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NIEBUHR'S TRAVELS
THROUGH
ARABIA,
AND OTHER
COUNTRIES IN THE EAST.
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TRAVELS
THROUGH
ARABIA,
AND OTHER
COUNTRIES IN THE EAST,
PERFORMED BY
M. NIEBUHR,
NOW A CAPTAIN OF ENGINEERS IN THE SERVICE OF-THE KING OF DENMARK.
TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH
B Y
ROBERT HERON.
WITH NOTES BY THE TRANSLATOR;
illustrated iv it ii engravings and maps,,
f IL
I IS* C E .
IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. I.
EDINBURGH:
flUN'TED FOR R. MORISON AND SON, BOOKSELLERS, PERTH, G. MVDIE, EDINBURGH ; AND T. VEKSOK, BIKCHIN LAM'., tONPON*
""l792T
PREFACE
BY THE
TRANSLATOR.
I remember to have read, with no final 1 furprize, of a rhyming Latin poem of con-iiderable length, written by fome Monkifh compofer of Leonine verfes, in honour of the Virgin Mary, which was made wholly np by the changes rung upon the words of this fingle line,
Tot t'ibi funt^ virgo, doles, quotfidcra calo.
My wonder was never more highly excited than when, in learning the rules of arithmetic, 1 found what a variety of changes might be rung upon a few bells; and for how many years, a company of ten or twelve perfons might dine together, if they mould not feparate, till they could no longer make a new change of places.
Similar emotions are naturally raifed in the. mind, when one confiders, how uni-
Vol. I. A form
form are the circumftances of human life, how much alike the organs of our bodies, and the faculties of our minds ; yet, how innumerable the diverfities of the human character ; how few the firft general elements of nature ; yet, how endlefsly varied the forms which this univerfe exhibits! He who fpends his life without wandering ever more than a few miles from the fpot of his nativity, or without mingling with any other but the firft circle, whether of courtiers, of cits, or of ruftics, into whofe fociety he has been introduced, can know little of the dignity, of the meannefs, of the capacities of his nature,—and but little of the beauties and the wonders of this great theatre of human exertions.
It is pleafing, indeed, to review the records of our anceftors. The exercife moves our affections to a generous warmth, and enlightens our perlbnal experience. But, the new knowledge to be thus acquired, is not confiderable. Children are but the images of their parents ; and the fame meadow will wear the fame afpect, next Spring, which it fhewed on the laft.   To enlarge,
in
in any confidcrablc degree, the extent of our knowledge, we mull change the fcene: and we (hall then fee, how the manners and enjoyments of man vary with external circumftances ; and how happily the general laws of nature, notwithstanding their fimplicity, apply to an infinite multitude of the minuted and mofl particular cafes.
Hence is travelling fo agreeable; and hence arc the narratives of intelligent travellers fo rich a fund of entertainment and mftrudUon.   To wander from city to city, from hill to vale, and from vale to hill; to fee one new extent of horizon open upon the eye after another, and landfcape after landfcape, difplay fublimity and beauty in all their varying forms,—affords perhaps the moft delightful, at leaft the moll improving amufement of which the human mind is fufceptiblc.   To fee thefe things through the eyes of another, is indeed much lefs interefting, than when we can view them ourfelves.   Yet, as a traveller cannot well help throwing into his work more of the vivid imagery and colouring of nature, than almoit any different wri-A 2 ter;—
ters ;—even in perilling the narrative of another's travels, therefore, one may enjoy no fmall lhare of that plcafure, and reap a considerable portion of the inllruction, which an actual furvey of the fame fcenes might afford.
Who, that has been taught to relifh at all the pleafures of reading, can refrain from enquiring after almofl every new book of travels, the publication of which is announced ? Hardly a fine lady can flray to France or Italy, after her beauty has withered with her virtue, and her wit has ccafed to be fafhionable j Scarce can one of thofe travelling governors by trade, to whofe care the finifhing of the education of our young men of fortune, is fo wifely intrufted,—vifit a new fet of inns, or ride another relay of pod horfes, on the continent ; Not a half-pay captain attends as toad-eater on fome valetudinary man of fortune, going abroad for his health: But Tours, and Travels, and Journies, and Letters, are the certain fruits of every fuch expedition, and are as certainly bellowed, with wonderful generality, on the public.
All
All is called for, and eagerly read: And, to fay the truth, almoft sett thofe works, however little might be expected from them, when every circumftance is confidcred,— afford more or lei's, to repay, in a reafon-able way, the expence of the buyer, and the pains of the reader.   Bur, when a man of found fenfe, of real energy and activity of mind, acquainted with letters, and not unacquainted with life,—when fuch a man, travelling,  notes down his obfervations, and communicates them to the public ; he confers a favour, fuch as authors have it feldom in their power to give.   This favour will be fo much the greater, if his obfervations have been made with an eye of keen enquiry ; and if he has vifited regions where all is peculiar, and but little known.
Having thefe confiderations in my mind, 1 mould offer the following Travels to Bri-tifli readers with no fmall pride and confe* deuce, if I were fure of haying arrayed them in a handfome and becoming Eflglifh drefs. Mr Niebuhr was the fole fufvivof of a party of five Daniih travellers, who, b. -
ino-
ing felectcd as men eminently qualified to accompli fh the feveraj purpofes of fuch an expedition, were fent into the Eafl at the expence of the King of Denmark, to explore the various curioiities of Egypt, but efpe-cially of Arabia.   They proceeded firft to E-gypt.  After making an excurfion to Mount Sinai, and preparing themfelves, by the fludy of the Arabic language, for the farther proiecution of their journey, they failed from Suez, down the Red Sea, to Jidda. Having landed at Jidda, they continued their journey fouthward to Mokha ; not without occafional excurfions to the N. E. into the interior parts of the country. From Mokha, they travelled nearly in a fouth-eaft-ern direction to Sana, the feat of the great-eft prince in Arabia.   By the time they had accomplished this laft journey, and returned to Mokha, two of the party were dead; and, by the pernicious influence of the climate, by the unfavourablenefs of the oriental mode of living to European confti-tutions,  by their inability to relinquilh European habits, and by the fatigue necef-farily attending their inveftigations, the
health
health of the furvivors was fo much impaired, that they were obliged to refolve upon leaving Arabia with the firft Englifh ihip that failed for Bombay.   Mr Niebuhr and another of his companions lived to reach India.   This other, after languilhing for a. while, at laft died at Bombay. - After this event, Niebuhr remained in the Eaft only till he could find a fit opportunity of returning fafe into Europe, with the collection of curiofities which was left in his hands.
Such is the outline of thefe Travels. They afford the latcil, and indeed almoft the only topographical account of Arabia, in the hands of the European public.   Being the refults of the observation, not of one man only, but of a party of travellers, and thofe all well qualified to direct their attention in a proper line of enquiry; they contain fuch a body of truly valuable information as is to be met with in very few other volumes of travels.   Relating to a country famous from the earlieft ages of antiquity ; they are thus rendered peculiarly interefting by the nature of their fubject.   They throw much
new
new light on die hiftorical events, the laws, the worlhip, and the cuftoms recorded in the Old Teftament. And I mult, upon the whole, confefs, that I have never before had it in my power to abufe fb good an occaiion q| receiving real mental improvement with rational amufement,as that which the Iran dating of this work has afforded me.
It would be unfair to neglect advertising the reader, that the whole of Mr Niebuhr's account of his travels, and obfervations in Arabia, is not comprized in thefe volumes. Various things feemed to be addreffed fo cxclufiv.ly to men of erudition, that they could not be expected to win the attention of the public in general, and have therefore been left out.
As to the tranflation ; I cannot indeed fay much for it. I entered upon the talk with a resolution to perforin it carefully, and, as it could not be fuppofed very arduous, I might perhaps fecretly flatter myfelf, ably. I was kindly encouraged by fome eminent literary characters, to whole benevolent notice I have been often much in-'   debted.   But, after I had made confiderablc
progrefs
progrefs in the work ; I put what I had performed into the hands of one gentleman, for whofe learning, tafte, and judgment, ] muft ever entertain high deference ; and he, with the molt candid and obliging cri-ticifm, pointed out feveral blunders, as well of the tranflator as of the printer, which 1 was furprized to perceive, and cannot yet think of, without fhame.   Thefe I have endeavoured, as far as circumftances would permit, to revife and correct; and I renewed my diligence to guard againft all fiich mif-takes in what then remained to be printed.-
I have added fome notes : I wifh, they were valuable.
R. HERON
Edinbubch *) Aug. I. 1792. J
Contents. 1
CONTENTS.
SECTION I. Voyage from Copenhagen to Alexandria.
Page.
Chip. I.—Departure from Copenhagen, - 9
Chap; II.—Piifl*\ge fvom Marfeilles to Malta, and
from Malta to Conftantinople,       - 13 Chap. III.—Conftantinople, - - 18
Chap. IV.—Voyage from Conftantinople to Alexandria, 24
SECTION II.
Of Egypt in general.
Chap. I.—Of the City of Alexandria, - 32
Chap. 11.—Voyage from Alexandria to Rofetta, 4° Chap. 111.—Voyage from Rofetta to Cairo, - 42 Chap. IV.—Voyage from Cairo to Damietta, 4; Chap. V.—Of the ancient Cities of Lower Egypt, 51 Chap. VI.—Of the City of Cairo, -       - 55
Chap- VII.—Of the country immediately around
Cairo, - - - 63
Chap. VIII.—Of the Mikkias or Nilometer, and of
the rifing of the Nile, 66 b 2 SEC
SECTION III.
Of the Government, Arts, and Trade of Egypt.
rage
Chap. i.—Of the Nature of the Egyptian Govern-
ment, 73 Chap. II.—Of the Grand Signiors Officers, - 75 Chap. III.—Of the Divan, and the Bey, - 77 Chap. IV.—Of the Police of the Cities, - 83 Chap. V.—Of the Egyptian Agriculture, - 86 Chap. VI.—Of the Arts of Sublimating Sal Ammoniac, and of hatching Chickens, - 90 Chap. VII.—Of the trade of Egypt,          - 94
SECTION IV.
Of the Manners of the Orientals in general, and particularly of the Egyptians.
Chap I.—Of  the  Inhabitants  of Cairo and its
Neighbourhood, - -      - ici
Chap. U.—Of the Copts,        - - 103
Chap. IK.—Of the Arabians in Egypt, - 107
Chap. IV.—Of the Drefs of the Men in the Eaft, 111
Chip. V.—Of the Drefs of the Women,       - 116
Chap. VL—Of the Diverfions of the Orientals, 121
Chan. VII.—Games in the Eaft      - - 128
Chap. VIII.-~Of the Mufic of the Eaft, - 130
Chap. IX.—Of Dancing, as it h prattifed in the
Eaft, - - - " 137
Chap-
CONTENTS.
XV11
Page
Chap. X.—Public Shews of the Eaft, - 143
Chap. XI—Marriages of the Egyptians, - 147
SECTION V. Egyptian Antiquities.
Chap. I.—Egyptian Antiquities in general, - T4<> Chap. II— Of the Pyramids, - - 153
Chap. III.—Of the Hieroglyphics,        -        - 156
SECTION VI. Journey from Cairo to Suez and Mount Sinai.
Chap. I.—Preparations for our Departure, - lf>5 Chap. II—Voyage from Cairo to Suez, - *7» Chap. III.—Of the City of Suez, -       - 175
Chap. IV.—Particulars concerning the Arabs in
the Neighbourhood of Suez, - 178 Chap. V.—Journey from Suez to Mount Sinai, 182 Chap. VI.—Of Mount Sinai, and the Convent of
St Catharine, - - - 191
Chap. VII.—Our Return from Mount Sinai, 196 Chap. VIII.—Of the Mountain of Infcriptions, and
of an Egyptian Burying Place,        - 200 Chap. IX.—Of fome Cuiloms of the Arabs in the
Defart, - - - 207
SECTION VII. Voyage from Suez to Jidda and Loheia.
