating public speaking anxiety. Communication Education, 59(1), 70–105. https://doi. org/10.1080/03634520903443849 Burghin, A., Lund, S., Manyika, J., & Roxburgh, C. (2018). Skill Shift: Automation and the Future of the Workforce. McKinsey Global Institute. Choi, C. W., Honeycutt, J. M., & Bodie, G. D. (2015). Effects of imagined interactions and rehearsal on speaking performance, Communication Education, 64(1), 25–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/036345 23.2014.978795 Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of References for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Council of Europe. Daly, J. A., & Leth, S. (1976). Communication apprehension and the personnel selection decision. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the International Communication Association, Portland. Dwyer, K. K., & Davidson, M. M. (2012). Is public speaking really more feared than death? Communica- tion Research Reports, 29(2), 99–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2012.667772 Francis, T. A., & Miller, M. T. (2008). Communication apprehension: levels of first-generation college students at 2-year institutions. Community College Journal of Research & Practice, 32(1), 38–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10668920802290016 Frymier, A. B., & Houser, M. L. (2017). Student participation and engagement in the classroom. In M. L. Houser & A. Hosek (Eds.), Handbook of Instructional Communication (pp. 51–64). Routledge. Hunter, K. M., Westwick, J. N., & Haleta, L. L. (2014). Assessing success: the impacts of a fundamen- tals of speech course on decreasing public speaking anxiety. Communication Education, 63(2), 124–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634523.20 13.875213 Lawson, C., Gill, R., Feekery, A., & Witsel, M. (2019). Communication Skills for Business Professionals. Cam- bridge University Press. Levine, T. R., & McCroskey, J. C. (1990). Measuring trait communication apprehension: a test of ri- val measurement models of the PRCA-24. Communication Monographs, 57(1), 62–72. https://doi. org/10.1080/03637759009376185 Manyika, J., et al. (2017). A Future That Works: Automation, Employment and Productivity. McKinsey & Company. 31 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 McCarthy, J., & Goffin, R. (2004). Measuring job interview anxiety: beyond weak knees and sweaty palms. Personnel Psychology, 57(3), 607–637. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2004.00002.x McCroskey, J. C. (1977). Oral communication apprehension: a summary of recent theory and research. Human Communication Research, 4(1), 78–96.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2004.00002.x McCroskey, J. C. (1982). Communication competence and performance: a research and pedagogical perspective. Communication Education, 31(1), 1–7. McCroskey, J. C, Beatty, M. J., Kearney, P., & Plax, T. G. (1985). The content validity of the PRCA-24 as a measure of communication apprehension across communication contexts. Communication Quarterly, 33(3), 165–173. McCroskey, J. C., & Beatty, M. J. (1986). Oral Communication Apprehension. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on Research and Treatment (pp. 279–293). Plenum Press. McCroskey, J. C. (1992). Reliability and validity of the willingness to communicate scale. Communication Quarterly, 40(1), 16–25. McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (2006). Understanding the audience: students’ communication traits. In T. P. Mottet, V. P. Richmond & J. C. McCroskey (Eds.), Handbook of Instructional Commu- nication: Rhetorical and relational perspectives (pp. 51–66). Allyn and Bacon. Mourshed, M., Farrell, D., & Barton, D. (2014). Education to Employment: Designing a System that Works. McKinsey Center for Government. Phillips, G. M. (1991). Communication Incompetencies: A Theory of Training Oral Performance Behavior. Southern Illinois University Press. Rose, H. M., Rancer, A. S., & Crannell, K. C. (1993). The impact of basic courses in oral interpretation and public speaking on communication apprehension. Communication Reports, 6(1), 54–60. https:// doi.org/10.1080/08934219309367562 World Economic Forum. (2018). The Global Competitiveness Report 2018. https://www.weforum.org/re- ports/the-global-competitiveness-report-2018 Zekeri, A. A. (2004). College curriculum competencies and skills former students found essential to their careers. College Student Journal, 38(3), 412–423. 32 Marković, Mirković / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 16–32 Izvleček Ali lahko učitelji TJS igrajo dejavno vlogo pri obvladovanju in lajšanju strahu študentov pred komunikacijo? Strah pred komunikacijo ima globoke posledice za posameznike v različnih okoljih, saj vpliva na ču- stvene, odnosne, izobraževalne, poklicne in finančne vidike. Raziskava preučuje razširjenost strahu pred komunikacijo med 115imi študenti drugega letnika znanosti in tehnologije ter managementa in spremembe samoocene strahu pred komunikacijo pred in po pedagoški intervenciji. Poudarja tudi razlike, povezane s spolom in študijskim programom, ter opredeljuje posebne komunikacijske scena- rije, ki lahko vplivajo na strah pred komunikacijo. Z uporabo instrumenta PRCA-24 raziskava vključuje samoocenjene ravni strahu pred komunikacijo pri skupinskih razpravah, na sestankih, pri medoseb- nem komuniciranju in javnem nastopanju. Ugotovitve dokazujejo učinkovitost skrbno zasnovanega izobraževanja, poudarjajo pozitiven vpliv in pomen vključevanja tehnik in strategij za zmanjševanje strahu pred komunikacijo v poučevanje TJS ter opozarjajo na potrebnost dejavne vloge učiteljev TJS pri razvijanju komunikacijskih in mehkih spretnosti študentov za izboljšanje njihove pripravljenosti na komunikacijo pri vstopu na trg dela. Ključne besede: strah pred komunikacijo, PRCA-24, angleščina kot tuji jezik stroke, komunikacijske spretnosti, visoko šolstvo 33 Ivanka Ferčec Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and Information Technology Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek Yvonne Liermann-Zeljak Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and Information Technology Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON THE DELIVERY AND RECEPTION OF ESP EDUCATION FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS IN CROATIA Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic has irreversibly changed education at all levels and greatly impacted its deliv- ery, as in response to the crisis, both instructors and students had to switch abruptly from traditional face-to-face to virtual classes, i.e. emergency remote teaching (ERT), which was entirely new, demand- ing, and challenging for both parties. The aim of the paper is to explore engineering students’ and ESP instructors’ experience and the main challenges both stakeholders faced in the initial period of ERT. For that purpose, the data were collected by means of two (anonymous) questionnaires created by using Google Forms and delivered in summer 2020 to the students by sharing the link on Loomen, and in autumn 2020 to the ESP instructors by sending the link via email. The results indicate that the main challenges of 128 engineering students from Osijek, Croatia, who took part in the survey, mainly referred to lack of motivation and poor time management and organisation, while the main challenges indicated by 52 ESP instructors from Croatia who took part in the survey were lack of in-person inter- action and time and effort invested in preparing for classes. The student-related research results show that teaching quality and effectiveness can be improved by motivating and supporting our students, and adapting more readily to online classes in the event of new or continued lockdown. The instruc- tor-related research results reveal that the majority of Croatian ESP instructors (i.e. 85%) did not have any experience with online classes prior to the pandemic and only about one fourth of them (i.e. 27%) confirmed that they received some training in technology-related teaching skills, which points to the importance and need for continuing education and professional development for instructors. Keywords: COVID-19, emergency remote teaching (ERT), engineering students, ESP instructors, higher education Paper received: 24.10.2023 Paper revised: 14.01.2024 Paper accepted: 31.01.2024 Paper published: 15.06.2024 Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023) DOI: 10.4312/SM.18.2.33-45 Research Article 34 Ferčec, Liermann-Zeljak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 33–45 1 Introduction Technology has always been at the forefront of education and education is one of the pillars of society. The invention of computers and the advent of the Internet caused digital technol- ogies to evolve at a fast pace. Digital technologies and today’s education go hand in hand, making technology-enabled education the future of teaching and learning. We have recently witnessed a powerful impact of digital technologies on all levels of education systems in all countries around the world due to the recent COVID-19 pandemic (Haleem et al., 2022). In March 2020, the World Health Organisation (WHO) declared the novel coronavirus (COV- ID-19) outbreak a global pandemic, causing feelings of panic, stress, anxiety, and helpless- ness around the world. The problem was even more compounded by the suspension of all face-to-face classes and activities, an event unprecedented in recent history, which made it necessary to find ways to ensure continuation of teaching and learning activities. Bearing in mind that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to instruction and no universal solution to a global problem, higher education institutions individually responded to this challenge in the following three different ways: in-class teaching with social distancing, hybrid models, or on- line instruction (Iglesias-Pradas et al., 2021). This paper which deals with the effects of COVID-19 on ESP classes in Croatia is organised as follows. After introductory notes, Section 2 gives a theoretical background for emergency remote teaching (ERT) and its definition. Research aims, methodology, research results, and discussion are presented in Sections 3 and 4, respectively, which are then followed by con- cluding remarks given in Section 5. The paper concludes with a section that outlines research limitations and recommendations for further research, complete with a list of references. 2 Theoretical background The impact of COVID-19 has been particularly strong in teaching and learning, i.e. in the education sector. Unlike a complex and time-consuming process of adapting a face-to-face course to an online course1, which includes careful and meticulous planning, preparation, and development, which is estimated to take between six and nine months (Hodges et al., 2020, Iglesias-Pradas et al., 2021), emergency remote teaching (ERT) arises in response to an unanticipated event or crisis, say COVID-19 in this case, and it is assumed that the usual modes of teaching and learning will return to the original format once the crisis ends. This il- lustrates an important difference between ERT and online learning and the reason why these two terms are not synonyms and cannot be used interchangeably (Akbana et al., 2021). ERT is by definition “a temporary shift of instructional delivery to an alternate remote delivery mode due to crisis circumstances” (Iglesias-Pradas et al., 2021), and accordingly, a few key words that can be used to describe this phenomenon are ‘suddenly’, ‘unplanned’ and ‘temporary’. In mid-March 2020, when the COVID-19 outbreak was declared a global pandemic, the whole world was struggling to find and adopt new ways of working and continuing normal life. Ac- cording to Kasperski et al. (2023) and based on a UNESCO report, “as part of an effort to limit 1 For more details about the study that examines who practicing online language educators are, how they developed their knowledge and practices, and what they point to as additive and advantageous to their online language teaching development, see Meskill et al., 2022. 35 Ferčec, Liermann-Zeljak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 33–45 the spread of the pandemic, over 190 countries worldwide closed their schools and switched to ERT”. Higher education institutions in Croatia were ordered to move all classes online. Over one weekend, the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and Information Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, switched from traditional in-person or face-to-face teaching to ERT, with the exception of laboratory exercises and written exams that were held on site. In a number of countries, including Croatia, many educational insti- tutions were completely unprepared for online-only education (Fernández-Batanero et al., 2022), and there was a lot of experimenting that necessitated many immediate adjustments (Podovšovnik & Smajla, 2022). Some instructors received institutional support, while others had to fend for themselves; some received financial support for the purchase of educational supplies and getting access to educational and online tools, while others did not, and most instructors had little or no training for online classes. There are basically two modes of in- struction, synchronous and asynchronous2, but ESP instructors at our institution opted for a mix of both in technical English classes, meaning that in the initial period of ERT in Croatia we combined synchronous and asynchronous modes of teaching, where the former is interac- tive, real-time, two-way online or distance education with students and instructors attending classes in a virtual classroom at the time but from different locations, while the latter refers to classes run on a more relaxed schedule, with students accessing class materials at their own pace, at different times and from different locations. According to Pregowska et al. (2021), the approach to the closure of the institutions varied from country to country, but in general, two main approaches to ERT response were regis- tered in Europe. On the one hand, there were countries whose educational systems had all necessary technical and institutional capacity before the COVID-19 pandemic, which enabled them to implement ERT quickly (e.g. Sweden). On the other hand, there were countries with no prior experience in distance education. These countries had to adjust their resources or simply create them from scratch (e.g. Latvia).3 3 Research aims and methodology The aim of this paper is twofold. On the one hand, we were interested in exploring student and instructor experience gained during the initial period of emergency remote teaching (ERT) in technical English courses held in the spring semester 2019/2020 at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and Information Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmay- er University of Osijek, Croatia. For that purpose, two surveys were conducted by the authors in summer and autumn 2020 that included the students and the instructors, respectively. Both questionnaires were created using Google Forms and delivered to the students by shar- ing the link on Loomen (the learning management system (LMS) used for classes at that time), and to the instructors by sending the link via email. The student and the instructor question- naire consisted of 11 and 24 questions, respectively, both ranging from demographic and drop-down questions to multiple-choice questions, close-ended questions using a 5-point 2 For more details about distance education that can be classified into two categories, i.e. asynchronous and synchronous learning, see e.g. Pregowska et al. (2021). Advantages of asynchronous teaching are outlined in e.g. Iswati (2021). 3 For more details about how education was provided during the initial stage of the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe and worldwide, see: Pregowska et al. (2021). 36 Ferčec, Liermann-Zeljak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 33–45 Likert scale to measure respondents’ attitudes, opinions and perceptions, and open-ended questions. The student questionnaire related to a wide range of issues, starting with the quality of the classes delivered online, their motivation and satisfaction with the online learn- ing experience, technology and digital tools used for course delivery, and finally, their per- ceptions of and attitudes towards synchronous and asynchronous modes of teaching. The instructor questionnaire related to technical and financial support offered by their HEI, both teacher and student motivation and engagement, challenges of teaching, technology and digital tools used for course delivery, online lesson preparation, and the perception of the quality of online teaching compared to face-to-face teaching. Participation was anonymous and completely voluntary for both groups of respondents. We will use descriptive statistics to analyse the status quo of emergency remote teaching (and learning). In order to get an insight into student experience and the main challenges our engineering students faced during the spring semester 2019/2020 that had to be completed online be- cause of the COVID-19 pandemic, an anonymous survey was conducted with a sample of 128 engineering students enrolled in the Undergraduate university study programme in Electrical Engineering and Information Technology (elective modules: Power Engineering and Communi- cation and Informatics) and the Professional study programmes in Electrical Engineering (elec- tive modules: Power Engineering and Automation) and Computer Engineering at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Computer Science and Information Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmay- er University of Osijek. Out of a total of 128 students, 97 male (75.8%) and 31 female (24.2%) students took part in the survey. An uneven distribution of the male and female students corresponds to the number of male and female students enrolled at this institution. The second part of our research dealt with instructor experience and the main challenges Cro- atian ESP instructors faced during the spring semester 2019/2020 when the course delivery method had to switch suddenly and unexpectedly from the traditional face-to-face classroom delivery method to the online delivery method, as a global health crisis named coronavirus dis- ease 2019 (COVID-19) necessitated educational institutions at all levels to close down and find alternative instructional delivery modes.4 The Croatian ESP instructor cohort in our research comprised a total of 52 instructors, i.e. 50 (96%) female and 2 (4%) male instructors. An uneven distribution of the male and female ESP instructors in Croatia illustrates the existing gender imbalance in the teaching profession in Croatia in general. The highest proportion of respond- ents are aged 40-49 (42%). Since ESP courses taught at HEIs in Croatia do not require a scientific approach, the majority of ESP instructors are lecturers (12) and senior lecturers (30), i.e. 81% of respondents are appointed to teaching titles (i.e. lecturers and senior lecturers), while only a minority of our respondents are appointed to scientific-teaching (8 assistant professors) and associate (2 assistants) titles, i.e. the remaining 15% and 4% of respondents, respectively. In view of the above, this paper aims to investigate the following research questions: 1. Did ESP instructors in Croatia have any experience with online classes prior to the pan- demic or receive any training in this respect during the pandemic? 2. What were the main challenges in technical English courses that students from Osijek, Croatia, and ESP instructors at HEIs in Croatia faced during the COVID-19 pandemic? 4 For an overview of the terminology in research published on teaching and learning in the pandemic that is used to refer to this type of delivery mode, see: Bond et al. (2021). 37 Ferčec, Liermann-Zeljak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 33–45 4 Research results and discussion Due to the sudden outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic worldwide, there was no time to research remote, distance, or online learning methodologies and their effectiveness prior to adoption. Prior to 2020, “the main reason for distance education was either the remoteness of students from teaching centres or poverty” (Pregowska et al., 2021, p. 14), or it was “most- ly due to natural disasters or different political issues” (Podovšovnik & Smajla, 2022, p. 98). This section focuses on student and instructor experience gained during the initial period of emergency remote teaching (ERT) and presents the results of two surveys conducted in summer and autumn 2020, indicating the main challenges faced by both a small cohort of engineering students and ESP instructors working at HEIs in Croatia. 4.1 Student experience gained during the initial period of emergency remote teaching (ERT) After a semester of technical English classes held as a mix of synchronous and asynchro- nous delivery modes in which we took advantage of the benefits of both delivery modes (in- creased social presence and interactivity, and self-paced learning and flexibility, respectively), we conducted a study aimed at collecting and analysing data that would help us gain insight into student experience and perceptions of online classes related to a wide range of issues, from the quality of the classes held online,5 student motivation and their satisfaction with the online learning experience, useful and interesting digital tools, their perceptions of and atti- tudes towards synchronous and asynchronous modes of teaching, etc. On the other hand, we believed that the research results could give us the opportunity to enhance our teaching quality and effectiveness, as well as to motivate and support our students and adapt to on- line classes more readily in the event of new or continued lockdown. The means and standard deviation scores of student satisfaction with technical English cours- es delivered remotely are listed in Table 1. 5 Extensive research on the quality of online teaching and learning at Croatian universities, which included instructors and students, was conducted by the Agency for Science and Higher Education in 2020 and it showed that both groups of respondents, i.e. teaching staff and students, consider online classes to be of lower quality than face-to-face classes (Bušljeta Kardum & Jurić Vukelić, 2021, p. 358). 38 Ferčec, Liermann-Zeljak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 33–45 Table 1 Student satisfaction with technical English courses delivered remotely Rating distribution referring to student satisfaction with technical English courses delivered online - from 1 = totally dissatisfied to 5 = extremely satisfied (in %) 1 2 3 4 5 Mean St. Dev. 1 my motivation 3.91 7.81 27.34 40.63 20.31 3.656 1.015 2 my time and effort 3.13 9.38 16.41 44.53 26.56 3.820 1.031 3 results and knowledge 0.78 3.13 15.63 40.63 39.84 4.156 .855 4 organisation 1.56 1.56 13.28 40.63 42.97 4.219 .851 5 quantity of course materials and tasks 0 0 13.28 46.09 40.63 4.273 .684 6 course in general 1.56 2.34 9.38 39.06 47.66 4.289 .853 7 feedback 0.78 0 6.25 32.03 60.94 4.523 .687 8 instructor availability 0 0 3.91 31.25 64.84 4.609 .564 9 instructor effort 0 0 3.13 32.81 64.06 4.609 .550 The overall mean score was 4.239, suggesting that the students were in general very satis- fied with technical English courses delivered online during the initial period of ERT caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Items 1 (my motivation) 3.656 (St.Dev. = 1.015) and 2 (my time and effort) 3.820 (St.Dev. = 1.031) recorded the lowest mean scores, which indicates that students were least satisfied with their motivation and time and effort they invested into mastering course content. Motivation is a key factor that impacts student achievement and performance6 in the language learning process, but it becomes an even more complex phenomenon in online settings that has to be addressed from many aspects, such as at- trition, participation, course materials, regulation (acknowledging the value of an activity), lack of instructors’ online teaching experience (Meşe & Sevilen, 2021; Taghizadeh & Basir- at, 2022), social isolation (Zizka & Probst, 2023), lack of peer connection and technologi- cal issues (Avsheniuk et al., 2021, Hollister et al., 2022, Podovšovnik & Smajla, 2022), etc. What was noticed in our online setting is that students were inclined to participate less in online classes and that their motivation decreased, which corroborates the findings of e.g. Kyewski & Krämer, 2018, Hollister et al., 2022, and Zizka & Probst, 2023. On the other hand, the students appreciated their instructor availability (M = 4.609, St.Dev. = .564), as well as their commitment and efforts put into course delivery (M = 4.609, St.Dev. = .550), and these two sets of data are least dispersed. This is in line with previous findings of the studies conducted in China and South Korea indicating that the efforts instructors put into distance learning strongly correlates with student learning satisfaction (Pregowska et al., 2021, p. 17). 6 It might be useful to compare the academic results of students during the COVID-19 pandemic with those of previous years to see if, just like with Spanish engineering students, an increase can be recorded in stu- dent academic performance achieved in the ERT period (cf. Iglesias-Pradas et al., 2021). 39 Ferčec, Liermann-Zeljak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 33–45 Two multiple-choice questions at the end of the questionnaire referred to advantages and disadvantages of online learning. Students were allowed to select more than one option and add their own answers. Out of 128 respondents, 91 (71%) stress self-paced learning as an advantage of online learning, 84 (66%) practicality (learning from the comfort of their home), and 78 (61%) availability of written and multimedia content at any time. Seventy respondents (55%) emphasise lack of direct instructor-student interaction7 as a disadvantage of online learning, while 62 (48%) stress lack of motivation8, and 39 (31%) say that online classes gen- erally take more time9. There were 2 comments (1.5% of respondents) under advantages stating that there are no advantages of online learning, while there were 12 comments (9.4%) under disadvantages, 8 stating simply that there are no disadvantages, 2 that it is more diffi- cult to focus, and 2 that there is no real communication. 4.2. Instructor experience gained during the initial period of emergency remote teaching (ERT) In mid-March 2019, practically overnight, remote, virtual, distance, or online teaching10 be- came our everyday life. Our research results reveal that only 15% of our respondents - ESP instructors had some experience holding online classes prior to COVID-19, while as many as 85% of ESP instructors did not have any experience with teaching online (Figure 1). Figure 1 Experience of holding online classes prior to COVID-19 Figure 2 Training in online teaching 44; 85% 8; 15% (N=52) No Yes 38; 73% 14; 27% (N=52) No Yes According to our survey, most Croatian ESP instructors had little or no training in online teaching, i.e. only 27% of instructors confirmed that they had some training and listed the following activities: workshops, short courses organised by SRCE (the University Computing Centre), and webinars, while as many as 73% did not receive any training in online teaching (Figure 2), implying that they learned themselves how to adopt an (entirely) new approach to teaching and master new necessary skills on the fly, without any in-depth preparation. This is 7 Although most students stress flexibility in online learning as its advantage enabling them to customise their pace, place and mode of learning, many miss a direct, in-person interaction with their course instruc- tors and peers (cf. Waicekawsky et al. (2020), Iswati (2001), and Podovšovnik & Smajla (2022)). 8 Low student participation, engagement and motivation were also recorded worldwide (e.g. in Spain, Igle- sias-Pradas, 2021; in the USA, Hollister et al., 2022; in Iran, Taghizadeh & Basirat, 2022). 9 These findings match the results presented in Pregowska et al. (2021, p. 19) and Iswati (2021). 10 For a historical overview of distance education around the world and the COVID-19-related distance teach- ing reality in recent times, see e.g. Pregowska et al. (2021). 38; 73% 14; 27% (N=52) No Yes 38; 73% 14; 27% (N=52) No Yes 40 Ferčec, Liermann-Zeljak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 33–45 in line with the description of ERT as “an unplanned practice, with no option than to use any kind of offline and/or online resources that may be at hand” (Bond et al., 2021). The teaching profession in general is changing and varying with respect to current demands, which in turn require adapted or even entirely new and more sophisticated skills and com- petences. Due to ubiquitous digital tools, resources, and applications, all instructors, irre- spective of subject areas they are specialised in, need to develop their digital competences. Clever integration and effective use of technology in the classroom can lead to higher en- gagement and increased motivation of students. Furthermore, various digital tools and re- sources increasingly used in ERT during the COVID-19 pandemic helped overcome problems and implement new approaches to teaching and learning (Eickelmann and Gerick, 2020). Our findings confirm that ESP instructors in Croatia lack training in technology-related teaching skills, which was especially evident when the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic became a new reality and online classes became the new normal. Figure 3 ESP instructors in Croatia receive training aimed at developing their digital skills Figure 4 ESP instructors in Croatia should be trained more in the use of digital tools for the purpose of updating their ESP courses 23; 44% 14; 27% 10; 19% 3; 6% 2; 4% (N=52) strongly disagree disagree undecided agree strongly agree 2; 4% 8; 15% 7; 14% 35; 67% (N=52) strongly disagree disagree undecided agree strongly agree As can be seen in figures 3 and 4, most ESP instructors in Croatia, i.e. 71%, think that they do not receive training aimed at developing their digital skills, while 81% strongly agree or agree that ESP instructors in Croatia should be provided with additional training in the use of digital tools for the purpose of updating their ESP courses. These two responses indicate that ESP instructors have already embraced a growth mindset and would welcome the chances for professional development and upskilling. In order to identify the main challenges encountered by ESP instructors in Croatia in their classes conducted (inevitably) online in the pandemic, a set of statements presented in Table 2 had to be ranked on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 – not challenging at all to 5 – very challenging. 41 Ferčec, Liermann-Zeljak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 33–45 Table 2 The main challenges of ESP instructors in Croatia as to ERT during the pandemic N Min. Max. Mean Std. Dev. 1 knowledge transfer in a virtual environment 52 2 5 3.44 .93 2 keeping students interested and engaged 52 2 5 3.88 1.1 3 quality of materials 52 1 5 2.94 1.15 4 limits of technology 52 1 5 3.25 .998 5 lack of in-person interaction 52 1 5 4.52 .96 6 accessibility and access for everyone 52 1 5 3.69 1.03 7 time and effort invested in preparing for classes 52 1 5 4.06 1.06 Valid N (listwise) 52 The research results demonstrate that, while trying to adjust and adapt well to the new situa- tion in such a short period of time, ESP instructors in Croatia encountered several challenges, among which lack of in-person interaction (44 ESP instructors, or 85%, agreed that this was very challenging or challenging, Mean = 4.52) and time and effort invested in preparing for classes (38 ESP instructors, or 73%, agreed that this was very challenging or challenging, Mean = 4.06) seem to be the most prominent ones. The most homogenous and heterogeneous re- sponses are knowledge transfer in a virtual environment (St.Dev. = .93, closely followed by lack of in-person interaction, St.Dev. = .96) and quality of materials (St.Dev. = 1.15, closely followed by keeping students interested and engaged, St.Dev. = 1.1), respectively. When asked about oth- er challenges they encountered, respondents added no feedback from students, lack of moti- vation, technical issues (lack of adequate computer skills, students with no adequate equipment, Internet), and behavioural issues11 (acting natural, always nervous and worried whether mate- rials and tools will work). These findings corroborate those of previous studies by e.g. König et al. (2020), Waicekawsky et al. (2020), Avsheniuk et al. (2021), Iswati (2021), Taghizadeh & Basirat (2022), and Podovšovnik & Smajla (2022). An online survey that was conducted among Ukrainian teachers and students in 2021 aimed at analysing their satisfaction with online education and assessing the quality of online learning in the academic year 2020/2021. The study also found a number of challenges, including “lack of transparency in the students’ as- sessment, lack of or poor internet connection, insufficient control over students’ acquisition of knowledge, a lot of individual learning, and lack of professional competence for teaching online” (Avsheniuk et al., 2021, p. 223). 5 Concluding remarks The aim of the study conducted by means of a questionnaire addressed to engineering stu- dents is to explore the extent to which the students were satisfied with online teaching in English with respect to their motivation, the effectiveness of the teaching form and the com- mitment of the ESP instructor. The overall mean score of 4.239 suggests that the students 11 For an overview of technical and personal problems that may hinder the benefits of online language edu- cation, see Podovšovnik & Smajla (2022). 