Chap. I.—Departure from Suez, -       - 212
Chap.
Page
Chap. II.—Of the Harbour of Tor, - 216
Chap. III.—Voyage from Tor to Jidda, - 2 18
Chap. IV.—Of Jidda and its Vicinity, - 226
Chap, V.—The Government and Trade of Jidda, 234
Chap. VI.—Voyage from Jidda to Loheia,      - 239
SECTION VIII.
Route from Loheia to Beit el Fakih.
Chap. I.—Of our flay at Lohi i.i,         - - 246
Chap. II.—Of the City of Loheia,         - 252
Chap. IH.—Of the Inhabitants of Loheia, - 256
Chap. IV.—Departure from Loheia, - 262
Chap. V.—Route by Tehama,         - - 265
Chap. VL—Of the City of Beit el Fakih, - 269
SECTION IX.
Excurfions through  the Country about Belt el Fakih.
Chap. I.—Journey to Ghalcfka, -        - 27$
Chap. II.—Return to Beit el Fakih, by the way of
Ilodeida, - 279
Chap. III.—Journey to Zebid, -        - 281
Chap. IV.—Journey to Kahhme, - 287
Chap. V.—Journey to Coffee Mountains      - 289
SECTION X.
journey through the Mountaneous Part of Yemen.
Cfcap. I.—Departure from Beit el Fakih,       - 294
Chap.
CONTENTS. V'X
Page
Chap. II.—Route by Udden,        - - 29l
Chap. III.—From Uclden to Dfjobla, - 3o1
Chap. IV— Route from Dfjobla, by Tses, to Hxs, 304 Chap. V—Return to Beit el Fakih, - 3°9
SECTION XI. Journey from Beit el Fakih to Mokha.
Chap. I.—Route to Mokha, - - 313
Chap. IT.—Arrival at Mokha, - - 316
Chap. III.—Difagreeabie Incidents at Mokha, 319 Chap. IV—Our Stay at Mokhn, continued; and
the Death of Mr Von Haven,        - 324 Chan. V-—We leave Mokha, - - 327
SECTION XII.
Journey from Mokha to Taocs.
Chap. I.—Our Progrefs to Taocs,           - 331
Chap. II.—Of the City of Taoes,      - - 335 Chap. III.—I
..ate Revolution of Taoes, - 338
Chap. IV.—Stay at Taoes,          -          - 342
Chap. V.—Departure from Taoci to Sana, - 346
SECTION XIII. Journey to Sana.
Chap. I.—Route from Taoes to Jerim, _ 350
Chap. 11 —Of the City of Jerim, -       . ^
Chap. III.—Death of Mr. Forik.d, - 35p,
Chap. IV.—Route from Jerim to Sana,        - 360
SEC-
SECTION XIV. Our Stay at Sana, in the Iman's Court.
Page-Chap. I.—Our Arrival at Sana, - -Chap. II—Our Audience of the Iman, - 398 Chap. III.—Vifit to Vizier Fakih Achmed, 401 Chap. IV.—Of the City of Sana, - - 403 Chap. V.—Of the Country around Sana, - 407 Chap. VI.— The Pomp of the Iman's Return from
the Mofque, - - - 410
Chap. VII.—Our Audience of taking leave, 412 Chap. VIII.—Our Departure from Sana,      - 415
SECTION XV.
Our Return from Sana to Mokha.
Chap- I.—Route from Sana to Beit el Fakih, 419 Chap. II.—Route from Beit el Fakih to Mokha, 424 Chap. III.—Of the City of Mokha, - 426
Chap. IV.—Bombardment   of   Mokha,   by the
French, -       -       - 431
Chap. V.—Of the Trade of Mokha        - 434
Notes,      ----- 439
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and
TRAVEL S '
IN  that   country, bV.
SECTION I.
voyage from copenhagen to alexandria.
Chap. j.
Departure from Copenhagen.
w hen the gentlemen, who had been appointed to go upon this expedition of observation and dii-covery, were all met, wc received orders from his Majeily to proceed on hoard a fliip of war, commanded by Mr Fifchcr, at prefent a vice-admiral in the Danifh fervicc, who was to carry us to Smyrna. Wc accordingly embarked, on the 4th of January 1761 ; and, alter waiting three days for a fair wind, failed out of the road of Copenhagen on the 7th of the fame month. Vol. I. A In
10
NIEBL'UR*S TRAVELS
In the beginning of our voyage, we had a finking proof of the dangers and hardships which attend the navigation of the north feas, in confequence of the well winds blowing over them for nine months in the year. We had fet fail on the 7th of January, but were fo tolled by ftorms and contrary winds, that, 011 the J^th^ in defpair of being able to gain any port in Norway, we determined to return to Eliineur.
On the 26th of January, we failed from Ellineur a fecond time, with a fair wind, which continued to the end of the month. We palled the Categat) and advanced a good way through the North fea : But, in the beginning of February, the weather became again ftormy, and the wind contrary. After being tolled for feveral days fuccclTively, and feeing no profpect of a change, we, on the 9th, refolved to return to Ellineur a fecond time, and reached it on the 10th. The wind blew with fuch violence, as to carry us, in thirty hours, as far backwards as we had been able to advance forwards in nine days.
While our fhip was thus difagreeably tofTed, without making way, we were all extremely fea-fick; and efpecially Mr Von Haven, who, finding himfelf unable to bear it any longer, obtained permilTion to go by land from Copeima-gen to Marfeilles, at which port our fhip* was to touch.
On
On the 19th of February, we failed out of the road of Eliineur a third time, in hopes of finding the winds lefs variable. But hardly had we parted the Skage?it when a violent weft wind forced us back to Elfineur. We were now very uneafy, confidering, that we had been tolled upon thofe feas for the fpace of 850 German najles*, without advancing more than four miles towards the end of our voyage. Bufc wc had :cafon to be happy at finding ourfelves fafe at Elftaeur: Immedi ately after our arrival there, fo furious a ftorm urofe, that, although in fome degree flieltered by the coaft, we were obliged to take every pof-fible precaution for the fafety of our fhip, juit as if we had been in the open fea. This ftorm a-rofe from the weft, and continued till the 5th of March. 1
The weather became gradually fair and fc-rene ; and, on the 10th of March, we left Elfineur for the laft time. The wind was at firft io brilk, that we failed at the rate of two German leagues and a half in the hour. On the 12th it changed; and from the 19th to the end of March, ftorms and contrary winds drove us as far north as to the latitude-of 63Q, near the coaft of Iceland. On this occaiion I remarked, that the motion of a veflel is molt dilagreeabte immediately after a ftorm.   In the height of a
ft 2 ftorm,
* Or 3,833,; EoglUb miles.
ftorm, the winds incline the fhip to one fide, and keep it firm ; but, when they are calmed, the fhip naturally feels the impulfe of the waves.
In thefe latitudes, Mr Forfkall made fome obfervations upon the phofphoric light which the fea has been remarked to exhibit. He per-, cieved it to be produced by fmall marine in-Iccts, chiefly of the Medufa (pedes, with which thofe waters are filled. Thefe infects long retain the power of mining in the dark. Happening to pour out by night a bucket of fea water, upon which thefe obfervations were made, we faw all the objects which it touched, fparkle inftantly, like itfelf (a).
Spring began to come in, at the end of March, and in the beginning of April we had the fineft weather in the world. But the dead calm which fucceeded fuch a feries of florms, detained us in thofe northern regions till the 8th of April. A fair wind then arofe, and carried us fo brilkly for-v. .uJ, that, on the 21ft of the month, we am, ved within fight of Cape St Vincent, which we viewed with no fmall pleafure, as we had now been long out of the fight of land.
After being tolled in the North fea through a llormy winter, we entered the Mediterranean in the finefl; feafon of the year. Inftcad of the wild and bleak mountains 0; the North, which could
infpire
inipire none but gloomy ideas, we now viewed, with admiration and delight, the rich and fmil-iug landscapes on the coafts of Africa, and on the louthern mores of Europe. Our voyage through the Mediterranean would have been quite delightful, if the frequent calms had not rendered us impatient, and difgulled us no lefs than the ftorms of the North had wearied and diilrcned us.
At laft, after having often tacked about, we arrived, on the 14th of May, in the road of Marfeilles, and call anchor near St Euftace,
Chap. II.
Pqjpige from Marfeilles to Malta, and from Malta to Con* Jlaiitinopk*
T,
ie city of Marfeilles is fo well known, and has been fo often defcribed, that it is unnecef fary to fpeak of the beauties of its fituation, or of the multitude of villas all around it (b).
We found the harbour full of ihips belonging to different nations, that durft not venture out to fea for fear of the Englilh fleet, under Admiral Saunders. Several of them were employed in the Levant trade, on account of French merchants, and would have been good prizes to the Entrlifh.
Mr
14
NlEBUMil's TRAVELS
Mr Von Haven having travelled through Germany and France, joined us here. Here alio we found three Danifh merchant mips, which were to proceed to Smyrna, under the protection of our fhip of war.
After viewing all the curiofities of Marfeilles, we fet fail on the 3d of June, in company with the other three Danifh fhips. Although at peace with the Englifh, yet we did not think ourfelvcs fafe from being infulted by the fleets of that nation \ as they infill upon going on board, and examining even neutral veffels. Our Captain had de-t.Tmined not to yield to fuch an infraction of the rights of nations ; and accordingly prepared for making a vigorous defence, if any infult of this nature fhould be offered him. As we had expected, we fell in with Fnglifh fhips three different times; and they attempted to come on board of us : But our Captain ftrenuoufly refilling to fubmit to any fuch indignity, they made off with a bad grace, and fuffered us to continue our route unmolefted.
On the 14th of June, we arrived at Malta, and eaft anchor in the grand harbour, almoft in the middle of the city Valetta, or rather of the feveral cities of which it is compofed. This city has a fine appearance, when viewed from the habour: The houfes, with terraces on their
roofy,
IN arab i a> Uc%
roofs, and built againft fteep, pointed rocks, have quite an oriental aipecf.
All the dwelling houfes, as well as the public; buildings, are of hewn ftone ; which is not fur-priilng, coriidenng how eafily the materials, are procured. The whole ifle is one vaft rock, covered with a very thin layer of vegetable earth. The rock is calcareous, and fo fott, that, when taken out of the quarry, it may be cut almotl like weed. From tbiscirciunftance, apart of the fortifications of the city have been hewu out in the natural (lone.
Of the public buildings, the mod fuperb is St John's church, which enjoys a coniiderable revenue, and »s entitled to a lhare of the prizes taken by the gallies of the Order. It has thus been enriched with a great number of valuable curioiitiep, and, among others, a luftre, with a chain oi pure gold, 500,000 crc-wns in value*. The riches of this church are faid to exceed thofe of the Kaaba at Mecca, and of the tomb oT Mahomet at Medina.
We were fhewn a Tuiktfh fhip of war, of 84 guns, which had been kized and brought into-Malta by Chviftian flaves. The king of France foon after bought this fhip, and reftored it to the Grand Signior. The Order agreed the wore readily to this, becaofe, fince the conventions
* Qr G2,s«o k Sterling,
vcntions entered into by the kings of France and Naples with the Porte, the Maitefe Ihips have feldom gone out on expeditions a-gainft the Turks. But privateers Hill go out, and bring in their prizes to Malta. Thefe Cbri-ftian corfahs are commonly provided with letters of marque from the prince of Monaco, or fome other Italian prince, of whofe exiiiencc the Turks are ignorant. And the inhabitants of the Eaft hence continue to regard Malta in the fame light in which we coniider Tripoli and Algiers.
Mr Forfkall and I went together to view the ill and. It is only five German leagues in length*, and two and a half in breadthf. The inhabitants live under a mild government; and accordingly cultivate this bare rock with fuch care, that it produces excellent fruits. The old capital, Civita Vccchia, is every day more and more deferted.
Near the city are fome very remarkable catacombs, or rather fubterraneousdwellings,eut in the rock. They are foextenlive, that it lias been found proper to build up the entrances into feverai of the paflages, to prevent the curious from loling themfelves. The remains of public halls, and of a miln, which 'are there, obferveable, afford reafon for thinking, that the iihmdcrs once lived in thefe fubterraneous dwellings, or at leaf! retired into them in times of danger (c).
We
* Or i6| Engllih miles.—t     English mUcsu
We left Malta on the 20th of June, and faw no land till the 26th, when we entered the Archipelago. On the third of July, we entered the road of Smyrna, where we ftaid till the 10th. A very fevere dyfentery, with which I had been attacked, hindered me from feeing the city, other-wife than at a diftance.
On the 13th, we reached the ifle of Tenedos, where we found the interpreter of Mr Ccehler, at that time our ambaflador at the Porte. He brought us orders to quit the fhip, and repair in a fmall bark to Constantinople.   In this ifle we faw Turks for the firft time; and their language and manners appeared to us fo extraordinary, that we began to defpair of eafe or plea-fure in our intercourfe with the people of the Eaft.   A man of diftinction from the continent, however, fo far forgot the precepts of the Alcoran, when he vifited us, that he feemed to have come on board for no other purpofe than to drink our Captain's wine.
We left the fhip on the 19th of July, but did not land at Conftantinople till the 30th. We went immediately to Per a, where we were received by Mr Gcehler, and all lodged in his houfe ; a piece of kind attention which contributed greatly to my recovery.
Vol. I
[I
NIEBUHR's TRAVtl s
Chap. III.
Conjlantinoplc. '
As we were in hafte to reach Egypt, we fet out from Constantinople immediately after my recovery. I did not, therefore, fee the capital of the Ottoman empire at this time: But, on my return from Arabia, I (laid longer in that city ; and I fhall fet down here a few obfervations which 1 then made, efpecially as they fcem to have been overlooked by moil other travellers.
Constantinople is undeniably a city of very considerable extent : Yet Kara-Agadfch, Gala, ta, Peru, Dolna-Bagdfche, &-c. are not to be coniidered as fo many fuburbs: They are dif-tincl cities, divided by the Gulf from the capital. Ejub is the only fuburb belonging to it. And if we take in only the city of Constant U nople, and this fuburb, it is confidcrably inferior in extent to either London or Paris. I duiit not meafure it geometrically : but, counting my Heps as I walked round it, 1 round its circumference to be 2600 paces.
Conftantinople appears larger than it really is: for, as the houfes rife upon the fides of hills, they prefent themfelves in the form of an am-
phitheatre^
phitheatrc, and thus appear to fprcad over a wide extent of ground. Towards the fea, however, the city conftfts of new houfes, and is receiving continual additions. Of late, they have even encroached upon the harbour and filled up fome part of it, in order to gain ground for new buildings.
It would be hard to fix the number of the inhabitants : It is always ftated too high, from a miilake incident to travellers, in efliinating the population of the cities of the Eaft. They regard thofe cities as equally populous, in proportion to their extent, with thofe of Europe. But the houfes in the Eaft are low, Perfons in eafy circumftances, chufe to have a large area behind their houfes. The palaces of the great, with theirgardens and feraglios, occupy much ground.
It is not lefs a miftake to judge of the population of thofe cities, by the numbers of people who are conftantly hufy in the ftreets. The jealoufy of the people of the Eaft renders them unwilling to receive perfons with whom they have bufinefs, in their houfes. On this account, the artifans work without doors, and fpend the whole day in open places. The ftreets are full of joiners, ironmongers, goldfmiths, jewellers, &cc. bufy in the exercife of their level al trades, Thoufands of workmen come in the mornim>s, work all the day in the ftreets of Conftantinoplc^ c ^ and
unci return in the evening to their houfes in the country. If the fame modes of life prevailed in Europe, and the greater number of the artifkns and workmen about our great cities lived in the country, thefe would then appear much more populous than at prefent.
Whatever be its population, Conftantinoplc exhibits a delightful profpect. Its harbour, one of the lineft in the world, is always full of vef-fcls. The medley of fuperb mofques and pala, ces, gardens and trees of all forts, which the cL ty difplays, appears remarkably finking to a Stranger. But within, the arrangement and appearance of the city, correfpond not to its fpleu-dour w7hen feen from a diftance. The ftreets are almoft all narrow, dirty, and irregular \ the houfes are of wood, flight, and ill built, and appear more like coops for birds than dwellings for men. Of the palaces built of itonc, nothing js to be feen but the high walls that furround them. In this city, it is equally dangerous to live in flone and in wooden houfes. In the former, one is liable to be buried in ruins, by earthquakes; in the latter, to be burnt, by the breaking out of a fire:—Thefe two Species of awful c vents being equally frequent at Conftantinoplc.
The feraglio of the Grand Signior is a vaft, but very irregular edifice. I was not permitted to approach farther into it than the outer court. But, what 1 faw was enough to give me a very
higtl
IN ABAB1A, l£t\
11
high idea of the reft. I could learn nothing concerning this gate (porta) of the fcraglio, that might ferve to account for the origin of the very improper denomination of Ottoman Porte, which is applied in Europe to the Court of the Grand Signior. Kapu in the Turkifh language, lignifies both a gate and a palace. But, when they fpeak of going to the Porte at Constantinople, the palace ol" the Grand Vifir is always meant, where all biifinefs is tranfactcd, as well what regards the internal regulation of the empire, as the negociations with foreign mini-, iters.
The city is plentifully fupplicd with water, from three Beuts or refervoirs, fituated at the dif-tance of three German leagues. A Beat is a re-fervoir in a valley, into which water is conducted from the higher grounds circumjacent, and there confined by a ftrong wall. The water col -lected in this manner is conveyed into the town by aqueducts, which have been constructed at a vaft expence, in confequence of the ground being fo unequaL It is not to the Greek emperors that the Turks owe thefe noble works. One of them was raifed by Sultan Mahmoud; and another upon the north fide, with the branches communicating with it, was but lately constructed by Sultan Muftapha, who was on the throne when 1 W8B at Conftantinoplc   As this
water
water cannot be equally diflributcd through the whole city,, on account of the inequality of the ground, water-houfes are eitablilhcd in proper places, from which it is ferved out to every per-lon gratis. Oppolite to the outer gate of the ieraglio, is a houfe fplendidly decorated, where perfons paid by the public, prefent water to the paiTengers, in vefiels of gilt copper.
This capital of a great empire is almoft de-ftitnte of means of defence. A double wall, and a ditch nearly filled up, are all its fortifications. The Turks truft for the fecurity of the city to four caftlcs, built upon the two channels which terminate in the fea of Marmora, and communicating one of them with the Archipelago, and the other with the Black Sea. Thofe catties, known by the name of the Dardanelles, are but of little moment. But the channels are fo narrow and crooked, that a fleet which were to attempt to fail up cither, even with the moll favourable wind, could hardly efcape being funk by the difciiarge of the batteries. The belt mode of attacking Constantinople by fea, would be to block up the mouth of the channels, and thus deprive the city of the fupplies of pro-viiions which it receives from the Archipelago,
The city afGalata, furrounded with a ftrong wall, and rifing upon a fteep height over againft Conftantinoplc, is extremely populous.   All the
European
European traders, and many of the Eaflern Chrifr tians live there. Peru is a fuburb to Calata. In it refide the ambaffadors of fuch Chriftiari powers as fend public ministers to the Porte. The deputies which come by turns from Algiers, Tunis, Tripolis, and Ragufa, lodge at Conftan-tinople. But, the Turks confidcr not thefe deputies as ambaffadors; nor yet the Kapu Kiajas, who manage the affairs of the princes of Was-chia, and Moldavia.
The Sultan has many houfes of pleafurc, both in the neighbourhood of the capital, and on the fhores on the channel of the Black Sea. But the reigning Sultan goes no where but to Kara Agadfch, the gloomy, folitary, fituation of which fuits the melancholy complexion of his mind. He is differing the others to fall into ruins: He has caufed feveral of them to be pulled down, and the materials to be employed in building public baths and mofques.
The Greeks have three and twenty churches in Conttantinople, and the Armenians three ; exclulivc of thofe which the two nations have in the fuburbs. A clergyman relides at Pera, on whom the Pope confers the pompous title of Arehhifhop, placing him at the head of a great many imaginary bifhops. By the laws, no flnuv: feci: is fullered to build houfes of prayer in the  capital.    Yet, feveral  feels hold their
meetings
meetings there, without being checked by Government.
Chap. IV.
Voyage from Conftantinoplc to Alexandria.
Assoon as I was fo much recovered as to be able to travel, we prepared to fet out. At Alexandria we might have ventured to appear in the European drefs 5 as the inhabitants of that city»are accuftomcd to fee a great number of blanks. But, through the reft of Egypt, and in Arabia, our drefs, confifting of fo many pieces, and fo different from the beautiful Simplicity of the eaftern drefs, might have expofed us to inconveniencies. We therefore refolved to af-fume the Turkifh drefs; and having obtained, by means of Mr Gcebler, a paflport from the Sultan, with letters of recommendation, we embarked on board a veflel belongion to Dotcigna, We fet fail on the nth of September, and on the 15th reached the Dardanelles. AH veflels leaving Constantinople arc vi Sited by an officer of the cufloms, whole bufinefs is to prevent the defertion of flaves, and the defrauding of the revenue of the eftablifhed dues.
During
During the ftay, which, in confequence of this, we were obliged to make before one of the caftles, called Hum Kalla, I was confirmed in the opinion which I had before taken up of the inutility of thofe Boghas Hijfar, or Dardanelles. Every thing about them is neglected : cannon^ bf an enormous bore, charged with ftones, lie ufelefs on the ground. But I ohferved Something elfe, which would fervc to retard a fleet advancing to attack Constantinople ; the Shallows between that city and the Dardanelles.
On the 17th of September, we again hoifted our fails, and palTing the ifles of the Archipelago, eaft anchor on the 21ft in the harbour of Rhodes. We there fell in with the Captain Pacha, with fome Ships of war. The illanders are not fond of being vifited by the imperial fleets; both be-caufe they are expected to make prefents to the admiral, and beeaufe the failors are infuiferably infolent.
We faw an inftance of the fear which thofe undifciplined crews every where infpirc. When we landed, we went immediately to the houfe of the DaniSh Conful ; but found his doors lhut, to keep out the failors ; and on account of our Turkilh drefs, could not obtain admiffion till we met with an honeft Capuchin, who knew us for Europeans, and introduced us. The Con-ful fent his interpreter to accompany us in fome Vol. I. C little
little excurfions, which curioiity induced us t6 make through the illand.
The city of Rhodes Hill exhibits feveral things to remind the traveller that it was once inhabit, ed by the knights of the order of St John, who* upon their expuliion hence by the Turks, were fixed at Malta. It contains a number of noble old buildings, fome of which are decorated with the armorial bearings of fome of the molt ancient, families in Europe, But the palace which belonged to the Grand Mafter of the Order, is now falling into ruins. The Turks neglect the fortifications ; although they might know their importance, from having befieged the illand fo long before they could make themfelves matters of it. But, notwithstanding this neglect, Rhodes is one of the belt fortified places in the Ottoman empire, and the Turks think it impregnable.