42 Ferčec, Liermann-Zeljak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 33–45 were generally very satisfied with technical English courses delivered online during the initial period of ERT caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. They were least satisfied with their motiva- tion and time management and most satisfied with the commitment of their ESP instructor. In the case of the ESP instructors, the aim of the study is to investigate their experience and training pertaining to online ESP teaching, course organisation and effectiveness. The instructor-related part of the study reveals that the majority of 52 Croatian ESP instructors who responded to our questionnaire lacked online learning experiences prior to the pan- demic and professional development courses for effective online teaching, which points to the importance of continuing education in the form of ESP (online) teaching and learning seminars and educational workshops as well as other forms of professional development for LSP course instructors. This has also been emphasised in other studies, e.g. Avsheniuk et al., 2021, p. 223. However, Iswati (2021, pp. 42-43) suggests that some specific strategies may be used by instructors to optimise their online class delivery and their students’ online class participation, such as giving a crystal-clear direction and ensuring that information is well understood, using various learning platforms, grouping students during live virtual classes, and using authentic materials, which are all trial-and-error methods that all of ESP instructors have employed. Unlike second or foreign language12 used for general purposes, LSP incorporates both lin- guistics and sector-specific knowledge, meaning that LSP instructors must not only be profi- cient in the language they teach, but they must also have a solid grasp of both LSP teaching methodology and the subject-matter knowledge (Lesiak-Bielawska13, 2015). Although in the European context there exist some ESP study programmes, such as the BA study programme of English for Specific Purposes and the Second Foreign Language created by the Institute of Humanities, Mykolas Romeris University in Vilnius, Lithuania (Rackevičiene et al., 2019), which was launched in 201214, very little training and courses aimed at improving LSP teach- ing competences are available (cf. Kic-Drgas and Woźniak, 2022; Fernández-Batanero, 2022; Bušljeta Kardum & Jurić Vukelić, 2021). To the best of our knowledge, there are currently no formal LSP study programmes and/or substantial LSP instructor training pre-service or in-service courses in Croatia, with the exception of a few elective ESP courses at major Croa- tian Faculties of Humanities and Social Sciences (e.g. English for Specific Purposes, focused on economics, law, and agriculture, or Scientific and Technical Translation, focused on the trans- lation of texts in the fields of natural and technical sciences, both elective courses offered at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in Osijek). Although ESP research and teaching are sometimes viewed as “the less glamorous, low rent neighbourhoods of the academy” (Hyland, 2006, Sarré and Whyte, 2016), a vivid interest in these academic fields of study has always been expressed, which has resulted in LSP projects (e.g. https://erasmus-plus.ec.europa.eu/projects/search/details/2018-1-FR01-KA203-048085, or http://catapult-project.eu/). In this context, the need for the training of specialised language instructors and their professional development was recognised and a strategic partnership 12 For different interpretations of the terms ‘foreign’ and ‘second’ language, see e.g. Sarré, C. & Whyte, S. (2016, p. 143). 13 Lesiak-Bielawska (2015) gives an overview of approaches to the role of discipline-specific knowledge in ESP teaching and outlines some possible ways in which the gap in ESP teacher (limited) subject-matter knowl- edge can be bridged. 14 https://www.mruni.eu/en/study_program/english-for-specific-purposes-and-the-second-foreign-language/ 43 Ferčec, Liermann-Zeljak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 33–45 consortium of experts was formed. The consortium consists of 10 member institutions, 9 of which are universities directly involved in LSP teaching. Within the framework of Eras- mus+ KA203 project, the consortium developed a free, innovative LSP Teacher Education Online Course for Professional Development15, which has recently been piloted by a num- ber of pre-service and in-service ESP instructors who have given valuable feedback on their course-related experience. 6 Research limitations and recommendations for further research The data obtained in this survey provide some insight into the impact of COVID-19 on ESP teaching and learning in Croatia from the perspective of 128 engineering students from Osi- jek, Croatia, and 52 ESP instructors working at HEIs in Croatia. However, since the results of our survey are specific to a rather small sample of engineering students from only one uni- versity in Croatia, we are not able to make generalisations based upon the aforementioned findings related to the student perspective. Hence there is a need for further research in this respect to examine views of a greater number of engineering students, as well as students in other fields, studying at other HEIs in Croatia. Furthermore, our ESP instructor-related survey was carried out in Croatia, and it would be interesting to see which challenges ESP instructors in other countries faced in the context of ERT. References Akbana, Y. E., Rathert, S., & Ağçam, R. (2021). Emergency remote education in foreign and second lan- guage teaching. Turkish Journal of Education, 10(2), 97–124. https://doi.org/10.19128/turje.865344 Avsheniuk, N., Seminikhyna, N., Svyrydiuk, T., & Lutsenko, O. (2021). ESP Students’ Satisfaction with Online Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Ukraine. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) Special Issue on COVID-19 Challenges, 1, 222–234. https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/ covid.17 Bond, M., Bedenlier, S., Marín, V. I., & Händel, M. (2021). Emergency remote teaching in higher educa- tion: Mapping the first global online semester. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 18, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-021-00282-x Bušljeta Kardum, R., & Jurić Vukelić, D. (2021). The challenges and issues on the University of Zagreb during COVID-19 crisis. Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems, 19(3), 357–365. https:// doi.org/10.7906/indecs.19.3.1 Eickelmann, B., & Gerick J. (2020). Lernen mit Digitalen Medien: Zielsetzungen in Zeiten von Corona und unter Besonderer Berücksichtigung von Sozialen Ungleichheiten. Die Deutsche Schule, 16, 153–162. https://doi.org/10.31244/9783830992318.09 Fernández-Batanero, J. M., Montenegro-Rueda, M., Fernández-Cerero, J., & Tadeu, P. (2022). Online education in higher education: emerging solutions in crisis times. Helyion, 8(8), E10139. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10139 Haleem, A., Javaid, M., Qadri, M. A., & Suman, R. (2022). Understanding the role of digital technologies in education: a review. Sustainable Operations and Computers, 3, 275–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. susoc.2022.05.004 15 The course is planned to be available in the following nine languages: Croatian, English, French, German, Italian, Polish, Slovenian, Spanish and Turkish, but the English version is planned to be finished first (for more information about the course, visit: https://lsp-teoc-pro.de/). 44 Ferčec, Liermann-Zeljak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 33–45 Hodges, C. B., Moore, S., Lockee, B. B., Trust, T., & Bond, M. A. (2020). The Difference between Emer- gency Remote Teaching and Online Learning. https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-differ- ence-between-emergency-remote-teaching-and-online-learning Hollister, B., Nair, P., Hill-Lindsay, S., & Chukoskie, L. (2022). Engagement in online learning: Student attitudes and behavior during COVID-19. Frontiers of Education, 7, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/ feduc.2022.851019 Hyland, K. (2006). The ‘other’ English: thoughts on EAP and academic writing. The European English Messenger, 15(2), 34–38. Iglesias-Pradas, S., Hernández-García, Á., Chaparro-Peláez, J., & Prieto J. L. (2021). Emergency remote teaching and students’ academic performance in higher education during the COVID-19 pan- demic: a case study. Computers in Human Behaviour, 119, 106713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chb.2021.106713 Iswati, L. (2021). When teaching must go on: ESP teachers’ strategies and challenges during COVID-19 pandemic. Eralingua: Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Asing dan Sastra, 5(1), 36–52. Kasperski, R., Porat, E., & Blau, I. (2023). Analysis of emergency remote teaching in formal education: crosschecking three contemporary techno-pedagogical frameworks. Research in Learning Tech- nology, 31, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v31.2982 Kic-Drgas, J., & Woźniak, J. (Eds.). (2022). Perspectives on LSP Training in Poland. FRSE Publications. https://doi.org/10.47050/66515796 König, J., Jäger-Biela, D. J., & Glutsch, N. (2020). Adapting to online teaching during COVID-19 school closure: teacher education and teacher competence effects among early career teachers in Ger- many. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 608–622. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768 .2020.1809650 Kyewski, E., & Krämer, N. C. (2018). To gamify or not to gamify? An experimental field study of the influ- ence of badges on motivation, activity, and performance in an online learning course. Computers & Education, 118(1), 25–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.11.006 Lesiak-Bielawska, E. D. (2015). The role of discipline-specific knowledge in ESP teaching. English for Specific Purposes World, 47. Meşe, E., & Sevilen, Ç. (2021). Factors influencing EFL students’ motivation in online learning: a qual- itative case study. Journal of Educational Technology & Online Learning, 4(1), 11–22. https://doi. org/10.31681/ jetol.817680 Meskill, C., Anthony, N., & Sadykova, G. (2022). Learning how to teach languages online: Voices from the field. Online Learning, 26(4), 494–518. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v26i4.2964 Podovšovnik, E., & Smajla, T. (2022). Foreign language teaching during the Covid-19 pandemic: differ- ences in students’ attitudes towards the online LSP course. The case of the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security. In M. Kompara Lukančič (Ed.) Language for Specific Purposes in the Framework of Criminal Justice and Security (pp. 97–122). University of Maribor University Press. https://doi. org/10.18690/um.fvv.6.2022 Pregowska, A., Masztalerz, K., Garlińska, M., & Osial, M. (2021). A worldwide journey through distance education – from the post office to virtual, augmented and mixed realities, and education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Education Sciences, 11(3), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11030118 Rackevičiene, S., Janulevičiene, V., & Mockienė, L. (2019). English for specific purposes and the second foreign language: reaching beyond language – training in BA philology study programme. Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes, 7(2), 135–146. https://doi.org/10.22190/ JTESAP1902135R 45 Ferčec, Liermann-Zeljak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 33–45 Sarré, C., & Whyte, S. (2016). Research in ESP teaching and learning in French higher education: devel- oping the construct of ESP didactics. ASp - La revue du GERAS, Concepts and Frameworks in English for Specific Purposes, 69, 139–164. https://doi.org/10.4000/asp.4834 Taghizadeh M., & Basirat, M. (2022). Investigating pre-service EFL teachers’ attitudes and challenges of online teaching, Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221. 2022.2136201 Waicekawsky, L., Laurenti, L., & Yuvero, F. (2020). Teaching ESP online during the COVID-19 pandemic: an account of Argentinian students on this teaching modality. In N. Valeeva (Ed.), International Scientific Forum “Issues of Modern Linguistics and the Study of Foreign Languages in the Era of Ar- tificial Intelligence (dedicated to World Science Day for Peace and Development)” (LLT Forum 2020). https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20208802002 Zizka, L., & Probst, G. (2023). Learning during (or despite) COVID-19: business students’ perceptions of online learning. Quality Assurance in Education, 31(1), 60–73. https://doi.org/10.1108/QAE-12- 2021-0188 Zourou, K., & Torresin, G. (2019). CATAPULT Situational Survey: LSP Teachers’ Needs for Skills and Training. CATAPULT consortium. http://catapult-project.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/O1_Full_Report_ Final_CATAPULT.pdf Izvleček Ocena vpliva COVID-19 na izvajanje in sprejemanje izobraževanja na področju angleščine kot tujega jezika stroke za študente elektrotehnike, računalništva in informacijske tehnologije na Hrvaškem Pandemija COVID-19 je nepovratno spremenila izobraževanje na vseh ravneh in močno vplivala na nje- govo izvajanje, saj so morali tako učitelji kot študenti kot odziv na zdravstveno krizo nenadoma preiti s tradicionalnega pouka v učilnicah na pouk na daljavo, kar je za obe strani predstavljalo nov, zahteven in zapleten izziv. Namen prispevka je raziskati izkušnje študentov elektrotehnike, računalništva in infor- macijske tehnologije ter učiteljev angleščine kot tujega jezika stroke ter glavne izzive, s katerimi sta se obe strani soočili predvsem v začetnem obdobju pouka na daljavo. Podatke smo zbrali s pomočjo dveh anonimnih vprašalnikov, ustvarjenih z uporabo Googlovih obrazcev, ki smo ju poleti 2020 posredovali študentom z deljenjem povezave prek portala Loomen, jeseni 2020 pa še učiteljem prek elektronske pošte. Rezultati kažejo, da so bili glavni izzivi 128 študentov elektrotehnike, računalništva in informacij- ske tehnologije iz Osijeka na Hrvaškem, ki so sodelovali v raziskavi, predvsem pomanjkanje motivacije ter slabo upravljanje s časom, medtem ko so bili glavni izzivi 52 učiteljev angleščine kot tujega jezika stroke iz Hrvaške, ki so sodelovali v raziskavi, pomanjkanje sodelovanja v živo ter čas in trud, ki so ju vložili v pripravo na pouk. Rezultati, povezani s študenti, kažejo tudi, da lahko kakovost in učinkovitost poučevanja izboljšamo z motiviranjem in s podpiranjem študentov ter tako lažjim prilagajanjem pou- ku na daljavo. Iz rezultatov, povezanih z učitelji, pa izhaja, da večina hrvaških učiteljev angleščine kot tujega jezika stroke pred pandemijo ni imela nobenih izkušenj s poučevanjem na daljavo. Le približno četrtina jih je namreč potrdila, da so bili deležni usposabljanja na področju poučevanja s pomočjo IKT, kar kaže na pomen in potrebo po stalnem izobraževanju in strokovnem razvoju učiteljev. Ključne besede: COVID-19, poučevanje na daljavo, študenti elektrotehnike, računalništva in informa- cijske tehnologije, učitelji angleščine kot tujega jezika stroke, visokošolsko izobraževanje 46 Anne-Cécile Lamy-Joswiak Faculté des arts Université de Ljubljana ÉLABORATION D’UN COURS DE FOS MÉDICAL ET JURIDIQUE : DE L’ANALYSE DES BESOINS À L’ÉVALUATION EXTERNE DE LA FORMATION Résumé Le but de cet article est de rendre compte d’une expérience de formation continue en FOS alors que ce domaine de recherche est assez peu représenté en Slovénie. La conception d’un cours de FOS néces- site un cadre méthodologique rigoureux dont il semble néanmoins possible de s’extraire en fonction des contextes d’enseignement. L’étude de cas présentée dans cet article porte sur une formation lin- guistique courte pour adultes dans le domaine du droit et de la médecine, dispensée en milieu insti- tutionnel. Après un bref rappel des spécificités du français sur objectifs spécifiques, l’article expose les démarches et les défis de l’enseignante pour concevoir un tel cours : de l’analyse des besoins à l’ana- lyse discursive, de la collecte de données pertinentes à la didactisation de documents authentiques, vers l’évaluation externe au programme de formation. Mots-clés : FOS ; médecine ; droit ; didactique ; analyse des besoins ; discours Abstract LSP Course Design for Medical and Legal French: From Needs Analysis to an External Assessment of the Training Program The paper aims at reporting a teaching experience in French for specific purposes while this field is relatively little presented in LSP research in Slovenia. LSP course design requires a rigorous method- ological framework from which it nevertheless seems possible to pull out depending on the teaching contexts. The case study examines a short training language program for adults in the field of law and medicine, held in an institutional environment. After a brief reminder of the specificities of French for specific purposes, the paper exposes the approaches and challenges for the teacher in designing such a course: from needs analysis to discursive analysis, from the collection of relevant data to the use of authentic documents, ending up with assessment out of the training program. Keywords: French for specific purposes, medicine, law, teaching, needs analysis, discourse Paper received: 15.09.2023 Paper revised: 06.01.2024 Paper accepted: 15.02.2024 Paper published: 15.06.2024 Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023) DOI: 10.4312/SM.18.2.46-56 Teaching Report 47 Lamy-Joswiak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 46–56 1 Introduction Dans le cadre de la formation continue professionnelle pour adultes, il nous a été demandé de concevoir un programme court de formation linguistique individuelle en français médical et juridique de niveau avancé (C1) sous les termes suivants: «élargir la terminologie en fran- çais du droit et de la médecine». Après questionnement de la personne à former, se dessine un projet de formation en français sur objectifs spécifiques (FOS): objectif précis; formation de courte durée centrée sur des situations et compétences cibles – traduire et faire office d’interprète dans des situations d’urgence de la vie consulaire; matériel à élaborer (Man- giante et Parpette, p. 2004). Dès lors, comment opérer pour correspondre au mieux aux at- tentes et exigences de l’apprenante - à ses besoins objectifs et subjectifs (Richer, 2016, p. 16) - qui mettra le cours en pratique au fur et à mesure de la formation, alors que les contenus ne sont a priori pas maîtrisés par l’apprenante? Après un bref rappel des spécificités du FOS, nous présenterons le contexte de la formation puis nous décrirons les démarches enga- gées pour élaborer le cours, de l’analyse des besoins à l’analyse discursive, de la collecte de données pertinentes à la didactisation de documents authentiques, vers l’évaluation externe au programme de formation. Nous analyserons ensuite les défis rencontrés, et en guise de conclusion nous essaierons de proposer des pistes de réflexion sur l’approche, la méthodo- logie et les pratiques inédites que recouvre l’enseignement du FOS en milieu institutionnel. 2 Cadre théorique Après une trentaine d’années au cours desquelles se sont relayées diverses appellations d’une même notion désignant le champ de l’enseignement du français langue étrangère à des publics spécialisés – français fonctionnel, français instrumental, français scientifique et technique, français de spécialité (du tourisme, des affaires…) – le FOS s’est imposé dans cette diversité terminologique en composant avec les mêmes objets centraux à savoir les publics, leurs besoins, les objectifs, les situations langagières (Holtzer in Berchoud, Rolland, 2004, pp. 8-22). Pour les enseignants de FOS, la nécessité d’un cadre méthodologique a toujours été plus forte que celle de positionner ces appellations les unes par rapports aux autres, ce dont témoignent les recherches scientifiques et autres publications théoriques et pratiques sur le sujet (Challe, 2002; Carras et al., 2007; Binon, Thyrion, 2007; Mourlhon-Dallies, 2008). Dans un contexte de globalisation exacerbée, la réflexion didactique se poursuit (Richer, 2016; Man- giante, Parpette, 2022) alors que le FOS recouvre désormais des réalités d’enseignement/ apprentissage extrêmement variées. Toutefois, la distinction entre français de spécialité et français sur objectif spécifique (Do- cument 1) demeure pertinente car elle permet d’élucider les variations de conception entre les programmes de formation selon qu’ils répondent à une stratégie de l’offre (français de spécialité) ou de la demande (FOS), et relève ainsi d’une approche pédagogique différente (Mangiante et Parpette, 2004; Mangiante, 2006). En FOS, la précision des objectifs à atteindre implique un certain rendement didactique que la focalisation sur des compétences et des savoir-faire précis vient corroborer. L’approche intensive de la démarche didactique du FOS, étant donné le délai de mise en œuvre limité voire urgent, incite à une organisation flexible de l’enseignant, souvent initié à un nouveau domaine – droit, médecine, etc. – et contraint 48 Lamy-Joswiak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 46–56 de concevoir son propre matériel pédagogique, en fonction du public (âge, parcours scolaire, culture d’enseignement / apprentissage, Richer, 2016, p. 15). Document 1 Mangiante (2006, p. 142) En amont de cette distinction, Mangiante et Parpette (2004) préconise une démarche de conception de formation en FOS en 5 étapes: 1) analyse de la demande de formation, 2) analyse des besoins, 3) collecte des données, 4) analyse des données, 5) élaboration des activités. À ce cadre méthodologique, se combinent différentes approches du FOS (Binon, Thyrion, 2007): le découpage domanial reposant sur l’enseignement du vocabulaire, soit l’ap- proche terminologique (Challe, 2002); l’approche notionnelle-fonctionnelle partant de l’ana- lyse des besoins des apprenants pour «déterminer ce qui leur est nécessaire en termes de fonctions du langage et d’actes de paroles» (Cuq et al. cité par Binon, Thyrion, 2007, p. 12); l’approche discursive incluant le linguistique au sens strict, soit la collecte et l’analyse des types et les genres de discours; l’approche interculturelle englobant les contenus discipli- naires eux-mêmes, les différences culturelles et la culture professionnelle avec l’apport es- sentiel des documents authentiques dans l’élaboration des activités. Plus récemment, Richer (2016, pp. 20-23) insiste en particulier sur l’assimilation de la tâche aux genres du discours et plus généralement sur «la récursivité dans l’élaboration d’un modèle de formation en FOS qui doit être envisagée comme un processus dynamique d’interactions entre ses différentes composantes», à savoir, besoins, données, tâche, discours, évaluation. 49 Lamy-Joswiak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 46–56 3 Contexte de la formation Qu’elles émanent ou non de milieux institutionnels, les demandes spontanées de formation en langue étrangère pour adultes revêtent parfois un caractère inédit. La démarche FOS du présent projet relève d’une «situation idéale de formation linguistique construite à partir de la demande précise d’un groupe homogène dans son objectif et son projet, requérant la maî- trise de certains discours ciblés.» (Mangiante, 2006, p. 150). En effet, nous avons été sollicitée pour former, sur une période de 30 heures, une locutrice slovène de niveau C1, attesté par l’obtention du DALF, dont la tâche principale au sein du service consulaire de l’ambassade de France en Slovénie est de gérer l’administration des ressortissants français, qu’ils soient résidents ou en transit sur le territoire; cela signifie les accompagner dans leurs démarches administratives et garantir leur protection et sécurité en cas d’urgence. Dans le cadre de ses fonctions, la personne à former est donc en contact permanent avec la langue française qu’elle pratique au quotidien, à l’écrit comme à l’oral, compétences de compréhension, de production et d’interaction confondues. La langue administrative lui est familière mais elle exprime, dès notre prise de contact, le besoin primordial «d’élargir la terminologie dans les domaines du droit et de la médecine» afin de traduire de la docu- mentation confidentielle ainsi que des articles de presse, ou encore faire office d’interprète consécutive dans des situations d’urgence, ce qui relève de la compétence de médiation. Un entretien informel nous permet de saisir la diversité des situations de communication auxquelles l’apprenante est confrontée, en prison, à l’hôpital, au commissariat de police, et de recenser le type de documents qu’elle doit traduire du slovène vers le français, à savoir comptes rendus médicaux, documents de sortie de l’hôpital, rapports de police, procès-ver- baux, ordonnances de mise en examen, convocations au tribunal, audiences préliminaires, courriers officiels émanant des instances ministérielles, faits divers, etc. L’objectif de cette formation est donc de faire acquérir la maîtrise de ces discours ciblés cor- respondant à des savoirs et savoir-faire précis. Ainsi, décidons-nous d’un commun accord de diviser la formation de 30 heures en deux blocs de 15 heures : l’un destiné au champ médical, le second au domaine juridique. La formation se déroule sur le lieu de travail de l’apprenante, en fonction de ses disponibilités, à raison d’une à deux séances de 45 minutes par semaine. 4 Démarches spécifiques Afin de concevoir ce cours particulier de FOS médical et juridique, nous prenons comme point de départ la démarche proposée par Mangiante et Parpette (2004) en la combinant avec les approches de Binon et Thyrion (2007) et les recommandations de Richer (2016) pré- sentées plus haut. 4.1 Analyse des besoins À la suite de l’entretien informel, nous préparons un questionnaire (Document 2) pour dé- terminer les besoins notionnels-fonctionnels de l’apprenante. Pour le concevoir, nous adop- tons une approche terminologique en nous basant sur la typologie des documents que doit 50 Lamy-Joswiak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 46–56 traduire l’intéressée et les entrées thématiques relevées dans les méthodes de FOS à dispo- sition sur le terrain (cf. bibliographie). Lors de la première séance en présentiel, l’apprenante coche (P) les contenus lexicaux dont elle estime avoir besoin et ajoute dans la catégorie Autre? des contenus supplémentaires. Chaque élément est discuté pour évaluer les compétences de l’apprenante et des précisions sont apportées entre parenthèses pour cibler les objectifs en termes linguistiques, pragma- tiques et (inter)culturels. Document 2 Parmi les thématiques proposées, cochez celles dont vous estimez avoir besoin dans votre pratique professionnelle. Domaine de la médecine Domaine du droit 1) La consultation médicale - le cabinet médical - la prise de rendez-vous - les principales étapes de la consultation 2) Diagnostic et prescription - le questionnement P - l’auscultation P - la formulation du diagnostic P - la formulation de la prescription P 3) Les médicaments - les types de médicaments P - la délivrance des médicaments P - l’ordonnance P 4) Les vaccins (pour les enfants) 5) Les examens médicaux - les examens biologiques P - les examens radiologiques P 6) L’hôpital P - principaux métiers - spécialistes et spécialités (kiné/ostéo) P - services hospitaliers - les urgences (cas d’urgences) 7) Autre? Faux-amis, collocations (ex. insuffisance rénale), combinaisons de verbes + substantifs 1) Les juridictions - rappel de notions de base - comparaison des systèmes juridiques français/slovène P - la justice rendue par des magistrats professionnels (succinctement) P - la justice rendue par des juges non professionnels P - la justice des mineurs P (enlèvement par l’un des parents, doc des services sociaux) 2) Les procédures - procédure pénale P (garde à vue…) - procès en cours d’assises P - décisions de justice (à revoir) 3) Les procès-verbaux (mots de base + agents de police + grades) P - le PV de contravention - le PV d’interpellation - le PV d’enquête préliminaire 4) Autre? Comparaison des systèmes et des différentes instances juridiques. (Équivalents en français de okrožno /okrajno sodišče, kazenska ovadba, narok (déf.), collocations (ex. : être amené devant la juge / povzročitelj nesreče : auteur de l’accident) 4.2 Collecte des données Ce premier recueil d’informations sur les outils langagiers à acquérir ou à perfectionner nous a permis de planifier, pour chaque domaine, les premières séances axées sur le lexique de 51 Lamy-Joswiak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 46–56 base à partir de matériel pédagogique existant (voir la liste de manuels de FOS médical et juridique dans la bibliographie). Un certain nombre de documents authentiques, essentiels à la compréhension des enjeux de la formation, nous a été remis par l’apprenante elle-même malgré leur caractère confidentiel. À l’exception des articles de presse en libre accès, il s’agit d’avis du médecin, de comptes rendus médicaux délivrés par l’hôpital, de rapports du méde- cin légiste, de notes verbales, de courriers diplomatiques et ministériels, de convocations ou d’invitations à témoigner au tribunal, de procès-verbaux, entre autres. Tous ces documents rédigés en slovène (langue source) ont été biffés pour préserver leur confidentialité. Il a été très rare, même sur Internet, de trouver des équivalents en français pour procéder à la com- paraison des discours entre les langues source et cible, justement parce que ces documents sont confidentiels sinon personnels. Pour compléter ces données, nous avons donc puisé dans la presse en ligne, spécialisée (Le Quotidien du médecin) ou générale (grands quotidiens français), les rubriques justice, santé et faits divers de certains quotidiens et hebdomadaires français, les podcasts (émissions radiophoniques relatives à la santé et à la justice1) et les sites officiels de service public (administration française et diffusion du droit2). Cette biblio- thèque de ressources ainsi constituée, nous l’avons partagée avec l’apprenante pour accom- pagner son travail en autonomie, et nous en avons utilisé les éléments les plus pertinents pour procéder à l’analyse des discours, oraux et écrits. 4.3 Analyse discursive L’analyse des besoins et la collecte des données ont dégagé plusieurs types de discours, par- mi ceux que l’apprenante devra interpréter consécutivement ou traduire en français: d’une part, le discours oral des relations patients-médecins, puis les discours écrits relatifs à la correspondance entre institutions - administratives, juridiques (ou judiciaires), de santé - et au traitement de faits divers par la presse; d’autre part, le discours spécialisé propre à la do- cumentation officielle de l’administration juridique ou du personnel de santé, et le discours de vulgarisation qu’il soit scientifique dans la relation médecin-patient ou juridique dans les faits divers et les chroniques judiciaires. L’étude de ces discours collectés a révélé certains éléments saillants à faire acquérir ou perfectionner: • sur le plan pragmatique, des actes de parole transversaux aux deux disciplines: interro- ger, décrire, expliquer, argumenter, donner des instructions, des ordres, inviter, convo- quer; comprendre et transcrire des notes (acronymes, abréviations); traduire; • sur le plan linguistique: un lexique terminologique spécialisé abondant ayant recours parfois à des locutions latines, des collocations (nominales, verbales, adjectivales) et combinatoires de mots qui changent en fonction des contextes, une syntaxe complexe avec une grande variété de liens logiques (expressions de la cause, de la conséquence) et de modes verbaux dans le discours juridique; • sur le plan sociolinguistique: les rituels sociolinguistiques impliquent des outils langa- giers différents en fonction des actes de parole (emploi des pronoms personnels définis ou indéfinis, des modes impératif ou subjonctif, des verbes modalisateurs, des registres soutenu, courant, familier) et des postures (cf. relation patient-médecin); 1 Respectivement, Alors voilà ! et Dans le prétoire sur France Inter. 2 https://www.service-public.fr/ et https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/ 52 Lamy-Joswiak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 46–56 • sur le plan interculturel: l’organisation différente des systèmes de soin, de l’administra- tion publique, juridique ou judiciaire, et la comparaison des cultures professionnelles. 4.4 Élaboration des activités Ces éléments recensés ont facilité la mise en place du programme de formation, dont nous livrons un extrait ci-dessous (Document 3). Quant à l’élaboration des activités conçues par- fois pour répondre à des demandes spontanées de l’apprenante, nous avons tâché de suivre les principes méthodologiques de la trame méthodique repère (Laurens, 2020) avec une étape de réception mettant en jeu une situation de communication réelle (compréhension orale ou écrite d’un document authentique), une étape de traitement de la langue (repérage des ou- tils et structures langagières) et une étape de production et d’interaction (systématisation et bilan des acquis). La macro-tâche finale de cette trame étant pour l’apprenante la traduction des documents officiels qui incombent à ses fonctions administratives. Document 3 Comme la typologie des exercices est généralement identique à celle mise au point dans l’en- seignement généraliste de FLE, ce qui n’est pas le cas des contenus – inédits – des exercices et activités proposées en FOS (Mangiante, Parpette, 2004), nous présentons ci-dessous un exemple d’activité lexicale conçue ad hoc pour clarifier la terminologie juridique, en particu- lier le degré de technicité du système judiciaire, et favoriser la comparaison entre les langues source et cible. Cette activité est basée sur la compréhension de faits divers (6 chroniques au total), présumée acquise au niveau C1, et le repérage de mots désignant des personnes répondant d’un délit. 53 Lamy-Joswiak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 46–56 A. Compréhension écrite Lisez ces chroniques judiciaires et relevez-y le champ lexical de la procédure pénale. Chronique 1 Les Échos, 4 septembre 2021. B. Exercice lexical Lisez ces définitions et indiquez de qui il s’agit : accusé, inculpé, mis en examen, prévenu, suspect. a) Désigne toute personne soupçonnée d’avoir participé à la commission d’une infraction alors qu’elle ne fait pas encore l’objet des poursuites judiciaires. b) Désigne toute personne à l’encontre de laquelle il existe des indices graves ou concor- dants laissant présumer qu’elle a pris part comme auteur ou complice aux faits qui lui sont reprochés. c) Désigne toute personne à l’encontre de laquelle il existe des indices graves ou concor- dants rendant vraisemblable qu’elle ait pu participer, comme auteur ou complice à la commission d’une infraction. Pour ce faire, le juge d’instruction doit au préalable être saisi pour ladite infraction car il est celui qui prendra la décision de mise en examen. d) Désigne une personne qui fait l’objet de poursuites devant le tribunal correctionnel pour répondre d’une infraction ou d’un délit. C’est donc une personne qui n’est pas définitivement jugée. e) Personne poursuivie pour un crime et renvoyée devant la cour criminelle. C. Travail en autonomie Renseignez ces nouvelles entrées lexicales dans votre glossaire bilingue personnalisé. 54 Lamy-Joswiak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 46–56 4.5 Évaluation Deux types d’évaluation se sont imposées d’elles-mêmes au cours de cette formation inten- sive de 30 heures: • formative externe car la mise en pratique professionnelle des acquis de ce cours a été immédiate; tout le programme de formation, tâches, activités, exercices, convergeaient vers la réalisation de deux objectifs précis: traduire des documents professionnels re- mis aux supérieurs hiérarchiques ou transmis à des institutions tierces de la culture cible, et intervenir comme interprète dans des situations d’urgence impliquant des res- sortissants français. • Sommative interne pour certifier la formation avec une traduction du slovène vers le français à la fin de chaque cycle de 15h : un compte rendu médical et un fait divers re- latif à une affaire judiciaire. 