In this city we had the curiofity, for the firft time, to go to dine in a Turkifh inn, Dinner was ferved up to us in the open Street, upon a large Stone feat, connected with the kitchen-wall: the meat was in a coarfe, ill-fafhioned, earthen plate ; and we eat it without knife or fork. We had an excellent dinner, and were charged high. We went thence to drink fome wine at a Jew's houfe, who valued himfelf on fupplying it to all ilrangers. He had two handfome girls with fcim, whom he called his daughters, and who
fpoke
IN ARABIA,  &c. 27
|
{poke Italian well. Our entertainment at his houfe coft us much dearer than our Turkifh meal.
There are a great many Greeks in the ifle of Rhodes, but they are not Suffered to live in the city. Meffrs Von Haven and Cramer witneifed an inftance of the ill treatment which that people Suffer from their conquerors. My companions had gone- with fome Greeks to vifit their bifhop, in a village near the city. While they were with him, fome Turkifh muficians made their appearance, and infilled upon entertaining the good prelate with mufic, which he had no defire to hear. Although he refufed their eon-cert, the muficians would be paid; and did not retire without infulting him and his company.
We fet fail early in the morning of the 22d of September. Hitherto, we had failed near the coalts, and among iflands; and it would confequently have been vain to make ebfei -vations on the courfc we failed. Bur, in the open fea, we had foon an opportunity of remarking the ignorance of the Turks in every thing relative to navigation. The*mancr of our fhip had compaffes and feveral inftruments, but knew not what life to make of them. They were probably apart of the plunder which he had taken in fome Christian fhip : for the Dokignots often.
C 2 gjve
nlebuhr's travels
give themfclvcs out for Algerines, and take European fhips belonging to powers at peaee with the Porte. In the courfe of our voyage, out T)olcignot was afraid of being taken himfelf: for it wras reported that the Maltefe, or rather fome privateers, with letters of marque from fome Italian prince, were at that time fcowring thofe feas. We could not have made a glorious defence; our fhip was a heavy failer, and overladen, with only a few rutty guns not properly mounted(o).
Our fkilful Captain held for Alexandria, by chance. Luckily for us, a very favourable wind fprung up, and carried us untight into the harbour in the day ; othcrwife, I know not how we could have efcaped the greateft dangers. The fhores of Egypt are fo low, that they cannot be fcen from a diftance, and a fhip approach in gv without knowing her courfe, can hardly fail to. run a-ground.
Our Captain, his fccretary, and twopilots, fpoke Italian tolerably well. The fecretary had been at Venice, in different other Italian cities, and e-ven at Vienna, where he received the foil owing information. When we afked him if there were any Pagans in the Turkiih empire, he replied ; et No ; but, in Germany and Hungary there jM are; they are called Lutherans, and have no il notions of God and his prophets,,'   At ano-
IN ARABIA,  l$c. ^9
ther time, when the truth of the Christian Religion was mentioned, lie rofe in a fury, and exclaimed : " They who believe in any other di* " vinity, but God only, arc oxen and affes." After reafoning fo forcibly, he went off without waiting to hear any reply.
This zealous fecretary was at the fame time Imam, or almoner of the veffel. The Imam's buflnefs is to direct the crew in their evening prayers, which the Mahometans perform regularly after warning. The Imam then fpreads his carpet, kneels with his face towards Mecca, and mutters his prayers, proftrating himfelf front time to time, and crying Allah Akbar-, God is Great. The affembly repeat his words, and re gttlarly imitate his motions and gefturcs. One thing effential, is, to put the thumbs behind the-ears, to mark the period abftraction of the mind from all worldly cares, and the eleyation of the foul towards heaven.
Eelide this public evening prayer, the Mahometans are directed by law to fay other prayers, in the courfe of their avocations, whenever they find themfelves moll difpofed to the duty. They make no difficulty of difplaying their humility and devotion before fpcctators. I was at nrft afraid to cliiUtrb them by my prefence, and attempted to retire ; but moil of them preffed me to remain and join them. It is only the info-• Icncc
Jencc of the populace, that hinders Chriftians from entering mofques, or witneffing their acts of devotion.
In our fhip, which was too full, the Muful-man paflcngers were fcated on the decks. We had hired the captain's apartment, with another long room adjoining,, in order to feparate ourfelvcs from the Turks.   In a cabin above us were lodged fome Haves intended for the market, girls who had received a goou education in the Turkifh mode, and were deftined for the Harum of fome grandee.   Mr Forfkal and I, one day, while we were in our chamber, overheard a female voice, and fet our heads to the window, to obferve whence it came.   Thofe flavcs obferving us to be flrangcrs, cried out, and fcolded us. But one of them foothed the reft.   We held out to them fruits and fugar ; and they put down their handkerchiefs to receive what they liked. As we and they had no common language to convene in, we converfed by figns.  The young-eft addrcftcd a few words to me, feveral different times.   To know their purport, we afked the clerk of the fhip, to explain the meaning of a greatmany Turkifh words andphrafes,andatlcngth came to underftand, that the girl had warned us to beware of appearing at the window, except when the crew were at prayers.   Thofe females became at hft fo familiar with us, as to give us
notice
notice by knocking at the window, whenever they were alone. This imprudent frolic amuf-ed us a few moments; but it might have occasioned us much ferious trouble ; and we came afterwards to understand, what extreme folly it is to make the ilightett acquaintance with Turk* ifh women.
In the evening of the 26th of September, we arrived at Alexandria, and anchored in the great: harbour, which Christian mips are not permitted to do ; they are obliged to anchor in the fmall harbour, which is very dangerous. The paflcngers went immediately on Shore ; but the Haves remained till night, and were carried away with the utmoit fecrecy.
Eight of the crew had died fomewhat hidden-ly in the courfe of the voyage ; which made us afraid that the plague might be among us. Happily our fears proved vain; for our phyfician, who viSited feveral of thofe perfons, while they were ill, found no fymptom of pestilential inflection among them(i')'
SECTION
SECTION IE
of egypt in general.
Chap. I.
Of the City of Alexandria.
Alexandria, or Scandria, as the Turks and Arabs call it, is lituate upon a narrow iilhmus, between a pcninfula and the walls of the ancient city, and dividing the two harbours. The ground on which the modern city ftands, feems to have arifen out of the waters. Although long fmce diverted of its ancient fplendour, yet the remains of the magnificent buildings which if once ponened,—palaces, temples, and mofques, with a plentiful intermixture of palm-trees,— give this city an afpeet of beauty and dignity, when viewed from the harbour.
Its antiquities, and the remains of its ancient fplendour, have been defcribed by fo many travellers, that I (hall barely infert a few remarks which feem to have efeaped the notice of o-thers.
According
According to the defcriptioris which Greek and Latin writers have left of old Alexandria, that city muft have been of vail extent. But its ruins, in their prefent (late, do not mark its original circumference.    The Mahometans in general, and efpecially the inhabitants of Alexandria, break down the fined monuments of antiquity, to employ the fragments in the moll wretchedftruclures imaginable.  Whenever they are at any lofs for materials for building, they fcruple not to dig up the foundation-flones of the ancient walls and palaces.   If one happens to find a beautiful column in his garden, he will rather make mill-Hones of it, than preferve it.
There Hill cxifts one noble remain in the city, which could neither be broken nor carried a-way :—The Obclijk of Cleopatra, a fingle piece of red granite. Although a part of its bafe be funkinto the earth, it Hill rifes above ground to the height of fixty two feet; the circumference of the bafe is feven feet and a half. It is inferib-ed with fome ancient characters, engraven an inch deep; but the modern Egyptians cannot read them.
Another monument, the famous pillar of' Po?/i~ pey, owes alio its preservation to its bulk. It was erected in ancient Alexandria, but Hands at prefent, at the diftance of a quarter of u league from the New Town.   As travellers
Vol. I. D differ
*4 nizbutir's trails
differ in their accounts of its height, I thought propel* to make a careful meafurement of if. The column meafured eighty nine feet, exclu-five of the bafe, which is five feet high. It con-lilts of three'blocks of red granite. Norden fa^v its bafe' in a iluittercd condition ; but it has been hnee repaired, by a perfon of the name of Mohammed Pfchurbatjlhi. There are fome a-mong the Turks, lefs hoilile than the generality to the remains of antiquity(e).
Many catacombs, or fubterranean apartment"1, cut in the rocks, are to be feen in the neighbourhood of this city. I examined thofe excavations ; there can be no doubt of their having been ufed chiefly as tombs. There are fome, however, which I mould rather fuppofe to have been granaries. What are called Pompey's baths arc likewife grottoes cut in the fame rock : which is a foft calcareous ftonc,like that at Malta, and may be very eafTly wrought.
New Alexandria owes its prefent ftatc to the Arabs, who inclofed it with a very thick wall, near fifty feet high. Thh wall, which is becoming ruinous, and a fmall fort upon the peninfu-la, with a garrifon of fifty foldiers, are all the means that the city poffefles for its defence. But its Governor depends on the Pacha of Kahi-ra ; and, of confequence, not on the ariftoeracy ^f the Beys but on the Grand Signior.
The
The flaeft building in the city is a mofque, which, in the time of the Greek empire, was a church dedicated to St Athanafius. It is very large, and ornamented with noble columns. A great number of Greek manufcripts are {till faid to be preferved within it. But, as no Chrif-tian dare examine any thing within a mofque, I faw only its outfidc (f).
The Copts have a Church dedicated to St Mark, in which they fhow the tomb of that E-vangelift; but it has never been opened, fijicc fome priefls of the Roman Communion made an attempt to carry away the head of the Saint. 1 know not how this tradition is to be reconciled with that of the Venetians, who pretend to be in poifemon of this precious relick. The Catholic prieils, indeed, boaft of having outwitted the Copts and Mahometans, by decollating the Saint, packing up his head properly, and making it pafs for faked pork, that it might not be infpecled by the Officers of the Cuitoms. The Turks have abJ'oIutely forbidden the exportation of dead bodies or mummies; fo that it is no eafymatter, in thefe days, to convey the bodies of the ancient inhabitants out of Egypt. However, as the culiomhoufc of Alexandria is ar prefent under the direction of Jews, we found, means to procure one mummy, and carry it p|j board an Italian veffel.   gut we were obliged
D 2 tfl
to return it; for all the Italian failors threatened to leave the fhip, if the Captain did not fend away that Pagan carcafe, which could not fail to bring fome mifchicf upon them.
Alexandria has fallen by degrees from its grandeur, population, and wealth. The filling up of the branch of the Nile, upon which this city Hands, and which is now no longer navigable, is what has chiefly contributed to its decline. It is however cleanfed from time to time, as it fupplies the city with foft water, which could be no where clfe obtained. The magnificent refervoirs of old Alexandria ftill remain ; they were intended to contain water for the ufe of the city, through the whole year ; which was received into them at the time of the overflowing of the Nile,
This city might be in a more flourifliing condition ; did not difadvantages of all forts concur to deprefs it. Its inhabitants appear to have a natural genius for commerce ; were it not checked by the malignant influence of the Government. I have no where met with fo many people who could fpeak the European 'languages, and even thofe of the North of Europe, correctly. The inhabitants of Alexandria arc in ufe to enter as failors on board Chriflian fhips ; and when they have fcen the world, and learned fome languages, they return home, and become
couriers,
couriers, or interpreters to the nations they have ferved. The Mahometans have commonly a great averfion at living among Chrif-tians, becanfe they cannot join in the cerenio_ nies of their religion. The modern Egyptians, being lefs attached than the other Muful-mans to the peculiarities of their religion and manners, are litter for commercial intercourfe with the Europeans.
The trade of Alexandria is, notwithstanding, very trifling; although almoil all the nations of Egypt have confuls here. But, as molt part of thofe articles of traffic which are imported into into Egypt, pafs by Alexandria, the cuftoms afford aeon lid erable film to the Sultan annually.
The Arabic is the Ordinary hnguage of the native inhabitants, both here and through all Egypt. Europeans,, unikilled in Arabic, fpeak Italian, which is itill not a little ufed in thefe countries (c).
Several tribes of wandering Arabs arc continually roaming about through Lower Egypt; and often approach near to Alexandria. The inhabitants pay fome contributions. But thofe troops pillage the country, fo that Government is obliged to fend foldiers to reduce them, or drive them into the more remote provinces. During our ft ay at Alexandria, fome hundreds of thofe jobbers 'encamped within a quarter of a league
of
of the city. They diureffcd the huibandmen, and plundered the travellers.
Thofe Arabs, one day, exhibited a fcene which we could fee from the terrace on the roof of our houfe. According to their cuftom, a great number had flipped into the city, one by one, to avoid frightening the inhabitants. One of their Scbiecbs, to try fome powder and ball, which he had juft bought in a fhop, difeharged his piece againft an oppofite houfe : The proprietor complaining, the Schiech treated him as he would one of his own fubjecls in the defert. The people of the city gathered round them, and were preparing to revenge the infult offered to their fellow-citizen. Some Arabs ran in to defend their chief; and the inhabitants gathered in grcate r numberson their lide. The quarrel produced a combat, which began with a volley of Hones, and ended with the difcharge of guns. The Arabs, at laft, retired out of the city, leaving feveral of their number dead, and feveral prifoners. Next day, their camp beheged the city, and carried away the cattle of the inhabitants from the pailurcs : But, within two days, peace was reilorcd, and the booty and prifoners delivered up on both fides.
The excurlions and rudenefs of thefe Arabians were not the only circumftances that obliged me to reprefs my curiofity.   The ftupidity and ignorance
iN ARABIA, lie; 39
iterance of the native inhabitants, who viewed my meafuring apparatus with diitruft and fear, were not Lefs unfavourable to the fuccefs of my enquiries and obfervations. A Turkifh merchant, obferving me direct my inilrumcnt towards the city, had the curioiity to look into the glafs, and was furprifed to lee a tower turned uplide down. He immediately fpread a report, that I was come to overturn the city : It was mentioned to the Governor ; and my janifTary would no longer walk out with me, when I propofed carrying my inltruments with me. Near a village of the Delta, an honeft peafant paid great attention to my operations, as I was taking different angles. To ihew him fomething curious, I made him look through the fame glafs. He was greatly alarmed to fee the village, to which he belonged, Handing upfule down. My fervant told him, that Government were offended with that vil-village, and had lent me to deftroy it. He itill antly iutreated me to wait but a few moments, that he might have time to fave his wife and his cow. He then ran in great 1: ifle towards his hcufe : and I went again on board my boat.
Chap.
Chap. II.
Voyage from Alexandria to Rofetta.
The European travellers who have vifited E gypt, having generally palled from Alexandria to Kahira by Rafchid, and upon the Nile; we were tempted to prefer the way by land. But, the country being infefled by the wandering A-rabs, as I have already mentioned, we found our defign to be impracticable. Mr Forfkal, when travelling the country upon another occafion^ found that our fears had not been groundlcis. He was entirely flopped by thofe Arabs, who, with a generolity very uncommon with therty left him his draw ers.
In winter, the paffagc between Alexandria and Rafchid is fo dangerous, that many veiiels are loft in the Boghas, or mouth of the Nile. Although that river was not yet greatly fallen, our flat boat was feveral times a-grotmd. The fl ipper excufed thefe accidents, by faying, that the bed of the river changed frequently in thefe parts. The number of fhallows upon the coaft males the Egyptians very cafy with refpect to the approach of hoftile fleets; and they are ' fullering the old forts on the banks of the Nile to fall into ruins*
After
in arabia, Ha.
After ftruggling with contrary winds, we ar-rived, on the 2d of November, at Rofetta, as it is called in Europe, or Rafchid, in the language of the country. This city is of a confide-rable fize, and Hands upon an eminence, whence opens a charming profpecl of the courfe of the Nile, and a part of the Delta. It ferves as a ftaple for the trade between Alexandria and Cairo*. The boats of the latter city proceed no farther than to Rofetta, where they lade with goods brought by the veflels of Alexandria, which never advance up the river. For this reafon, the French and Venetian confuls rcfide at Rofetta, as well as feveral European merchants, who manage the conveyance of goods belonging to their friends.
Near this city are fhewn what arc thought to be the ruins of the ancient Canopus. Laft year, twenty beautiful marble columns were dug up there, which have been conveyed to Cairo. What is more certain, is, that in ancient times, and probably even fo late as the iixth century, there was another branch of the Nile, paffing by thofe ruins, and difcharging itfelf into the fea, at Abukir. But it is now filled up with fond, which the wind carries about in great-quantities in thefe fandy countries.
The Europeans fpeak much of the politenefs of the inhabitants of Rofetta.   Our ft ay in that
Vol. I. E citv
*. Or Kahirsi,
city might, therefore, have been more agreeable than in any of the other cities of Egypt. But we had no time to lofe, and were in hafte to reach Cairo.
Chap. III.
Voyage from Rofetta to Cairo.
"We left Rofetta on the 6th of November, and two days after palfed Fue, once a confiderablc city, and the ftaple of the trade between Alexandria and Cairo. The canal between Alexandria and Fue is no longer navigable ; and Fue entirely defertcd. The Nile carries fo much of the foil from the lands, that it gradually fills up the canals; although they are cleanfed from time to time ; but in a fuperricial enough manner. The earth taken out of the canals forms thofe mounts which are obferved in the Delta, and which appear itrange in fo fiat a country as Egypt.
In this feafon, when the country is all verdant, it is very pleafant to fail up the Nile. A number of villages are fcattered along each fide of the river. The houfes are indeed low, and built of unburnt bricks; but, intermixed as they are with palm trees, and pigeon-houfes of a lingular
IK ARABIA, fcf<*« 43
gular form., they prefent to the eye of the Granger, an uncommon and pleating profpect. Near feveral of thefe villages are feen large heaps of the ruins of ancient cities.
The navigation of the Nile would be ftill more agreeable, were it not infeited by pirates. But, when a great number of people are oh board of a velfel, they keep on their guard ; they difcharge a few fhots from time to time, to ihew, that they are provided with fire arms; this keeps the robbers in awe, and renders the paflage lefs dangerous. There is much more danger in trufting to a Rets, or maiter of a vef-fel, with whom you are unacquainted, who may favour the robbers, and ihare their plunder. Whole villages ate faid to follow this trade ; and tor this reafon the boats never (top in their neighbourhood. The inhabitants on the banks ol the Nile are very dexterous in the art of fwimming, which they frequently exercife in itcaling from the boats, if not with, open force, yet with a degree of addrefs and audacity worthy of the moll noted pick-pockets.
Some Turks related to me a recent inltance ofthe addrefs and audacity of thofe robbers, or rather thieves. The fervants of a Pacha, newly arrived, caught one of them in the aft, feized him, and brought him before the Pacha. He threatened him with inftant death j but the rogue £ - alkcd
aiked leave to exhibit one of his tricks ; faying, that he hoped, his dexterity might procure his pardon. He obtained leave. Then collecting feveral effects in the tent, he wrapped them up, coolly, in the mode in which the Egyptians wrap up their clothes when they are to pais a river. After playing fome time with this parcel, he put it on his bead, threw himfelf into the Nile, and, before the Turks were fo far recovered from their furprife, as to level their mufquets at him, was fafe on the oppofite bank.
Through all Lower Egypt, I faw no crocodiles in the two great branches of the Nile up which I failed. The Egyptians fancy, that in the Mikkias near Cairo, there is a talifman, the virtue of which hinders thofe amphibious animals from defccndinglower in the river(n).
On the icth of November, we reached Bulak ; which may be considered as the Port of Cairo, as all boats that come by the Nile difcharge their pafiengers and cargoes at this place.
Chap.
Chap. IV.
From Cairo to Damiettat
H aving, in advancing to Cairo, examined one of the great branches of the Nile, I was defirous of feeing the other between Cairo and Damiet-ta. The maps' of this part of Egypt, called, both by the ancients, and by the modern Europeans, the Delta, are extremely defective. I was defirous of fupplying their defects, and correcting their errors. My map of the courfe of the Nile, exhibits my .geographical obfervations upon this part of the country, and may at the fame time ferve to direct: the reader, who chufes to trace my route with his eye. SX
I was prevented by the rains and other circumftances, from accompliihing my intention, till the month of May, next year. But the delay turned out to my advantage. I gained fome knowledge of the language of the country, and became more familiar with the manners of the Ealt. Mr Baurenfeind, too, who,
fince
* As this maps of the Nile refpe&s only a very fmall pari ©f thefe travels, and does not fecm equal to that lat: ly published by our countryman,, Mr Bruce, I have not infertcd it. T.
\
46 NlfiEUTIR's travels
fince his arrival at Cairo, had fcarcc ever gone abroad, now determined to accompany me.
We let out from Eulak, on the ill of May 1762, failing at firft very gently down the Nile. From Cairo to the Delta, the rifer is very large, with fmall ifles fcattcred through it; which, when the river overflows, are often tranfported, by the impetuofity of the Itream, from one Situation to'another. This occafions frequent disputes among the villagers on the banks of the river. But, at this time, the Nile was fo low, that our boat was feveral times a-ground. We might have proceeded with the Itream, in the calm, during night, had we not been afraid of pirates. A north wind blows ufually through the day, and oppofes the progrefs of boats down the river. Violent blaits fometimes arife, and bear fand and duft before them, darkening the air, and endangering the fafety of the boats, which are commonly very indifferent failers.
All the villages have, indeed, guards to watch the approach of pirates, and warn patTen-gers. But, thofe very guards often join with the inhabitants of the villages, and fit out barks themfelver, to plunder thofe whom they mould protect.
Sifta, at which we arrived on the 3d of May, is a pretty confiderablc village, between Cairo and Damietta.   It is the property of an old
Kijlar-
Kijlar-Agn, from Conftantinople, living at prefent in retirement at Cairo; who keeps here a Kabnacan, or bailiil. It has three mofqucs, and a church belonging to the Copts, the congregation of which conlifts of three hundred families. Thofe good people afked me to fee their church: it is ill-built, dirty, and hung with cobwebs. During the public worfhip, they Hand, leaning on their itaves. Their churches are adorned with bad paintings. I faw one in which Jefus Chrift, and the BlclTed Virgin, with feveral of the Saints, appeared mounted proudly on horfe-back.
We faw, in the courfe of our voyage, feveral boats which we fufpccted to belong to pirates: but none of them ventured to attack us. We faw, likewife, feveral rafts laden with pots and other earthen ware from Upper Egypt. Thofe cargoes of earthen ware are fixed upon very light planks of the timber of the palin tree, joined into a raft, the progrefi of which is directed by fix or eight men with poles in thair hands. After felling their cargoes at Damietta, they walk home. They defend themfelves very dexterouf-ly, with flings, againft robbers.
We palled near by Man/lira, where St Lewis was made prifoner. It feemed of the fame fize as Damietta, A wall has been built upon the branch of the river near the city, to hinder the
water
niouhr/s travels
water from entering the canal that communi-cates with the lake of Babcira, in a larger quan-rity than is rcquifite for watering the fields of rice, of which a great deal is railed in this part of the country.
Below Manfura we met twenty boats laden with bee-hives, which they were bunging up to make honey on the banks of the river.
In each boat were two hundred lives, four houfimd in all.   The biwdyak of Manfura lay in the neighbourhood, with a part;  of forty Haves and domellics, to levy the tax due upon the bees.
On the 5th of May, we arrived at Damietta. This city is at lead as advantageoully fituated, as Rofetta. The imports from Syria enter at this port; and it has alfo a great trade in rice, of which there is much raifed in the neighbourhood. Yet, no Chriftian merchant, or European monk ,relides here ; although there be in Damietta, a confiderable number of Maronites and Armenians, who communicate with the Church of Rome.