5 Défis rencontrés Outre les défis que rencontre tout formateur en FOS en milieu allophone, à savoir la difficul- té à trouver du matériel adapté sur le terrain, à accéder à des documents authentiques en langue cible pour des raisons de confidentialité et à entrer en contact avec des acteurs des situations de communication cibles (Mangiante et Parpette, 2004), le premier défi rencontré fut de délimiter ce que ce projet de formation recouvre malgré la précision de son objectif axé sur la compétence linguistique – «élargir la terminologie dans les domaines du droit et de la médecine». Français de spécialité ou français sur objectif spécifique, les références théoriques mention- nées plus haut nous ont permis de saisir la portée des représentations de l’apprentissage des langues par l’apprenante qui, dans l’expression de ses besoins, a priorisé les savoirs (connaissances des éléments lexicaux) sur les savoir-faire (manières de traiter l’information, de dire et d’écrire), comme si la compétence linguistique devait l’emporter sur les compé- tences de communication et médiation (traduire, interpréter). Dès le début de la formation, nous sommes donc restée vigilante quant au développement des compétences de commu- nication et de médiation appuyées par une solide compétence linguistique. Toutefois, force est de constater que cette formation prenait souvent l’orientation d’un cours de traduction du slovène vers le français, avec un travail de recherche stylistique assez poussé, ce qui ren- voie à l’enseignement d’une spécialité. Dans l’analyse des besoins, l’approche terminologique par le biais des thématiques a pris le pas sur la recherche des situations de communication, cette démarche relevant davantage du français de spécialité que du FOS. Le questionnaire mériterait donc d’être reformulé en termes de compétences langagières et culturelles plutôt qu’en terme de lexique thématique à acquérir. Les contenus en gagneraient en efficacité dès le début de la formation. Le second défi fut d’ordre pragmatique: faire comprendre à l’apprenante les domaines étudiés dont, en tant que non-spécialiste de ces deux disciplines, elle n’avait que des connaissances vulgarisées voire partielles. Or, le rôle de médiatrice qui sous-tend au profil professionnel de l’apprenante exige la maîtrise parfaite de savoirs et de savoir-faire qui se rapproche de celle 55 Lamy-Joswiak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 46–56 d’une traductrice-interprète assermentée. Enfin, le manque d’accès à des ressources authen- tiques et fiables a représenté, plus qu’un défi, une contrainte pour concevoir du matériel pédagogique adéquat. Une recherche théorique plus approfondie sur l’analyse des discours médical et juridique contribuerait sans doute à cela. 6 Conclusion L’élaboration d’un cours de FOS nécessite un cadre méthodologique rigoureux dont il semble toutefois possible de s’extraire en fonction des contextes d’enseignement. La démarche que nous avons adoptée pour ce projet de formation nous a permis de construire une trame pé- dagogique garantissant la réalisation des objectifs de départ, malgré les contraintes de temps et l’accès relatif à des ressources authentiques. Les résultats des évaluations sommatives se sont révélés très satisfaisants en dépit du niveau de difficulté que représente l’exercice de traduction de la langue source vers la langue cible, même au niveau C1, et l’apprenante a exprimé toute sa satisfaction au terme des 30 heures de formation en confirmant le rôle de coach, médiateur et facilitateur qu’endosse le formateur de langue sur objectif spécifique. Cette remarque démontre une fois de plus l’importance de se centrer sur l’apprenant, ses besoins, ses savoirs et ses savoir-faire sans cesse réévalués en lui proposant des ressources adéquates pour travailler en autonomie, notamment lorsqu’il s’agit d’un cours individuel où les interactions avec d’autres apprenants sont inexistantes. Cette étude de cas révèle par ailleurs le besoin des formateurs en FOS de connaître et d’accéder à des corpus lexicaux et grammaticaux comme ceux dont disposent les traduc- teurs assermentés, par exemple, ou encore les chercheurs en linguistique. La formation continue des enseignants en milieu institutionnel peut et doit contribuer à cela. Le cas échéant, s’impose la nécessité pour les formateurs en FOS de constituer, sinon des réfé- rentiels de compétences langagières, des bases de données lexicales adaptées aux appre- nants d’un même milieu ou d’une même spécialité, et de mutualiser les ressources au sein d’une même institution. Bibliographie Berchoud, M.-J., & Rolland, D. (dir.) (2004). Français sur objectifs spécifiques : de la langue aux métiers. CLE international; FIPF. Binon J., & Thirion F. (2007). Le français sur objectifs spécifiques : cadrage et mise en perspective. Le Langage et l’Homme, vol. XXXXII (5–23). EME Éditions. Carras, C., Tolas J., Kohler, P., et al. (2007). Le français sur objectifs spécifiques et la classe de langue. CLE International. Challe, O. (2002). Enseigner le français de spécialité. Economica. Laurens, V. (2020). Le français langue étrangère, entre formation et pratiques. Construction de savoirs d’in- génierie didactique. Didier, coll. Langues et didactique. Mangiante, J.-M. (2006). Français de spécialité ou français sur objectif spécifique : deux démarches didactiques distinctes. Linguistique plurielle, (19)1, 137–152. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/ articulo?codigo=4030419 56 Lamy-Joswiak / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 46–56 Mangiante, J.-M., & Parpette, C. (2004). Le français sur objectif spécifique : de l’analyse des besoins à l’éla- boration d’un cours. Hachette, français langue étrangère. Mangiante, J.-M., & Parpette, C. (éd.) (2022). Le FOS aujourd’hui. État de la recherche en Français sur Ob- jectif Spécifique. Peter Lang. Mourlhon-Dallies, F. (2008). Enseigner une langue à des fins professionnelles. Didier. Richer, J.-J. (2016). Pour une reconceptualisation de la didactique sur objectifs spécifiques. Markey, D., Kindt, S. (éd.) Didactique du français sur objectifs spécifiques. Nouvelles recherches, nouveaux modèles (5–26). Garant. Manuels de FOS médical et juridique Damette, É., & Dargirolle, F. (2017). Méthode de français juridique (2nd éd.). Dalloz. Fassier, T., & Talavera Goy, S. (2014). Le français des médecins: 40 vidéos pour communiquer à l’hôpital (2nd éd.). Presses universitaires de Grenoble. Mourlhon-Dallies, F., & Tolas, J. (2007). Santé-médecine.com. CLE International. Soignet, M. (2003). Le français juridique: droit, administration, affaires. Hachette. Izvleček Oblikovanje tečaja francoščine kot strokovnega jezika s področja prava in medicine: od analize potreb do ocenjevanja iz programa usposabljanja Namen prispevka je poročati o izkušnji poučevanja francoščine kot strokovnega jezika, saj je to podro- čje v raziskavah tujega jezika stroke (TJS) v Sloveniji razmeroma malo raziskano. Oblikovanje predme- tov TJS zahteva strog metodološki okvir, iz katerega pa je kljub temu mogoče izstopiti glede na kontekst poučevanja. Študija primera obravnava kratek jezikovni program usposabljanja za odrasle, s področja prava in medicine, ki je potekal v institucionalnem okolju. Po kratkem pregledu posebnosti francoščine kot strokovnega jezika so v prispevku izpostavljeni pristopi in izzivi, ki so pred učitelja postavljeni pri oblikovanju takšnega tečaja: od analize potreb do diskurzivne analize, od zbiranja ustreznih podatkov do uporabe avtentičnih dokumentov in, na koncu, ocenjevanja iz programa usposabljanja. Ključne besede: francoščina kot strokovni jezik, medicina, pravo, poučevanje, analiza potreb, diskurz 57 Karmelka Barić Technische Hochschule für angewandte Wissenschaften Katalin Hegedűs Lehramt – Fakultät mit Ungarisch als Unterrichtssprache Subotica CURRICULARE ENTWICKLUNG DES STUDIENBEGLEITENDEN DEUTSCHUNTERRICHTS IN SERBIEN – RÜCKBLICK UND AUSBLICK Zusammenfassung Die Anforderungen, die heutzutage vom Arbeitsmarkt an die Studienabgänger*innen gestellt werden, verpflichten dazu, sich zu überlegen, was Universitäten und Hochschulen tun können, um Student*in- nen bestmöglich auf ihre Aufgaben vorzubereiten, sowie ob – und im Falle wie – der studienbegleiten- de Deutschunterricht (SDU) dazu beitragen kann und wie demzufolge die entsprechenden Curricula aussehen sollten. Ziel dieses Beitrags ist deshalb, den aktuellen Stand des DaF-Unterrichts im Hochschulbereich – und zwar anhand eines Beispiels – zu analysieren: Gewählt wurde die Situation in Serbien mit der Absicht, paradigmatisch zur allgemeinen didaktisch-methodischen Diskussion und zur Verbesserung der Studi- enbedingungen und der Berufs-, Fach- und Kompetenzorientierung des Deutschunterrichts beizutra- gen. Ermittelt wird, ob sich die Leistungsanforderungen an Student*innen im Laufe der Jahre verändert haben und besonders, ob das 2010 im Rahmen eines internationalen Hochschulprojekts erschienene Rahmencurriculum für den studienbegleitenden Deutschunterricht Anklang gefunden hat, d.h. inwiefern sei- ne Prinzipien in die SDU-Curricula aufgenommen und von Dozent*innen umgesetzt worden sind. Anhand einer Anzahl von Kriterien werden im Beitrag zuerst die aktuellen Curricula für den SDU in Serbi- en untersucht, danach die Befunde mit den Ergebnissen einer 2008 durchgeführten Untersuchung ver- glichen, um festzustellen, wie sich die Fremdsprachenwahl und die Stundenzuweisung verändert haben. Das Untersuchungsergebnis ist, dass in den Curricula der Berufs- und Fachbezogenheit eine wichtige Rolle eingeräumt wird, dass aber die Prinzipien des o.g. Rahmencurriculums trotz einiger Fortschritte noch nicht in allen Curricula umgesetzt wurden. Zu verzeichnen ist außerdem eine Reduzierung der zur Auswahl stehenden Fremdsprachen und der von Universitäts- und Hochschulverwaltungen fest- gelegten Stundenzahl, was sich auf das Sprachniveau und die sprachlichen Handlungskompetenzen der Student*innen negativ auswirkt. Weitere Anstrengungen sind daher notwendig, damit die Kompetenzorientierung deutlicher in den SDU-Curricula verankert wird: Dies erfordert eine enge Zusammenarbeit zwischen Hochschulverwal- tung und Lehrkräften, so dass Student*innen eine qualitativ hochwertige und den Anforderungen des Marktes und des Gemeinsamen Europäischen Referenzrahmens für Sprachen entsprechende Sprach- ausbildung gewährleistet werden kann. Schlüsselwörter: Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung, Curricula, Deutsch- und Fremdsprachenunter- richt, Rahmencurriculum, Serbien, studienbegleitend Paper received: 14.09.2023 Paper revised: 12.12.2023 Paper accepted: 20.12.2023 Paper published: 15.06.2024 Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023) DOI: 10.4312/SM.18.2.57-89 Teaching Report 58 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Abstract Development of Curricula for Cross-Faculty German Courses in Serbian Universities: Retrospect and Glimpse into the Future The challenges that today’s labour market presents to graduates require us to consider what univer- sities and higher education institutions can do to prepare students for their tasks in the best possible way, as well as whether German as a foreign language classes at university level can contribute to this and what the corresponding curricula should look like as a result. The aim of this article is therefore to analyse the current state of German as a foreign language teach- ing in higher education using as an example the situation in Serbia with the intention of making a par- adigmatic contribution to the general didactic-methodological discussion and to the improvement of study conditions and the professional, disciplinary and skills-orientation of German lessons. The aim is to determine whether the performance requirements for students have changed over the years and, in particular, whether the framework curriculum for German language teaching published in 2010 as part of an international university project has been well received, i.e. to what extent its principles have been incorporated into the German teaching curricula and implemented by academic lecturers. In order to determine how the choice of foreign languages and the allocation of lessons has changed, the article first analyses the current curricula in Serbian universities and then compares the findings with the results of a study conducted in 2008. The result of the study is that the curricula give an important role to professional and subject-related- ness, but that the principles of the above-mentioned framework curriculum have not yet been imple- mented in all curricula despite some progress; there is also a reduction in the number of foreign lan- guages available for selection and the number of hours set by university and college administrations, and this has a negative impact on the language level and language competences of students. Further efforts are therefore needed to ensure that competence-orientation is more clearly anchored in the curricula for German as a foreign language teaching in higher education: This requires close cooperation between university administration and teaching staff so that students can be guaranteed high-quality language training that meets the requirements of both the market and the Common Eu- ropean Framework of Reference for Languages. Keywords: education for sustainable development, curricula, German, foreign language teaching, framework curricula, Serbia, tertiary education 1 Einleitung Es sind mehr als 10 Jahre seit der Veröffentlichung des Rahmencurriculums (Goethe-Institut, RC 2010) für den studienbegleitenden Deutschunterricht (SDU) in Serbien vergangen, das im Rahmen eines internationalen Hochschulprojekts aus der Zusammenarbeit einer serbischen Gruppe von Deutschdozent:innen entstanden ist. Da es keine offiziellen Angaben darüber gibt, ob in Serbien das Rahmencurriculum (im Nachfolgenden RC) und das anhand des Rah- mencurriculums entstandene Lehrbuch „Mit Deutsch studieren, arbeiten, leben“ (Lévy-Hil- lerich, Serena, Barić, & Cickovska, 2010) von den Deutschdozent:innen verwendet werden, sollen im vorliegenden Beitrag die im tertiären Bereich in Serbien bestehenden Curricula für 59 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Deutsch als Fremdsprache unter die Lupe genommen werden. Es soll festgestellt werden, ob Auswirkungen des serbischen SDU-Rahmencurriculums auf den Unterricht Deutsch als Fremdsprache im universitären Bereich (DaF-Unterricht) nachweisbar sind: Was ist nach der Veröffentlichung des Rahmencurriculums in der serbischen Hochschullandschaft passiert? Hat das RC in Curricula und im Deutschunterricht im tertiären Bereich Fuß gefasst? Das sind die Fragen, die dieser Beitrag anhand einer Untersuchung zu beantworten versucht: Im ersten Teil wird nach einem kurzen Überblick über die Forschungslandschaft, in die das RC eingegliedert ist (Kap. 1), das internationale Hochschulprojekt kurz vorgestellt (Kap. 2), im Rahmen dessen das o.g. RC für den studienbegleitenden Deutschunterricht in Serbien entstanden ist, und es wird begründet, warum das RC von Bedeutung ist. Danach wird die Situation des Deutsch- und Fremdsprachenunterrichts in Serbien (Kap. 3) mithilfe von Daten beschrieben (Kap. 5), die durch eine Analyse der verfügbaren Online-Curricula der staatli- chen Universitäten und Hochschulen sowie der Akademien1 gewonnen wurden. Die quanti- tative Inhaltsanalyse der Curricula (s. Kap. 4 zur Methode) auch in Bezug auf die Verwendung von Lehrbüchern sowie auf Sprachniveaus und Outputs in Curricula verwendet (Kap. 6). Die neu gewonnenen Daten wurden mit den Ergebnissen der Untersuchung aus 2009 verglichen (Kap. 7). Zuletzt (Kap. 8 und 9) werden mit einem Ausblick auf zukünftige Entwicklungsmög- lichkeiten die Schlussfolgerungen vorgestellt. 2 Kurzer Blick auf die Situation des SDUs im internationalen Kontext Die serbische Situation des SDUs kann nicht isoliert von der Entwicklung des studienbeglei- tenden Deutsch- und Fremdsprachenunterrichts (FSU) in anderen Ländern gesehen werden. Grundlegend, um sie in den internationalen Kontext einzubetten, ist der Sammelband „Stu- dienbegleitender Deutschunterricht in Europa“ (Lévy-Hillerich & Serena, 2009), in dem die Situation in den Ländern vorgestellt wird, die am Hochschulprojekt teilgenommen haben: Bei allen konnte – zwar in unterschiedlichem Maße – eine Reduzierung der Lehrstunden fest- gestellt werden wie z. B. • in Kroatien (Moro, 2009, S. 221-224) • in Nordmazedonien (Cickovska, 2009, S. 255-266) • in Polen (Szewiola, 2009, S. 273-297) • in der Slowakei (Mihoková, Bröstlová, Pavlovová, & Minarčíková, 2009, S. 359-367) • in Tschechien (Odstrčilová, 2009, S. 417-428) • in der Ukraine (Azzolini, 2009, S. 431-437). Seit 2009 ist das Hochschulprojekt zwar nicht mehr ausgebaut worden, aber es liegen einzel- ne Berichte über die Situation vom SDU in verschiedenen Ländern vor: • In Tschechien gibt es keine Statusverbesserung des SDUs (Gester, 2014, S. 346-348). • Gleiches gilt für Kroatien (Kordić, 2018; Radek & Sobočan, 2020; Birtić Vučić, 2023). Ein Grund dafür ist, dass Student:innen Deutsch als studienbegleitendes Fach trotz der 1 Siehe die entsprechende Liste unter: https://fakulteti.edukacija.rs/drzavne-visoke-skole/svi-gradovi 60 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Anerkennung seiner Bedeutung im Berufsleben nicht wählen (Mikulec Rogić, Cibulka, & Rujevčan, 2020, S. 178-183). Dadurch wird die Situation des SDUs zusätzlich erschwert. • In Polen, wo das Hochschulprojekt entstanden ist, wird durch die Zertifizierung von Sprach- kenntnissen in den Fremdsprachenzentren der Universitäten zwar eine bessere Position für den Spracherwerb von Student:innen geschaffen (Kic-Drgas & Woźniak, 2020), doch hängt das nicht mit der Kenntnis oder der Umsetzung der Rahmencurricula zusammen. Im Allgemeinen ist auch in anderen Ländern – wie z. B. Slowenien und Ungarn – bei den Se- mesterstundenzahlen im SDU/FSU eine rückläufige Tendenz zu verzeichnen: • Während dies in Slowenien sowohl an staatlichen Universitäten (Horvat, 2009) als auch an höheren Fachschulen der Fall ist (Mertelj, 2011), scheinen die Fremdsprachen in vie- len Studiengängen doch wieder an Bedeutung zu gewinnen (Mikolič Južnič & Pisanski Peterlin, 2023). • Im Nachbarland Ungarn (Bradean-Gacs, 2009) ist die Fremdsprache zwar ein nicht ver- pflichtendes Fach ohne ECTS, doch sind Fremdsprachenkenntnisse bis zum Schul- bzw. Studienabschluss durch ein Zertifikat für das B2-Niveau nachzuweisen. Der Status des SDUs/FSUs ist also von Land zu Land unterschiedlich: Aus diesem Grund ver- steht sich dieser Beitrag als ein Versuch, die Situation des SDUs in Serbien mit einem Blick auf die Entwicklungen des FSUs im europäischen Hochschulbereich zu beschreiben, ohne allerdings im Bezug auf die einzelnen Länder auf Details einzugehen. 3 Ursprung des serbischen Rahmencurriculums zum SDU Die Rahmencurricula für den SDU sind als Antwort auf den Hilferuf von Dozent:innen in Süd-Osteuropa entstanden, die damals vor neuen und nicht nur wirtschaftlichen oder ge- sellschaftlichen Herausforderungen im Unterricht standen. Der SDU ist ein Fremdsprachen- unterricht (FSU), der fächerübergreifend und inter- und transdisziplinär zu verstehen ist, der die Student:innen auf das Leben und den Beruf vorbereitet; der SDU ist also teilweise be- rufs- und fachbezogen. Die Sprache wird im SDU nicht als ein Objekt wahrgenommen, das analysiert werden soll, wie dies z. B. in der Germanistik der Fall ist. Es geht um einen kompe- tenz- und handlungsorientierten Deutschunterricht, der die Student:innen befähigen soll, in bestimmten Situationen kompetent in der Fremdsprache zu handeln. Es ist kein Unterricht für Erwachsene (Lévy-Hillerich & Serena, 2009, S. 7), weil Student:innen darin auch Fach-, Sozial- und Methodenkompetenzen entwickeln sollen, die Erwachsene schon haben (sollten): Wie in einem der ersten Rahmencurricula für den studienbegleitenden Deutschunterricht nachzulesen ist, sollen Student:innen in diesem Unterricht […] ihr Wissen über Fremdsprachen und deren Strukturen (z.B. morphologisches, syntaktisches, lexikalisches Wissen, Wissen um den Zusammenhang zwischen Text- sorte, Textmuster (Textbauplan), Sprachhandlungen (Mitteilungsabsichten, Kommuni- kationsverfahren, Redemittel = funktionale und systematische Grammatik) vertiefen, [...] (Goethe-Institut, RC 2006, S. 5) Das serbische Rahmencurriculum für den SDU (2010) wurde innerhalb eines internationa- len Hochschulprojekts veröffentlicht, im Rahmen dessen zwischen 1998 und 2014 in einigen 61 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 ost- und südosteuropäischen Ländern (Bosnien und Herzegowina, Kroatien, Nordmazedo- nien, Polen, der Slowakei, Tschechien und der Ukraine) Rahmencurricula entstanden2. Bei der Entwicklung von Rahmencurricula (Serena & Barić, 2017; 2018; 2020) waren folgende Aspekte richtungsweisend: • Schaffung eines Rahmencurriculums für den studienbegleitenden Deutschunterricht, um einerseits Lehrkräften die Arbeit zu erleichtern, und andererseits Student:innen vergleichbare Ergebnisse zu ermöglichen, • Berücksichtigung der Spezifitäten des SDUs, • Sondierung der nützlichen methodisch-didaktischen Literatur und Angebot von Unter- richtsskizzen als gute Verfahrensweisen, • Wertschätzung der Entscheidungsfreiheit der Lehrpersonen, d.h. auch Autonomie der Universitäten und • Berücksichtigung der Rahmenbedingungen der Veranstaltungen (z.B. Prüfungen). Das Rahmencurriculum für den studienbegleitenden Deutschunterricht in Serbien (Goethe- Institut, RC 2010) entstand mit Hilfe des Goethe-Instituts und auf der Vorlage der in Polen, Tschechien und in der Slowakei schon veröffentlichten Rahmencurricula. Die darin enthalte- nen didaktisch-methodischen und pädagogischen Grundsätze (Goethe-Institut, RC 2011, S. 11) sind alle miteinander verbunden und können nicht isoliert betrachtet werden, denn sie prägen Ziele, Methoden, Inhalte und damit auch Leistungsbewertung und -beurteilung. Sie sind in jedem RC als Prinzipien dargestellt: • Entfaltung und Förderung der Lerner:innen-Autonomie, • Kommunikations- und Handlungsorientierung, • Sensibilisierung für interkulturelle Aspekte, • Lerner:innen-Orientierung und eine daraus sich ergebende Veränderung der Rolle des Lehrer:innen, • Berufs- und Fachbezogenheit und • Methoden- und Medienvielfalt. In allen Rahmencurricula sind Handlungs- und Kompetenzorientierung hervorgehoben und bestimmen als ganzheitlicher Ansatz den SDU. Das RC wurde vom Deutschen ins Serbische übersetzt, mit dem Ziel, einerseits Deutsch- lehrer:innen an Universitäten und Hochschulen in Serbien bei der Unterrichtsplanung zu unterstützen und andererseits die Position sowohl des Deutschunterrichts als auch der Dozent:innen zu sichern. Die Frage, ob der Deutsch- und Fremdsprachenunterricht an den Institutionen, deren Curricula untersucht wurden, so ganzheitlich kompetenzorientiert und handlungsorientiert stattfindet, wie es in RC beschrieben wurde, sollen die Ergebnisse der zwischen November 2022 und Januar 2023 durchgeführten Untersuchung beantworten. In diesem Beitrag wird also einerseits der Begriff „studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht“ (SDU) im Sinne dieses Hochschulprojekts verwendet und andererseits im Sinne des Deutsch- unterrichts, der an serbischen Universitäten und Hochschulen als Fach stattfindet. In dem 2 Alle Rahmencurricula sind hier abrufbar: https://www.goethe.de/de/spr/unt/kum/rcm.html 62 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Hochschulprojekt bedeutet studienbegleitend, dass der Unterricht parallel zu allen Fächern verläuft und dass durch diesen Unterricht Kompetenzen entwickelt werden, die für das Stu- dium und den Beruf in allen Fächern wichtig sind. Es lässt sich allerdings fragen, ob an den Universitäten, Hochschulen und Akademien im Deutschunterricht diese Kompetenzen wirk- lich entwickelt werden und ob der Unterricht immer so ganzheitlich aufgebaut ist, wie es in dem Rahmencurriculum für den SDU erklärt wird. 4 Allgemeine Informationen über die Hochschullandschaft in Serbien 4.1 Die Bologna-Erklärung und ihre Auswirkung auf den DaF-Unterricht im tertiären Bereich Nur wenige Studien befassen sich explizit mit der Vermittlung der deutschen Sprache im serbischen Hochschulbereich (Barić, 2009; Krželj, 2013) nach der Bologna-Erklärung (Euro- parat, 1999). In dieser Zeit wurden Standards für die Akkreditierung und Re-Akkreditierung der Hochschulen eingeführt, mit dem Ziel, die Qualität der Ausbildung zu sichern und sie im tertiären Bereich zu verbessern. Danach wurden die Standards immer wieder revidiert (vgl. Turanjanin & Marčetić, 2019). Leider brachte der Bologna-Prozess auch negative Folgen: Er führte zur Reduzierung der Stundenzahl des Fremdsprachenunterrichts. Darauf wiesen Đorović & Janković (2009, S. 463-462) in ihrem Bericht über den studienbegleitenden Ita- lienischunterricht und drei Jahre später Ignjačević (2012, S. 696-698) in ihrer Untersuchung über den studienbegleitenden Fremdsprachenunterricht hin. Um den Bologna-Empfehlungen zu entsprechen, ist 2005 das Gesetz für Hochschulbildung geändert und ergänzt worden, so dass die ersten Versuche, die Curricula in Serbien mit den regionalen und europäischen Curricula in Einklang zu bringen, viele Änderungen (z.B. ECTS, Outputs) gebracht haben. Das Handbuch über die Entwicklung von Curricula in der Hoch- schulbildung (Vukasović, 2006) beschreibt – u.a. in Form von Handreichungen für Dozent:in- nen – wie Outputs und Kompetenzen miteinander verbunden sind und wie sie in einem Curriculum formuliert werden können (Vukasović, 2006, S. 88-96). Gerade eine ausführliche Kompetenzformulierung ist bei der Entwicklung der Curricula grundlegend, damit die Out- puts festgelegt werden können. Allerdings wird dieses Handbuch als Empfehlung verstanden und deshalb werden seitens der Dozent:innen diese Handreichungen nicht immer angewen- det und die Vorschläge auch nicht immer in den Curricula für den Deutschunterricht im ser- bischen tertiären Bereich umgesetzt. Diese Curricula sind also nicht alle gleich, was auch die zu erwerbenden Kompetenzen der Student:innen betrifft. Im Allgemeinen können Curricula in Serbien alle fünf Jahre verändert u./o. ergänzt werden, immer wenn eine neue Akkreditie- rung bevorsteht. 4.2 Bildungsinstitutionen im tertiären Bereich Serbien ist ein Land, das sowohl durch politische Ereignisse wie Kriege als auch durch na- tionale und globale Wirtschaftskrisen, ökologische und Naturkatastrophen, globale Krisen wie die Corona-Pandemie und demografische Krisen wie Migrationen, Auswanderung und 63 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Braindrain von jungen Akademikerinnen und Akademikern gekennzeichnet ist3. Solche Er- eignisse beeinflussen die Gesellschaft, die Bildung im tertiären Bereich und dabei auch den Fremdsprachenunterricht. Die Hochschulfinanzierung in Serbien sieht sich im Allgemeinen Kürzungen unterworfen, die sich selbstverständlich auch auf den Fremdsprachenunterricht auswirken. Eine empirische Untersuchung aus dem Jahr 2019, die die Meinungen von Stu- dent:innen und Dozent:innen in Serbien analysierte, bestätigte jedoch das anhaltende Inte- resse der Student:innen am Fremdsprachenlernen: 64,9% der Student:innen vertraten die Auffassung, dass Fremdsprachenlernen im tertiären Bereich von Bedeutung ist; zusätzlich bekundeten 50,9% der Befragten die Ansicht, dass es wünschenswert sei, dass jeder über Kenntnisse in zwei Fremdsprachen verfügt (Janković,  Savić Nenadović, &  Cvetković, 2019, S. 95). All das ist ein guter Grund, um die heutige Situation mit der Situation 2008 zu verglei- chen, als eine Untersuchung zu der Situation vom SDU durchgeführt wurde (Barić, 2009), und schließlich auch, um in serbischen Curricula für den SDU nach berufsbezogenen Elementen zu suchen. Was die Anzahl der Bildungsinstitutionen im tertiären Bereich betrifft, gibt es ein dichtes Netz von staatlichen Hochschulen und Universitäten (Edukacija, 2022) – und dies obwohl die Re- publik Serbien laut der letzten Volkszählung 2022 (Republički zavod za statistiku, Popis 20224) nur etwas mehr als 6,5 Millionen Einwohner hat. Es gibt (s. auch Kap. 5, Tab. 1 und 3) • 5 Universitäten mit 73 Fakultäten mit unterschiedlichen natur- und geisteswissenschaft- lichen Studienrichtungen, mit drei- (angewandte Wissenschaften) bzw. vier- bis sechs- jährigen Bachelor- und Master-Diplom-Studiengängen in Belgrad, Novi Sad, Kragujevac und Niš sowie die Universität der Künste mit vier Fakultäten; außerdem gibt es die Universität der Verteidigung in Belgrad, die Universität in Kosovska Mitrovica sowie die Universität in Novi Pazar (hat statt Fakultäten 23 Studiengänge), die in der vorliegenden Untersuchung nicht berücksichtigt wurden • 46 Hochschulen und 12 Akademien5 mit dreijährigen Studiengängen für angewandte Wissenschaften aller Art, auf die eventuell eine Spezialisierung und/oder ein Masterstu- dium folgen kann. Die Daten schließen die Kriminalistische Polizeiakademie und Militär- medizinische Akademie in Belgrad nicht ein. 3 Es gibt keine statistischen Daten auf nationaler Ebene darüber, wie viele junge Menschen ins Ausland gegangen sind, aber die OECD-Daten in der „Strategie über wirtschaftliche Migrationen der Republik Ser- bien für den Zeitraum 2021-2027: 21/2020-45” zeigen, dass seit 2000 „598.200” Personen aus Serbien in die EU-Länder gezogen sind (meistens nach Deutschland und Österreich, aber auch in die USA); den pro- zentuell größten Anteil in Deutschland stellen die jungen Akademiker:innen (9,3%) aus Serbien dar, die in dieses Land ausgewandert sind. (s. mehr: https://www.pravno-informacioni-sistem.rs/SlGlasnikPortal/eli/ rep/sgrs/vlada/strategija/2020/21/1). 4 In Übersetzung: Statistisches Amt der R. Serbien. Volkszählung 2022. [Karmelka Barić] 5 Die Akademien entstanden in Serbien durch die Zusammenlegung von Hochschulen. Vor 2020 gab es insgesamt 47 Hochschulen. Die Akademien wurden vor allem regional gegründet, insbesondere in Zent- ral- und Südserbien (insgesamt 12). Die Hochschulen und Akademien konzentrieren sich auf angewandte wissenschaftliche Bereiche. Es ist wichtig anzumerken, dass Hochschulen und Akademien kein Teil von Uni- versitäten sind, aber vom Staat gegründet sind. Der Begriff „Akademie“ bezieht sich jedoch nicht auf ehe- malige Akademien beispielsweise Musik- oder Kunstakademien, weil diese nun als Fakultäten bezeichnet werden. 64 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 4.2.1 Organisation des Fremdsprachenunterrichts im tertiären Bereich Der Fremdsprachenunterricht ist in Serbien an fast allen Bildungsinstitutionen im Hochschul- bereich ein fester Bestandteil des Studiums, d.h. des Bachelor- oder Masterstudiums: Er hat sowohl an staatlichen als auch an privaten Universitäten (die in diesen Beitrag nicht einbe- zogen wurden) eine lange Tradition (Krželj, 2013), aber auch einen unterschiedlichen Sta- tus. An den staatlichen Universitäten haben Fremdsprachen den Status eines curricularen Faches nicht verloren, doch begrenzen die meisten Universitäten und Hochschulen - die ja unabhängig voneinander entscheiden können - ihr Fremdsprachenangebot auf Englisch plus eventuell noch eine weitere Fremdsprache. Nachdem im serbischen Hochschulwesen jede Institution das Fremdsprachenangebot nach eigenem Ermessen gestalten kann, ergibt sich als Folge eine Abwertung und Marginalisierung des Fremdsprachenunterrichts, besonders aller anderen Sprachen außer Englisch. Auch ist eine regionale Unterscheidung im Fremd- sprachenangebot bemerkbar: An Universitäten bzw. Philologischen Fakultäten in größeren Städten, besonders im Norden, besteht ein breiteres Angebot von Fremdsprachen – darunter Deutsch – während im Süden eher andere Fremdsprachen vorhanden sind, z.B. Russisch und Französisch. Lektor:innen für Fremdsprachen gibt es nur an den philologischen Fakultäten und ausschließlich für Student:innen, die Fremdsprachen als Hauptfach studieren. Sprachenzentren sind in der serbischen Hochschullandschaft nicht üblich, aber seit Jahren existieren parallel zum curricularen Fremdsprachenunterricht eines an der Wirtschaftsfakul- tät in Subotica und eines als selbstständiges Institut für Fremdsprachen in Belgrad: Sie ermög- lichen den Erwerb mehrerer Sprachen sowie eine Zertifizierung. Als Sprachprüfung, die einen erfolgreichen Erwerb einer Fremdsprache bestätigt, werden von den Universitäten keine Zer- tifikate im Sinne des GeRs (Europarat, 2001; 2020) anerkannt. Zertifikate dieser Art werden an offiziellen Sprachinstituten im Lande außerhalb der Universitätseinrichtungen vergeben. Obwohl Student:innen innerhalb ihres Studiums keinen Nachweis über das Niveau ihrer Sprachkenntnisse bekommen, wird in den Curricula der universitären Bildungseinrichtun- gen meistens erwähnt, welche Outputs auf welchem Sprachniveau von Studierenden nach dem Studienabschluss erwartet werden können: Ob eine sprachliche Handlungskompetenz auf Niveau A1 bis C1 erreicht wird, hängt allerdings auch von den Vorkenntnissen ab, die die Student:innen mitbringen. Da die Grundschulen in den Lehrplänen zwei Fremdsprachen vor- sehen, die aber nicht in den Mittelschulen weitergeführt werden, kommen die Student:innen mit einer „Fremdsprachenerwerbslücke“ zum Studium bzw. gehen die in der Grundschule er- worbenen Fremdsprachenkenntnisse verloren oder es wird mit einer neuen Fremdsprache begonnen, was in einem so beschränkten Zeitraum (ein oder zwei Semester) nicht viel Erfolg bringt und auch für Student:innen wenig motivierend ist. Dazu kommt noch, dass eine Binnendifferenzierung nicht möglich ist, d.h. dass die Gruppen der Student:innen z.B. für den Deutschunterricht heterogen zusammengesetzt sind und aus Nullanfängern, falschen Anfängern und Fortgeschrittenen bestehen, die in unterschiedlichen Fachrichtungen studieren. Ein höheres Sprachniveau ist also nicht zu erreichen, weil im fä- cherübergreifenden Unterricht weder ein niedrigeres Niveau noch individuelle Programme für Fortgeschrittene angeboten werden. Wo diese angeboten wurden, waren sie allerdings nicht immer die beste Lösung, weil Student:innen autonomes Lernen nicht kennen. Der Er- werb der Fachsprache erweist sich dann für solche Gruppen als besonders schwierig. 65 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 4.2.2 Fremdsprachen im studienbegleitenden Fremdsprachenunterricht In Serbien bleibt leider für die Fremdsprachenlehrer:innen aller anderen Fremdsprachen die vom Europarat und von der Europäischer Union empfohlene Dreisprachigkeit immer noch ein Wunschziel (s. (EUR-Lex, 2017). Hochschulen, wo zwei Fremdsprachen für bestimmte Studien- gänge verbindlich sind - und Deutsch dann eventuell die zweite Fremdsprache ist - sind sel- ten zu finden. Wenn nur eine Fremdsprache vorgeschrieben ist und mehrere Fremdsprachen angeboten werden (in den meisten Fällen zwei), entscheiden sich Student:innen für Englisch. Auch wenn die Masterabsolventen laut Vorschrift mindestens eine Fremdsprache schriftlich und mündlich beherrschen sollten, ist dies meistens nicht der Fall. Wenn sie eine neue Fremd- sprache gewählt haben, sind sie als Nullanfänger in einem Semester nicht in der Lage, zu einem höheren Sprachniveau zu kommen als A1.2. Die Kreditpunktezahl für die bestandene Prüfung ist gleich, obwohl die Sprachkenntnisse unterschiedlich sind, und anhand des Notensystems (6-10) ist auch nicht zu unterscheiden, wer ein Anfänger und wer ein Fortgeschrittener ist. 5 Methode Zur Untersuchung der Merkmale von Curricula für den SDU in Serbien ist als Forschungsme- thode eine qualitative Inhaltsanalyse eingesetzt worden. Diese Analyse diente dazu, Zusam- menhänge zu erfassen und Unterschiede zwischen den Curricula festzustellen. Zusätzlich ist eine quantitative Forschung in Form einer deskriptiven Statistik angewendet worden, um die Ergebnisse manuell in tabellarischer Form zusammenzufassen. Die Datenquelle umfasste alle aktuellen Curricula für den Fremdsprachenunterricht/ Deutsch- unterricht für 77 Fakultäten der fünf staatlichen Universitäten und 44 Hochschulen und Aka- demien in Serbien. Nach der ersten Sichtung der erfassten Daten erfolgte die erste Analyse. Diese vorläufige Auswertung ermöglichte eine weitere gezielte Untersuchung und vertiefen- de Analyse der Curricula für den SDU in 28 Fakultäten und 10 Hochschulen und Akademien in Serbien. Aus den Tabellen können folgende Informationen entnommen werden: • auf welchem Niveau die Fremdsprache gelehrt wird, • wie viele Kreditpunkte (ECTS) pro Kurs erteilt werden, • ob es ein Pflicht- oder Wahlfach ist, • was die Ziele und die erwarteten Outputs sind, • welche Methode(n) angewendet wird/werden, • welche Literatur, Stundenzahl, Pflichtaufgaben und Aktivitäten vor der Prüfung emp- fohlen sind und • worin die Prüfung besteht. Die Daten wurden zwischen Oktober 2022 und Januar 2023 anhand der auf der Homepage der Fakultäten, Akademien und Hochschulen veröffentlichten Curricula erhoben. Die meis- ten Curricula der Fakultäten sind seit 2019 oder 2021, also nach der zuletzt erfolgten Akkre- ditierung, gültig. 