A Conful, and French merchants, once rcfided in Damietta. But, the inhabitants obferving that thofe Grangers made too free with their women, rofe up in a fury, and maflacred them all.   Since that period the King of France has
forbidden
in arabia,  UV. 49
forbidden his fubjeets not only to fettle in this city, but even to frequent it. The inhabitants of Damietta are generally reckoned more unfriendly to the Chrillians, than any of the other inhabitants of Egypt. The memory of the Cru-fades, perhaps, keeps up this inveterate avcrfion. But, as we wore the Turkifh drefs, and fpoke the language of the country tolerably, we had nothing to fear.
In the neighbourhood of this city are many rice fields. But. towards the fhore, the ground \s covered with fand, and confequently barren. To travel by land from Damietta to Rofetta, it is only a journey of a day and a half. But the road is infefted by robbers, and very dangerous.
As I was fo "near the fea, I went to fee the Boghas, two German leagues below Damietta. This mouth of the Nile is not lefs dangerous to' velfels than that at Rofetta. It was formerly defended by a fort; but the garrifon have been frightened away by apparitions. I vifited it in company with fome Mahometans, who faid their prayers very devoutly in that abode of fpirits This was the only time, I remarked this fpecies of fuperftition among the Mufulmans; apparitions are unknown in Arabia.
The lake of Sahara extends from Damietta to Gbqjja. I fhould have wifhed to fee a lake fo famous among the ancients, and in the coun-
Vol. I. E trv
try around whofe banks there ftill are fuch magnificent remains of a number of great cities. I might have examined, at the fame time, feveral modern cities, well worthy of the notice of the curious ; fuch as Demifehli, where is a manufacture of beautiful (luffs ; Bilbays and Tafnal, in which are fome noble monuments. But the inhabitants of Babeira being poor, and from their infulated fituation almoft independent, are to be dreaded equally by land and water. They rob all travellers, without diftinction. I found it therefore prudent to decline gratifying my ciw riofity.
A number of the villages on the banks of the Nile belong to Beys who rehde at Cairo. The Copts, who are fecretaries to thofe noblemen, might have given me information concerning the nature of the tenure, if I had been carried to confult them. In my map of the courfe of the Nile, I have inferted the names of all the places I faw, far and near. But, I have had no fmall difficulty in writing down thefe names.; both from the diverfity of dialects in the country, and from the iodiftinct pronunciation of thofe from whom I was obliged to afk them.
We left Damietta on the 12th of May ; and the wind blew fo fair, that we reached Bulak, pn the 15th,
Chaf,
IM" ARABIA,
5*
CHAt>. V.
Of the Ancient Cities of Lower Egypt.
Ancient hiftorians and geographers, enumerate fuch a multitude of cities in Egypt, that it feems to be at prefent quite a defart in compa-rifon with what it was in the days of antiquity. New cities have indeed arifen, but thefe are mere trifles, compared with the number, the extent, and the magnificence of the ancient. All the remains of monuments referable to the molt remote antiquity, befpeak the hand of a numerous and opulent people, who have entirely disappeared.
When, however, We reflect on the revolutions Which this country has undergone, and upon the length of time during which it has been under the dominion of ftrahgers; we can no longer be furprized at the decline of its wealth and population. It has been fucceffively fubdu-ed by the Perfians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabians, and the Turks:—has enjoyed no interval of tranquillity and freedom ; but has been conftantly oppreffed and pillaged by the lieutenants of a diitant lord. Thofe ufurpers and their fervants having no other views, but to draw
E 2 as-
5*
njebuiir's travels
as large a revenue as poflible from an opulent province, fcarcc left the people bare means of fubhrtence. Agriculture was ruined by the mi-feries of the huibandmen ; and the cities decayed with its decline. Even at prefent, the population is decreafing ; and the peafant, although in a fertile country, miferably poor ; for the exactions of Government, and its officers, leave him nothing to lay out in the improvement and culture of his lands \ while the cities are falling into ruin?., becaufe the fame unhappy restraints render it impoflible for the citizens to engage In any lucrative undertaking.
It would be difficult to afcertain the fituation of the ancient cities. The places in which they flood are commonly marked by dykes, which had been raifed to (belter them from inundations. Elevations appear here and there over the plains \ and thofe always contain ruins* which have been gradually covered over by accumulations from the river, and by fand depofited by the winds. The fpots, that either conceal in this manner, or openly difplay remains of ruined cities, are aftoniihingly numerous.
The quantity of thefe ruins would be greater (till, if the inhabitants did not carry them away piecemeal, and employ them in the con-itruction of new buildings. In fearch of materials for building;, they are conilantly turning
over
over the ruins; and they not only dig up the ground, but even riddle the earth taken out, in hopes of finding in it gold or gems. A friend of mine, the lord of a village, near the remains of an ancient city, made me a prefent of the figure of a fcarabceus, of old Egyptian workman-fhip, which had been found by fome of his pea-fants, in digging up the earth in this manner* It is of burnt clay, covered with a thick coating nf varnifh. It is a proof, that thofe people had moulds with which they imprefled particular figures on the clay, before putting it into the fire.
The eaftern part of the Delta, which has been, as yet, but little frequented by the European travellers, is not lefs rich in antiquities than that which is better known. The frequency of robbers, and the loofenefs of the police, in that remote diftrict, deters the curious. Yet one might vifit thofe parts without danger, by accompanying the Copts, of whom great numbers go every year, in pilgrimage to an ancient church, near Gemiana.
Some Arabs mentioned to Mr Forlkal the names of feveral of thofe places in which the Jews anciently dwelt, and of which the ruins it ill fuhfiit Thofe names do, indeed, all indicate fomething relative to the fojourning of the [ews in this country. But as the account reds upon vague tradition, and regards a defpifed
people,
NIEBlilR's TRAVELS
people, wliofe hiltory is little known, we were" not at the trouble of making farther enquiries.
The Egyptians are not well pleafed to fee Europeans digging among ruins. They imagine, that we are fearching for treafures. While I was meafuring a fine obelifk, which is ML Handing entire', near Mataf'e, the inhabitants gathered round, and watched my operations at a fmall diftance. They imagined that 1 had fome fccret to overturn the pillar, and intended to have their fliare of the riches which they fup-pofed I was to find under its bafe. When they faw that I did not fucceed, according to their ideas, they fuffered me to walk off, without im fulting mc. One might, however, avoid giving umbrage to the people, by obtaining leave from the Lord of the village to have thofe fpots examined, that contain ruins, and employing the peafants in the work.
Different travellers have been at pains to de-Tcribe the antiquities of the cities of ancient Egypt; and various men of letters have written difiertations upon thofe defcriptions, and compared them with what is related by the Latin and Greek authors, in order to difcover to what ancient city each particular pile of ruins pertained. Such inveftigations may be curious; but, confidering their uncertainty, I would neither
ther dcfccnd to any fuch details myfelf, nor quote what has been advanced in this way by others.
Chap. VI.
Of the City of Cair?f
In the courfe of the eleven lad centuries, fines the conqueft of Egypt by the Arabians, many changes have taken place in the neighbourhood of Cairo, or, as it is called in the language of the country, Kahira. Thofe conquerors demo-lifiicd or neglected the cities which they found fubfifting, and built others.
At their entrance into this country, they found a city pn the banks of the Nile, which their writers call Mafr, and which no doubt was the Egyptian Babylon of the Greek authors. They became mailers of it by the treafon of Mohan-Aas. In their Muflulman ?eal, abhorring to dwell in the fame city with Christians, they fettled, by degrees, in the place where their general had pitched bis camp, and formed a city which they called FoJIat.
This city, when it became the capital of E-gypt, was alfo called Mafr; a name which it has retained even iince Cairo, originally only a
fuburb,
=$6 niebuhVs travels
fuburb, has fupplanted it in the character o£ capital. Foftat declined, as Cairo, which was founded in the 358 year of the Hegira, by the general of a Fatimite Caliph I., advanced. The remains of Follat are known at prefent by the name of Mafr-el-atik, old Mafr. The famous Salab eel din embellilhed the riling city of Cairo, and inclofed it with walls.
Cairo, in its turn, came to receive the name of Mafr. The Europeans call it Cairo, or Grand. Cairo. Although fo modern, it is truly very large. It extends, for an hour's walk, to the foot of the mountain Mokattam, at the diftance of half a. league from the banks of the Nile. From the top of that hill, on which (lands the caitle, the whole city is feeu. On the other fides it is furrounded with hillocks formed by the ac^ cumulation of the dirt, conveyed out of the city. They are already fuhigh, that the tops of the buildings in the city can fcarce be feen over, •them, from the banks of the Nile.
Cairo, although a very great city, is not fo populous as the cities in Europe, of the fame extent. The capital of Egypt contains large ponds, which, when full, have the appearance even of lakes. The mofques occupy large areas. In a quarter which I had occafion to examine particularly, I found the large llreets divided by a large fpace of ground, laid out in
gardens
gardens, and otherwifc. I am induced to think that, in the other quarters, are large unoccupied fpaccs ot the fame fort. The houfes in Cairo are not fo high as in the cities of Europe. In 'ome parts, they conlift only of one ftory, and are built of bricks that have been dried in the fun (j).
I have obfcrved, that travellers always err in eftimating tbe population of the cities of the Eaft: and I may add, that the arrangement of the ftreets of Cairo muft make that city appear larger than it really is. In feveral quarters there are pretty long wynds, which terminate not in any principal ltreet; fo that thofe who live at the bottom of them, can converfc from the back parts of their houfes, yet mult walk a quarter of a league before they can meet. Such ivynds or lanes arc, for the molt part, inhabited by artifans, who go out to work in more frequented ftreets, and leave their wives and children at home. From this circumftance, thefe are fofur-prifed to fee a paffenger, that they naturally fup-pofe, that you have loll your way, and tell you, that you cannot pafs there. All the intercourfe is therefore through the principal ftreets; and thefe are very narrow ; fo that, being continually crowded, they will naturally occafion a ft ranger to think the city much more populous than it really is.
Vol. L G The
niebuhr's travels
The caftle (landing upon a fleep, infulated rock, between the city and mount Mokattam, vvas probably erected in the days of the Greeks, and might form a part of the Egyptian Babylon. It is at prefent parted into three divifions, which are occupied by the Pacha, the Janiffaries, and the Aflabs. The palace of the Pacha is falling into ruins, and is unworthy of being the dwelling of the Governor of a great province. But the Turkifh Pachas are in general ill lodged. They know all, that they are not to be long in power; and none cares for making reparations to accommodate his fucceifor.
The quarter of the janiffaries is furrounded with flrong walls which are flanked with towers, and has more the appearance of a fortrefs. Thofe foldiers accordingly avail themfelves of their fituation in the revolutions which happen fo frequently in Egypt. That body, although paid by the Sultan, are not much attached to their fovereign. Their principal officers have been Haves to the more refpectable inhabitants of Cairo, and are ft ill more attached to their old mailers than to the Sovereign of the Turkifh empire. When the Egyptians depofe a Pacha, the janiffaries are commonly ready to drive him out of the palace, if he fails to fet off at the day fixed to him, by the Beys.   But the Arabs are
in
in little fear of the janiffaries, and rob with confidence, clofe by their quarters.
Within this cattle are two monuments, which, fome, both Mahometans and Chriftians, fancifully afcribe to a patriarch ; the fountain, and palace of Jofeph. The fountain is indeed deep, and cut in the rock ; but nothing extraordinary, when it is considered, that the rock is a very foft calcareous Itone. It is not at all comparable to the labours of the ancient Indians, who have cut whole pagodas in the very hardeft rocks.