66 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 6 Ergebnisse 6.1 Fremdsprachenunterricht in Serbien Die Analyse der Daten ergab, dass die Curricula vom studienbegleitenden Deutschunterricht im serbischen Hochschulwesen, was Stundenzahl, Sprachniveaus und Inhalte bzw. Lernzie- le und Outputs betrifft, in keinerlei Hinsicht einheitlich aussehen: In einigen Curricula sind die Angaben äußerst knapp formuliert (z.B. es fehlen Informationen zu Lernzielen, Outputs, Lehrwerken, Wochenthemen usw.), in anderen sind sie ausgiebiger. Die Daten zur heutigen Situation des Fremdsprachenunterrichts in Serbien (Tab. 1) zeigen, dass die meisten Fakul- täten an Universitäten in Serbien Fremdsprachenunterricht (FSU) erteilen: An insgesamt 77 Fakultäten der fünf Universitäten wird an 57 Fakultäten ein Fremdsprachenunterricht an- geboten; nur für eine Universität, die Universität in Novi Pazar, gibt es keine genauen Daten. Tabelle 1 Universitäten – Fremdsprachen-Aspekt in Zahlen Universität Zahl der Fakultäten Zahl der Fakultäten Bemerkung Weitere Fremd- sprachen im Angebot davon mit FSU im Angebot davon mit Deutsch- unterricht im Angebot Belgrad 31 28 10 kein FSU: 2 Nur Englisch: 14 Englisch, Russisch, Französisch Italie- nisch, Spanisch Universität der Künste Belgrad 4 4 2 Nur Englisch: 1 Englisch, Russisch, Französisch Kragujevac 14 12 5 Nur Englisch: 4 Englisch, Russisch Niš 14 12 5 k.A. 1 kein FSU: 1 Nur Englisch: 7 Französisch, Rus- sisch, Englisch, Ita- lienisch Novi Sad 14 13 5 Kein FSU:1 Nur Englisch: 6 Englisch, Russisch Novi Pazar 23 Studiengänge und 13 Fachbereiche 23 Studiengänge k.A. Nur Englisch: 18 (Französisch?) Türkisch (Anglis- tik) k.A. (keine Angaben) 6.2 Fremdsprachenunterricht an Fakultäten vs. SDU in Serbien Deutsch wird meistens in Kombination mit anderen Fremdsprachen - und zwar meistens mit Englisch - als Pflichtfach/Wahl(pflicht)fach/Wahlfach6 oder fakultatives Fach angeboten: 6 Fremdsprachenunterricht als Fach kann unterschiedlich bestimmt werden: als Pflichtfach für alle Stu- dent:innen, das bestanden werden muss, als Wahlfach unter mindestens 2 oder mehreren anderen Wahl- fächern (auch Fächer, die nichts mit Fremdsprachen zu tun haben), und als „Wahl(pflicht)fach“, was eine Wahl zwischen den Fremdsprachen voraussetzt, wobei das Fach aber ein Pflichtfach ist. Als fakultatives Fach werden die Fächer bezeichnet, die angeboten werden, aber nicht unbedingt gewählt werden müssen, da die Student:innen überhaupt nicht verpflichtet sind, sich für Fremdsprachen zu entscheiden. 67 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 entweder als Fremdsprache 1, 2 und usw. oder mit Bezeichnung Deutsch 1, Deutsch 2, 3 usw. (Deutsch 2 oder 3 betrifft dann Fachsprache, Berufssprache, z.B. Deutsch im Tourismus oder Deutsch für Wirtschaftswissenschaftler:innen mit höheren Sprachniveaus); es gibt auch Kurs- bezeichnungen wie „Deutsche Sprache“ mit Nennung eines Sprachniveaus vom GeR (Europa- rat 2020), also A1, A2 usw. oder wie „Gegenwartssprache“ bei den Philologien. Aus der folgenden Tabelle (Tab. 2) lassen sich die Daten von Universitäten, die SDU anbieten, entnehmen. Tabelle 2 Deutsch in Curricula an Universitäten in Serbien im akademischen Jahr 2021/2022 HOCHSCHULTYP Semester / Pflichtfach (P) Wahlfach (W) Wochen- stunden / WS) Vorles. + Übungen + andere Formen Sprachniveau / Allgemeinsprache/ Berufs-/ Fachbe- zogenheit/ SDU Prüfungsart /Klausuren/ Prüfungen: mündlich / schriftlich Universitäten in Belgrad (31 Fakul- täten) Fachrichtungen Semester / P / W WS V+Ü ECTS Rechtswissenschaft- liche Fakultät 4 (P) 2+2 6 B1 D/E/R/F Fachbezogenheit Klausur, Semi- nararbeit Prüfung: mündl. Orthodoxe Theo- logie • Theologisches Programm und Katechismus 3,4,5,6 (P) 1+1 7 B1-B2 D/E/R/F Aktivitäten im Unterricht, praktische Übungen, Se- minar-arbeit, Klausuren, Prüfung: mündl.+ schrift. • Pastoraltheologie 1,2,3,4 (P) 1+1 7 D/E/R/F Lehramt • Ausbildung von angehenden Lehrer:innen • Ausbildung von angehenden Erzieher:innen 1,2 (P) 3,4 2+2 6 3 B1-B2 D/E/R/F Allgemeinsprache u. Fachbezogenheit Aktivitäten im Unterricht, Klausuren/ Präsentation Prüfung: schrift.+ mündl. Fakultät für politi- sche Wissenschaf- ten • Politologie • Journalistik • Sozialpolitik und Sozialarbeit 1,2 (WP) 1,2,3,4 (WP) 1,2,3,4 (W) 2+0 2+0 2+0 - -/4 -/4 B2 B1-C1 k.A. D/E/F E/F (7,8) k.A. k.A. • Internationale Studien 1,2 (W) 3,4 (W) 5,6 (W) 2+0 -/4 D/E/F E/F (7,8) k.A. Philosophische Fa- kultät alle Fachrichtungen 1,2 (P) 3,4 (P) 2+0 4+0 6 k.A. D/E/F/R/S/I Fachsprache k.A. Philologische Fakul- tät Alle 1, 2, 3, 4 (W/P) 1+3 3 B1 Allgemein. 35 Sprachen Klausur, Prü- fung: mündl. + schriftl. 68 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 HOCHSCHULTYP Semester / Pflichtfach (P) Wahlfach (W) Wochen- stunden / WS) Vorles. + Übungen + andere Formen Sprachniveau / Allgemeinsprache/ Berufs-/ Fachbe- zogenheit/ SDU Prüfungsart /Klausuren/ Prüfungen: mündlich / schriftlich Elektrotechnische Fakultät (6+1 Fachrichtungen) • Elektronik und digitale Systeme 1,2,3 (WP) 7, 8 (WP) 2+0 2 3 A2-B2/C1 D/E/R/F (1,2,3,4) SDU/ Fachbezo- genheit Aktivitäten im Unterricht, praktische Übungen, Prüfung: schrift.u./ o. Mündl. • Energetik 1,2 (W) 2+0 2 D 1,2 • Computer-Technik und In- formatik • Telekommunikation und Inf. Technologien 1,2 (W) 4,5 (W) 2+0 2 3 E/D/F/R • Software-Engineering 2 (P) 2+0 3 D Agrarwissenschaften (18 Module) • Pflanzenproduktion • Biotechnischer und Infor- matische Ingenieurwissen- schaften • Pflanzenmedizin • Zootechnik • Umweltschutz in Nahrungs- mittelprodukten 2 (W) 2+2 6 A2/B1 Allgemeinsprache, Berufs- u. Fachbe- zogenheit D/E/F/R Aktivitäten im Unterricht, Tests, Klausu- ren, Prüfung: schrift. • Agrarökonomie 3 (W) 2+2 5 D/E/F/R • Nahrungsmitteltechnologie 1 (W) 2+0 3 D/E/F/R Fakultät für Ver- kehrswissenschaf- ten • Straßenbau und Stadtver- kehr • Postverkehr und -netz • Logistik • Bahnverkehr und Transport • Wasserverkehr und Trans- port • Straßenbau und Stadttrans- port • Straßenverkehrssicherheit 1,2 (PW) 3 (W) 2+1 4 A2-C2 D/E/F/R SDU, Berufs – u. Fachbezogenheit Aktivitäten im Unterricht, praktische Übungen Prüfung: mündl. + schrift. / Aktivitäten im Unterricht, praktische Übungen Prüfung: mündl. • Telekommunikationsverkehr und -netz 1,2, 3 (PW) 6 (W) 2+1 4 D/E/F/R Fakultät der Organi- sationswissen- schaften (3) • Operationsmanagement 8 (W) 2+2 4 k.A. E/F/D Fachsprache k.A. 69 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 HOCHSCHULTYP Semester / Pflichtfach (P) Wahlfach (W) Wochen- stunden / WS) Vorles. + Übungen + andere Formen Sprachniveau / Allgemeinsprache/ Berufs-/ Fachbe- zogenheit/ SDU Prüfungsart /Klausuren/ Prüfungen: mündlich / schriftlich Fakultät für Forst- wissenschaften • Forstwissenschaften • Holztechnologie 1,2 (P) 3+0 4 B1 D/E/F/R Allgemeinsprache, Fachbezogenheit Aktivitäten im Unterricht, prakt. Übun- gen, Klausu- ren, Prüfung: mündl. + schrift. o. Aktivitäten im Unterricht, Seminararbei, Klausur/ Prü- fung: mündl. + schrift. • Landschaftsarchitektur 1,2 (W) 3+0 4 D/E/F/R • Öko- Engineering im Schutz der Land- und Wasserres- sourcen 1,2 (W) 3+0 2+2 4 5 D/E/F/R Universität der Künste Belgrad (4 Fakultäten) • Angewandte Kunst • Musikwissenschaften 1-4 / (P) 1, 2 (W) 2+0 1+1 4 2 D/F/E/R D/F/E/R k.A. Universität in Kra- gujevac (14 Fakultäten) Fachrichtung Semester Pflichtfach (P) Wahl- fach (W) WS V + Ü ECTS Sprachniveau / Allgemeinsprache/ Berufs-/ Fachbe- zogenheit/ SDU Prüfungsart /Klausuren/ Prüfungen: mündlich / schriftlich Fakultät für Philo- logie und Kunst • Serbische Sprache und Lite- ratur 1,2 (W) 2+6 8 k.A. E/D (6 Fachricht.) / I (2 Italienisch) Allgemeinsprache k.A. • Englische Sprache und Lit. • Spanische .. • Italienische ... • Französische ... 1,2 (W) 3,4 (W) 2+6 8 k.A. D Allgemeinsprache k.A. Wirtschaftsfakultät • Tourismus und Gastgewerbe 4 (WP) 6 (WP) 8 (WP) 3+2 +1 7 D A2-B1 B2 Fachbezogenheit Klausur, Semi- nararbeit, Prüfung: mündl.+ schrift. • Rechnungswesen und Be- triebsfinanzen • Management • Marketing • Finanzen, Bankwesen und Versicherung 4 (WP) 6 (W) 3+2 +1 7 • Berufliche Informatik • Internationale Ökonomie und Geschäftsführung • Wirtschaftspolitik und Ent- wicklung 2 (PW) 4 (PW) 3+2 +1 7 70 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 HOCHSCHULTYP Semester / Pflichtfach (P) Wahlfach (W) Wochen- stunden / WS) Vorles. + Übungen + andere Formen Sprachniveau / Allgemeinsprache/ Berufs-/ Fachbe- zogenheit/ SDU Prüfungsart /Klausuren/ Prüfungen: mündlich / schriftlich Pädagogische Fakultät • Ausbildung von angehenden Lehrer:innen 1,2 (PW) 4 5 6 7 7 1+1 0+2 2+1 2+0 2+1 2+1 2+1 5 4 5 5 6 6 k.A. D Akadem. Sprache Fächer: Integrierte Sprachkompeten- zen 1 u. 2 Methodik des Un- terrichts (Vor- und Primarschule) Method. Praktikum Kreative Aktivitäten im Unterricht k.A. Pädagogische Fakul- tät in Jagodina • Ausbildung von angehenden Lehrer:innen 1 (WP) 2 (WP) 2 (W) 4 (W) 5 (W) 6 (W) 7 (W) 8 (W) 7 (W) 1+1 2+0 2+2 2+1 2+0 2+1 2+1 2+1 2+1 2 5 4 4 5 5 6 6 6 A1-A2 B2-C1 E/D 1,2 E/D Fachbezog. E/D, Fächer: Akadem. Sprache. Integrierte Sprach- kompetenzen 1 u. 2 Unterrichtsme- thodik (Vor- und Primarschule Method. Praktikum der engl./dt. Spra- che Kreat.Aktivitäten im E/D - Unterricht Berufs- und Fach- bezogenheit Klausur/ Prüfung: schrift.+ mündl. Seminar- arbeit, Portfo- lio, Prüfung: mündl. • Ausbildung von angehenden Erzieher:innen im Kinder- garten 2 (PW) 4 (PW) 5 (W) 6 (W) 7 (W) 8 (W) 2+2 2+1 2+0 2+1 2+1 2+1 4 4 5 5 6 6 E/D E/D Akadem. Sprache Integr. Sprach- komp. 1 u.2 Unterrichtsme- thodik Methodisches Praktikum der E/D • Ausbildung von angehenden Erzieher:innen im Schüler- wohnheim 1 (WP) 2 (WP) 2 (W) 4 (PW) 5 (W) 6 (W) 1+1 2+0 2+2 2+1 2+0 2+1 2 5 4 4 5 5 E/D 1,2 E/D Fachbezogen- heit E/D Akadem. Spra- che Integrierte Sprach- kompetenzen.1 u. 2 Naturwissenschaft- lich-mathematische Fakultät (7 Fachrichtungen) • Psychologie 1,2 (W) 2,4 (W) 1+2 1+2 6 6 A1-A2 A2-B1.2 E Anfänger. /Fortg./ D/S Anfänger Klausur, Prüfung: mündl. + schrift. Praktische Übungen 71 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 HOCHSCHULTYP Semester / Pflichtfach (P) Wahlfach (W) Wochen- stunden / WS) Vorles. + Übungen + andere Formen Sprachniveau / Allgemeinsprache/ Berufs-/ Fachbe- zogenheit/ SDU Prüfungsart /Klausuren/ Prüfungen: mündlich / schriftlich Universität in Niš (14 Fakultäten) Fachrichtungen WS V + Ü ECTS Maschinenbau (2 Module) • Maschinen- Engineering 3 1+1 2 A1 E/R/D Anfänger o. Fortgeschrittene Praktische Übungen Prüfung: schrift. Rechtswissenschaft- liche Fakultät 4-jähriges Studium 2 (PW) 3+0 7/9 A2 – B1 E/R/D /F Klausur(en) / Tests, Aktivitä- ten im Unter- richt Prüfung: mündl. 3-jähr. Studium 2 (P) 4+1 9 E/R/D /F Philosophische Fa- kultät • Anglistik 1,2,3,4,5 (P) 6 2+2 2+0 4 4 D.A2.1/ F A1.1/A2.1/ R A1.2 / G A1.1 Präsentation, Aktivitäten im Unterricht, Klausuren 2, Prüfung: mündl. • Französische Sprache und Lit. 1,2,3,4 (P) 2+2 4 D.A2.1/ E B1.1/ R A1.2 / G A1.1 • Russische Sprache und Lit. 1,2,3,4,5 (P) 6 2+2 2+0 4 4 D.A2.1/ E B1.1/ F A1.1/A2.1/ G A1.1/ Bulg./Mak. Im Kulturkontext • Serbische Studien 1,2,3,4 (P) 2+2 4 D A2.1/ E B1.1/ R A1.2 / G A1.1/ F A1.1/A2.1/ Bulg./ Mak. Im Kultur- kontext • Philosophie • Geschichte • Psychologie • Sozialpolitik und Sozialarbeit 1,2 (P) 2+2 4 D A2.1/ E B1.1/ R A1.2 / G A1.1/ F A1.1/A2.1 • Soziologie 1,2 (P) 2+2 4 D A2.1/ E B1.1/ R A1.2 / F A1.1/A2.1 • Kommunizieren und Öffent- lichkeitsarbeit • Journalistik • Pädagogie 1,2,3,4 (P) 2+2 4 D A2.1/ E B1.1/ R A1.2 / G A1.1/ F A1.1/A2.1 • Telekommunikationsverkehr und -netz 1,2 , 3 (PW) 6 (W) 2+1 4 D/E/F/R Fakultät der Organi- sationswissen- schaften (3) • Operationsmanagement 8 (W) 2+2 4 k.A. E/F/D Fachsprache k.A. 72 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 HOCHSCHULTYP Semester / Pflichtfach (P) Wahlfach (W) Wochen- stunden / WS) Vorles. + Übungen + andere Formen Sprachniveau / Allgemeinsprache/ Berufs-/ Fachbe- zogenheit/ SDU Prüfungsart /Klausuren/ Prüfungen: mündlich / schriftlich Fakultät für Forst- wissenschaften • Forstwissenschaften • Holztechnologie 1,2 (P) 3+0 4 B1 D/E/F/R Allgemeinsprache, Fachbezogenheit Aktivitäten im Unterricht, prakt. Übun- gen, Klausu- ren, Prüfung: mündl. + schrift. o. Aktivitäten im Unterricht, Seminararbei, Klausur/ Prü- fung: mündl. + schrift. • Landschaftsarchitektur 1,2 (W) 3+0 4 D/E/F/R • Öko- Engineering im Schutz der Land- und Wasserres- sourcen 1, 2 (W) 3+0 2+2 4 5 D/E/F/R Universität in Novi Sad (14 Fakultäten) Fachrichtungen Semester Pflichtfach (P) Wahl- fach (W) WS V + Ü ECTS Sprachniveau / Allgemeinsprache/ Berufs-/ Fachbe- zogenheit/ SDU Prüfungsart /Klausuren/ Prüfungen: mündlich / schriftlich Philosophische Fa- kultät • Philosophie 1,2,3,4 (WP) 0+4 3 A1.1 – A2.2 A2.1 – B2.2 Allgemeinsprache k. A • Ungarische Sprache und Lit. • Englische “ “ “ • Rumänische “ “ “ • Ruthienische “ “ “ • Slowakische “ “ “ • Russische “ “ “ • Serbische “ “ “ • Französisch mit einer roma- nischen Sprache • Serbische Lit. und Sprache • Englisch mit einer anderen Philologie • Serbische Philologie in Kon- takt mit ungarischer/ slowa- kischer Philologie 1,2,3,4, 5,6,7,8 (WP) 0+4 3 A1.1 – A2.2 A2.1 – B2.2 Allgemeinsprache Mehrere Sprachen k. A. • Komparative Liter. mit Litera- turtheorie • Kommunikologie und Öffent- lichkeitsarbeit • Psychologie • Geschichte • Journalistik • Pädagogie • Soziologie • Sozialarbeit • Kulturologie 1,2,3,4, 5,6,7,8 0+4 3 A1.1 – A2.2 A2.1 – B2.2 Allgemeinsprache k. A. 73 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 HOCHSCHULTYP Semester / Pflichtfach (P) Wahlfach (W) Wochen- stunden / WS) Vorles. + Übungen + andere Formen Sprachniveau / Allgemeinsprache/ Berufs-/ Fachbe- zogenheit/ SDU Prüfungsart /Klausuren/ Prüfungen: mündlich / schriftlich Technische Fakultät (13 von 19 Fachrich- tungen) • Architektur • Bühnenarch., -technik und Design • Animation im Ingenieur- wesen • Saubere Energietechnologien • Grafik- Engineering und Design • Energetik und Prozesstech- nik • Geodäsie und Geometrik • Bauwesen • Industrie-Engineering • Engineering im Arbeitsschutz • Engineering des Umwelt- schutzes • Mechanisierung und Kon- struktion - Maschinenbau • Mechatronik • Postverkehr und Telekom- munikation • Produktionsmaschinenbau • Technische Mechanik und Design in Technik • Risikomanagement – Kata- strophen und Brände 6 (W) 7,8 (W) 5 (W) 1,2 (W) 1 (W) 2 (W) 1 (W) 1,2 (W) 5,6 (W) 2 (W) 4 (W) 2 (W) 4 (W) 3 (W) 3 (W) 2+0 3+0 2+0 2+0 3+0 2+0 2+0+1 2+0+1 2+0 2+0 2+0 2+0+1 2+0 2+0 2+0 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 5 2 2 2 A1-2 E Mittel-/Fortge- schrittene D Anfänger Berufs-/ Fachbezo- genheit A2 Fachbezogenheit Fachbezogenheit A2 A2 A1 3 Tests Prüfung: schrift. + mündl. Wirtschaftsfakultät • Ökonomie • Berufliche Informatik 1,2 (W) 2+2 10 A2-B2 E/ D Allgemeinsprache Fachbezogenheit Klausuren/ Prüfung: mündl. + schrift. Fakultät für Bau- wesen • Bauwesen • Geodäsie 1,2 (P/W) 1,2 (W/P) 4+0 5 6 A1/A2 E/D A2-B1 Allgemeinsprache / Berufs- u. Fach- bezogenheit /SDU/ Nachhaltigkeit 2 Klausuren Prüfung: schrift. + mündl. Naturwissenschaft- lich-mathematische Fakultät • Optometrie (3) 1, 2 (W) 3+2 6 A1 Allgemeinsprache / Fachbezogenheit k.A. Lehramt – Fakultät mit Ungarisch als Unterrichtssprache • Ausbildung von angehenden Lehrer:innen • Ausbildung von angehenden Erzieher:innen • Kommunikologie 1,2 (PW) 3,4 (W) 5,6 (W) 7,8 (W) 2+2 1+1 1+1 1+1 3 2 2 2 A2-B1 E/D B2 Allgemeinsprache mit theoretischer / praktischer Grund- lage des Unter- richts Klausur/ Prüfung: schrift.+ mündl. Außerdem werden am Fremdspracheninstitut in Belgrad, wo es Fremdsprachenkurse für 10 Fremdsprachen und Serbisch als Fachsprachenkurs gibt, Fremdsprachenkurse sowie Kurse für Simultan- und Konsekutivdolmetschen angeboten. An Lehramt-Fakultäten gibt es zusätz- lich mündliche Sprachübungen in der Fremdsprache, schriftliche Sprachübungen, Entwick- lung der kommunikativen Kompetenzen in der Fremdsprache, Fremdsprache mit theoreti- schen und praktischen Unterrichtsgrundlagen, Leseverstehen von Fachtexten in der Fremd- sprache und Interpretation von Fachtexten in der Fremdsprache. An sieben Fakultäten der Belgrader Universitäten sind Fremdsprachen ein Pflichtfach: Rechts- wissenschaften: 1 Semester; Lehramt: 2 Semester; Verkehrswesen: 2 Semester + 1 Semester 74 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Wahlfach; Forstwissenschaften: 2 Semester + 2 Wahlfach; Orthodoxe Theologie: 2 Semester; Philologien / Geisteswissenschaften: 4 Semester; an anderen Fakultäten sind Fremdsprachen ein Wahlfach. In Kragujevac findet Deutschunterricht an vier Fakultäten statt, an allen anderen wird als Fremdsprache Englisch und Italienisch gelernt. An zwei Fakultäten ist Fremdsprachenunter- richt ein Pflichtfach: An der Fakultät für Philologie und Kunst: 2 Semester Pflicht- und 2 Se- mester Wahlfach, und an der Pädagogischen Fakultät in Jagodina 2 Semester. An allen Studiengängen der Universität in Niš, die auch Deutsch anbieten, sind Fremdspra- chen ein Wahlfach. An der Wirtschaftsfakultät dauert der Fremdsprachenunterricht 7 Semes- ter (!) und es werden Fachsprachenkurse sowie spezielle Sprachkurse angeboten. An der Universität in Novi Sad sind Fremdsprachen ein Wahlfach außer an der Pädagogischen Fakultät (2 Semester); für alle Studiengänge an der Philologischen Fakultät sind Fremdspra- chen in allen Semestern ein Pflichtfach. Die Wirtschaftsfakultät und die Technische Fakul- tät sowie die Fakultät für Bauwesen bieten neben allgemeinsprachlichen Kursen auch Fach- sprache an. Nur an einer Universität in Serbien (Novi Pazar) wird ausschließlich Englisch als Fremdsprache erteilt. 6.3 Organisation des Fremdsprachenunterrichts An manchen Fakultäten sind zwei Gruppen organisiert: für Anfänger und Anfängerinnen (All- gemeinsprache) und für Fortgeschrittene (fachbezogene Sprache). Da die Student:innen kei- ne oder schon gewisse Vorkenntnisse in der allgemeinen Sprache haben (es wird kein Niveau im Sinne des GeRs erwartet) und die Fremdsprache selbst wählen, ist es schwer, im Fremd- sprachenunterricht mit einer Fachsprache zu beginnen. Die Kurse für Anfänger oder falsche Anfänger beinhalten im ersten Studienjahr eine Einführung in die jeweilige Sprache und den Erwerb eines allgemeinen berufsbezogenen, aber nicht fachbezogenen Grundwortschatzes. Es geht auch um eine Vermittlung sprachlicher Kenntnisse sowie landeskundlicher Einsichten, was einen Studienaufenthalt oder ein Praktikum im Ausland erfordert. Von Student:innen in höheren Semestern wird der Erwerb von allgemeinwissenschaftlichem Wortschatz und Fach- wortschatz erwartet sowie ein situationsangemessener und flüssiger Sprachgebrauch in der fachspezifischen mündlichen und schriftlichen Kommunikation. Das Lehren und Lernen der deutschen Sprache ist nicht den Bedürfnissen und der Motivation der serbischen Student:innen verschiedener Fachrichtungen angepasst: Student:innen von allen Studiengängen und Fachrichtungen7 werden in eine Lerngruppe gezwungen, die unter- schiedlich groß sein kann (z.B. gab es im Studienjahr 2022/23 an der Fakultät für Bauwesen in Subotica eine Gruppe mit nur drei Student:innen und an der Technischen Hochschule in Subotica eine Gruppe mit über 120 Student:innen aus fünf verschiedenen Fachrichtungen). Dadurch wird zwar an Lehrkräften gespart, aber den Studierenden und ihren Bedürfnissen nicht entsprochen. 7 Die Studiengänge, die es an jeder Universität in Serbien gibt, sind als Wissenschaftsbereiche zu verstehen, die man studieren kann, die aber den Fachrichtungen untergeordnet sind und als eine Art Spezialgebiet der Studienrichtung zu verstehen sind. Die Fachbereiche werden auch Module genannt. 75 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 6.4 Prüfungsarten und Sprachniveaus Die Prüfungsnote besteht aus dem Durchschnitt der in den Tests während des Semesters erzielten Ergebnisse und dem Gespräch während des Prüfungstermins (für Student:innen, die während des Semesters die Tests nicht absolviert haben, gibt es eine schriftliche Prüfung als Ersatz). 6.5 Hochschulen und Akademien in Serbien Die Situation an serbischen Akademien und Hochschulen unterscheidet sich nicht viel von der Situation an den Fakultäten der Universitäten (Tab. 3). Das breiteste Angebot an Fremdspra- chen besteht an den Belgrader Hochschulen. Das in den Curricula angegebene Sprachniveau reicht von A1 bis B1, was bedeutet, dass das in den letzten Jahren angegebene Sprachniveau nicht geändert wurde, wie vergleichbare Ergebnisse zeigen. Für die Philologischen Fakultäten und einige andere Fakultäten wurden 2008 keine Daten erhoben. Tabelle 3 Fremdsprachenunterricht an Hochschulen und Akademien in Serbien Hochschulen und Akademien Zahl davon mit FSU davon mit Deutschunterricht im Angebot Bemerkung Weitere Fremdsprachen im Angebot 12 Akademien 22 Hochschulen 34 16 Belgrad und Umgebung 14 8 3 kein FSU: 2, k.A.: 1 Nur Englisch: 26 Selten: Russisch, Französisch, Spanisch Niš (Südserbien) 2 2 1 Zentralserbien (8 Städte) 8 4 1 kein FSU: 1 k.A.: 2 Novi Sad 4 1 2 k.A.: 1 Norden (5 Städte) 6 1 2 k.A.: 3 Unter den 34 untersuchten Hochschulen und Akademien gibt es 4 Institutionen mit Deutsch als Pflichtfach (Tab. 4): die Hochschule der Belgrader Akademien für angewandte Studien (Tourismus), die Hochschule für angehende Erzieher:innen in Novi Sad, die Hochschule für angehende Erzieher:innen und Sporttrainer:innen in Novi Sad und die Technische Hochschu- le in Subotica. Deutsch ist an der Technischen Hochschule in Subotica für alle Fachrichtungen sowie an zwei Pädagogischen Hochschulen ein Pflichtfach (1 Semester), ist aber an mehreren anderen Hochschulen ein Wahlfach, wie aus der Tabelle 4 ersichtlich ist. Einen Fachsprachen- unterricht, d.h. auch Deutschunterricht, gibt es an der Berufshochschule in Novi Sad für die Fachrichtung Informatik (2 Semester) und für Tourismus (6 Semester). An manchen Hoch- schulen wird der Deutschunterricht als Fachsprache nur auf bis 1 bzw. 2 Semester lediglich mit 2 Semesterwochenstunden beschränkt, an anderen Hochschulen wird Deutsch nur als Fremdsprache und nicht als Berufs- oder Fachsprache unterrichtet. 76 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Tabelle 4 Deutsch in Curricula an Hochschulen und Akademien in Serbien im akademischen Jahr 2021/2022 Akademien für angewandte Studien und Hochschulen (3-jähriges Studium) Fachrichtung Semester Pflichtfach (P) Wahlfach (W) WS V + Ü ECTS Sprachniveau / Allgemeinsprache/ Berufs-/ Fach- bezogenheit/ SDU Prüfungsart /Klausuren/ Prüfungen: mündlich / schriftlich Belgrader Akademie der geschäftlichen und künstlerischen angewandten Studien • Inf. Systheme und – technologien • Management • Finanz-, Rechnungs- und Bankwesen • Marketing und Handeln 2 ,3 (F) 2+2 - D/S k.A. . • Management im Tourismus 3,4 (P) 2+2x2 6 E • Steuer und Zölle 2,3 (F) 2+2 - D/S • Öffentliche Dienste 2, 4 (W) 2+2 5 E/D Akademie der technischen und künstlerischen angewandten Studien in Belgrad – Abteilung Hochschule für Elektrotechnik und Informatik Alle 10 Fachrichtungen 1 (W) 1+1 4 E/D k.A. Akademie für angewandte Studien – Belgrad: Abteilung Hochschule für Tourismus Alle 4 Module 1,2 (P) 3,4 5 2+1 / 1+1 2+1 / 1+1 4+2 / 2+2 6 A1 / B1 E/D/F/R A2 / B2 A3 / B3 k.A. Hochschule für Hotelgewerbe • Hotel • Rrestaurants Gastronomie 1,2,3,4,5 (W) 1+2 k.A. D/R/F 1 Allgemein 2,3,4 Fachbezogenheit k.A. Hochschule für Kriminalistik und Sicherheit in Niš • Kriminalistik und SicherheitManagement für Öffentlichkeits- arbeit 2 (PW) 2+3 8 E/D Allgemein. A1/A2 I/D Klausuren, Aktivitäten Mündliche Prüfung Berufshochschule in Novi Sad • Finanzen und Bankwesen • Tourismus und Hotelgewerbe 1,4,5 (W) 2+2 5 1,2,3 D/E Berufsbezogenheit k.A. • Handeln und internationale Geschäftsführung • Betriebswirtschaft 1,4,5 (W) 6 (w) 2+2 2+2 5 Berufsbezogenheit 1,2,3 D/E Berufsbezogenheit D/E • Angewandte Informatik 1,4 2+2 5 1,2 D/E Berufsbezogenheit Hochschule für angehende Erzieher:innen in Novi Sad 1,2 (P) 3,4 (W) 0+2 0+2 E/D/R Fortgeschritt. k.A. Hochschule für angehende Erzieher:innen und Sporttrainer:innen in Subotica (5 Fachrichtungen) • Ausbildung von angehenden Erzieher:innen für Vorschulkinder 1,2 (P) 2+2 2+2 5 E/R/D k.A. • Ausbildung von angehenden Erzieher:innen und Sporttrainer:innen 1,2 (P) 1+2 5 E/R/D • Krankenschwester 3, 4 (W) 2+2 6 E 77 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Akademien für ange- wandte Studien und Hochschulen (3-jähriges Studium) Fachrichtung Semester Pflichtfach (P) Wahlfach (W) WS V + Ü ECTS Sprachniveau / Allgemeinspra- che/ Berufs-/ Fachbezogenheit/ SDU Prüfungsart /Klausuren/ Prüfungen: mündlich / schriftlich Technische Hochschu- le in Subotica Alle 5 Fachrichtungen • Elektrotechnik • Informatik • Maschinenbau • Mechantronik • Ingenieur-Manage- ment 6 (P) 2+2 4 E Klausuren, Aktivitäten Prüfung: schriftl. + mündl. Akademie der an- gewandten Studien Westserbien, Abtei- lung Užice (8 Abteilun- gen) • Tourismus 2,3 2+2 D/R k.A. 6.6 Leistungsbeurteilung an Hochschulen und Akademien Nur einige Curricula enthalten auch die Angabe von Themen, die in dem Semester wöchent- lich behandelt werden. Die Leistungsbeurteilung mit einer Note nach dem Abschluss des Semesters ergibt sich meistens aus Leistungen während des Semesters in Testformat und eventuell einer Seminararbeit, Aktivitäten im Unterricht oder einer Präsentation - das variiert aber und ist nicht immer in jedem Curriculum zu finden. Die Kreditpunkte sind unterschied- lich von einer Bildungseinrichtung zu den anderen: Je nach Studiengang und Fachrichtung bekommen die Student:innen 2 bis 6 Kreditpunkte. 6.7 Studium an lehramtlichen Fakultäten und Hochschulen Ein Deutschunterricht wird auch an lehramtlichen Fakultäten und Hochschulen angeboten: An allen untersuchten lehramtlichen Studiengängen der Universitäten - insgesamt fünf in ganz Serbien - sowie an sechs Hochschulen (Subotica, Novi Sad, Šabac, Aleksinac, Pirot, Sremska Mitrovica) gibt es Deutschunterricht, außer in Sombor. Deutsch ist an pädagogischen Hoch- schulen sowohl in Novi Sad (alle Semester) als auch in Subotica (2 Semester) ein Pflichtfach. Die Kreditpunkte für den Fremdsprachenunterricht sind unterschiedlich: in Belgrad 3 oder 6, in Kragujevac von 2 bis 6, in Niš 4, in Novi Sad 3 und in Subotica 3-5 pro Semester. An allen lehramtlichen Studiengängen gibt es mindestens 2 Semester Methodik oder Didaktik der Fremdsprache als Fach. In Serbien besteht außerdem die Möglichkeit, mit dem Diplom des Lehramtsstudiums und einer international anerkannten bestandenen Sprachprüfung (min- destens B2) die Fremdsprache in der acht Jahre dauernden Grundschule zu unterrichten (Sl. Glasnik RS – Prosvetni glasnik“8 4/ 2021). Das ist für Student:innen eine gute Motivation, um Fremdsprachen während des Studiums zu lernen. 7 Lehrwerke, Sprachniveaus, Outputs und Berufsbezogenheit Jede Fakultät erstellt eine für alle Fächer geltende Tabelle, auf deren Grundlage die Curricula entstehen. Deshalb können sich die Curricula von Institution zu Instituion inhaltlich und im Aufbau deutlich unterscheiden. Aufgrund der Entscheidungsfreiheit einerseits der Fakultäten 8 In Übersetzung: Amtsblatt der R. Serbien – Bildungsblatt 4/ 2021. [Karmelka Barić] 78 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 und andererseits der Lehrpersonen gibt es kein einheitliches Curriculum für eine Fremdspra- che für gleiche Studiengänge, d.h. auch keine Deutschlehrwerke bzw. Lehrmaterialien für Student:innen gleicher Fachrichtungen / Studiengänge. Die untersuchten Curricula entstammen auch philologischen Abteilungen sowie Fakultäten für das Lehramt. An allen Fakultäten für Lehramt ist das Lehrbuch einer einheimischen Au- torin zu finden: „Nemački jezik za studente pedagoškog fakulteta9“ (Subotić, 2003). An vier Fakultäten werden eigene Lehrbücher bzw. Lehrmaterialien verwendet. Berufsbezogenheit spielt auch eine Rolle, obwohl an den meisten Fakultäten diese mit all- täglichen aktuellen Themen kombiniert wird. Falls es im Kurstitel nicht ausdrücklich genannt wird, wurden in Curricula die berufs- und fachbezogenen Elemente und das zu erreichende Sprachniveau auf der Grundlage der empfohlenen Lehrwerke bestimmt. Augenfällig ist, dass in vielen Curricula in Serbien, die mehr Informationen über die Berufsbezogenheit hätten geben können, gar keine Themen angegeben werden. Laut der in den Curricula angebotenen Literatur wird nur an drei Fakultäten in Belgrad aus- schließlich Fachsprache unterrichtet: Rechtswissenschaften (B1), Agrarwissenschaften (A2- B1) und Fakultät für Lehramt (B1-B2). Fachbezogenen Deutschunterricht gibt es auch in der Kombination • mit der Berufssprache an der Wirtschaftsfakultät in Kragujevac (A2-B1.2) und in der Fakultät für Verkehrswesen in Belgrad (A2-B2/C1), • mit der Allgemeinsprache: Wirtschaftsfakultät (A2) und Fakultät für Lehramt (A2-B2) in Subotica, Fakultät für Rechtswissenschaften (A2) in Niš und Fakultät für Forstwissen- schaften (A1-B1) und Orthodoxe Theologie (B1-B2) in Belgrad, • mit Allgemein- und Berufssprache an der Technischen Fakultät (A1-A2) in Novi Sad und in der Pädagogischen Fakultät (A1-C1) in Jagodina bzw. Kragujevac, und im Sinne des studienbegleitenden Deutschunterrichts in Belgrad in der Studienrichtung Elektrotechnik (A2-B2) und in Subotica in der Studienrichtung Bauwesen (A1-B1). An philologischen Studiengängen wird ausschließlich Allgemeinsprache unterrichtet, und zwar in Belgrad, Novi Sad und Niš auf Sprachniveau A1/A2-B2. An den Naturwissenschaftlich- mathematischen Fakultäten in Novi Sad und Kragujevac sowie an der Fakultät für Maschinen- bau in Niš gibt es nur das Sprachniveau A1. Die in Curricula angegebenen Outputs sind von Sprachniveaus und der Berufs- und Fachbe- zogenheit abhängig, da in diesem Fall mehr an Lexik gearbeitet wird und die Rezeption schrift- lich im Vordergrund steht. Übersetzung und Lesen sind üblich, Produktion weniger. Überall, wo man mit ausländischen Lehrwerken arbeitet, wird das zu erwerbende Sprachniveau laut GeR angegeben, so wie es im Lehrwerk steht. Die Curricula für Philologien, wo Deutsch die zweite Fremdsprache ist, konzentrieren sich auf die Entwicklung des Grundwortschatzes und der Kompetenzen im Sprachunterricht (Leseverstehen, Hörverstehen, Schreiben und Spre- chen). Das Sprachniveau entspricht dem Standardniveaus nach GeR von A bis C, und in den meisten Curricula wird das Niveau der Sprachkenntnisse pro Semester angegeben (Deutsche 9 Der Titel des Lehrbuchs in Übersetzung: Deutsche Sprache für Student:innen der pädagogischen Fakultät. [Karmelka Barić] 79 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Sprache für Anfänger, untere Mittelstufe, Fortgeschrittene). Die Anzahl der Semester und Stunden des Fremdsprachenunterrichts unterscheidet sich von denen der Natur- und Wirt- schaftswissenschaften nicht wesentlich. Es werden deutsche DaF-Lehrbücher verwendet, die allgemeine Themen behandeln. Die Fremdsprachenausbildung von zukünftigen Kindererzieher:innenen und Grundschullehr- kräften ist aufgrund der Besonderheit ihres Berufs spezifisch. In den letzten Semestern der pädagogischen Studiengänge konzentriert man sich auf die fremdsprachliche Unterrichts- methodik und -didaktik. Bis dahin wird jedoch allgemeiner Sprachunterricht erteilt: Es fehlen aber deutschsprachige Unterrichtsmaterialien für Kinder sowie Kinderbücher. An fünf Fakultäten wird eigenes Unterrichtsmaterial bzw. ein eigenes Lehrbuch/Arbeitsbuch benutzt. Nur an drei Fakultäten ist das SDU-Lehrwerk „Mit Deutsch studieren, arbeiten, leben A2/B1“ (Lévy-Hillerich et al., 2010) im Gebrauch, das im Rahmen eines internationalen Hoch- schulprojekts entstanden ist, an dessen Veröffentlichung unter anderem auch serbische Do- zent:innen teilnahmen. Die anderen Lehrbücher sind Lehrbücher, die allgemeine Themen behandeln. Für Fortgeschrittene werden vor allem fachsprachliche Lehrbücher empfohlen, die sich aber nicht von einer Fachrichtung zur anderen unterscheiden. Das Literaturverzeichnis besteht aus Lehrbüchern deutscher Ausgaben für alle Sprachstu- fen, meistens für das Sprachniveau A2-B2; nur an zwei Fakultäten ist C1 in den Curricula an- gegeben (Elektrotechnik und Fakultät für politische Wissenschaften in Belgrad). Auf Grund der in den Curricula angegebenen und von der Fakultät vorgeschriebenen Semester- und Stundenzahl werden Studierende gezwungen, innerhalb von 2 bis 4 Semestern, mit 2-4 Stunden pro Woche - also in kurzer Zeit - die als Wahl(pflicht)fach gewählte Fremdsprache zu erwerben. 8 Vergleichbare Daten Da 2008 eine ähnliche Untersuchung durchgeführt wurde, die nur Universitäten und keine Hochschulen bzw. online zugänglichen Daten von Curricula der Universitäten betraf, konn- ten die neu gewonnenen Ergebnisse nur zum Teil mit den damaligen verglichen werden (s. Tab. 5). Aus dem Vergleich ergeben sich frappante Entdeckungen, von denen nachfolgend nur einige Beispiele aufgeführt werden: • in Belgrad ist an den Fakultäten für Chemie, Physische Chemie, Zahnmedizin, Sicherheit und Wirtschaftsfakultät der SDU abgeschafft worden (s. graue Markierung in Tab. 5), • in Kragujevac ist der SDU an der juristischen Fakultät abgeschafft worden, (s. graue Markierung in Tab. 5), • in Belgrad wird an den Fakultät für Bauwesen, für Architektur und für Tiermedizin kein FSU mehr angeboten (s. graue Markierung in Tab. 5); • in Niš • an der Fakultät für Sport sowie an der Fakultät für Medizin und Zahnmedizin ist der FSU abgeschafft worden; 80 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 • an der Fakultät für Rechtswissenschaften wird Deutschunterricht neben Englisch-, Russisch- und Französischunterricht organisiert, aber an der Wirtschaftsfakultät nicht mehr; • an der Fakultät für Mathematik wird nur Englischunterricht angeboten; • in Novi Sad (s. graue Markierung in Tab. 5) • wurde 2008 an der Fakultät für Rechtswissenschaften der Fremdsprachenunterricht in 2 Semestern (3 WS mit 4 Kreditpunkten) angeboten: Jetzt steht aber kein Fremd- sprachenunterricht mehr im Curriculum; • an der Naturwissenschaftlich-mathematischen Fakultät und an der Fakultät für Tech- nologien gibt es keinen Deutschunterricht mehr. In Klammern stehen die Fakultäten, die 2022 weniger Fremdsprachen im Angebot hatten als früher, wie z.B. die Fakultäten für Chemie, Physikalische Chemie, Politik-, Rechtswissen- schaften, Sicherheit und Zahnmedizin in Belgrad, die Naturwissenschaftlich-mathematische Fakultät in Niš und die Fakultät für Technologien in Novi Sad. Die grauen Markierungen kenn- zeichnen Fakultäten, an denen kein Deutschunterricht bzw. kein Fremdsprachenunterricht mehr angeboten wird. Tabelle 5 Fremdsprachenunterricht an Fakultäten in Serbien 2008 und 2021 Zahl der Fremdsprachen im Angebot Fakultäten in Belgrad Curricula 2008 Fakultäten in Belgrad Curricula 2021 4 oder mehr: E(nglisch)/ F(ranzösisch)/ D(eutsch)/ I(talienisch)/ S(panisch)/ R(ussisch) Elektrotechnik (E/R/F/D) Orthodoxe Theologie (I/F/D/E/R/S) Philosophische Fak. (E/D/R/F/S/I) Politikwissenschaften (E/I/F/R/S/D) Physikalische Chemie (E/D/F/R) Rechtswissenschaften (E/F/R) Sicherheit (E/D/F/I) Verkehrswesen (E/F/D/R) Elektrotechnik (E/R/F/D) Orthodoxe Theologie (E/R/F/D) Philosophische Fakultät (E/D/F/R/S/I) (Politikwissenschaften) (Physikalische Chemie) (Rechtswissenschaften) (Sicherheit) Verkehrswesen (E/F/D/R) Agrarwissenschaften (E/R/F/D) Kunst (E/D/R/F) Lehramt (E/D/F/R) Musikwissenschaften (E/D/R/F) Philologische Fak. (E/R/F/D/S/I) Verkehrswesen (E/F/D/R) 3 E/F/D Zahnmedizin (E/D/F) (Zahmedizin) Geographie – Tourismus (E/R/S) Fak. der Organisationswissenschaften (E/F/D) Politikwissenschaften (E/F/D) Rechtswissenschaften (E/F/R) 2 E/F, E/D, E/R Chemie (E/D) Wirtschaftswissenschaften (E/D) (Chemie) Wirtschaftswissenschaften (E/R) Pharmazie (E/F) 81 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Zahl der Fremdsprachen im Angebot Fakultäten in Belgrad Curricula 2008 Fakultäten in Belgrad Curricula 2021 1 E Biologie (E) Geographie (E) Medizin (E) Physik (E) Sonderausbildung und Rehabilitation (E) Lehramt (E), Pharmazie (E) Tiermedizin (E) Biologie (E) Geographie (E) Medizin (E) Physik (E) Sonderausbildung und Rehabilitation (E) Bergbau und Geologie (E) Chemie (E) Forstwirtschaften (E) Maschinebau (E), Mathematik (E) Physikalische Chemie (E) (Sicherheit) (E) Sportwissenschaften (E) Technische Fakultät (Bor) (E) Technologie und Metallurgie (E) Zahnmedizin (E) kein FSU Architektur, Bauwesen, Tiermedizin kein SDU Chemie, Physikalische Chemie, Sicherheit, Wirtschaftswissenschaften, Zahnmedizin Keine Angaben für 5 Fakultäten Fremdsprachen im Angebot Fakultäten in Kragujevac Curricula 2008 Fakultäten in Kragujevac Curricula 2021 3 und mehr Naturwissenschaftlich-mathematische Fak. (D/E/S) Fakultät für Philologie u. Kunst (E/N/S/F/R/I) 2 E/F, E/D, E/R, E/I Lehramt (R/E) Pädagogische Fak. (Jagodina) (E/D) Pädagogische Fak. Užice (E/D), Philolog-Kunst. (E/I) Rechtswissenschaften (E/R) Wirtschaftswissenschaften (E/D) 1 E Medizin (E), Technik (E) Agrarwissenschaften (E) Ingenieurwissenschaften (E) Maschinenbau (E), Medizin (E) Naturwissenschaftlich-mathematische Fak. (E) Hotelgewerbe (E) / Tourismus (E) Keine Angaben für 8 Fakultäten Kein SDU Rechtswissenschaften Fremdsprachen im Angebot Fakultäten in Niš Curricula 2008 Fakultäten in Niš Curricula 2021 4 oder mehr Wirtschaftswissenschaften (E/D/F/R) Philosophische Fak. (D/R/GR, Bulgarisch, Maked.) Rechtswissenschaften (D/R/E/F) 3 E/F/D, E/I/D Maschinenbau (E/D/R) 2 E/F, E/D, E/R, E/I Kunst (E/I) Naturwissenschaftlich- mathatematische Fak. (E/F) Kunst (E/I) (Naturwissenschaftlich-mathematische Fak.) Wirtschaftswissenschaften (E/F) 1 E Bauwesen und Architektur (E), Elektronische Fak. (E) Medizin/ Zahnmedizin/ Pharmazie (E) Rechtswisenschaften (E) Sportwissenschaften (E) Bauwesen und Architektur (E) Elektronische Fak. (E) (Medizin/ Zahnmedizin)/ Pharmazie (E) Agrarwissenschaften (E), Arbeitsschutz (E) Naturwissenschaftlich-mathematische Fak. (E) Technologien (E) 82 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Zahl der Fremdsprachen im Angebot Fakultäten in Belgrad Curricula 2008 Fakultäten in Belgrad Curricula 2021 Keine Angaben für 5 Fakultäten Pädagog. Fak. (Vrnjačka Banja) Kein SDU Wirtschaftswissenschaften NEU SDU Rechtswissenschaften Kein FSU Sportwissenschaften, Medizin/ Zahnmedizin Fremdsprachen im Angebot Fakultäten in Novi Sad Curricula 2008 Fakultäten in Novi Sad Curricula 2021 4 oder mehr Philosophische Fak. Rechtswissenschaften (D/E/R/F) Philosophische Fak. ((E/D/I/F/R/UNG/S) (Rechtswissenschaften) 3 E/F/D Medizin (E/D/R), (Medizin) 2 E/F, E/D, E/R Bauwesen (E/D) Technische Fak. (E) Wirtschaftswissenschaften (E/D) Technologien (E/D) Naturwissenschaftlich- mathematische Fak. (E/D) Bauwesen (E/D) Technische Fak. (E/D) Wirtschaftswissenschaften (E/D) (Technologien) (Naturwissenschaftlich-mathematische Fak.) Lehramt (E/R), Lehramt mit ung. Unterrichtssprache1 (E/D) 1 E Agrarwissenschaften (E) Agrarwissenschaften (E) Kunst (E/I) Medizin (E) Naturwissenschaftlich-mathematische Fak. (E) Technologien (E) Technische Fak. (Zrenjanin) (E)/eine Fachrichtung (R) Sportwissenschaften (E) Keine Angaben für 2 Fakultäten 1 neue Fakultät (seit 2021) Kein FSU Rechtswissenschaften Kein SDU Technologien, Naturwissenschaftlich- mathematische Fak. NEU SDU Technische Fak. An allen Universitäten gibt es aber Fakultäten, die nur für bestimmte Studiengänge oder auch nur für einen Studiengang Fremdsprachenunterricht anbieten – oft als Wahl(pflicht) fach. Einige Fakultäten bieten nur eine oder zwei Fremdsprachen, nur selten drei oder vier: Beispielsweise hatte die Fakultät für politische Wissenschaften in Belgrad früher sogar fünf Fremdsprachen im Angebot – jetzt aber nur drei; an der Fakultät für orthodoxe Theologie wurden sechs Fremdsprachen unterrichtet – heute nur vier. Die Semester- und Stundenzahl hat sich auch geändert. Die Kreditpunktezahl ist an einigen Fakultäten entweder auf die Hälfte gesunken oder sogar gestiegen. Es gibt keine Einheit- lichkeit hinsichtlich der ECTS-Kreditpunkte an unterschiedlichen Hochschulen, obwohl die Stundenzahl gleich ist (z.B. Technische Fakultät in Novi Sad 7 ECTS/ 2+0 WS, und Rechtswis- senschaften in Belgrad 3 ECTS / 2+2 WS, Wirtschaftsfakultät, Universität in Novi Sad sogar 10 ECTS / 2+2 WS). An der Fakultät für Bauwesen in Subotica beispielweise gibt es Unterschiede zwischen der Kreditpunktezahl für verschiedene Fachrichtungen, obwohl die gleiche Stun- denzahl vorgesehen ist und Studierende in einer Lerngruppe sind. Der Deutschunterricht 83 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 wird sehr oft als Wahlfach angeboten. Im Allgemeinen kann man feststellen, dass die Anzahl der Semester, d.h. auch der Wochenstunden an vielen Fakultäten sowie das Fremdsprachen- angebot überhaupt geringer sind. Die Kreditpunktezahlen entsprechen aber nicht immer den Änderungen bei den Semester- und Wochenzahlen. Auf jeden Fall kann man aus den erworbenen Daten schließen, dass der Ist-Stand auf einen allgemeinen Rückgang des Fremd- sprachenunterrichts an serbischen Universitäten hinweist. 9 Diskussion Aus der Analyse der Daten ergibt sich, dass im serbischen Hochschulwesen der Deutschun- terricht und der Fremdsprachenunterricht insgesamt nicht im Sinne des RC 2010 stattfindet. Das Niveau der erteilten Fremdsprachen liegt zwischen A1 bis B2, obwohl die Klassifizierung der internationalen Sprachprüfung nicht überall verwendet wird. Auch hinsichtlich der Kre- ditpunkte für den Fremdsprachenunterricht konnte keine Einheitlichkeit festgestellt werden. Die verteilten Kreditpunkte stimmen sogar an verschiedenen Fachrichtungen einer gleichen Fakultät nicht überein, sie liegen zwischen 3 und 10. Daraus folgt, dass auch Stundenzahl und Pflichtaufgaben vor der Prüfung ganz unterschiedlich sind. Alle Fakultäten und Studienrich- tungen haben jedenfalls das gemeinsame Merkmal, dass nach jedem Semester eine Prüfung folgt – meistens sowohl schriftlich als auch mündlich. Bestimmte Gemeinsamkeiten konnten auch in Bezug auf Pflicht- oder Wahlfächer festgestellt werden. An den meisten Studienrichtungen für Wirtschaft, Tourismus, Technik und Lehramt ist Deutsch mindestens 1 bis 2 Semester obligatorisch. Aus den untersuchten Daten lässt sich nicht ableiten, auf Grund von welchem Prinzip Deutsch als Wahlfach bestimmt wurde. Ziele und Outputs sind einfach formuliert, und entsprechen meistens dem angegebenen Niveau. Es gibt aber keine einheitlichen Kriterien, nach denen bestimmt werden könnte, über welche Fachsprachenkompetenz die Studierenden verfügen sollen. Die empfohlene Literatur bzw. Lehrwerke betreffen sowohl ausländische als auch einheimische Lehrbücher, immer dem angegebenen Niveau und Fach entsprechend. In Curricula von verschiedenen serbischen Universitäten und Hochschulen und Akademien wird zwar der GeR erwähnt, doch beinhalten Curricula keine Kann-Beschreibungen als „Bausteine“. Allerdings war der Begleitband zum GeR genauso wie zu Beginn der RC-Entwicklung der GeR selbst als Hilfe für viele Dozent:innen noch weitgehend unbekannt. Das wird auch bei Lernziel- und Outputbeschreibungen in Curricula sichtbar. Das Ziel der meisten Curricula der Fakultäten und Hochschulen ist, am Ende des Studiums mittlere Deutschkenntnisse (B1) zu haben. Bei wirt- schaftlichen Studiengängen wird als Output auch die kommunikative Sozialkompetenz angege- ben, doch konzentrieren sich die technischen Fakultäten auf den Erwerb von Fachwörtern und -ausdrücken, damit die Lernenden die Kompetenz zum Umgang mit der Fachliteratur erwerben. Englisch, Russisch, Französisch und Deutsch waren zwischen Ende der 50er und Mitte der 90er Jahre des letzten Jahrhunderts akzeptierte Fremdsprachen im Land (s. auch Krželj, 2013, S. 176-202). Bis jetzt wird aber alles andere getan, als eine mehrsprachige Kompetenz zu er- werben. Die gegenwärtige Lage des studienbegleitenden Deutschunterrichts gibt Anlass zur Sorge, denn mit mehr potenziellen Deutschlerner:innen kann man kaum rechnen, da die Zahl der Student:innen, die Deutsch als erste Fremdsprache wählen, deutlich sinkt. 84 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Positive Impulse aus der Leitungsebene sind auch nicht - oder zumindest nur mit Ausnah- men - zu erwarten. Obwohl die Inhalte im studienbegleitenden Deutschunterricht eine Ori- entierung zur Vorbereitung auf einen Praktikums-/ Studienaufenthalt im Ausland vorsehen, können sie den Willen der Studierenden kaum ändern: Ihr Interesse an Deutsch steigt erst zu Ende des Studiums oder nach dem Studium, wenn sie über ein Praktikum oder eine Arbeit in einem deutschsprachigen Land nachdenken und einsehen, dass sprachliche Kompetenzen für ihre Zukunft unbedingt notwendig sind. Beim Vergleich der Ergebnisse 2021 mit den Ergebnissen der Analyse aus dem Jahr 2008 haben wir entdeckt, dass einige Fakultäten in der Zwischenzeit Deutsch als Fremdsprache abgeschafft haben, aber es gibt einige Studienrichtungen (Technik, Wirtschaft, Tourismus), wo Deutsch in das Angebot hinzugefügt wurde. Im Bereich der Kreditpunkte, Stundenzahl und Niveaus gab es damals die gleiche Uneinigkeit wie heute: für die gleiche Stundenzahl werden sogar an der gleichen Fakultät mehr bzw. weniger Kreditpunkte vergeben, nur weil die Studierenden in einer anderen Fachrichtung studieren, aber in der gleichen SDU-Gruppe von Lernenden sind. 10 Schlussfolgerungen Die vorliegenden Daten und Ergebnisse geben keine eindeutigen Hinweise darauf, ob das Rahmencurriculum für den SDU tatsächlich von den Lehrer:innen angenommen und um- gesetzt wurde. Bislang gibt es keine empirischen Belege dafür, ob alle Lehrer:innen im SDU in Serbien über angemessene Kenntnisse bzw. Informationen zum Rahmencurriculum verfü- gen. Die vorliegende Forschungslage bietet keine ausreichenden Beweise, um eine klare Aus- sage darüber zu treffen. Es besteht somit ein Wissensdefizit hinsichtlich dieser Fragestellung, und weitere Untersuchungen und Studien sind erforderlich, um diese Frage umfassend zu beantworten. Durch gezielte Interviews mit Lehrer:innen könnten Fragen zu ihrem Verständ- nis des Rahmencurriculums, ihrer Vertrautheit mit den Inhalten, ihrer Umsetzung der Richt- linien bei der Implementierung gestellt werden. Die Kombination von qualitativen Interviews, die diese Forschung ergänzen würde, mit einer qualitativer Inhaltsanalyse, könnte zu einer umfassenderen und aussagekräftigeren Untersuchung führen und somit einen wichtigen Beitrag zum Verständnis der Kenntnisse der Lehrer:innen über das Rahmencurriculum leis- ten. Eine umfassende Analyse der verschiedenen Statusaspekte des SDUs in den am Hoch- schulprojekt „Rahmencurricula für den studienbegleitenden Deutschunterricht“ beteiligten Ländern konnte im Rahmen dieses Beitrags nicht geleistet werden. Ein tieferes Verständnis dieser Thematik könnte aber wichtige Einblicke in die Dynamik der Positionierung und Ent- wicklung von Fremdsprachen in bildungspolitischen Kontexten liefern. Die vergleichende Analyse der gewonnenen Daten für das akademische Jahr 2021/2022 mit denen aus dem Jahr 2008 zeigt keine Verbesserung der Position des Deutschunterrichts im tertiären Bildungsbereich nach der Veröffentlichung des Rahmencurriculums. Stattdessen deuten die Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass Englisch einen höheren Stellenwert erhalten hat so- wie dass die Anzahl der Semester- und Wochenstunden für den Deutschunterricht zurückge- gangen ist. Die Autorinnen sind der Meinung, dass die Entscheidung über die Fremdsprachen und Semesterstundenzahl sowie ECTS an einer Hochschule/Fakultät oft von dem guten Wil- len und der Politik der jeweiligen Hochschulleitung abhängt, unter anderem auch von ihren 85 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 eigenen Fremdsprachenkompetenzen: Falls die Leitung eine oder mehrere Fremdsprachen spricht (!) neigt sie eher zu Verbesserung des Status von Fremdsprachenunterricht. Völlig unverständlich ist die Entscheidung vieler Fakultäten/Hochschulen in Serbien, Englisch als einzige Fremdsprache zu etablieren. Wenn die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Untersuchung beweisen, dass die gegenwärtige Po- sition des Deutschen in Serbien trotz besonderer wirtschaftlicher Verbindung mit Deutsch- land bzw. Österreich keine Selbstverständlichkeit ist, und dass die deutsche Sprache immer wieder ihren Status gegenüber Englisch erklären oder sogar behaupten muss, wird klar, dass nicht die Bemühungen einzelner Lehrkräfte oder Institutionen im tertiären Bereich genügen, um die Wichtigkeit des Deutschlernens zu begründen, sondern dass sprachpoli- tische Lösungen auf höchster Ebene erforderlich sind, besonders was die Kontinuität des Fremdsprachenlernens betrifft: Wozu lernen die Kinder in der Grundschule zwei Fremd- sprachen, wenn danach das Fremdsprachenlernen nur bei Englisch bleibt?! Fähigkeiten und Fertigkeiten der ersten Fremdsprache müssen auf das Lernen weiterer Sprachen übertragen werden, d.h. das vorhandene Sprachpotenzial sollte genutzt und ausgebaut werden. Eine Lösung könnte sein, für Studierende verschiedener Fachrichtungen einen Unterricht von zwei obligatorischen Fremdsprachen einzuführen. In diesem Fall wäre in den ersten zwei Semestern der studienbegleitende Fremdsprachenunterricht allgemeinsprachlich. Erst da- nach sollte er Berufs- und Fachsprache sowie akademische Sprache betreffen: Es sollten 2 Wochenstunden zumindest 2-3 Semester lang (8 ECTS) angeboten werden, was aber für die erste Fremdsprache vorher erworbene Vorkenntnisse voraussetzt. Die zweite Fremdsprache wäre dann eine neue Fremdsprache. Eine andere und in Europa schon bewährte Lösung wäre, ein integriertes Sprach- und Fach- lernen auf Deutsch anzubieten, was bis jetzt nur für Englisch üblich ist. Es geht dabei um einen interdisziplinären Unterricht, in dem nicht nur die Fremdsprache, sondern auch Fach- wissen gelernt wird, und zwar in einer anderen Fremdsprache als Englisch, also im Sinne von CLIL-LOTE10-Modulen/-Kursen, für die schon 2005 Fortbildungen und Trainingsprogramme für Lehrer:innen durch Projekte mit dem Ziel angeboten wurden (ECML, Haataja), einen kon- kreten Beitrag zur Mehrsprachigkeit in Europa zu leisten. Der Versuch, ein zweisprachiges Modell des Fachsprachenunterrichts in die universitäre Bil- dung einzuführen, könnte also eine Lösung sein, die auch im Sinne der Mehrsprachigkeit des Europarlaments wäre. In der EU-Mitteilung (EUR-Lex, 2017) mit Titel „Stärkung der euro- päischen Identität durch Bildung und Kultur – Beitrag der Europäischen Kommission zum Gipfeltreffen in Göteborg am 17. November 2017“ wird betont, es sei bis 2025 für junge Eu- ropäerinnen und Europäer Pflicht, neben der Muttersprache zwei weitere Fremdsprachen zu beherrschen. Serbien ist ein gutes Beispiel dafür, da Kinder, besonders im multinationalen und multikulturellen Norden des Landes, zweisprachig aufwachsen (z.B. lernen sie Ungarisch und Serbisch oder Slowakisch und Serbisch usw.). 10 Die Bezeichnung CLIL-LOTE (Content and language integrated learning for languages other than English) basiert auf integriertem Sprach- und Fachlernen in anderen Sprachen als Englisch. Durch die Methode CLIL-LOTE werden andere Sprachen als Englisch gefördert und so wird nicht nur die Sprachenvielfalt der Institutionen, sondern auch die individuelle Mehrsprachlichkeit und die interkulturelle Handlungskompetenz entwickelt und unterstützt. 86 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Auch in dem Beschluss des Europaparlaments vom 11. November 2021 mit Titel „Der euro- päische Bildungsraum: ein gemeinsamer, ganzheitlicher Ansatz“ (Europäisches Parlament, 2021) wird erwähnt, dass das Erlernen von Fremdsprachen sehr wichtig ist, weil das Ziel des Europarates die Mehrsprachigkeit ist. Ein solches Ziel bleibt allerdings ein Wunschdenken, solange nicht gleichzeitig qualifizierte Lehrkräfte im Lande ausgebildet werden. Für junge serbische Lehrpersonen könnten aus dem europäischen Bildungsraum durch Austausch- programme die Erfahrungen beim Fremdsprachenlehren und -lernen übertragen und durch weitere Projekte neue Perspektiven im Sinne der Agenda 2030 geöffnet werden, z.B. Fort- und Weiterbildungen (Vereinte Nationen 2015, 19 – Unterziel 4.c). Die EU-Mitgliedstaaten werden aufgefordert, vergleichbare Daten zum Sprachenlernen zu erheben. Worauf bereitet sich also Serbien vor? Das EU-Programm für allgemeine und berufliche Bildung, Jugend und Sport unterstützt für den Zeitraum 2021-2027, Erasmus+: Die spezifischen Ziele des Programms betreffen die För- derung des Sprachenlernens und die sprachliche Vielfalt. Laut Erasmus+-Programmleitfaden 2021 sollen „[d]ie Angebote zur Förderung sprachlicher Kompetenzen [...] die Effizienz und Wirksamkeit von Mobilität verbessern und Lernfortschritte erhöhen“ (2021, S. 12). Es wäre sehr interessant zu erfahren, wie viele Studierende aus Serbien (aber auch aus anderen Län- dern) mit Deutschkenntnissen an Erasmus+ und anderen Austauschprogrammen in deutsch- sprachigen Ländern teilgenommen haben, denn meistens werden nur gute Englischkennt- nisse verlangt. Ist das nicht ein Grund, weniger Deutsch zu lernen?! Das Rahmencurriculum für den SDU (2010) hatte die Werte des Fremdsprachenlernens schon viel früher durch seine Prinzipien hervorgehoben. In einem Land wie Serbien, das die europäischen Werte anstrebt, sollte die Fremdsprachenpolitik des Landes auf dem Weg sein, die gleichen Möglichkeiten zum Fremdsprachenlernen aller Fremdsprachen und für alle Stu- dierende zu schaffen. Die Studierenden sollen für das Studium, den Beruf und das Leben europafähig werden, indem sie durch das Erlernen mehrerer Fremdsprachen auch Fähig- keiten und Fertigkeiten entwickeln, auf die das RC genauso wie die Agenda 2030 hinweisen: Angestrebt ist „eine Kultur des Friedens und der Gewaltlosigkeit, Weltbürgerschaft und die Wertschätzung kultureller Vielfalt und des Beitrags der Kultur zu nachhaltiger Entwicklung“ (Vereinte Nationen 2015, S. 18/37 – Unterziel 4.a). Das ist das Ziel, das das RC mit seinem ganzheitlichen Ansatz in Richtung GeR oder Agenda 2030 anstrebt: Nachhaltigkeitsbürger und -bürgerinnen sollen mit oder durch Fremdsprachen über die eigene Zukunft entschei- den dürfen. Mit dem vorliegenden Beitrag wird nicht nur für eine Änderung der Fremdsprachenpolitik plädiert, sondern auch auf Notwendigkeit einer Änderung der Einstellungen der Hochschul- leitung, der Curriculaentwickler und -entwicklerinnen und des Bildungsministeriums hin- gewiesen, die dazu beizutragen sollen, einen „anderen“ Fremdsprachen/Deutschunterricht anzubieten, einen Unterricht, der studienbegleitend inter- und transdisziplinär ist und die Kompetenzen der Studierenden entwickelt, und der neben kognitiven auch affektive, moti- vationale und sozial-kommunikative Komponenten bei einem kompetenten (Sprach)Handeln erfordert. 87 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Literaturverzeichnis Azzolini, L. (2009). Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht in der Ukraine: ein Interview. In D. Lévy-Hil- lerich & S. Serena (Hrsg.), Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht in Europa: Rückblick und Ausblick. Versuch einer Standortbestimmung (S. 431–437). Aracne editrice. Barić, K. (2009). Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht an serbischen Universitäten. In D. Lévy-Hille- rich & S. Serena (Hrsg.), Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht in Europa: Rückblick und Ausblick. Versuch einer Standortbestimmung (S. 331–351). Aracne editrice. Birtić Vučić, M. (2023, 24. Februar). Profesionalni status nastavnika jezika struke u kontekstu hrvatskog visokoškolskog obrazovnog sustava: jučer, danas, sutra [Konferenzbeitrag]. 6. međunarodna konferencija: Suvremeni izazovi u poučavanju struke. Osijek. Bradean-Gacs, J. (2009). Deutsch als Fremdsprache an ungarischen Hochschulen und Universitäten. In D. Lévy-Hillerich & S. Serena (Hrsg.), Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht in Europa: Rückblick und Ausblick. Versuch einer Standortbestimmung (S. 441–446). Aracne editrice. Cickovska, E. (2009). Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht an makedonischen Universitäten. In D. Lévy-Hillerich & S. Serena (Hrsg.), Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht in Europa: Rückblick und Ausblick. Versuch einer Standortbestimmung (S. 255–266). Aracne editrice. Đorović, D., & Janković, V. (2009). Nastava italijanskog jezika na nematičnim fakultetima: Očekivanja i potrebe studenata. Savremena proučavanja jezika i književnosti, 1, 463–472. ECML. (o.D.). Content and Language Integrated Learning through Languages other than English –Getting Started. http://clil-lote-start.ecml.at/ Edukacija. (2022). Univerziteti. https://fakulteti.edukacija.rs/univerziteti; https://fakulteti.edukacija.rs/ drzavne-visoke-skole/svi-gradovi Erasmus+. (2021). Erasmus+ Programmleitfaden 2021 (Version 3). https://erasmus-plus.ec.europa.eu/ sites/default/files/2021-10/2021-erasmusplus-programme-guide_v2_de.pdf EUR-Lex. (2017). Mitteilung der Kommission an das Europäische Parlament, den Rat, den Europäischen Wirtschafts- und Sozialausschuss der Regionen. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/ TXT/?uri=COM:2017:673:FIN Europäische Bildungs-/Hochschulminister. (1999). Der Europäische Hochschulraum (Bologna-Erklärung). http://www.hrk-bologna.de/bologna/de/home/1979.php Europarat. (2001). Gemeinsamer europäischer Referenzrahmen für Sprachen: lernen, lehren, beurteilen. Langenscheidt. Europarat. (1999). Der Europäische Hochschulraum. Gemeinsame Erklärung der Europäischen Bildungsmi- nister. https://bologna-berlin2003.de/der-europaeische-hochschulraum/ Europarat. (2020). Gemeinsamer europäischer Referenzrahmen für Sprachen – lernen, lehren, beurteilen. Begleitband mit neuen Deskriptoren. Klett. Europäisches Parlament. (2021). Erschließung des Europäischen Parlaments vom 11. November 2021 zu dem Thema „Der europäische Bildungsraum: ein gemeinsamer, ganzheitlicher Ansatz. https://www. europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2021-0452_DE.html Gester, S. (2014). Zu Deutsch als Fremdsprache in der Tschechischen Republik. Publicationes Universi- tatis Miskolcinensis, Sectio Philosophica, 18(3), 339–354. Goethe-Institut (o.D.). Rahmencurricula. Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht an Universitäten und Hochschulen: RC Ukraine 2014, RC Nordmazedonien 2013, RC Bosnien und Herzegowina 2011, 88 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 RC Serbien 2010, RC Kroatien 2007, RC Polen, Slowakei und Tschechien 2006, RC Tschechien und Slo- wakei 2002, RC Polen 1998. https://www.goethe.de/de/spr/unt/kum/rcm.html Haataja, K. (o.D.). CLIL-LOTE-START. https://crealang.com/kh-cv/ Horvat, M. (2009). Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht in Slowenien. In D. Lévy-Hillerich & S. Sere- na (Hrsg.), Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht in Europa: Rückblick und Ausblick. Versuch einer Standortbestimmung (S. 371–414). Aracne editrice. Ignjačević, A. (2012). Strani jezici i univerzitet: strategije i nedoumice. U B. Dimitrijević (ur.), Filogija i univerzitet: tematski zbornik radova Nauka i savremeni univerzitet 1 (S. 693–706). Filozofski fakultet. Janković, N. Z., Savić Nenadović, Z. B., & Cvetković, M. S. (2019). Značaj učenja stranog jezika struke pre- ma stavovima studenata i nastavnika. Inovacije u nastavi – časopis za savremenu nastavu, 32(2), 91–105. Kic-Drgas, J., & Woźniak, J. (2020). Fachsprachendidaktik an europäischen Hochschulen – Stand und Perspektiven. In S. Adamczak-Krysztofowicz, A. Szczepaniak-Kozak & P. Rybszleger (Hrsg.), Ange- wandte Linguistik – Neue Herausforderungen und Konzepte (S. 311–331). V & R unipress. Kordić, Lj. (2018, 23. Februar). Njemački kao strani jezik u visokom školstvu Republike Hrvatske: Je li njemački jezik u opasnosti? [Konferenzbeitrag]. Von der Theorie bis zur Praxis in der Fachsprache. Zagreb. Krželj, K. (2013). Lingvopragmatika nemačkog jezika na nefilološkim fakultetima (doktorska disertacija). Univerzitet u Beogradu. Lévy-Hillerich, D., & Serena, S. (2009). Einleitung. In D. Lévy-Hillerich & S. Serena (Hrsg.), Studienbeglei- tender Deutschunterricht in Europa: Rückblick und Ausblick. Versuch einer Standortbestimmung (S. 7–18). Aracne editrice. Lévy-Hillerich, D., Serena, S., Barić, K., & Cickovska, E. (Hrsg.) (2010). Mit Deutsch studieren, arbeiten, leben A2/B1. Arcipelago Edizioni. Mertelj, D. (2011). Strani jezici struke u reformisanim programima visokoškolskog stručnog obrazo- vanja u Sloveniji. U A. Ignjačević, D. Đorović, N. Janković & M. Belanov (ur.) Jezik struke: izazovi i perspektive (S. 360–370). Društvo za strane jezike i književnosti Srbije. Mihoková, K., Bröstlová, E., Pavlovová, J., & Minarčíková, Z. (2009). Tendenzen der Entwiklung des SDU in der Slowakei. In D. Lévy-Hillerich & S. Serena (Hrsg.), Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht in Europa: Rückblick und Ausblick. Versuch einer Standortbestimmung (S. 359–367). Aracne editrice. Mikolič Južnič, T., & Pisanski Peterlin, A. (2023, 18. Mai) Who needs LSP? Comparing LSP curricula across different discipline [Konferenzbeitrag]. 3rd International Conference of the Slovene Association of LSP Teachers, Languages for Specific Purposes: Opportunities and Challenges of Teaching and Re- search. Rimske Terme. Mikulec Rogić, M., Cibulka, M., & Rujevčan, D. (2020). #NJEMAČKI#BIRAMENGLESKI: Stavovi studenata prema učenju njemačkog jezika. In V. Cigan, A.-M. Krakić & D. Omrčen (Hrsg.), Von der Theorie bis zur Praxis in der Fachsprache (S. 176–242). Udruga nastavnika jezika struke na visokoškolskim ustanovama. Moro, S. (2009). Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht an kroatischen Universitäten und Hochschu- len. In D. Lévy-Hillerich & S. Serena (Hrsg.), Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht in Europa: Rück- blick und Ausblick. Versuch einer Standortbestimmung (S. 221–224). Aracne editrice. Odstrčilová, M. (2009). Gedanken zu Perspektiven des studienbegleitenden Deutschunterrichts in Tschechien. In D. Lévy-Hillerich & S. Serena. (Hrsg.), Studienbegleitender Deutschunterricht in Euro- pa: Rückblick und Ausblick. Versuch einer Standortbestimmung (S. 417–428). Aracne editrice. 89 Barić, Hegedűs / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 57–89 Radek, I., & Sobočan, M. (2020). Položaj predmeta Strani jezik struke na visokoškolskim ustanovama i opterećenost nastavnika stranoga jezika struke. In V. Cigan, A.-M. Krakić & D. Omrčen (Hrsg.), Von der Theorie bis zur Praxis In der Fachsprache (S. 228–242). Udruga nastavnika jezika struke na visokoškolskim ustanovama. Republički zavod za statistiku. (2022). Srbija, Popis 2022. https://popis2022.stat.gov.rs/ Službeni glasnik RS – Prosvetni glasnik (2021). Pravilnik o stepenu i vrsti obrazovanja nastavnika i struč- nih saradnika u osnovnoj školi. U „Sl. glasnik RS - Prosvetni glasnik“, br. 11/2012, 15/2013, 2/2016, 10/2016, 11/2016, 2/2017, 3/2017, 13/2018, 11/2019, 2/2020, 8/2020, 16/2020, 19/2020, 3/2021 i 4/2021. http://demo.paragraf.rs/demo/combined/Old/t/t2021_05/PG_004_2021_001.htm Subotić, Lj. (2009). Nemački za studente pedagoškog fakulteta. Pedagoški fakultet. Szewiola, G. (2009). Rahmencurriculum für den SDU in Polen, Tschechien un in der Slowakei: Umset- zung an der Technischen Universität Gliwice. In Lévy-Hillerich, D., & Serena, S. (Hrsg.), Studienbe- gleitender Deutschunterricht in Europa: Rückblick und Ausblick. Versuch einer Standortbestimmung (S. 273–297). Aracne editrice. Turanjanin, D., & Marčetić, M. (2019). Revizija standarda za akreditaciju visokoškolskih ustanova. Vojno delo, 71(7), 481–490. Vereinte Nationen. (2015). Transformation unserer Welt: die Agenda 2030 für nachhaltige Entwicklung. http://www.un.org/depts/german/gv-70/band1/ar70001.pdf Vukasović, M. (2006). Razvoj kurikuluma u visokom obrazovanju. Alternativna akademska obrazovna mreža. Izvleček Kurikularni razvoj poučevanja nemškega jezika med študijem v Srbiji – pregled in vidiki Namen prispevka je primerjati obstoječe učne načrte za poučevanje nemščine na petih univerzah in visokih šolah v Srbiji ter predstaviti trenutno stanje poučevanja nemškega jezika v terciarnem izobraže- vanju v državi. Dobljene rezultate bomo nato primerjali z rezultati sorodne analize iz leta 2008. Oceniti želimo, v kolikšni meri so učni načrti usklajeni z načeli, opisanimi v okvirnem učnem načrtu za poučeva- nje nemščine v terciarnem izobraževanju v Srbiji iz leta 2010. Ta načela se osredinjajo na kompetenčno in akcijsko usmerjeno poučevanje in učenje. Raziskali bomo, ali so se ta načela izkazala za koristna za učitelje jezikov tako na filoloških kot nefiloloških študijskih smereh, kjer se nemščina poučuje kot drugi tuji jezik. V analizi na podlagi predlaganih učbenikov obravnavamo strokovno in predmetno poveza- nost v medpredmetnem pristopu ter pričakovane trajnostne rezultate na različnih jezikovnih ravneh. Rezultati so pokazali, kako na poučevanje nemščine kot tujega jezika v Srbiji vplivajo vodstva univerz in fakultet ob upoštevanju dejavnikov, kot so ponudba tujih jezikov in število ur. V prispevku prav tako raziščemo, kakšen je – v primerjavi s poučevanjem nemščine nasploh – vpliv odločitev učiteljev nem- ščine na vsebino, postopke in jezikovne ravni. Ključne besede: Izobraževanje za trajnostni razvoj, učni načrti, Srbija, terciarno izobraževanje, nem- ščina, poučevanje tujih jezikov, okvirni učni načrti 90 Danijela Đorović Facoltà di Filosofia Università di Belgrado Slađana Stanojević Facoltà di Filologia e Arti Università di Kragujevac IL LESSICO ARCHITETTONICO NELL’ITALIANO DELLE ORIGINI Sommario Di tutte le terminologie artistiche quella dell’architettura fu prima a costituirsi come un sistema lessicale sovraregionale, sorta dai volgarizzamenti e dalle traduzioni vitruviane. Benché i primi testi architettonici in volgare risalgano alla fine del Quattrocento dando vita a un primo nucleo di termini architettonici di base, il Medioevo con le sue imponenti imprese edilizie non poté non disporre di una terminologia del settore. Questa prima fase dello sviluppo del lessico architettonico è caratterizzata dalla spiccata insta- bilità nonché dalla presenza di diverse varianti regionali, così come dall’apporto notevole dei vocaboli usati nei cantieri e nelle botteghe da capomastri, manovali e architetti e trasmessi, quasi esclusivamen- te per via orale. Il presente lavoro si pone l’obbiettivo di analizzare i termini architettonici più frequenti e la loro sorte nell’italiano delle origini, dal punto di vista morfologico, etimologico e semantico, partendo dal corpus del dizionario storico dell’italiano antico TLIO (Tesoro della lingua italiana delle origini) formato da testi documentari, scientifici e giuridici dai primi secoli del volgare fino al 1375. Parole chiave: lessico architettonico, italiano delle origini, terminologia, terminologizzazione, metaforizzazione Abstract The Architectural Lexicon in Early Italian The terminology of architecture was the first of all the art specific vocabularies to be constituted as a supra-regional lexical system, arising from the vulgarizations and Vitruvian translations. Although the first architectural texts in the vernacular date back to the end of the 15th century, giving rise to a first nucleus of basic architectural terms, the Middle Ages with its impressive building projects were also bound to have a certain kind of terminology in the sector. The present article aims to analyze the most frequent architectural terms and their fate in the original Italian, from a morphological, etymological and semantic point of view, starting from the corpus of the historical dictionary of ancient Italian TLIO (Thesaurus of the Early Italian language) made up of documentary, scientific and legal texts from the first centuries of the vernacular up to 1375. The results of our research reveal that suffixation is the primary method of word formation, while loanwords and compounds appear later. Words originating from 13th and 14th century texts are primarily derived from Latin, with more frequent direct borrowings Paper received: 16.10.2023 Paper revised: 23.12.2023 Paper accepted: 23.12.2023 Paper published: 15.06.2024 Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023) DOI: 10.4312/SM.18.2.90-106 Teaching Report 91 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 in subsequent periods. Metaphorization is a common process in creating new terms. Although the terms found in such texts are few, their absence does not necessarily imply that they were not spe- cialized. Instead, it reflects the limited availability of practical documents. This study has significant implications for understanding the development and functioning of architectural language throughout its evolution, highlighting the importance of early stages in shaping the morphological and semantic patterns that influence future architectural lexicon. Keywords: architectural vocabulary, Early Italian language, terminology, terminologization, metaphorization 1 Introduzione Dopo decenni di ricerche sulle specificità dei linguaggi settoriali legati alle scienze cosiddette dure (astronomia, matematica, fisica) e a quelle meno formalizzate e più vicine al linguaggio generale, ma comunque sentite come particolari di certi settori (economia, diritto, medicina), solo negli ultimi trent’anni ci imbattiamo (e sempre più spesso) nei lavori degli studiosi inte- ressati al linguaggio dell’arte. E questo, a quanto pare, soprattutto grazie alle iniziative dell’Ac- cademia della Crusca e i suoi progetti legati alle ricerche di lingua dell’arte e il suo sviluppo nella prospettiva dell’evoluzione della lingua volgare.1 Il motivo di questo ritardo va ricercato probabilmente nel carattere stesso del linguaggio del- le arti i cui contorni per la verità non sono facilmente definibili, date le molteplici interazioni e sovrapposizioni con il linguaggio comune. Il linguaggio dell’arte è caratterizzato da una tendenza verso la debolezza (se paragonata con le scienze dure), che proviene da “un grado elevato di permeabilità con la lingua comune” (Valenti, 2019, p. 263). Infatti, se altri linguag- gi settoriali si servono maggiormente di neoformazioni terminologiche nonché dai prestiti lessicali, il linguaggio dell’arte utilizza per lo più i lessemi appartenenti al linguaggio di ogni giorno, che ridetermina semanticamente, oppure si impadronisce di termini di altri settori specialistici (Dardano, 1994, p. 500). Di conseguenza sembra lecito chiedersi se varrebbe la pena espandere le ricerche per identificare i primissimi termini artistici del Due e Trecento non solo nei trattati o traduzioni dedicati all’arte o nei testi pratici come suggeriva Nencioni (1995), ma anche nelle occorrenze della lingua comune dei detti secoli, conservate, almeno in qualche misura, negli antichi testi letterari non specialistici (Valenti, 2019). Inoltre, l’identificazione del lessico dell’arte che risalisse ai tempi pre-rinascimentali viene osta- colato da uno dei tratti distintivi di questo codice: la sua oralità. In effetti, il linguaggio della pittura e dell’architettura parte dalla comunicazione deliberatamente orale e praticamente se- greta che si tramanda in bottega (Motolese, 2012), per cui risulta assai difficile determinare l’arco cronologico in cui i termini nascono e si diffondono prima di essere registrati nello scritto. Per di più, tenendo in mente le specificità dello sviluppo linguistico nella storia dell’italiano e il fatto che l’unificazione linguistica si è compiuta solo nella seconda metà dell’Ottocento, va sottolineato che il fiorentino trecentesco si è imposto come modello nel tardo Cinquecento, 1 Alcuni dei progetti di questo tipo risultanti anche in banche dati utili consultabili online sono: EpistoART, Le parole dell’arte (avviato insieme alla Fondazione Memofonte, Gli anni della Cupola e Lemmario vasariano. Cfr. https://accademiadellacrusca.it 92 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 ma era ancora a lungo limitato ai letterati e ai dotti. Nel contempo esistevano altre varietà linguistiche tra cui anche l’italiano di vari altri settori tecnici nonché quello delle botteghe artigiane e dei cantieri edilizi. Avendo in mente quanto delineato sopra, in questo lavoro pro- poniamo un’analisi che si centra sull’identificazione e la descrizione dei termini architettonici appartenenti alla prima fase dello sviluppo di questo codice che va dai primi secoli del volga- re fino alla fine del secolo XIV, con l’obiettivo di descrivere le caratteristiche che distinguono il lessico architettonico di questo periodo da quello appartenente alle epoche più recenti. La nostra ricerca si basa sui dati lessico-terminologici reperibili dal corpus dei testi incorporati nel dizionario storico dell’italiano antico intitolato Il Tesoro della lingua italiana delle origini (TLIO). Si tratta di uno strumento validissimo per chi si interessa alle vicende linguistiche del volgare nei secoli soprammenzionati. È sorto da un progetto avviato dall’Opera del Vocabo- lario Italiano presso l’Accademia della Crusca, mirante alla realizzazione di un vocabolario storico dell’italiano dalle origini ai giorni nostri che comprenda testi documentari, scientifici, giuridici e pratici dell’epoca. Grazie al contesto più ampio offertoci dai brani nei quali i termini in questione appaiono, ci è stato possibile acquisire una migliore comprensione del destino di certi vocaboli in via di divenire i termini specialistici dell’architettura. 