The pretended palace of Jofeph, is a large building, which ftill retains fome precious remains of its ancient magnificence. In the apartment in which a manufacture of cloth is at prefent carried on, the walls are adorned with figures of beautiful Mofaic work, compofed of mother of pearl, precious ftones, and coloured glafs. The ceiling of another chamber contains fine paintings; in fome places, the names of moft of the ancient monarchs of Egypt are engraven. The caliphs of Egypt appear to have inhabited this palace ; and it is furprifing, that the Pacha does not choofe to lodge in it. Erom a balcony in this building, a perfon has a delightful view of Cairo, Bulak, Gee/b, and a vaft tract of country extending all the way to the pyramids.
That valuable ituff of which the Sultan makes an annual prefent to the fanctuary of Mecca, is G 2 fabricated
fabric-ted in this palace. I afked the director of the manufacture, from what jofeph he fuppof-ed the fountain and palace to have taken their denomination ? he anfwered from. Salah ed din, whole proper name was Jofeph. This account (perns the more probable, as Cairo owes its other embellifhments to that Caliph. Near this palace are thirty large and beautiful columns of red granite Hill Handing, but unroofed, and degraded by having a parcel of wretched huts built againlt them. In a path cut in the rock, and leading from one part of the cattle to another, I was furprifed to obferve an eagle with a double head, engraven upon a large ftone, and ftill perfectly difcernible.
The fuburb EI Karafe, at prefent but thinly inhabited, contains a number of fuperb mofqucs* which are partly fallen into ruins, with feveral tombs of the ancient fovereigns of this country. The Mahometan women repair in crowds to this place, on pretence of performing their devotions, but, in reality, for the pleafure of walking abroad. On the other fide of the cattle^ there is alio a great number of ruinous mofqucs, and houfes of prayer, built over the tombs of rich Mahometans, and forming a ftreet three quarters of a German league in length. From the aftonifhing number of thefe mofques and houfes, it mould feem that the ancient lbve-
vereigns
leigns of Egypt were not lefs difpofed than the Sultans of Conitantinople, to expend money upon pious foundations.
Among this multitude of mofques are feme diltinguifhcd by beauty and folidity of ftructure. One of thofe, although the feat of an academy, was fo ftrongly and fo advantageouily fltuated, that, in particular infurrections, batteries uled to be railed in it, and directed againit the caule J for which reafon the gates have been built up. Thofe mofques have little ornament within : The pavement is covered with mat% fcldom with carpets. Nothing appears on the walls, but a few patfages of the Koran, written in golden letters, and a pronation of bad lamps, iulpended horizontally, and intermixed with of-trich eggs, and fome other trilling curiolities.
The Mouritan is a large hofpital for the lick and mad. Thofe of the former clafs are not numerous, coniidering the extent of the city. The fick were formerly provided with every thing that could tend to foothe their diftrefs, not excepting even mufic. From the infufliciency of the funds to fupply fo great an expence, the niulic had been retrenched, but has been lince reitored by the charity of a private perfon. The descriptions of Cairo fay much of the large revenues belonging to the hofpital, and to many of the mofques. Rut the fame thing happens here as in other
places:
places : The adminiftrators of the revenues enrich themfelves at the expence of the foundations ; fo that new bequefts from the pious are from time to time neceffary, to prevent them from falling into utter decay.
In this city are a great many kans or oqunls, as they are called in Egypt. Thefe are large and ftrong buildings, confifting of ware-rooms and fmall chambers for the ufe of foreign merchants. Here, as well as at Conftantinoplc, are feveral elegant houfes, where freth water is dif-tributed gratis to paffengers.
The public baths are very numerous. Although externally very plain buildings, they have handfome apartments within, paved with marble, and ornamented in the fafhion of the country. Several fervants attend, each of whom has his particular talk, in waiting upon and aflifting thofe who come to bathe. Strangers arc furprif-ed when thofe bathers begin to handle them, and afraid of having their limbs dillocated. But after being a little accuftomed to the ceremony, they find it Sufficiently agreeable.
The birkets, or ponds, formed by the waters of the Nile, which, when it rifes, fills the hollows, are very common about and in Cairo. Thofe ponds, or rather marfhcs, become meadows, every year after the water is evaporated.
This
This viciflitude renders them very agreeable: And the moil coniiderable perfons in the country live upon their banks. The palaces of the great are no ornaments to the city ; for nothing about them can be feen but the high walls that iurround them.
Chap. VII.
Of the Country immediately around Cairo,
In the neighbourhood of Cairo are feveral remarkable places: Among others, the three villages of Bulak, Foftat, Geefh ; which are all fo near, that they may be reckoned fuburbs to it.
Bulak, which was undoubtedly the Latopolis of the ancient Greeks, is at prefent "a very con-fiderable town, and the port of Cairo. All goods from Damietta and Rofetta, and all exports from Egypt by the Mediterranean, pafs this way.   Eor this reafon, a large cuflom-houfe is eftabliihed here; and a vail bazar, or covered market-place, called Kiffarie.   Here are al-fo magazines of rice, fait, nitre, and of various productions of Upper Egypt.   Here is alfo a houfe belonging to the Sultan, in which is kept the corn that he fends annually to Mecca and Medina.
Foftat,
Foftat, orMafr-el-atik, although greatly decayed, may Hill be coniidered as a town of the middle Hze. It has a cuftom-houfe, where the duties on goods from Upper Egypt are paid. In a large fquare,inclofed w ith a wall, Government ftorc up, in the open air, a confidcrable quantity of grain, every year. Some authors fpeak of this as a granary built by the patriarch Jofeph. But the wall is plainly of a later date than even the conquer! of Egypt by the Arabians,
The old citadel of Mafr is inhabited, at prefent, by none but Christians. In it are to be fcen feveral churches ©f the Greeks and Copt", with a convent of Monks, of the latter nation A grotto, under one of the Coptic churches, is regarded with high veneration, becaufe it is fuppofed to have been the retreat of the Holy Family, when they lied into Egypt. The Greeks have a church, famous for a miracle of a fingular nature : Fools recover their wits, upon being bound to a certain pillar of it.
Between this city and Cairo is an aqueduct, which was conftructcd in the beginning of the fixth century, by Sultan Gari, and conveys water into the neighbourhood of the caltle. Near the canal is a convent of Dervifes, celebrated for the elegance of the building, and the opulence of the foundation ; and near this convent are large fquares, in which the principal inhabitants
of
of Cairo, amufe themfelves with military exer-cifes, : ,
The fmall village ofGeefi Hands on the fouth-ern hank of the Nile, oppofite to Mafr-el-atik. Its origin is unknown. The heights around it, which have no doubt been railed by the accumulation of the dirt from the city, feem to be-fpeak its antiquity. I found nothing remarkable about it, except fome country-houfes belonging to rich inhabitants of Cairo, and fome manufactories (k).
Mature, a town, or rather village, about two leagues from the capital, is feated nearly on the! ruins of the ancient Heliopolis.   It is, however, more famous among the Chriilians for a fyco-\ more, whofe trunk is laid to have afforded a (bel-
ter to the Holy Family, in their flight. This fycomore fhould feem to have the power of renewing itfelf: for, of the crowds of fuperftitioufl perfons who vifit it, each ufually cuts off, and carries away a piece. This village was formerly famous for the cultivation of thofe trees which afford Egyptian balfam. But none of them ii now to be fcen here ; the laft died in the beginning of the feventeenth century. The Turk?, are not a people to reftore fo valuable a plant.
Four leagues eaft ward from Cairo is Birket-el-Hadgi, or the pilgrim's pool, a pretty confi-derable lake, which receives its water from the Vol. h H Nile,
Nile. Upon its banks are feveral villages, and a good many ruinous country-houfes. There is nothing to render this place remarkable, except at the time of the fetting out of the caravan for Mecca, when the pilgrims encamp near it, for a few days • as they do alfo upon their return. On the 20th of May 1762, two days before the departure of the caravan, I had the curiofity to viiit this camp, but found little a-bout it worth viewing, I faw indeed a very few elegant tents; but every thing elfe mockingly natty, diforderly, and paltry.
Chap. VIII.
Of the Mikkias, or Nilomcter> and of the rifng of the Nile.
Between Mafr-el-atik and Geeih, in the middle of the Nile is the ifle of Rodda, which formerly communicated with thofe two cities by two bridges of boats, that no longer fubfiit. In the flourifhing days of Foltat, the ifland was covered with gardens and villas. But lince Cairo has become the capital of Egypt, Mafr-el-atik, Bulak, and even Birket-el-Hadgi, are preferred as iituations for gardens and villas.
This
This illand mews, at prefent, nothing remark-able, except, that on its fouthern extremity, Hands a wall, which has been built to break the force of the current. Upon this extremity Hands alfo a mofque, in which is the famous Mikkias or Nilometer. This is well known to be a bafon having a communication with the Nile, on the middle of which Hands a column that ferves to indicate the height of the waters, of the river. Nordcn has given a draught of it* finer than the original, which is mouldering faff away ; for the Turks will not lay out the fmal-left expence, even upon the molt necefTary repairs.
I know not whether any perfon has yet measured the breadth of the Nile. By a geometrical operation, I found it to be 2946 feet. Without knowing this meafure, one can form no idea of the aftonifhinc: mafs of water which this rive1"
o
carries down, when in its full height,
The Nile, it is well known, begins every year, to rife about the middle of June, and continues riling 40 or 50 days ; it then falls, by degrees, till, in the end of May, next year, it is at the loweit. The caufes of its rife are now well known. During the hot months of the year, rain falls every day in Habbefch or AbylTinia, and all that rain-water is collected into the Nile,
H 2 which
which, from its entrance into Egypt, till it reaches the fea, runs through, a wide vale.
It docs not rife alike high through all Egypt. I durfl not mcafure it near the Mikkias, hut, from obfervations made at Geeih, I faw, that at Cairo the full height is at leaft 24 feet above its ordinary level. At Rofetta and Damietta it is o;;lv four feet. But this van difference is not furpiifing ■ for, at Cairo, the Nile being confined to one channel, between high banks, muff heceiTarily rife to a much greater height than nearer the fea, where it is divided into two ftreams, after running over fo much barren ground, and forming fo many lakes. The branch upon which Rofetta (lands, is only 650 feet broad \ and that by Damietta, not more than
LOO-
Afloon as the Nile begins to rife, all the canals intended to convey the waters through the country, are (hut and eleanfed. They arc kept fhut, however, till the river rife to a certain height which is indicated by the Milometer in the ifle of Rodda. A Shech attends for this pur-pofc, by the Mikkias, and gives notice, from time to time, of the rifing of the river, to a number of poor perfons who wait at Foftat for the information, and run lnftantly to publifli k in the ftreets of Cairo. They return e„ Very day to Foltat, at a certain hour, to learn -   • from
from the Schceh, how many inches the river has rifen; And its rife is every day proclaimed in public, till it reaches the fixed height, at which Uie canals are permitted to be unlocked ; the ufual tax is then paid for the waters, to the Sul-tan, and a good year expected.
The canal at Cairo is firft opened, and then, fiicceinvely, all the other great canals down to the fea.   The inhabitants of no particular district dare draw off any part of the water of the Nile, although it have rifen to the height that beft fuits the inlands ; for this would injure the high* er grounds; and therefore every body mull Wait till the public order be given out. There are laws in Egypt, which arc ill icily obferved, and which determine the distribution of the waters, and the time when the large and fmall canals are to be opened.