2 Il linguaggio dell’architettura come sottocodice dell’italiano delle arti La lingua delle arti dispone di molteplici sottocodici dei quali il linguaggio dell’architettura vie- ne considerato uno dei primi a esser diffusi sul territorio italiano (Migliorini 1960). Di solito il suo sviluppo si fa risalire al Cinquecento, dopo la scoperta dell’opera De Architectura di Vitru- vio e le sue traduzioni. Sono i tempi nei quali nascono i primi trattati artistici (di Filarete e di Francesco di Giorgio Martini come i più influenti) e le traduzioni di opere classiche pertinenti al soggetto in cui si possono riscontrare per la prima volta i tecnicismi architettonici che in se- guito si diffonderanno in tutto il territorio europeo (Mottolese, 2012). Il lessico architettonico del periodo vitruviano, denominato così da Biffi (2006, p. 95), è dunque ben documentato ed è ormai stato più volte sottoposto all’indagine, mentre il periodo pre-vitruviano in cui non esi- stevano ancora trattati d’arte (e quindi risulta più difficile identificare termini dell’architettura veri e propri) non pare ancora ricercato a fondo. I testi contenenti materiale lessico-termino- logico che riguarda l’architettura è, come ormai accennato, reperibile dai sporadici documen- ti, lettere, contratti, ricevute e scritti pratici simili. Secondo Nencioni, è proprio nei testi pratici del genere che si palesa il lessico artistico in fieri, con tutte le sue disomogeneità e oscillazioni sia diatopiche che diastratiche (Nencioni, 1995). Dal punto di vista morfologico il lessico architettonico rappresenta un sistema complesso, risul- tante da diversi procedimenti formativi, quali la suffissazione, la prefissazione e la composizio- ne. Inoltre, questo sistema sembra arricchirsi continuamente, visto che l’evoluzione delle tecni- che architettoniche crea un’incessante necessità di termini nuovi, i quali vengono generati sia tramite l’ampliamento delle famiglie lessicali di termini già esistenti che mediante l’aggiunta di valori semantici innovativi alle parole del linguaggio quotidiano (Vučetić 2006). Dal punto di vista etimologico, la maggioranza dei termini architettonici è ereditata dal latino e passa nel sistema italiano seguendo i consueti percorsi evolutivi fonologici e morfologici. D’altra parte, in alcuni casi l’arricchimento del lessico architettonico è avvenuto tramite prestiti da altre lingue perve- nuti nell’italiano in diversi momenti storici, rendendo la panoramica etimologica più variegata. 93 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 3 La prima fase: il periodo pre-vitruviano In questo lavoro ci accingiamo a indagare lo sviluppo di terminologia architettonica nel pe- riodo definito da Biffi come pre-Vitruviano, che va dai secoli dei volgari italiani per tutto il Medioevo fino alla seconda metà del Quattrocento, alquanto ridotto nel nostro caso, in quan- to i testi analizzati nel corpus del TLIO risalgono al periodo non oltre l’anno della morte di Boccaccio cioè il 1375. Chiunque si trovi davanti alle prime attestazioni scritte del linguaggio architettonico, come quelle del TLIO, ci si rende conto delle caratteristiche tipiche di questo sottocodice nel periodo indagato: la sua oralità eterogeneità, instabilità, segnalate anche da Motolese (2012) e Nencioni (1995). Il vocabolario artistico aveva una lunga vita nell’oralità, che precedeva la comunicazione scritta nonché i primi scritti d’arte o trattati veri e propri (Motolese, 2012) Per questo risulta così difficile indagare la nascita del lessico architettonico italiano prima del Quattrocento. Come si è ormai delineato, la terminologia architettonica italiana risale al Medioevo. Nasce nei cantieri, tra muratori, costruttori, manovali, capomastri. Quindi si tratta di un linguaggio pratico più che accademico. In questa prima fase del suo sviluppo era un lessico non forma- lizzato o standardizzato, ma variabile, disomogeneo, instabile, ricco di geosinonimi e apporti regionali e dialettali. Un’altra fonte da esplorare rappresentavano i termini greci e latini che erano in uso ancora prima dell’epoca umanistica e la prova che gli addetti ai lavori se ne servivano in abbondanza e con libertà la troviamo nei testi analizzati. Dopo aver consultato il corpus scelto abbiamo constatato che alcuni termini dalle lingue classiche possono trovarsi nel TLIO, ma il loro uso non è ancora sistematizzato né largamente diffuso. Eppure, chiunque si interessi all’archi- tettura dei primi secoli del volgare e le sue tracce nei testi pratici dell’epoca potrebbe imbat- tersi nelle innumerevoli varianti ortografiche di alcuni termini architettonici frequentemente riscontrati negli esempi del TLIO. Basti citare qui le non poche varianti ortografiche del les- sema capitello rintracciatevi (capetelli, capetello, capitegli, capitel, capitelli, capitello, capitellu, capitielli, chapitelli, chapitello). Quindi, si può concludere che la fase inziale dello sviluppo di questo sottocodice non può vantare ancora un lessico architettonico italiano stricto sensu, ma conosce molteplici lessici locali, legati alle botteghe e agli artigiani di una certa area, ma che sono ormai diffusi e in uso regolare nel settore. In riferimento all’instabilità del lessico archi- tettonico del periodo in esame, di cui ci informa anche Valenti (2019), va detto che le parole usate dagli architetti non potevano ancora essere fissate o standardizzate (non essendoci ancora né vocabolari né testi specialistici veri e propri) bensì venivano spesso abandonate o sostituite da altri termini, secondo i bisogni degli utenti e la loro provenienza. Dunque, i ter- mini del periodo qui in esame non sono fissi, variano, nascono, spariscono, e vengono spesso sostituiti da quelli nuovi. Siccome accoglie apporti di diversa origine, la terminologia architettonica dispone di un no- tevole numero di sinonimi, il che la differenzia da terminologie scientifiche, tecniche. Infatti, come registrano i documenti pratici esistenti, la prima terminologia degli architetti italiani dimostra una spiccata tendenza alla sinonimia (tondino/bottaccio, vela/unghia, frontone/ tim- pano/frontespizio ne sono solo alcuni esempi), il tratto non desiderabile nella terminologia delle lingue specialistiche (Gotti, 1991). Per giunta, sorprendentemente per un linguaggio set- toriale dei giorni nostri, esistono ancor oggi tanti sinonimi nell’ambito di questo sottocodice, 94 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 benché i termini specialistici dovrebbero, per definizione, essere monoreferenziali: il rappor- to tra la parola e il concetto dovrebbe essere biunivoco, privo di ogni possibilità di sinonimia o polisemia (Sosnowski, 2006). La diffusione di sinonimi dei primi secoli del volgare si verrà diminuendo col tempo, con l’a- iuto della selezione operata da chi se ne serviva. Difatti, Valenti differenzia tra la selezione cosiddetta artificiale causata da diverse esigenze di divulgazione che resero il linguaggio ar- chitettonico più accessibile ai non specialisti, da una specie di selezione naturale per cui solo una porzione delle parole in uso allora (soprattutto l’uso scritto) sopravvissero nel tempo (Valenti, 2019). Dal punto di vista sociolinguistico, la lingua dell’architettura si differenzia da molti altri sotto- codici, poiché varia a seconda delle situazioni, dei contesti, degli utenti, dei luoghi, degli sco- pi, come succede anche con alcune altre microlingue umanistiche e sociali. Il lessico dell’ar- chitettura si dimostra esposto alla variazione diatopica (relativa allo spazio geografico), alla variazione diastratica (riguardante la stratificazione in classi e gruppi sociali), la variazione diafasica (determinata dalla situazione comunicativa e dai rapporti fra gli interlocutori, cioè registri diversi) e la variazione diamesica (relativa al canale della comunicazione: lo scritto, il parlato). La situazione si complica ulteriormente se il fenomeno viene considerato in prospet- tiva diacronica, viste le vicende del volgare nella penisola italiana, destinato a standardizzarsi solo molti secoli più tardi. Ebbene, dal punto di vista diastratico, gli utenti del lessico architettonico nella prima fase del suo sviluppo appartenevano agli strati sociali diversi (tra cui vi erano ricchi committenti ab- bastanza colti, gli architetti, ma anche i capomastri e i manovali) i quali svolgevano mansioni diverse nel mondo dell’architettura, il che si rifletteva anche nei vocaboli di cui si servivano. È lecito supporre che il lessico artigianale, quello dei cantieri, non cambiasse molto nei secoli essendo legato al modesto mondo dei cantieri concreti in cui le espressioni e i termini più frequenti dovevano la sua vivacità e significatività ai molteplici processi metaforici. Al polo opposto si potrebbe collocare il lessico degli architetti: più colto e ricco di latinismi e di un registro piuttosto alto. Eppure, è nel Medioevo che questi due lessici tipici del sottocodice architettonico sono ancora abbastanza vicini, poiché l’architetto è più vicino socialmente al mastro o all’artigiano, e solo con Alberti inizia l’elevazione culturale dell’architettura e quindi la scissione più esplicita tra questi due lessici. Inoltre, anche la variabilità diamesica è in gioco, perché distinguiamo il linguaggio architet- tonico orale, usato nei cantieri, nelle botteghe (di cui però è difficile fornire degli esempi autentici) da quello scritto, rintracciabile nei testi di carattere pratico (i trattati vengono più tardi). La situazione viene ulteriormente resa complessa dal fatto che all’epoca da noi studia- ta il lessico dell’architettura incorporava piuttosto numerose varianti regionali e la presenza di variabilità diatopiche non è da trascurare. Vari esempi di regionalismi e dialettalismi che testimoniano questa tendenza abbondano nel corpus del TLIO. Tutti noi sappiamo che cosa è una colonna, ma pochi indovineranno che il suo geosinonimo proveniente dal senese è mora. E ancora, chi saprebbe che dietro il termine inconsueto bordonale, tipico dei linguaggi settentrionali, si nasconde il termine architettonico diffusissimo trave maestra. Questi e altri esempi del genere illustrano quanto possa essere complesso indagare su questo campo tan- to affascinante quanto inaccessibile. 95 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 4 Creazione del lessico architettonico Il lessico dell’architettura, non differentemente dal lessico della lingua comune, si forma e cresce tentando di soddisfare i bisogni comunicativi della specifica comunità di discorso, per dirla con Swales (1990), quella appartenente all’ambito edilizio ed architettonico. Per raggiun- gere questo obiettivo ricorre a vari procedimenti, quali formazione di neologismi, utilizzo di prestiti lessicali provenienti da altre lingue, nonché di spostamenti semantici che provocano cambiamenti, totali o parziali, di significato delle parole (Aprile, 2002). Va ricordato anche che la linea di demarcazione tra vocaboli del lessico comune e termini scientifici è altamente in- stabile: è difficile stabilire dove cessa la lingua comune e inizia quella specialistica (Bertaccini et al., 2008). Il processo che si attiva in tali casi e per cui una parola o un’espressione di uso generale o comune viene trasformato in un termine che designa un concetto particolare in un linguaggio speciale viene denominato la terminologizzazione (Peti, 1980-1981). Si tratta di un procedimento terminologico di generazione di termini partendo dalla lingua comune, caratteristico soprattutto delle microlingue dell’arte (Ballarin, 2021). È il caso, ad esempio, di unghia (nel linguaggio architettonico ciascuna delle quattro parti della volta a crociera) che dimostra bene come il legame semantico con la parola d’origine conferisca al termine la motivazione. Questo meccanismo che ancor oggi ci offre la possibi- lità di nominare i nuovi concetti referenziali del mondo delle diverse specialità, pur essendo economico, ha però uno svantaggio: favorisce la polisemia e l’omonimia, i fenomeni da evi- tare nella costituzione della terminologia di una disciplina. I termini acquisiti da un dominio disciplinare particolare possono a distanza di tempo essere riacquisiti in contesti della lingua comune, quando perdono però alcune caratteristiche antecedenti alla terminologizzazione (Collesi et al., 2013). Perché e come nascevano termini del campo architettonico-edilizio? Siccome non esisteva un sistema terminologico standardizzato, quelli che si occupavano di questo mestiere in quei tempi si facevano, e non di rado, onomaturghi: inventavano vocaboli nuovi e arricchivano il bagaglio terminologico, sia ricorrendo alla metafora, che alla risemantizzazione: assegnava- no un significato specifico a una parola o a un termine esistente, servendosi di un’analogia di forma o di funzione (Biffi, 2006). Nell’ambito edilizio ed architettonico la prima fase del lessico specialistico è prevalentemente di derivazione ‘artigianale’, formato con l’aiuto della metafora e della risemantizzazione dei lessemi in funzione specialistica (Biffi 2001). Dunque, la funzione della metafora in questa sezione del lessico non è retorico-stilistica, ma ha una motivazione di ordine sociale (Scarpa, 2008), comunicativa, sociolinguistica: anche nel passa- to la metafora terminologica serviva a dare una maggiore tangibilità ai concetti, a spiegarli meglio, a renderli più trasparenti e concisi. Che cosa rappresenta un letto nel linguaggio edilizio del Duecento? Cosa si intende per ba- stoncino nel linguaggio dell’architettura? Qual è il rapporto tra la vela intesa come ‘tipo di vol- ta’ e la vela come ‘tela usata nelle imbarcazioni’? La lingua della specialità che ci interessa qui presenta diversi esempi di espressioni derivanti da metafore che, non fungono da semplici sinonimi di termini tecnico-scientifici, bensì rivestono ruoli fondamentali nella strutturazione del discorso specialistico. Le metafore terminologiche trovate nel corpus confermano che la metaforizzazione del lessico settoriale non è esclusivamente una tendenza della società con- temporanea (Sobrero, 1993), ma era in atto anche nei secoli lontani. Questo procedimento 96 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 terminologico crea elementi del lessico architettonico vivacissimi e dotati di un dinamismo comunicativo (Andorno, 2005). 5 Una nuova dimensione: il lessico architettonico vitruviano Nel Cinquecento il lessico architettonico vive il suo pieno sviluppo grazie soprattutto a Leon Battista Alberti e il suo trattato De re aedificatoria del 1452 – il primo libro di architettura stam- pato con cui si giungerà ad una nuova dimensione più raffinata. Eppure quel lessico tecnico latino di stampo vitruviano riscontrabile nella scrittura volgare successiva al Quattrocento si innesta su elementi linguistici presenti da secoli nelle molteplici parlate della penisola e do- cumentati negli antichi registri e carte notarili (Siekiera, 2022). L’opera di Alberti riecheggia il De architectura di Vitruvio e grazie alla traduzione del trattato in italiano (eseguita dallo stes- so Alberti) il linguaggio pratico delle botteghe e cantieri otterrà una nuova dimensione piu elevata dal punto di vista estetico e concettuale. Dunque, il trattato vitruviano diffuso grazie ad Alberti (ma poi tradotto e commentato anche da molti altri, come Francesco di Giorgio Martini) è diventato fondamentale in ambito architettonico umanistico, un vero canone. In aggiunta, grazie agli umanisti vengono alla luce degli scritti più rilevanti della classicità, che ora possono conoscere tutti quelli che si occupano di architettura, cioè non letterati, ovvero persone senza la formazione classica o conoscenza del latino. In effetti, le traduzioni delle opere classiche in volgare hanno servito da modello per i trattati in volgare (di Filarete, Francesco di Giorgo, Serlio) con i quali si sviluppa il lessico tecnico del registro medio-alto (Nencioni, 1997). Il fenomeno che nasce dall’accostamento dei termini latini o latineggianti ai tecnicismi del linguaggio delle botteghe e cantieri Biffi definisce come parallelizzazione (Biffi, 2001, p. 256): toro: bastone, plinto: zoccolo; scozia: listello/guscio/cavetto/ gola. Nella seconda metà del Cinquecento e nel Seicento la terminologia architettonica diverrà patrimonio di molte lingue europee. Con il diffondersi delle idee rinascimentali e di quelle cortigiane, questa terminologia comincia a diffondersi in forma di una koiné con termini pa- ralleli a base italiana e latina (bastone-toro, plinto-zoccolo). 6 Alla ricerca di termini architettonici nell’epoca pre-vitruviana Tornando al periodo a cui si riferisce la nostra ricerca per primo ci siamo poste il compito di stilare una lista di termini preminenti nel campo architettonico ed edile. Con quell’obiettivo ci siamo accinte ad esaminare dizionari specializzati disponibili (Pevsner et al., 1976; Portoghesi 1968-69; Vidić et al., 2018), ottenendo come risultato un campione di 136 termini chiave di architettura. Di seguito, si è cercato di stabilire la presenza o meno di questi termini nei testi due e trecenteschi e di indagare il loro stato di sviluppo per quanto riguarda la terminologiz- zazione, nonché la loro diffusione e la loro stabilità. Per i termini prescelti abbiamo cercato le attestazioni nel Tesoro della Lingua Italiana delle Ori- gini (TLIO), nel quale ogni vocabolo viene illustrato e quindi contestualizzato in un’abbondan- za di testi in volgare consultabili grazie al progetto dell’Accademia della Crusca che fa parte dell’Opera del vocabolario italiano (OVI). Nei casi in cui non si è verificata la loro presenza nei 97 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 testi dell’epoca da noi esaminata si è ricorso, come risorsa di controllo, all’esame di un altro corpus alla nostra disposizione, MIDIA e ai dati ritrovabili nel Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca, il primo dizionario della lingua italiana. Un’altra risorsa utilizzabile sono dizionari storici, etimologici, dialettali, e se possibile, specializzati, quali Boidi (1888), Gargiolli (1876), Grisellini (1768-78), Jaoul (1874) e Lacombe (1768). Essi però come tutta la lessicografia storica italiana, dimostrano limiti nella diversità dei testi (prevalentemente letterari, storici o filosofici) presi in considerazione per la compilazione del dizionario. Tuttavia, utilizzandoli, si potrebbe argomentare che si attinge al materiale poco autentico dal punto di vista settoriale, distante dai cantieri e addetti al lavoro. Inoltre, tali risorse sono spesso di data più inoltrata. Quanto all’approccio, la scelta delle autrici è stata di attenersi al metodo di carattere analiti- co-documentario e qualitativo, in quanto la natura della ricerca qui proposta non ha pretese di completezza quantitativa, ma piuttosto rappresentativa. Quindi si è deciso di proseguire con l’indagine attraverso tre linee di ricerca: la prima di carattere morfologico, la seconda di quello etimologico e la terza incentrata sull’aspetto semantico dello sviluppo della termino- logia architettonica. 7 Parametro morfologico Il primo aspetto che abbiamo esaminato nella nostra analisi riguarda il parametro morfolo- gico, ossia la variazione nelle caratteristiche strutturali dei termini architettonici estratti dal nostro corpus. I termini analizzati possono essere raggruppati in quattro categorie principali delineate a seconda dei procedimenti formativi su cui si basano: parole primitive, parole de- rivate, parole composte e unità lessicali superiori. Tra le categorie nominate, la più produttiva è quella delle parole derivate, nel cui ambito vie- ne annoverata quasi la metà dei termini esaminati. Al suo interno è possibile individuare due sottocategorie di parole – quelle formate tramite l’aggiunta di suffissi o di prefissi. Gli esempi di suffissazione riguardano per lo più la formazione di nuovi lessemi nominali me- diante i suffissi denominali (-ato, -ata, -ale, -aia, -ura) e deverbali (-ura, -zione). I suffissi più fre- quenti, -ato e -ata, generalmente vengono usati per formare nomi collettivi o sostantivi con il significato di quantità o durata (Samardžić, 2011). Nell’ambito architettonico però designano per lo più elementi decorativi, composti da uno o più elementi, o componenti strutturali di un edificio (Vučetić, 2006). Alcuni degli esempi di questo tipo nel nostro corpus, i quali sono attestati nel TLIO, sono i seguenti: arcata ’struttura ad arco o a volta cilindrica e lo spazio che essa determina’, balaustrata ’parapetto formato da una fila di elementi uguali usato negli edifici sacri, per dividere il presbiterio dalla navata’, facciata ’parte esterna anteriore, frontale di un fabbricato […], struttura murale’, colonnato ’serie di colonne collegate superiormente da architravi piani o da arcate di vario tipo’. I suffissi -ata e -ato continuano a produrre nuovi termini anche in periodi posteriori a quelli contenuti nel TLIO, il che viene dimostrato dal fat- to che numerosi termini di questo tipo non vengono attestati nel Due e Trecento, ma sono di datazione più recente. Tali esempi includono i termini campata ’spazio compreso tra gli assi di due membrature vicine’, capriata ’struttura portante per coperture di forma triangolare’, cordonata ’volta a costoloni o a nervature’, navata ’ambiente interno a sviluppo longitudinale, 98 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 delimitato ai lati da muri o file di colonne […], tradizionale di basiliche e chiese’, vetrata ’in- sieme di frammenti vitrei colorati, sagomati e commessi secondo un disegno prestabilito’, bugnato ’paramento architettonico esterno costituito da bugne, usato […] nelle facciate dei palazzi rinascimentali’, loggiato ’organismo architettonico di forma analoga alla loggia’. Tra essi, il termine navata viene attestato nel XVI secolo, cordonata e loggiato nel XVII, vetrata nel XVIII e campata e capriata solo all’inizio del XX secolo, seguendo però lo stesso modello for- mativo posto dalle parole provenienti dall’epoca due e trecentesca. Tra i suffissi più diffusi troviamo anche -ura, usato per formare nomi rappresentanti elementi strutturali edili. Nel TLIO troviamo però soltanto il termine strombatura, riferito all’effetto di un procedimento tecnico (Vučetić, 2006): ‘conformazione svasata verso l’esterno o verso l’interno di aperture di porte o finestre’. Gli altri termini frequenti di questo tipo, quali mem- bratura ‘qualsiasi elemento facente parte dell’organismo costruttivo o compositivo di un edi- ficio’, modanatura ‘elemento sagomato di una membratura architettonica, […] la superficie generata dal movimento rettilineo o curvilineo del suo profilo’, o nervatura ‘trave, costola o risalto che, sporgendo da una struttura continua ne aumenta notevolmente la resistenza a flessione’, sono attestati a partire dall’inizio del Cinquecento. Un significato affine al valore se- mantico conferito dal suffisso -ura è stato osservato nei termini derivati con il suffisso -zione, quali rastremazione ‘la riduzione delle dimensioni trasversali che subiscono le strutture por- tanti ad andamento verticale’ e sostruzione ‘struttura in tutto o in parte sotterranea che serve di sostegno a un edificio sovrastante’. Questi esempi non sono stati attestati nei testi due e trecenteschi, ma entrano in uso all’inizio del Cinque e Seicento, portandoci a concludere che la terminologizzazione delle parole con suffisso -zione e la diffusione di termini in -ura avviene nel periodo rinascimentale. Inoltre, nel nostro corpus abbiamo rilevato alcuni sostantivi terminanti in -ale e -aia, indicanti strutture destinate alla raccolta o elementi decorativi: grondaia ’il canale, in genere di lamiera metallica, che segue la linea di gronda della falda di un tetto’, girale ’motivo di decorazione di pilastri, fregi, e anche di vaste superfici, costituito dalla raffigurazione di elementi vegetali’. Nell’ambito dei nomi suffissati abbiamo osservato un importante numero di termini che mor- fologicamente corrispondono alla categoria di nomi alterati. Si tratta di sostantivi terminanti in -eto/a, -ello/a, -ino/a, -(i)olo/a, -one/a. Un’esaminazione più approfondita ha però dimostra- to che nella maggioranza dei casi si tratta di alterati lessicalizzati, ossia parole il cui valore semantico originale, quello di indicare le dimensioni della parola base, è stato trasformato nel corso del tempo in un significato a sé stante. Alcuni dei termini riscontrati presentano un significato affine a quello della parola da cui derivano, quali arcatella/archetto ’arco di piccola apertura’, bastione ’opera fortificata costituita da un terrapieno contenuto entro un perime- tro poligonale di grosse muraglie di sostegno’ e doccione ’il tratto terminale della grondaia che serve a scaricare l’acqua lontano dalla parete esterna dell’edificio’. Tuttavia, prendono il sopravvento gli esempi in cui il significato risulta già significativamente diverso da quello della parola base. A tali esempi può essere attribuito un senso figurato basato sulla percepita somiglianza dell’oggetto che designano con qualche aspetto dell’entità a cui si riferivano ori- ginalmente. Le parole base di termini di questo tipo appartengono a diversi campi semantici, quali parti del corpo (aletta ’ciascuna delle due parti del pilastro che fiancheggiano la semi- colonna; modiglione a gola rovescia che nelle facciate delle chiese barocche collega al piano inferiore quello superiore di minore ampiezza; mensola rovescia che talora decora la fronte 99 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 degli abbaini’, dentelli ’motivo architettonico costituito da una serie di elementi parallelepipe- di ravvicinati che si trovano sulla prima modanatura della cornice ionica’, beccatello ’menso- letta per sostenere i capi delle travi fissate nel muro’), animali (gattone ’nell’architettura gotica, ornamento a forma di foglie ricurve e spesso accartocciate, posto sul bordo esterno di cornici inclinate’) o corpi celesti (lunetta ’lo spazio racchiuso tra un architrave e l’eventuale arco che lo sovrasta’). Tale sviluppo semantico continua anche in epoche più recenti, con termini deline- anti piante (baccelletto ’elemento decorativo dell’architettura classica, riproducente il baccello vegetale’), mobili (cassettone ’ciascuno dei riquadri geometrici ricavati nei soffitti piani e nelle volte in muratura come motivo decorativo’), vestiti (collarino ’piccola membratura terminale di colonne o pilastri, che separa il fusto dal capitello’), alimenti (ovolo ’modanatura aggettante a sezione più o meno simile a un quarto di cerchio convesso verso il basso’) e parti del corpo (orecchione ’parte della incorniciatura modanata di porte e finestre di tipo classico’, costolone ’elemento architettonico tipico della copertura a volta o a cupola, costituito da nervature aggettanti sull’intradosso’). Dato che le attestazioni dei termini nominati sono presenti dal Quattrocento in poi, è possibile concludere che la terminologizzazione di parole alterate è avvenuta continuamente dalle prime fasi della formazione del lessico architettonico italiano. Alla sottocategoria di parole prefissate appartengono i sostantivi derivati mediante i seguenti prefissi: a-, archi-, conta/o-, de-, inter-, pseudo-, ri-, s-, semi-, sopra-, sotto-, tra-. I più frequenti tra essi nella lista di termini più rappresentativi sono quelli che designano: la posizione spazia- le (soprarco ’arco che sovrasta un altro arco’, soprapporta ’apertura posta sopra la porta per dare maggiore luce o per consentire il ricambio di aria’, sottarco ’faccia inferiore della struttu- ra di un arco’, sottocornice ’il complesso di modanature che si trova al disotto del gocciolatoio’, trabeazione ’elemento degli ordini architettonici costituito dalla struttura orizzontale portata dalle colonne e portante a sua volta la copertura, composta dell’architrave portante, del fre- gio ornamentale e della cornice di protezione’, transenna ’parapetto per recinzioni e sbarra- menti, usati all’interno di edifici civili e sacri’, transetto ’la navata trasversale che, nelle chiese a croce latina, si sviluppa perpendicolarmente alla navata principale’, intercolùnnio ’spazio compreso fra due colonne, che costituisce un effettivo vano spaziale’, architrave ’elemento ar- chitettonico disposto orizzontalmente al di sopra dei due elementi portanti su cui s’appoggia oppure s’incastra’, archivolto ’membratura architettonica costituita da una serie di modana- ture svolgentesi come fascia generalmente concentrica alla linea d’intradosso d’un arco’, con- trofacciata ’la parete interna dell’edificio che si trova dietro la facciata’), la forma (pseudovolta ’copertura a forma di volta, che si sostiene per gravità e non per la reciproca spinta tra gli elementi ed è attuata mediante il progressivo aggetto di corsi di pietre’, semicolonna ’pilastro che si presenta come una mezza colonna sezionata longitudinalmente’) o la funzione di un elemento architettonico (contrafforte ’elemento verticale sporgente in muratura, destinato a rafforzare una struttura contro l’azione di forze orizzontali’, controspinta ’forza di reazione di un elemento strutturale che si contrappone a una spinta su di esso esercitata da un altro ele- mento’). Paragonando questo elenco con le attestazioni nel TLIO, possiamo concludere che le parole prefissate costituiscono una categoria poco produttiva. L’unico prefisso frequente sembra essere archi-, mentre troviamo decisamente pochi esempi dei prefissi prevalenti nei termini prefissati di oggi. Tra i nomi composti osservati è possibile individuare due tipologie: nomi composti da due elementi italiani e nomi composti con elementi greci o latini. All’interno del primo tipo ab- biamo osservato esclusivamente nomi composti con elementi nominali, quali cancorrente 100 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 ’motivo ornamentale formato da una serie di elementi rincorrentisi per lo più a foggia di S inclinate e attaccate l’una all’altra’, capocroce ’parte della chiesa oltre il transetto, che nor- malmente comprende coro e abside’, marcapiano ’riga di mattoni, cornice aggettante o sim., che in un edificio segna sulla facciata la divisione fra un piano e l’altro’, piedistallo/piedestallo ’elemento architettonico o decorativo, di forma varia e materiali diversi, avente funzione di sostegno e di base’, piedritto ’qualunque elemento verticale di una struttura soggetto a sforzi di compressione indotti dal peso sostenuto e a spinte orizzontali provocate da forze esterne’, quadrilobo ’motivo ornamentale composto da quattro lobi inscritti in un quadrato’ e quadri- portico ’portico costruito sui quattro lati di un cortile’. Al secondo tipo appartengono invece i nomi composti da due confissi di origine greca (ipostilo ’vano o ambiente il cui tetto piano sia sostenuto da file di colonne’, iconostasi ’struttura divisoria interposta fra il coro e le navate’, zooforo ’fregio ionico, posto fra l’architrave e la cornice, quando è decorato con figure, pre- valentemente di animali’, polifora ’finestra il cui vano è suddiviso in un certo numero di luci minori da una serie di sottili piedritti’) o da un prefissoide latino e un suffissoide greco (bifora ’di porta e finestra nelle quali il vano risulta diviso, sulla fronte esterna, in due luci uguali mediante un piedritto centrale’). Nell’ambito del TLIO si osservano pochi esempi di parole composte, portandoci a concludere che la composizione, come la prefissazione, diventerà un meccanismo formativo più diffuso in un momento successivo nello sviluppo del lessico architettonico. È particolarmente interessante che tra gli esempi attestati prevalgano quelli composti da elementi italiani, quali capocroce e piedistallo, mentre i termini con elementi gre- ci o latini sono quasi inesistenti. Oltre a quanto riportato finora, abbiamo riscontrato un numero sorprendentemente alto di unità lessicali superiori, quali piede dell’arco ’pietra su cui posano l’imposta, l’arco e la volta’, volta a cordonata ’volta a costoloni o a nervature’, volta a botte ’derivata direttamente dall’ar- co del quale ha le stesse caratteristiche strutturali’ e dente di lupo ’decorazione che compare nelle ceramiche preistoriche a motivi geometrici, formata da triangoli avvicinati, oppure da una serie di linee tangenti in alto’. 8 Parametro etimologico Oltre ai termini formati all’interno del sistema italiano tramite vari processi morfologici illu- strati nella sezione precedente, nel nostro corpus abbiamo constatato la presenza di nume- rosi vocaboli ereditati dal sistema latino, che oggi cadono nella categoria di un lessico ormai comune, non strettamente formalizzato, appartenente a un registro medio. La maggioranza di essi proviene dalle lingue classiche, ossia dal latino e dal greco. Tra i termini di base latina distinguiamo tra le parole dotte, ovvero le parole pervenute nel sistema lessicale italiano senza subire significativi mutamenti fonologici e pertanto formalmente simili ai loro equi- valenti latini, e quelle popolari, le cui caratteristiche fonologiche hanno seguito i percorsi evolutivi tipici del sistema italiano, risultando talvolta in una forma decisamente diversa da quella della parola latina da cui originano. La maggioranza dei latinismi attestati nel nostro corpus appartiene al primo gruppo: altare (volg. altare, dal lat. altaria), arco (lat. arcus), atrio (lat. atrium), cuspide (lat. cuspis), modulo (lat. modŭlus), oculo (lat. ocŭlus), ordine (lat. ōrdo), portico (lat. portĭcus), pulvino (lat. pulvinus), tiburio (lat. mediev. tiburium), volta (volg. *volta, dal lat. volvĕre), zoccolo (lat. sŏccŭlus), tribuna (lat. tribunal) e vela (lat. vēla, pl. di vēlum). Tuttavia, anche le parole popolari risultano numerose: colonna (lat. colŭmna), fregio (lat. frisium), gola 101 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 (lat. gŭla), modiglione (lat. *mutilio), nicchia (lat. *nīdĭcŭlare), pennacchio (lat. pinnacŭlum), toro (lat. taurus), vestibolo (lat. vestibŭlum), unghia (lat. ŭngŭla). Dal punto di vista morfologico è interessante notare che alcuni tra i termini presenti nel nostro corpus arrivano in italiano come parole derivate (aggetto – lat. adiectum), alterate (ca- pitello – lat. capitĕllum, dim. di capitŭlum, edicola – lat. aedicŭla «tempietto», dim. di aedes «tempio», formella – lat. tardo formella, dim. di forma, mensola – lat. mensŭla, dim. di mensa) o composte (frontespizio – lat. tardo frontispicium, comp. di frons «fronte» e tema di specĕre «guardare»), essendo state sottoposte ai suddetti procedimenti formativi nell’ambito del si- stema latino. Abbiamo inoltre osservato che tra i latinismi riportati sono presenti numerosi termini che a loro volta rappresentano prestiti dal greco, quali abaco (lat. abăcus, gr. ἄβαξ -ακος), abside (lat. tardo absĭda, incrociato con il lat. class. absis, gr. ἁψίς - ῖδος), acanto (lat. acanthus, gr. ἄκανϑος) ambone (gr. ἄμβων -ωνος), astragalo (lat. astragălus, gr. ἀστράγαλος), basilica (lat. basilĭca, gr. βασιλική), ciborio (lat. ciborium, gr. κιβώριον), conca (lat. concha, gr. κόγχη), cimasa (lat. cymatium, gr. κυμάτιον), echino (lat. echinus, gr. ἐχῖνος), entasi (dal lat. entăsis, gr. ἔντασις), erma (dal lat. herma o hermes, gr. ἑρμῆς), timpano (lat. tympănum, gr. τύμπανον), tempio (dal lat. templum, gr. τέμενος), plinto (dal lat. plinthus, gr. πλίνϑος), parasta (dal lat. parastas, gr. παραστάς), podio (lat. podium, gr. πόδιον), obelisco (lat. obeliscus, gr. ὀβελίσκος), nartece (lat. narthex, gr. νάρϑηξ -ηκος). Tale situazione testimonia dello stretto legame esistente tra la tra- dizione architettonica latina e, di conseguenza, italiana e i modelli architettonici greci. Eppu- re, è necessario precisare che, mentre quasi tutti i termini appartenenti al fondo latino sono attestati all’interno del TLIO, alcuni tra i vocaboli prestati dal greco, quali ambone, astragalo, edicola, entasi, parasta e obelisco sono di datazione più recente, essendo entrati nell’italiano come prestiti diretti nel Quattro e Cinquecento. In pochi casi i termini provengono da altre lingue o parlate, quali l’arabo (tamburo – arabo ṭunbūr), il longobardo (predella – longob. *predel, *pretel) e il francese (ogiva – fr. ogive), proven- zale (guglia – provenz. agulha). Alcune tra essi presentano percorsi etimologici più complessi, quale loggia, termine che origina nel franco *laubja, con il significato di ’pergola, chiosco’, ed è successivamente passato prima nel greco κηνή ’tenda, padiglione’, e poi in latino tardo come laubia, per pervenire finalmente nel sistema italiano mediante il francese loge ’capanna, pic- cola stanza’. 9 Parametro semantico Il materiale linguistico esaminato nei confini del nostro corpus dimostra che il carico seman- tico dei termini analizzati può svilupparsi in varie direzioni. La parte prevalente dei termini che hanno costituito l’oggetto della nostra ricerca riguarda le parole già esistenti nel sistema italiano le quali subiscono un processo di risemantizzazione, acquisendo significati specia- lizzati. Tale processo viene avviato a causa della necessità di designare nuovi concetti lega- ti all’ambito architettonico e quindi vengono coniati dei neologismi, termini nuovi formati per rispondere ad esigenze nuove di una professione in sviluppo. Tra esempi di questo tipo rientrano i termini beccatello e fusto. Negli esempi nominati il significato originale designa un’entità appartenente al mondo reale, rispettivamente ’guaina cornea che riveste gli archi mascellari e mandibolari negli uccelli’ e ’parte assile delle piante cormofite che porta le foglie’. 102 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 In un secondo momento, tramite il processo di metaforizzazione, cioè astrazione del valore semantico iniziale in base a una percepita somiglianza tra certi aspetti distintivi dell’entità a cui la parola si riferiva dapprima e quella a cui viene legata nel corso del mutamento semanti- co (Traugott, 1988; Haser, 2005; Stöckl, 2010), viene generato un nuovo significato specialisti- co. Così, beccatello diventa nell’ambito dell’architettura ’mensoletta per sostenere i capi delle travi fissate nel muro’ e fusto comincia a riferirsi a ’parte centrale e predominante della co- lonna, compresa tra la base sottostante e il sovrastante capitello’. L’uso metaforico di questi termini viene illustrato dai seguenti esempi tratti dal TLIO: “E merlossi con beccatelli isportati il palagio antico, dove abita la podestà dietro alla Badia e da San Pulinari […]” (Giovanni Villani, Cronica, 854) e “[…] grande e diritta com’una colonna / con signorile e bella contenenza, / e la sua appariscenza / certanamente avanza ogni altro fusto.”, (Antonio Pucci, Rime, 845).2 Tuttavia, è importante notare che non tutti i termini presenti nel nostro corpus possiedono un significato specializzato nel periodo da noi analizzato. Molti casi di questo tipo legati al Quattrocento e periodi posteriori ad esso dimostrano però che i termini architettonici forma- ti mediante la metaforizzazione sono una categoria in aumento. In seguito, riportiamo alcuni esempi in cui la specializzazione, infatti, avviene in una data più inoltrata: echino, mascherone, baccelletto, zoccolo e pulvino. Il primo tra essi oggigiorno possiede il significato ’elemento del capitello dorico e ionico posto sotto l’abaco, che nello stile dorico ebbe un profilo dapprima molto sporgente, convesso e schiacciato’, ma nel TLIO appare soltanto con il valore di ’nome scientifico di alcuni ricci di mare della classe degli echinoidei’. Il secondo invece nel TLIO presenta soltanto il significato di ’maschera grottesca’, mentre oggi viene usato per riferirsi ad una ’raffigurazione plastica di una maschera o di un volto umano fortemente stilizzato’. Il terzo trasforma il suo significato originale ’frutto delle piante leguminose’ in ’elemento deco- rativo dell’architettura classica, riproducente il baccello vegetale’, mentre gli ultimi due ripor- tano significati ’calzatura chiusa nella parte anteriore’ e ’cuscino, guanciale’ nel TLIO e oggi si riferiscono a ’la parte inferiore di un edificio o di un partito architettonico’ e ’blocco di pietra posto in funzione di raccordo tra il capitello di una colonna e la struttura sovrastante’. Una volta specializzato, il significato di termini architettonici talvolta può passare da un am- bito specialistico in un altro, subendo un nuovo processo di metaforizzazione del suo signi- ficato. Il fenomeno è stato descritto nella lingua francese come migrazione (fr. migration) (Picton, 2007; Mirić, 2020). Tali esempi sono forniti dai seguenti termini: arco, il quale passa dal linguaggio architettonico nel campo della geometria, dove viene a indicare ’parte di una circonferenza compresa tra due suoi punti’, capitello, che diventa un termine anatomico del significato papilla cutanea, al centro dell’areola della mammella, che serve per l’allattamento’ e colonna, che nell’ambito dell’araldica designa ’lista di uno stemma’. In rari casi, i termini ar- chitettonici possono arrivare da altri campi specialistici, come dimostrato da abside ’ciascuno dei due punti estremi di un’ellisse’, un termine pervenuto dal linguaggio dell’astronomia. In alcuni casi, le parole del lessico architettonico possono acquisire valori semantici più ampi tramite il processo di generalizzazione semantica. Così la parola volta compare in alcuni testi antichi con il significato di ’cantina’: “[…] con pozzi d’acque freschissime e con volte di preziosi vini […]”, (Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron, I, Introduzione, 47), mentre il termine loggia svilup- pa un significato generalizzato duplice, quello di ’mercato’: “[…] e fecer con virtù maggior 2 Gli esempi e i rispettivi riferimenti sono tratti in forma integrale dal TLIO e dal Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca. 103 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 prodezze, / che comparite poi non sono a loggia / con tutte quante nostre sottigliezze”, (An- tonio Pucci, Centiloquio, 116) e quello di ’tenda’: “[…] il decto Arrigo venne ad hoste sopra la città di Firençe, e puose suo campo, actendato di loggie, trabacche e padiglioni, nel piano del Cafaggio del Vescovado di Firençe”, (Cronica fiorentina, XIII, 82). È probabile che i processi di generalizzazione di questo tipo, i quali risultano tipicamente nell’estensione dei contesti di uso in cui la parola generalizzata può comparire (Borkowska & Kleparski, 2007), possono spiegare, almeno in parte, la sorprendente varietà di tipi di testi in cui sono stati attestati i termini presenti nel nostro corpus. Tali testi includono non soltanto i testi di carattere utilitario, quali documenti legali e statuti, ma anche cronache e perfino opere prosastiche e poetiche di alto valore letterario. Inoltre, anche se la maggior parte delle opere in cui appaiono termini architettonici proviene dalla Toscana, tali parole sono presenti in numeri significativi anche nei testi umbri, bolognesi e napoletani, il che testimonia dell’alto livello di diffusione dei termini architettonici nelle prime fasi evolutive della lingua italiana, portandoci a concludere che è probabile che molti dei termini tratti dalla nostra lista, pur non essendo attestati nel TLIO, siano stati presenti nella lingua parlata di quell’epoca. 10 Conclusioni Con il presente contributo abbiamo cercato di stabilire se e in quale misura i termini archi- tettonici figurano nelle prime fasi evolutive della lingua italiana. Analizzandoli dal punto di vista morfologico abbiamo osservato che il procedimento formativo più produttivo sembra essere la suffissazione, mentre i vocaboli prefissati e composti vengono terminologizzati più tardi rispetto a quelli suffissati. Dal punto di vista etimologico abbiamo concluso che le parole attestate nei testi due e trecenteschi sono prevalentemente ereditate dal latino e adattate al sistema volgare, mentre i prestiti diretti sono legati per lo più alle epoche più tarde. Per quanto riguarda il parametro semantico, si è notato che il processo più frequen- te risultante nella coniazione di termini nuovi è la metaforizzazione, ossia la trasformazione dei valori semantici di entità già esistenti con lo scopo di designare nuovi concetti legati all’ambito architettonico. Mentre abbiamo trovato sorprendente il numero ristretto di termini architettonici attestati nei testi provenienti dal Duecento e Trecento, allo stesso tempo risulta chiaro che questa sia stata l’epoca in cui si sono formati i modelli morfologici e semantici mediante i quali è pos- sibile spiegare la composizione e le caratteristiche principali del lessico architettonico e che saranno prevalenti nella costruzione della terminologia architettonica in epoche successive a quelle da noi analizzate. Abbiamo ormai constatato che il vocabolario architettonico ed edile rappresenta un linguag- gio prevalentemente orale usato nei cantieri e le botteghe, di cui è quindi difficile fornire degli esempi autentici. Gli scritti d’arte in forma di trattati disponibili nel periodo successivo a quello racchiuso negli ambiti del TLIO non esistono ancora. Quindi, i testi a nostra disposizio- ne da consultare rientrano nella categoria di testi pratici (documenti d’archivio, glosse, note, ricevute e commenti. Eppure, una volta trovati e attestati i vocaboli legati all’architettura nei documenti menzionati, risulta difficile studiare la loro circolazione che pare nel maggior nu- mero dei casi assai limitata: quindi si pone la questione della loro promozione ai tecnicismi 104 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 veri e propri siccome, soprattutto nel periodo successivo, questi termini cedono il passo ad altri che divengono largamente accettati e stabili. Inoltre, una grande parte del corpus del TLIO è basata sui testi letterari e legali, i quali illustrano per lo più la lingua di tutti i giorni, ossia quella parlata da persone non addette ai lavori nel settore edilizio o architettonico. Pertanto, è necessario considerare che, se i termini vengono attestati nei contesti quotidiani nel Duecento e Trecento con un livello di frequenza sufficiente per entrare nei dizionari di quell’epoca o per essere inclusi nei dizionari storici odierni, ciò significa che sono entrati nel sistema linguistico parlato probabilmente molto prima di quell’epoca. Di conseguenza, il fatto che non siamo riusciti a trovare attestazioni di tutti i termini analizzati nei testi compresi nel TLIO non vuol dire necessariamente che essi non possedevano già significati specializzati, ma può essere dovuto alla scarsa disponibilità di testi adeguati che ci permetterebbero di trarre conclusioni più generali. Viste le restrizioni delle possibilità di ricerca che sono una caratteri- stica solita di indagini diacroniche, soprattutto quelle incentrate sui linguaggi specialistici, la nostra ricerca non ha mirato ad offrire risposte finali alle domande aperte in questo campo linguistico, ma di fornire una panoramica di un’epoca lontana, eppure cruciale per la com- prensione della strutturazione e il funzionamento del linguaggio architettonico in qualsiasi periodo della sua evoluzione. Riferimenti bibliografici Accademia della Crusca (n.d.). Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca. http://www.lessicografia.it Alberti, L. B. (1485). De re aedificatoria. Nicolaus Laurentii, Alamanus. Andorno, C. (2005). Che cos’è la pragmatica linguistica. Carocci. Aprile, M. (2005). Dalle parole ai dizionari. Il Mulino. Ballarin, E. (2021). Insegnare il lessico delle microlingue: specificità nell’insegnamento e nelle strategie didattiche. In Jafrancesco, E. e La Grassa, M. (a cura di), Competenza lessicale e apprendimento dell’italiano L2 (97–108). https://doi.org/10.36253/978-88-5518-403-8.08 Beltrami, P. e Leonardi, L. (1997). Tesoro della lingua italiana delle origini. Il primo dizionario storico dell’italiano antico. http://tlio.ovi.cnr.it/ Bertaccini, F, Lecci, C. e Bono, V. (2008). Processi di terminologizzazione e determinologizzazione nel dominio della diffusione e distribuzione del libro, Atti del Convegno Nazionale AssITerm, Italia (47–61). AIDA. Biffi, M. (2001). Sulla formazione del lessico architettonico italiano: la terminologia dell’ordine ionico nei testi di Francesco di Giorgio Martini. In R. Gualdo (a cura di), Le parole della scienza. Scritture tecniche e scientifiche in volgare (secoli XIII-XV), Atti del Convegno (253–290). Congedo Editore. Biffi, M. (2006). Il lessico dell’architettura nella storia della lingua italiana. In J. Gudelj e P. Nicolin (a cura di), Fare storia 3: Costruire il dispositivo storico, Tra fonti e strumenti (75–132). Bruno Mondadori. Boidi, G.A. (1888). Dizionario ragionato delle voci dell’arte del disegno, architettura, pittura, scultura. Vin- cenzo Bona. Borkowska, P. e Kleparski, G. A. (2007). It befalls words to fall down: pejoration as a type of semantic change. Studia Anglica Resoviensia, 47(4), 33–50. Collesi, P, Serpente A. e Zanola, M. T. (2013). Terminologie e ontologie. Definizioni e comunicazione fra norma e uso. EDUCatt. 105 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 Dardano, M. (1994). I linguaggi scientifici. Profilo dell’italiano contemporaneo. In L. Serianni e P. Trifone (a cura di), Storia della lingua italiana. II Scritto e parlato (497–551). Einaudi. Gargiolli, G. (1876). Il parlare degli artigiani di Firenze. Forni. Gotti, M. (1991). I linguaggi specialistici. Caratterstiche linguistiche e criteri pragmatici. La nuova Italia. Griselini, F. (1768–78). Dizionario delle arti e dei mestieri, 18 vol. Modesto Fenzo. Haser, V. (2005). Metaphor and metonymy in cognitive linguistics. In V. Haser (a cura di), Metaphor, Me- tonymy, and Experientialist Philosophy: Challenging Cognitive Semantics (13–36). Walter de Gruyter. Jaoul, F. (1874). Vocabolario di architettura e di arti affini ordinato per rubriche e corredato di un elenco alfabetico delle voci usate in Napoli con le corrispondenti italiane. Gennaro De Angelis. Lacombe, J. (1768). Dizionario portatile delle belle arti: ovvero Ristretto di ciò, che spetta all’ architettura, alla scultura, alla pittura, all’ intaglio, alla poesia, ed alla musica. Stamperia di Bassano. Migliorini, B. (1960). Storia della letteratura italiana. Sansoni. Mirić, M. (2020). Francuski jezik struke. Teorijski i leksičko-morfološki aspekti. Filozofski fakultet. Motolese, M. (2012). Italiano lingua delle arti. Un’avventura europea (1250–1650). Il Mulino. Nencioni, G. (1995). Sulla formazione di un lessico nazionale dell’architettura. Bollettino d’informazioni del Centro di Ricerche Informatiche per i Beni Culturali, (5)2, 7–33. Peti, M. (1980-1981). Terminologizacija. Rasprave Zavoda za hrvatski jezik, 6–7, 227–238. Pevsner, N., Fleming, J., & Honour, H. (1976). A Dictionary of Architecture. Overlook Press Picton, A. (2007). “Migration” des connaissances dans le temps : apports d’une analyse automatique des dépendances des termes. Actes du colloque Terminologie et Intelligence Artificielle (TIA’2007) (71–82). Presses Universitaires de Grenoble. Portoghesi, P. (1968-1969). Dizionario enciclopedico di architettura e urbanistica. Istituto editoriale ro- mano. Samardžić, M. (2011). Pogled na reči. Filološki fakultet. Scarpa F. (2008). La traduzione specializzata. Un approccio didattico professionale. Hoepli. Siekiera, A. (2022). I volgari italiani negli scritti di architettura dal Medioevo al Rinascimento e le pri- me traduzioni del “De re aedificatoria” di Leon Battista Alberti. In A. Armando, G. Durbiano, C. Lucarini e R. Scarpa (a cura di), Tra le righe dell’Architettura: lingua, stile, testo (111–138). MIMESIS EDIZIONI. Sobrero A. A. (1993). Lingue speciali. In A. A. Sobrero (a cura di), Introduzione all’italiano contemporaneo. La variazione e gli usi (237–278), Laterza. Sosnowski, R. (2006). Origini della lingua dell’economia in Italia. Dal XIII al XVI secolo. FrancoAngeli. Stöckl, H. (2010). Metaphor revisited. cognitive-conceptual versus traditional linguistic perspectives, AAA Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik, 35(2), 189–207. Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis. English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge University Press. Traugott, E. C. (1988). Pragmatic strengthening and grammaticalization. Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistic Society (406–416). Berkeley Linguistic Society. Valenti, G. (2019). Affioramenti di lessico artistico nella letteratura italiana delle Origini. Zeitschrift fur Romanische Philologie, 135(1), 256–273. https://doi.org/10.1515/zrp-2019-0007 Vidić, J, Đorović, D. e Nikolić, M. (2018). Višejezični terminološki rečnik istorije umetnosti: srpsko-francu- sko-italijansko-španski sa dvojezičnim glosarima. Univerzitet u Beogradu, Filozofski fakultet. 106 Đorović, Stanojević / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 90–106 Vitruvio Pollione, M. (1567). De architectura. Venetiis: apud Franciscum Franciscium senensem & Ioan. Crugher germanum. Vučetić, Z. (2006). Il linguaggio artistico: il lessico. Linguistica, 46(1), 121–144. https://doi.org/10.4312/ linguistica.46.1.121-144 Izvleček Arhitekturni leksikon v zgodnji italijanščini Med vsemi umetnostnimi terminologijami se je arhitekturna prva oblikovala kot nadregionalni leksi- kalni sistem, ki je nastal iz vulgarizacij in vitruvijevskih prevodov. Čeprav prva arhitekturna besedila segajo v konec 15. stoletja, s čimer je nastalo prvo jedro osnovnih arhitekturnih izrazov, je že sred- nji vek s svojimi impresivnimi gradbenimi podvigi bistveno prispeval k razvoju terminologije na tem področju. Namen pričujočega prispevka je analizirati najpogostejše arhitekturne termine in njihovo usodo v zgodnji italijanščini z morfološkega, etimološkega in s semantičnega vidika, izhajajoč iz kor- pusa zgodovinskega slovarja zgodnje italijanščine TLIO (Tesoro della lingua italiana delle origini), ki ga sestavljajo dokumentarna, znanstvena in pravna besedila do leta 1375. Rezultati raziskave kažejo, da je sufiksacija glavni način tvorjenja terminov, medtem ko se izposojenke in sestavljanke pojavljajo šele kasneje. Termini iz besedil 13. in 14. stoletja večinoma izhajajo iz latinščine, v naslednjih obdobjih pa so pogostejše neposredne izposojenke. Metaforizacija je pogost postopek pri tvorjenju novih izra- zov. Čeprav je v analiziranih besedilih terminov malo, njihova odsotnost ne pomeni nujno, da termini niso bili specializirani, temveč odraža omejeno razpoložljivost praktičnih dokumentov. Raziskava je pomembna za razumevanje razvoja in delovanja arhitekturnega jezika, saj poudarja pomen zgodnjih faz pri oblikovanju morfoloških in semantičnih vzorcev, ki so vplivali na prihodnjo arhitekturno leksiko. Ključne besede: arhitekturni leksikon, zgodnja italijanščina, terminologija, terminologizacija, metaforizacija 107 Barbara Jurša Potocco Faculty of Health Sciences University of Primorska THE USE OF TASK-BASED LEARNING AND TEACHING IN ESP COURSES FOR TERTIARY STUDENTS OF KINESIOLOGY AND DIETETICS Abstract This teaching report examines how the principles of task-based learning and teaching were applied to two university-level ESP courses, namely a course for second-cycle students of Dietetics and one for first-cycle students of Kinesiology. The paper briefly outlines the main language learning tasks used in these courses: for students of Dietetics, the tasks included a role play of a dietetic consultation with a focus on counselling skills and a clinical focus, a structured class debate on the universal applicability of plant-based diets, and a role-play of a job interview in the field. For students of Kinesiology, the tasks involved preparing a short physical activity break for the class, designing different sports and physical activities for different groups of clients, furnishing a fitness studio and pain assessment. The report also reflects on the teacher-perceived effectiveness of these tasks and the challenges accompanying their implementation. Keywords: task-based learning and teaching, English in kinesiology, English in dietetics Paper received: 12.10.2023 Paper revised: 18.12.2023 Paper accepted: 18.12.2023 Paper published: 15.06.2024 Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023) DOI: 10.4312/SM.18.2.107-117 Teaching Report 108 Jurša Potocco / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 107–117 1 Introduction This teaching report presents its author’s concrete classroom experience of incorporating Task-Based Learning and Teaching (TBLT) into two English for Specific Purposes (ESP) univer- sity courses that were implemented in the academic year 2022/2023 at the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, Slovenia – one for second-cycle students of Dietetics, and one for first-cycle students of Kinesiology. The paper outlines some of the language learning tasks that had been designed for these courses and reflects on the challenges faced by the concrete teacher in implementing these tasks, the teacher’s perception of students’ respons- es and how the implementation of these tasks might be improved in the future. 1.1 Theoretical Background Firstly, let us take a brief theoretical glance at TBLT, a well-established communicative ap- proach to teaching a second language. In simplest terms, Willis described language learning tasks as “activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose in order to achieve an outcome” (Willis, 1996, p. 28). Nunan used the concept of a communicative task to refer to a teaching method that involves interaction, the use of au- thentic texts, a focus on the learning process itself and the learner’s personal experience, as well as a link to language activities outside the classroom (Nunan, 1991, p. 279). According to a far more recent definition of a TBLT task, one put forward by East, a task is characterised by “a focus on communicative meaning and fluency, some kind of gap to be worked out by students, and an outcome beyond the use of language” (East, 2021, p. 48). Based on Van den Branden’s (2006) definition of a TBLT task, the latter may also be said to have a goal which requires processing some input, creating some output and interacting with others to meet the goal. The cited definitions of the language learning task all shed some light on why this method could seem appealing and empowering to university students, who are by default adult learn- ers: it requires from them at least some degree of direct personal involvement in the form of negotiation of meaning, decision-making and problem-solving, and in the activation of these competencies resembles real life. A task in TBLT is always related to some real-world activi- ties. In the context of English for Specific Purposes, this feature of TBLT makes this method remarkably motivating to students, who are aware of the fact that all the learning activities in which they participate inevitably bring them a step closer to mastering real-world skills that will be needed throughout their working life. As Cubillo and Brenes (2009) note, the main goal of a task in Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) should reflect what learners need to do in real-life situations at the workplace. According to East, the task may be called “real-world” if it draws on the kinds of language that may be used in real-life contexts, or the kinds of skills that learners might draw on in a real-life interaction beyond the specific task (East, 2021, p. 58). Another critical point about TBLT is that grammar is not put in the foreground of the teach- ing process, and that it is considered and dealt with in a student-dominated way, which fits in well with university-level ESP courses, where the majority of students, at least in the context of Slovenian universities, seem to be relatively proficient in general English. It thus makes sense for an ESP university teacher to follow the TBLT method in making room for 109 Jurša Potocco / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 107–117 grammar primarily when the latter is needed and foremostly by providing corrective feed- back to students. The primary goal of TBLT is automaticity in language use (East, 2021, p. 17). If we take as the starting point Michel’s concept of the complexity-accuracy-fluency triad (Michel, 2017, p. 50), TBLT arguably targets the development of fluency to the possible detriment of accu- racy. Michel’s model describes different aspects of language use that need to be mastered by learners, where accuracy refers to the use of language that is free of error, while fluency refers to the smooth production of language with only a few pauses; complexity is, on the other hand, defined as the elaborateness and diversity of the second language performance (East, 2021, p. 15). Although language learners may not necessarily be deprived of complex- ity of language use, given the wide range of tasks that may be offered to them, and the au- thentic texts they may be equipped with, fluency does seem to stick out as the one aspect of language prioritised by TBLT. In line with this argument, Wu et al. (2016) have found no statistically significant difference in reading achievement between ESP students receiving task-based instruction and students in the control group, but did establish a notable positive effect of TBLT on students’ listening and speaking competency. Interestingly, Iranmehr et al. (2011) have, on the other hand, reported a significant advantage of teaching ESP through tasks specifically in connection to reading comprehension (Iranmehr et al., 2011). According to Willis (1996), language learning tasks may be divided into closed (highly struc- tured) and open ones. They may comprise listing items, as well as ordering, sorting or com- paring them; problem-solving; sharing personal experiences, and performing creative tasks or projects. East distinguishes among three basic types of tasks in terms of whether they involve problem-solving, decision-making, or opinion exchange among students, and further categorises them into an information gap, a reasoning gap, and an opinion gap (East, 2021, p. 49-50). 1.2 Research Aim The aim of this paper was two-fold: the first was the descriptive aim of exploring different possibilities open to ESP teachers in the health-related fields of dietetics and kinesiology through an outline of task-based activities implemented in two concrete tertiary-level ESP courses. The second objective was a critical reflection and evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of these concrete ESP class activities. 2 Methods The methods employed to meet the evaluative purpose of this study were teacher’s self-feed- back and student feedback. The student feedback procedure was limited to students’ spon- taneously made comments in class and their anonymous written feedback on the course obtained through an online survey. The latter was based on the questionnaire that is used universally for all the courses implemented at the University of Primorska, regardless of the study programme, and serves the function of an internal quality assurance system. The part of the survey that was used in this study were students’ answers elicited by the following open-ended questions: 110 Jurša Potocco / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 107–117 1) »Regarding the university teacher’s pedagogical work, I would like to point out …«, 2) »Regarding the course implementation, I would like to point out …«, 3) »Regarding the scope of study obligations, I would like to point out … (e.g. too difficult, too easy, too broad, or too limited study contents, too long chunks of lectures (in blocks of sev- eral lessons), or too dispersed or concentrated lectures, the number of (too many) exercises, mid-term exams, seminars, additional (home) assignments, exams etc.).« The ESP course for (both first- and second-year) Master’s students of Dietetics was an elective one, with a total of 60 contact hours, allowing for ample opportunities for feedback and re- flection. Most sessions consisted of blocks of four lesson hours. Only about 10 students were enrolled. The minimum CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) proficiency level required for entry to the course was B1. The course was implemented in the autumn semester (October 2022-January 2023). The ESP course for first-year first-cycle students of Kinesiology was mandatory and consisted of 40 lesson hours (10 lectures, 30 seminar exercises). A single session of the seminar exer- cises usually consisted of two-hour lessons. The seminar exercises were implemented in two sections, with 38 students in each class. The course was implemented in the spring semester (February-May 2023). The level of the English language proficiency required at the beginning of the course was B1. 3 Results Most of the tasks presented in this study were open-ended creative tasks and were mostly done in pairs. 3.1 The Case of the ESP Course “English in Dietetics” 3.1.1 A Dietetic Consultation – Focus on Counselling Skills The first task was role-playing the first dietetic consultation with a new client. This included many pre-tasks. Students were first introduced to the topic of counselling skills in dietetics and the concept of motivational interviewing (MI) through a handout with excerpts from uni- versity textbooks and questions for reflection. After this warm-up, in which they made some guesses about the topic, we watched a series of videos: in the first, an experienced dietitian explained the principles of MI in general and specifically the OARS (Open Questions, Affirmations, Reflective Listening, Summaries) technique, as both represent one of the key counselling methods used in dietetics, and gave some concrete examples of applying this method in practice, includ- ing the specific wording that may be used by dietetic practitioners. Before the listening, the students were presented with the second handout, which contained a few questions on the presented technique, and they were asked to formulate their answers during and after the listening. We discussed their answers as a class before proceeding to another video. 111 Jurša Potocco / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 107–117 The next listening focused on a model dietetic consultation that demonstrated different MI skills described and explained in the previous listening exercise. The consultation involved a first-time client recently diagnosed with Type 2 Diabetes. The listening exercise was done as a video gap-fill, where only parts of the transcription were used, and through the participation of the whole class. Afterwards, students watched another video of a role-play between a die- titian and a diabetic patient, with two vignettes which illustrated how a dietitian-patient inter- action may play out depending on the use or absence of counselling skills. Prior to watching, the students were asked to compare specific aspects of verbal and non-verbal behaviour of both the dietetic practitioner and the patient, and to note down their observations, which were afterwards discussed. Finally, the students were given a handout which guided them to learn how to structure a dietetic consultation, with some examples of what a dietitian would usually say in a particular phase of a dietetic counselling session. After this lengthy preparatory work, the students were asked to plan and role-play their first consultation with a new client in pairs. The client’s presenting problem was decided by each pair, so they had to negotiate shared decision-making as the first step of this task. During the role-play, which was the outcome they were assigned, the pairs were listened to only by the teacher and not their peers, which would also be an option, but would take more time. All the students took turns playing the roles of both the dietitian and the client. In the post-task, students were asked to attempt self-reflection through a class discussion about their role-play experience. However, the session ended without sufficient time for ad- equate reflection. At this point, the students let the teacher know that they found this task very useful and that they would like to do it again. 3.1.2 A Dietetic Consultation – Focus on Clinical Nutrition Based on this feedback, this task was done again, but with a modified starting point and only after we had already covered a review of some common disorders and diseases that affect the functioning of the human digestive system as well as some of the prefixes and suffixes typical of medical terminology. The focus of the second dietitian-patient role-play was on clinical nutrition; students were not asked to imagine they are dealing with a client in a pri- vate consultancy, but rather a patient referred to them due to some serious health issue. The pre-task involved deciphering the type of medical information they could expect to find in a referral letter. In the role of a clinical dietitian, students were provided with the information on the patient that had been referred to them, and each received a different handout with a different diagnosis. The information consisted of both the referral letter and extensive com- mentary on the case (tips on what they should focus on in their consultation) from a textbook titled Clinical Cases in Dietetics. Students had to ensure they understood all the terminology, which we also discussed as a class and wrote down on the whiteboard before they started their role-play. They took notes on the key points to consider, and made a written plan for their consultation. This may have included the questions they needed to ask, or essential pieces of information they needed to relay to their patient. After this time-consuming pre- task, each was assigned a partner to work with. Before assuming the role of the patient, 112 Jurša Potocco / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 107–117 students also had to read the referral letter that described their case. After role-switching, they evaluated their performance in pairs based on some teacher-prepared questions (e.g. Did you closely follow your plan? What did you find difficult? What would you do differently next time?). Because the students already had some knowledge on as well as some experience with how to structure a dietetic consultation, they could perform the task with more confi- dence than the first time. We also allowed for ample time for reflection. Students appreciated a hands-on experience with managing a consultation, which may become a part and parcel of their career-lives, and the fact that this task allowed them to synthesise their hard-won knowledge from various subjects. 3.1.3 A Structured Class Debate on the General Pros and Cons of Plant-Based Diets The structured class debate on a specific topic was a very straightforward task, and revolved around whether plant-based diets could and should be universally applied to everyone, re- gardless of their age and health status. In the pre-task, the students were randomly (irrespec- tive of their personal views) allocated to the pro and contra groups, and asked to brainstorm their ideas together. They were told that they could also browse for some ideas and research evidence using their smartphones. As a group, they had to agree beforehand on the argu- ments and research they would include in their discussion, and on who will say what. The outcome they had to achieve was the performance of two two-minute talks per group, with a five-minute break for reflection and preparation for the second bout in between. A stop- watch was used to ensure that the allocated time was not exceeded. The members of each group were taking notes during the first round of speeches while listening to their opponents to be able to respond to their arguments in the second round. As already mentioned, both groups were provided five minutes to decide on the response to their opponents’ talk. In the end, students were asked to reflect on how the groups performed, and they agreed both groups were equally persuasive. As a post-task, students were asked to write a one-page essay defending their individual position (a stance that they personally identified with as a student of Dietetics and a future allied health professional). They handed in their work and received the teacher’s feedback during the next session. 3.1.4 Job Interview The outcome of the last task presented in this section was the role-play of a job interview in the field of dietetics. The pre-task involved reading a magazine-type article on effective job hunting for registered dietitians and watching a video with sample job interview questions and model answers specific to registered dietitians. The students were also handed a list of twenty questions that could be posed to a dietitian during a job interview and that had been compiled from the mentioned video, and asked to think of ways in which they could effec- tively respond to these questions. As part of the assigned task, they were asked to imagine they were applying for the post of a registered dietitian in a local clinic. The outcome of the task was playing both the role of the human resources manager and that of the job applicant. The students had to select five questions from the twenty-item list that they would pose to their interviewee, and were asked to take notes on the answers they would get during the 113 Jurša Potocco / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 107–117 interview. As for the post-task, they were asked to decide whether they would employ their partner, based on her performance (all of them were female students) in the interview, and to substantiate their answer, so they had to provide some feedback. When reflecting on their performance as a class, students agreed that this task helped them to become more aware of the need to prepare for real-life job interviews, as the types of questions typically encoun- tered in this usually stressful situation may be challenging to respond to effectively without prior deliberation and proper practice. 3.2 The Case of the ESP Course “English in Kinesiology” 3.2.1 An Exercise Break The first task, a short physical activity break, which was used to interrupt long bouts of sit- ting in class and which could generally be used in any school or workplace setting, was im- plemented throughout the course. The outcome consisted of each student presenting a set of exercises to the whole class - besides demonstrating them, they also had to provide clear instructions. As a pre-task, students had to choose or design the exercises at home, but one part of the pre-task was also done collectively in the classroom: through interactive video gap-fills and miscellaneous written-type exercises (matching or rearranging, gap-fill) based on authentic texts from kinesiology textbooks, students familiarised themselves with the genre and discourse of exercise instructions as well as the names of various exercises. However, the task proved too time-consuming, given the total number of enrolled students. Additionally, it was not challenging enough for most, so it should be modified in the future to be more specific in content (e.g. a group of students could be asked to work together on a set of exercises to activate a specific muscle group, or exercises aiming to prevent injuries in a specific sport). The task was too repetitive, as some exercises tended to be recycled by students repeatedly, with only little preparation on their part. In the future, only one or two sessions should be devoted to this task. 3.2.2 Common Workplace Communication Scenarios In this section, we are referring to five distinct tasks. Due to lack of time, each student per- formed only one of them, depending on the group they were allocated to. All the groups were asked to design and plan different types of sports or physical activities for specific groups of clients, and to present these to their colleagues, imagining they are addressing their clients. All the groups were provided with help sheets with a few sample ideas and vocabulary items they could check in case they struggled with either. They were asked to brainstorm their own ideas prior to checking the help sheets. The outcomes were diverse: the first group presented a fifteen-minute workout in an exer- cise class for seniors, and had to explain the reasons behind their choice of the selected ex- ercises. The second group planned an end-of-the-year sports day for third-graders and their parents for a local elementary school; the task also constituted explaining the rules of the games they had prepared and listing the required equipment. The third group had to pres- ent a short physical activity session for pre-schoolers that focused on the development of 114 Jurša Potocco / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 107–117 primary movement patterns; their task involved reflection on how to present physical activity as children’s play, and how to engage children by appealing to their imagination. The fourth group were asked to imagine they were planning group swimming lessons for very young children who were complete beginners (non-swimmers); they had to provide parents with the basic information on the swimming course, which included safety precautions, required equipment, price and the logistics of where and when the course would be implemented. The last group were asked to imagine they were working in a summer day centre for pre-teens and had to prepare an attractive weekly schedule of activities at the centre; these had to include outdoor and indoor activities as well as focus on the development of both gross and fine motor skills. As a post-task, we reviewed what students recognised to be new or less familiar vocabulary items as a whole class, while students were also asked to decide which of the tasks was prob- ably the most difficult one (the answer was “the one on primary movement patterns”). 3.2.3 Furnishing a Fitness Studio The third task concerned the language of using fitness equipment and, again, required some creative shared decision-making. Students first did some brainstorming in pairs to compile a list of essential fitness equipment, checking the help sheet only if needed. Then they made, in pairs, a spatial plan of their own mini fitness studio, which they furnished with only eight pieces of equipment of their choice. Finally, the required outcome was to work in groups of four, where one pair guided the other through their fitness studio, explaining how each piece of equipment should be used, while the second pair took on the role of first-time visi- tors (clients). Pairs then provided feedback to each other and were asked to decide together which of the two fitness studios was equipped better. Overall, some students found this task extremely easy while others struggled. 3.2.4 Pain Assessment The last task to be mentioned here focused on pain assessment. Students worked in pairs. In the pre-task, they reflected on the best possible definition of pain (they had to compare two definitions) and the potential difficulties or complexity of pain assessment (the subjectivity of pain and problems health workers face when assessing children’s pain or the pain of people who are unconscious or have cognitive development problems). They were asked to compare several pain assessment methods that were shortly presented to them on a handout through pictures and only a few words - they had to categorise them into those based on self-report and those based on observation of behaviour, but also had to think of which of them was probably the most accurate one. They had to compose written answers to all the questions in pairs, so this was a co-writing exercise, but their answers were checked in a discussion that involved the whole class. Most of them found this part of the task difficult but also interest- ing. Finally, they were asked to formulate a list of questions that might be posed to a patient or client as part of a comprehensive pain assessment beyond mere pain intensity. They did this in pairs, too, and they also had to role-play a pain assessment dialogue, which they did not find difficult in the least. 115 Jurša Potocco / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 107–117 4 Discussion The first problem that needs to be addressed is that any task may seem too difficult or too easy at the same time, i.e. too easy for some students and too difficult for others, while the teacher is expected to cater to the needs of all students. Some need considerable guidance, while others need additional subtasks because of how quick they are, so the teacher needs to be extremely attentive and responsive. The above-mentioned underlines why TBLT can be used more productively in smaller classes, also because tasks may be very time-consuming. In designing language learning tasks, we should aim for the appropriate level of complexity and difficulty to match learner needs (Cubillo & Brennes, 2009), which remains a constant challenge, given that students are never a homogeneous group. In addition, the lack of exper- tise or professional background in the field may make it difficult for the teacher to identify the suitable types of tasks, and also makes it difficult to provide meaningful feedback to students beyond mere language performance. Overall, it is difficult to design effective tasks that would be cognitively challenging, or mentally taxing, in just the right amount, as we need tasks that are neither daunting nor boring. In our case, the tasks for kinesiology students were more managable in terms of terminology, reflecting the fact that they were first-year students of the first-cycle study programme, while the tasks for second-cycle students of Dietetics could involve the use of more difficult authen- tic texts and more complexity even if they were more structured. All the students of Dietetics were highly motivated, which might be due to the fact that this was an elective course, and they also had more field-specific knowledge they could draw on when performing the tasks. The feedback on the course received from these students, both in person and through the student survey system, was quite positive; the students commented on how the class was conducted in a dynamic way and allowed them to get a comprehensive overview of how the English language is used in this field. The first-cycle course was met with less enthusiasm, which could also be attributed to the fact that the tasks were more general in content and were not as closely related to their future work. Some of our other observations include the fact that students in both courses tended to com- municate in their mother tongue when working in groups or pairs, regardless of their level of proficiency in English. Error correction may also become an issue: sometimes it may seem inappropriate for the teacher to publicly correct a particular student, so error correction may need to take place with some time gap and no reference to individuals, but in more general terms; another practical problem is that the teacher may also forget to correct a student if they do not wish to interrupt them while they are speaking and the teacher is taking notes only mentally and not on paper. We have also already mentioned how time-consuming tasks may be. For example, time is needed for the teacher to check that the students have under- stood the instructions group by group. Given that the teacher does not have a lot of control over vocabulary acquisition in TBLT, they may feel it would be more time-efficient to use oth- er approaches to teaching to boost students’ vocabulary expansion. For reasons of timing, we may be tempted to leave out the non-linguistic outcome of the task or any genuine feedback, and to not exploit tasks to their fullest potential, to the detriment of their meaningfulness. As regards practical implementation, we should also mention potential spatial constraints; for example, most lecture rooms at our faculty do not allow students to face each other, and 116 Jurša Potocco / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 107–117 with small lecture rooms packed with students, students may also get distracted by the noise the other groups or pairs are making. Despite these practical concerns, TBLT seems a sound approach to designing quality uni- versity-level ESP courses, first because it prepares students for their professional lives, and, second, because it does not focus on grammar yet linguistic accuracy is, in general, attended to in the post-task. Designing tasks also appears to be a feasible way to engage and involve our students. This conclusion is in line with the findings by Kavaliauskiené (2005) and Whyte (2013), who both suggest that the methodological principles of TBLT can be fruitfully and widely applied in teaching ESP at the university level. Outside of the context of ESP, research- ers in the field of teaching English as a second language have reported students’ positive attitudes towards TBLT and the latter’s power to engage students’ motivation (Huang, 2015; Hadi, 2012). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first paper to outline some task-based activities designed for and implemented in a university ESP course to support the development of the English language competence in the specific fields of dietetics and kinesiology. The major limitation of this study concerns the employment of teacher’s self-feedback, as this method may be heavily biased due to the subjectivity of the teacher-researcher who is an active par- ticipant in the teaching they wish to investigate. Further research on this topic warrants the use of more rigorous methods, such as semi-structured interview or customised question- naire targeting students’ experience of particular tasks, in combination with teacher-teacher feedback. References Andon, N. (2018). Optimal conditions for TBLT? In V. Samuda, K. Van den Brander & M. Bygat (Eds.), TBLT as a Researched Pedagogy (pp. 131–164). John Benjamins Publishing Company. Cubillo, P. C., & Brenes, C. N. (2009). Using task-based Instruction in an ESP course in the computer center at the University of Costa Rica. Actualidades Investigativas en Educación, 9(1), 1–25. https:// doi.org/10.15517/aie.v9i1.9378 East, M. (2021). Foundational Principles of Task-Based Language Teaching. Routledge. Ellis, R. (2006). The methodology of task-based teaching. The Asian EFL Journal 11(5), 79–101. Hadi, A. (2012). Perceptions of task-based language teaching: a study of Iranian EFL learners. English Language Teaching, 6(1), 103–111. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n1p103 Huang, D. (2015). A study on the application of task-based language teaching method in a compre- hensive English class in China. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 7(1), 118–127. http:// dx.doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0701.13 Iranmehr, A., Erfani, S. M., & Davari, H. (2011). Integrating task-based instruction as an alternative ap- proach in teaching reading comprehension in English for special purposes: an action research. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1(2), 142–148. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.1.2.142-148 Kavaliauskiene, G. (2005). Task-based learning and learning outcomes in the ESP classroom. Studies about Languages, 7, 66–70. Michel, M. (2017). Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency (CAF). In S. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Instructed Second Language Acquisition (pp. 50–68). Routledge. 117 Jurša Potocco / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 107–117 Nunan, D. (1991). Communicative tasks and the language curriculum. TESOL Quarterly, 25(2), 279–295. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587464 Van den Branden, K. (2006). Task-based Language Education: From Theory to Practice. Cambridge Uni- versity Press. Whyte, S. (2013). Teaching ESP: a task-based framework for French graduate courses. Asp, 63, 5–30. https://doi.org/10.4000/asp.3280 Willis, J. (1996). A Framework for Task-based Learning. Longman. Izvleček LSP teaching report – Uporaba dejavnostno naravnanega učenja in poučevanja pri visokošolskem pouku angleščine za kineziologijo in dietetiko Prispevek na kratko predstavi uporabo dejavnostno naravnanega učenja in poučevanja na podro- čju angleščine kot tujega jezika stroke na primeru izvedbe dveh univerzitetnih predmetov, in sicer na drugostopenjskem študijskem programu Dietetika ter prvostopenjskem programu Kineziologija. Predstav ljene so glavne dejavnosti oziroma naloge, ki so jih morali študentje opraviti tekom izvedbe predmeta: študenti dietetike so odigrali dietetično svetovanje, pri čemer so se prvič osredotočili na svetovalne veščine in drugič na vidik klinične prehrane, izvedli strukturirano debato na temo univer- zalne primernosti rastlinske prehrane in odigrali zaposlitveni razgovor za delo na svojem področju. Študenti kineziologije so izvedli kratek gibalni odmor za svoje kolege, opremili in predstavili svoj ima- ginarni fitnes studio, pripravili načrt gibalnih aktivnosti za različne stranke ter ocenjevali pacientovo bolečino. Prispevek vključuje opažanja o učinkovitosti posameznih nalog ter razmislek o izzivih, ki so spremljali njihovo izvedbo. Ključne besede: dejavnostno naravnano učenje in poučevanje, angleščina v kineziologiji, angleščina v dietetiki 118 Darja Mertelj Faculty of Arts University of Ljubljana Danijela Đorović: LÀ DOVE IL ‘SÌ’ SUONA: ITALIJANSKI JEZIK U ISTORIJI UMETNOSTI Filozofski fakultet Univerze u Beogradu, 2022. Sommario La monografia Là dove il ‘sì’ suona: Italijanski jezik u istoriji umetnosti di Danijela Đorović esplora le origini, lo sviluppo e l’importanza del linguaggio artistico nell’ambito della storia dell’arte. Attraverso un’analisi diacronica, l’autrice dimostra come il linguaggio artistico italiano sia emerso nel Rinascimen- to, sia come linguaggio scritto d’élite che come lingua parlata dagli artigiani. La sua evoluzione è stata influenzata da figure chiave che hanno riconosciuto l’autonomia del linguaggio artistico. Nella monografia sono esaminati il vocabolario ovvero la terminologia della storia dell’arte nonché caratteristiche sintattiche e stilistiche di questi generi testuali specialistici, rivelando l’uso di influenze latine, greche e prestiti da altre lingue. La lingua italiana, scritta e parlata dagli storici dell’arte si è evo- luta in un sistema autonomo e complesso, conservando coerenza interna attraverso più secoli fino ad oggi, integrandosi con altre lingue e culture. Tre le peculiarità sintattiche e stilistiche sono analizzate la nominalizzazione, l’aggettivazione e l’uso retorico della ripetizione e delle intensificazioni. La monografia offre una risorsa preziosa per gli esperti di storia dell’arte, esperti linguistici dei linguag- gi per obiettivi specialistici, insegnanti d’italiano e appassionati dell’arte. Dimostra come il linguaggio italiano della storia dell’arte sia vitale e influente, riflettendo l’essenza e la complessità del settore artistico nel corso dei secoli. L’opera contribuisce alla comprensione di questo linguaggio accademico e settoriale, rafforzando la sua importanza tra gli specialisti nell’ambito delle arti e dell’insegnamento. Parole chiave: storia dell’arte, linguaggio specialistico, sviluppo diacronico, terminologia, caratteristi- che sintattiche e stilistiche, generi testuali Book review received: 30.08.2023 Book review revised: 20.09.2023 Book review accepted: 23.09.2023 Book review published: 15.06.2024 Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023) DOI: 10.4312/SM.18.2.118-122 Book Review 119 Mertelj / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 118–122 Abstract Review – Danijela Đorović: Là dove il ‘sì’ suona: Italijanski jezik i istoriji umetnosti The monograph Là dove il ‘sì’ suona: Italijanski jezik u istoriji umetnosti by Danijela Đorović, explores the origins, development, and significance of artistic language within art history. Through a diachronic analysis, the author demonstrates how Italian artistic language emerged during the Renaissance, both as an elite written language and as the spoken language of skilled artisans. Its evolution was influenced by key figures, who acknowledged the autonomy of this artistic language. In the monograph, the author examines the vocabulary and terminology of art history, as well as syntactic and stylistic characteristics of these textual genres, revealing the use of Latin and Greek in- fluences, loans from other languages, and Italianisms. The Italian language used by art historians has evolved into an autonomous and complex system, maintaining internal coherence while integrating with other languages and cultures. Syntactic and stylistic peculiarities include the analysis of nominali- zation, adjectivization, and rhetorical use of repetition and intensification. The monograph offers a valuable resource for art historians, linguistic experts of languages for specific purposes, Italian language instructors, and art enthusiasts. It highlights how Italian lan- guage in art history is vital and influential, reflecting the essence and complexity of the artistic realm over centuries. Undoubtedly, the work contributes to understanding academic and profes- sional language, reinforcing its significance in the realm of disciplinary experts, art historians, and in education. Keywords: art history, specialised language, diachronic development, terminology, syntactic and sty- listic characteristics, textual genres Recensione MOTTO: (…) descriptions of written texts might be related to the community practices and particular social arrangements of those who wrote and read them. (Hyland, 2016) MOTTO: (…) le descrizioni di testi scritti potrebbero essere correlate alle pratiche comunitarie e alle specifiche disposizioni sociali di coloro che li hanno scritti e letti. (Hyland, 2016) La monografia di Danijela Đorović, professore ordinario di italiano presso la Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia di Belgrado, intitolata Là dove il ‘sì’ suona: Italijanski jezik u istoriji umetnosti, rappre- senta un contributo di inestimabile valore per almeno quattro diverse comunità, tra cui tre di natura professionale e/o accademica: a) comunità degli esperti e degli studenti di storia dell’arte italiana, europea e mondiale, i quali acquisiscono conoscenze attraverso la lingua stessa con i suoi termini tecnici e i generi testuali tipici del settore; b) comunità degli insegnanti di italiano, che trovano nella monografia una risorsa fonda- mentale sia per l’insegnamento a fini generali che specialistici; 120 Mertelj / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 118–122 c) comunità degli specialisti dei linguaggi settoriali e accademici interessati ai vari aspetti di ricerca o analisi, terminologia o generi testuali della storia dell’arte; e d) gli appassionati dell’arte italiana e della sua lingua, accomunati dall’interesse per moti- vazioni di natura amatoriale. La monografia, dedicata alle suddette comunità, è composta da 241 pagine ed articolata nei seguenti capitoli: Introduzione, Storia dell’arte e il suo linguaggio, Storia della lingua della sto- ria dell’arte, L’italiano come lingua della storia dell’arte oggi - peculiarità lessicali, Peculiarità sintattiche del linguaggio italiano nella storia dell’arte, e un Capitolo conclusivo, seguito dagli elenchi di riferimenti bibliografici e fonti citate. Dapprima analizza l’origine e lo sviluppo della lingua italiana nell’ambito della storia dell’arte, partendo dai primi trattati fino ai giorni nostri. L’autrice ha studiato ed esaminato esem- pi tratti dai generi specialistici del settore, provenienti da un’ampia bibliografia, non solo italiana ma anche mondiale (il volume contiene 32 pagine di riferimenti bibliografici), e ha analizzato oltre cento fonti primarie appartenenti a diverse epoche, formando così un suo corpus ad hoc. Questo approccio ha permesso all’autrice di descrivere in maniera esaustiva il linguaggio italiano della storia dell’arte da una prospettiva diacronica, illustrandone in modo argomentato le caratteristiche linguistiche settoriali/accademiche e dissipando ogni dubbio sulla sua specificità come lingua tecnica e specialistica accademica (cf. Mila Samardžić, coper- tina della monografia). Per lungo tempo, questa lingua è stata trascurata dagli studiosi: gli storici dell’arte si sono concentrati sul suo significato, mentre filologi e linguisti hanno faticato nel decifrare la sua articolata struttura e il suo specifico lessico (cf. Saša Brajlović, copertina della monografia). Pertanto, la presente monografia si propone di: a) dimostrare le origini e l’importanza del linguaggio dell’arte all’interno della storia dell’arte, rappresentato dall’italiano come lingua specialistica e accademica, in quanto linguaggio artistico è al contempo disciplina scientifico-professionale; b) esaminare il suo sviluppo nel corso dei secoli, non solo all’interno dell’italiano, bensì nella formazione di linguaggi settoriali in altre lingue europee, attraverso la trasmis- sione di conoscenze tecniche e terminologie corrispondenti; c) sottolineare il suo ruolo attuale e continuo, indiscutibile nel contesto della storia dell’arte, sia nella lingua italiana che in quella settoriale e accademica delle arti in altre lingue. Nella prima e nella seconda parte della monografia, l’autrice delinea il concetto di lin- guaggio accademico e settoriale, esaminando l’evoluzione della lingua italiana nel contesto della storia dell’arte, dal XV secolo fino ai giorni odierni. Il linguaggio dell’arte ha iniziato a prendere forma nel primo Rinascimento italiano, seguendo un solido retaggio antico e medievale, sia come linguaggio scritto d’élite (utilizzato nelle accademie) sia come lingua parlata dagli abili artigiani delle rinomate botteghe italiane, dove venivano formati i grandi artisti. Il linguaggio in questione, ora divenuto accademico, conserva, per le sue radici nel settore artigianale, tracce di stratificazioni sociali, culturali ed estetiche che ne hanno plasmato la 121 Mertelj / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 118–122 formazione. Esso si manifesta talvolta in forme elevate, evocative, metaforiche e allusive, e talvolta in modo estremamente chiaro e informativo, simile al linguaggio scientifico utiliz- zato, ad esempio, da Da Vinci. Come dimostra l’autrice, tale linguaggio possiede una logica interna e una sistematicità che emergono dalle opere in lingua italiana famose, scelte come fonti per i brani trattati. Queste opere, tipiche dei generi artistici nel corso dei cinque secoli, includono trattati, biografie, dialoghi, manuali, lettere, opere lessicografiche e lavori scien- tifici della critica d’arte, con le loro terminologie artistiche e le strutture sintattiche tipiche di tali generi. L’autrice procede quindi con un’analisi approfondita dell’evoluzione della lingua italiana, es- aminando sia la sua dimensione diacronica che sincronica. Un aspetto cruciale considerato è l’influenza di figure chiave, come Giorgio Vasari, che, già nel XVI secolo, riconobbe l’au- tonomia del linguaggio artistico rispetto alle varietà letterarie dell’italiano. Questa autonomia è ulteriormente sottolineata attraverso l’analisi dei testi critici d’arte, un genere che adotta un linguaggio da una parte coinvolgente e complesso, spesso simile alla lingua letteraria, e dall’altra preciso dal punto di vista terminologico. La lingua italiana, intrinsecamente legata al contesto accademico e professionale degli storici dell’arte, si caratterizza per la sua resistenza ai cambiamenti strutturali, mantenendo una co- erenza interna che si estende attraverso i cinque secoli fino ai nostri giorni. Nonostante la sua complessità, sia sintattica che stilistica, emergono una logica e una sistematicità che rendono questa lingua particolarmente intrigante. Il linguaggio degli artisti e, in particolare, dei critici d’arte, che include filosofi, architetti, urbanisti e altri, si evolve attraverso opere di rilievo di figure come Alberti, Vasari, Zucchari e molti altri. La terza parte della monografia si focalizza sulle dimensioni lessico-terminologiche del lin- guaggio degli storici dell’arte e degli specialisti correlati. L’analisi copre la formazione e la composizione dei termini, partendo dalla teoria della terminologia specifica e sottolineando l’influenza degli elementi latini e greci, nonché dei prestiti da altre lingue e degli italianismi, i termini tecnici diffusi anche in altre parti d’Europa, nelle culture che abbracciavano e svilup- pavano l’arte italiana. L’approfondimento condotto dall’autrice rivela come gli scrittori italiani e i critici d’arte abbiano creato un vocabolario distintivo e tipico di tali generi testuali nel corso dei secoli, facendo largo uso di influenze dal greco, latino e francese nella formazione termi- nologica, ed oggi anche dall’inglese. La quarta parte della monografia esplora le peculiarità sintattiche e stilistiche, offrendo un’analisi dettagliata dell’uso dei sostantivi e dei verbi, nonché delle ripetizioni retoriche, delle antitesi e delle intensificazioni. Queste particolarità sintattiche includono ad es. la nom- inalizzazione e l’aggettivazione dei sostantivi. Tali caratteristiche emergono come elementi distintivi del linguaggio degli storici dell’arte italiani, che si esprime attraverso costrutti lingu- istici e strutture retoriche specifiche di questo settore microlinguistico. Strumenti sintattici e stilistici come la ripetizione e l’intensificazione, presenti non solo nel linguaggio dell’arte ma anche nei tratti fondamentali del linguaggio in generale, contribuiscono alla complessità e alla ricchezza dell’ambito umanistico, che sottende e co-crea gli stessi ambiti dell’umanistica, e non solo della storia dell’arte. 122 Mertelj / Scripta Manent XVIII/2 (2023), 118–122 Pensieri conclusivi Con la monografia l’autrice offre un’analisi completa dell’evoluzione della lingua artistica ital- iana, dimostrando come essa sia diventata nel tempo un sistema linguistico autonomo e complesso, da specialisti. Sempre mantenendo una coerenza interna attraverso secoli, ques- to italiano specialistico riflette l’interazione con altre lingue e sfere culturali in cui ha lasciato numerose tracce terminologiche e stilistiche. La sua ricchezza lessicale e sintattica, insieme all’uso creativo di strumenti stilistici, ne sottolineano la vitalità e l’importanza all’interno del contesto della storia dell’arte, nel passato ed oggi. Inoltre, la monografia rappresenta un’im- portante risorsa per studiosi linguisti, storici dell’arte, studenti universitari e appassionati dell’arte italiana, and last but not least: per coloro che sono interessati all’insegnamento di questa lingua settoriale o accademica. Izvleček Danijela Đorović: Là dove il ‘sì’ suona: Italijanski jezik u istoriji umetnosti Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Beogradu, 2022. V svoji monografiji Là dove il ‘sì’ suona: Italijanski jezik u istoriji umetnosti Danijela Đorović raziskuje iz- vor, razvoj in pomen strokovnega jezika na področju zgodovine umetnosti. Z diahrono analizo pokaže, kako se je strokovni umetniški italijanski jezik pojavil v času renesanse, in sicer kot elitni pisni jezik in kot govorjeni jezik številnih priznanih umetnikov. Na njegov razvoj in uveljavitev so vplivale ključne osebnosti, ki so priznavale avtonomijo tega strokovnega jezika. Avtorica v monografiji preučuje besedišče in terminologijo umetnostne zgodovine ter skladenjske in slogovne značilnosti besedilnih zvrsti tega strokovnega področja, pri čemer razkriva uporabo latinskih in grških vplivov, izposojenk iz drugih jezikov in italijanizmov. Italijanski jezik, ki ga uporabljajo umetno- stni zgodovinarji, se je razvil v samostojen in kompleksen sistem, ki ohranja notranjo koherentnost in se hkrati povezuje z drugimi jeziki in kulturami. Analiza skladenjskih in slogovnih posebnosti vključuje pojave nominalizacije, adjektivizacije ter retorične rabe ponavljanja in intenzifikacije. Monografija je dragocen vir za umetnostne zgodovinarje, jezikoslovne strokovnjake za področje itali- janskega strokovnega jezika, učitelje italijanščine in ljubitelje umetnosti. Poudarja, kako je italijanski je- zik v umetnostni zgodovini ključen in vpliven, saj odraža bistvo in kompleksnost umetniškega področja skozi stoletja. Delo nedvomno prispeva k razumevanju akademskega in strokovnega jezika ter krepi njegov pomen pri delu umetnostnih zgodovinarjev kot disciplinarnih strokovnjakov, ter na področju izobraževanja. Ključne besede: umetnostna zgodovina, strokovni jezik, diahroni razvoj, terminologija, skladenjske in slogovne značilnosti, besedilne zvrsti