Between the dyke of the canal of Cairo, and the Nile, a pillar of earth is railed, nearly of the height to which the waters of the rivers are expected to rife. This pillar is called /hes, or the bride, and ferves as a fort of Nilomcter, for the ufe of the common people. When the waters enter the canal, this bride is carried away by the current. A like cuftom, which prevailed among the ancient Egyptians, has fubjeded them to the imputation of facrificing every year a virgin to the Nile,
The
5?o nie^uhr's travels
The canal is ufually opened with great fefti-vity, and a concourfe of people. But when we were in Cairo, it was opened without any parade; ibr it had been imperfectly cleanfed, and the water did not enter it readily. As this ceremony has been defcribed by fo many authors, I fhall not trouble the reader with any account of it,
A piece of fuperftition now prevails in Egypt, of which hiftory makes no mention before the conq ueit of the country by the A rabs. Certain worn u, both Chnftian and Mahometan, pretend to foretell what h< ight the Nile will rileto,by means of certain rites which they practiie. Thefe depend upon the popular notion, that, on the night of the 17th or 18th of June, there falls, in Hab-befch, a drop, in Arabic nokta, into the Nile, which caufes its waters to ferment and fwell. To dif-cover the quantity of this drop, and the force with which it falls, and, of confequence, the height of the river, and the fertility of the lands for the year ; thofe women put a bit of parte on the roof of the houfe, on the night on which the drop is imagined to fall; and they draw their prediction from the greater or fmaller increafe of wTeight, which it receives. It is eafy to explain this experiment: for, in the feafon in which it is performed, there fall regularly heavy dews throughout Egypt.   a feniible and
learned
learned Mahometan, who looked upon the predictions as fooleries, told me, that this vulgar error arofe, like many others, from an ambiguous expreflion; Nokta Signifying in Arabic, both a drop and the time of the fun's entering the Jign of Cancer ; at which feafon, the great rains fall in Abymnia, which occafion the fwel-ling of the Nile.
I have remarked, that the canal of Cairo is cleanfed every year; and it then ferves as a Street. But it can never be long ufed as a itreet; for it is never cleanfed, till the dyke be ready to be cut down. While the water is running in this canal, the houfes about it are very agreeable ; but, through the red of the year, it is a very uncomfortable neighbourhood. It is always exceedingly filthy. The infutYerablc fuiell, and noxious putridity, which itdiffufes all around, infect the air, and produce epidemic distempers.
No water fit for drinking is to be had at Cairo, unlefs out of the Nile ; from which it is brought every day into the city, in Ikins, upon afles and camels. Under feveral mofques, arc-large rcfervoirs, in which water is preferved for the ufe of the public, during the fwell of the Nile ; for the river is then muddy, and its water thought unwholefome. Indeed the water of the Nile is always fomewhat muddy j but, by
rubbing,
72 NIEBUHR'S TRAVELS
rubbing with bitter almonds, prepared in a particular manner, the earthen jars in which it is kept, this water is rendered clear, light, and falutary. The ufe of this water is generally thought to be the occaiion of a cutaneous eruption to which the inhabitants of Cairo are fub-jecl, at a certain feafon in the year. It is tron-blefome, but does not injure the health.
SECTION
SECTION III.
if THE government, arts, and trade of egypt.
Chap. I.
Of the Nature of the Egyptian Government.
The Turks, as is generally known, conquered Egypt in the beginning of the Sixteenth century, from the Mammelukes ; a mercenary militia, who had, for fome centuries, ufurped the Government of this province, which they administered by an elective chief, with the title of Sultan. This fpecies of Government feems Still to fubfift, juft as much as before the Turkifh. conqueft; and, with all their defpotic pride, they have never attempted to change it;
A form of Government that has prevailed fo long, and which ahaughty, and powerful conqueror duril not abolifh, muft have, within itfelf, fome principle of Stability, to maintain it again ft. revolution. It might deferve to be better known, and explained by fome intelligent per-
Vot. I, X fon,
fon, who mould fhidy it in a long rcfidence in the country. A traveller like me', who has had only a traniient view of thefe objects, can neither difcern, nor defcribe all the parts of fo complex a machine.
I have learned enough, however, to enable me to distinguish, that this Government is at prefent an ariftocracy, partly civil, partly military, but chielly military. Under the protection, rather than the authority of the Sultan of ConftantinopK a divan, or fovereign counfel, exereifes the Supreme authority, both executive and legislative. Even the revenue of the Sultan is rafher a tribute paid to a protector, than a tax levied by a fovereign. It is, befides, fo moderate, that the necelfary expences of Government confume it entirely in Egypt; and the trunk, in which it is pompoufly conveyed to Conftantinoplc, generally arrives there empty.
Such a Government mult be frequently disturbed by factious infurreclions. Cairo is constantly convulfed by cruel dilfeniion ; parties are continually jarring ; and the great retain troops to decide their differences by force of arms.
The mutual jealouiies of the chiefs,'feem to be the only caufes which Still pieferve to the Porte the Shadow of authority over this country— The members of the ariftocracy are all afraid of lofing their influence uadcr a rending fovereign ;
and
IN ARABIA,  i$C. 7^
and therefore agree in oppoling the elevation of any of their own body to the fupreme dignity In our own days, All-Bey has found how difli-cult it is to afcend the throne of Egypt, or to maintain one's felf upon it (jyi).
Chap. II.
Of the Grand Sigmoids Officers.
The Grand Signior fends always a Pacha of three tails, to cxercife his precarious authority in Egypt, in the character of Governor. But the Pacha of Cairo, far from enjoying the fame authority as the other Pachas of the Turkifli empire, is entirely dependent on the Egyptian divan. That ariflocratical body, regarding the Pacha as their tyrant, frequently depofe him, unlefs he have the addrefs to fupport himfelf by provoking and fomenting the contentions of the dliferent parties, favouring each by turns.
During my Stay at Alexandria, the inhabitants of Cairo expelled their Pacha. Muftapha Pacha was at the fame time in Egypt, who had been already twice Grand Vizir, and role, afterwards, a third time to that dignity. Having been feut by the Sultan to Djidda, he had re-12 mained
mained in Egypt, on pretence of illnefs. The inhabitants chofe Muftapha their Pacha, and found means to oblige the Sultan, however dif-fatisfied with the electors, and the perfon whom they had elected, to confirm their choice. But the new Pacha kept his place only fevcn months, and was then obliged to yield it to another from Conftantinoplc " The latter died fuddenly, upon the arrival of a Kapigi-Bachij who was lent after him by the Sultart. Thus, in the ihort time while I was in Egypt, three Governors fuc-cceded each other rapidly in the Government of that province.
The chief Cadi of Cairo is fucceeded almoft every year, by another from Conftantinople, who is named by the Sultan, on the recommendation of the Mufti.
Except thefe two, tho Sultan appoints no other officers in Egypt, unlefs indirectly. It is true, he feems alfo to difpofe of the poll of Bey, to which he nominates; but the Egyptians pro-pofe the candidates ; and he dares not rejed them; his nomination is therefore mere ceremony.
ClIAn
CHAP. III. Of the Divan and the Bey.
The Divan, or fupremc Council, coniifls of twenty four Beys, fourteen of the chief officers of the troops, and a number of people of the law, or rather of the church.
The Beys are governors of different districts. The oilices of Grand Trcafurer and Governor of Cairo, are likewife held by members of this body. They entertain guards and bodies offol-diers, as well for their pcrlbnal fecurity, as to enforce obedience through the districts under their Government. The name of Bey, or Beg, denotes a powerful lord, and may perhaps be confidered as nearly fynonymous with prince. Their number is never complete; when I was in Egypt, there wcre,inftead of twenty four, only eighteen. The revenues of the vacant places, were probably Shared among the reft that were lilled up.
Like the Mammclukes, who, having been all Slaves, chofe their chiefs only from among thofe who had rifen to honour through the path of fer-vitude, the prefent Beys have been almoft all fiaves, bought for fifty or not more than an hundred fequins. They are often Christian children, from Georgia or Mingrelia. But thefe places have, for
fome
niebuhr's travels
fome time, been conferred likewife on free and high-born Mahometans. Of the eighteen Beys who were in office when I was in Egypt, only five were of this latter character ; the other thirteen were defcended from Ghriftian parents, and had been Haves in their youth.
Our furprizc at the elevation of fo many flaves will ceafe, when we attend more particularly to the manners of the people of the Eail. The Mahometans, in general, and efpeciany the Egyptians, treat their flaves with great kind-nefs. The Beys, and the principal inhabitants of Cairo, buy many Christian children, whom they educate with the fame care as their own children, in every thing neceffary to accomplish the character of a Mahometan lord. When their education is fmifhed, they procure them employments in the army. Thofe emancipated Slaves retain the moft lively affection to the generous mafters to whom they owe their fortune, and even their moral cxiftence. By this means it often happens, that a matter, when he finds any of his flaves to poffefs extraordinary talents, and tried fidelity, fpares no pains or expence to raife him to a more confiderable employment than that which he occupies himfeif. Thus the matter raifes his credit and influence in the acl-miniftration, by introducing intojt his own creatures.
It may not be improper to mention here fome remarkable initances of this generofity of maf-ters to their flaves. I knew a rich merchant, who kept only one fervant, and who ufed to ride into the city no better mounted than upon an afs. He had procured to feveral of his flaves diilinguifhed places in the Egyptian army : And thofe officers, although now greatly his fuperiors, had all imaginable refpecl for their old mailer, and were upon all cocafions ready to defend and protect him.
One Haffun Kiaja, who was content himfclf with the employment of Kiaja, or lieutenant to the Aga of the janiffaries, had advanced feveral of his flaves to the highefl offices. His fon Abderachman Kiaja, although, like him, only lieutenant to the Aga of the janiiTaries, was all-powerful in Egypt when I was there ; not on account of his employment, for it was inconfi-derable, but becaufe many of the lords of the country owed their fortunes to his family. He was, beiides, very rich ; and, while he commanded rcfpccr, by the number of troops which he maintained, gained the love of the people and of the clergy by the liberality of his pious mortifications.
But the mod extraordinary inftance is that of Ibrahim Kiaja, who was never in any higher employment than the lieutenant to the Aga of
the
niebuhVs travels
the jariifTaries. This man had been Have to Othnan Kiaja, who had been himfelf Have to Hajfan Kiaja, mentioned above. Ibrahim, by means of his flaves, for whom he had obtained the firft employments, acquired fo great credit, that he for a long time governed Egypt. The number of his creatures is a proof of his influence. In my time, of the eighteen Beys, eight had been his flaves; and of the feven Agas of the great body of the militia, five were out of his family, and owed to hini their liberty and fortunes. Many, alfo, of his old flaves occupied considerable pofts in the army (n).
Among the Beys who held the government of Egypt, when 1 was in that country, was one, who, even then, had begun to diftinguifh himfelf, and has iince made a great figure. This was the famous Ali Bey, who had been a Have to Ibraham Kiaja, and had rifen to the employment of Schiech- el-belled, or governor of the capital. After my departure, he was banilhed to Ghajfa. But he returned in the year 1768, put to death four Beys, and compelled the Pacha to forbid four others to return, who had faved themfelvcs by flight. Becoming thus all-powerful, he afpired to the fovereignty of E-gypt. With this view he entered into an alliance with Schkch Daher, and was, fome time
after
after, flain in a battle with Bey Aba Daab, who had formerly been one of his adherents (o).
Next after the Beys, in power and dignity are the principal officers of the forces. Of thefe, the feven Agas of the feven corps of the militia, have feats in the divan ; as well as their feven Kiajas or lieutenants, for the year when they are in office. The janiffaries have the greater! privileges, but are not the firft in rank among thofe corps.
I could not learn what civil employments confer a right to a feat in the divan, I cannot therefore enumerate the priefts or men of the law who have feats in it.
The members of this ariftocracy are extremely haughty and infolent. In Cairo no Chriilian or Jew may appear on horfeback. They ride only affes, and mult alight, upon meeting even the molt inconfidcrable Egyptian lord. Thofe lords appear always on horfeback, with an info-lent fervant before them, who, with a great naff in his hand, warns the riders on affes to fhew the due marks of refpect to his mailer crying out enjil, get down. If the infidel fail to give inftant obedience, he is beaten till he a-light. A French merchant was drubbed on an occalion of this kind. Our phyfician, too, was infulted for being too tardy in alighting from his nfs.   For this reafon, no European dares walk
Vol. I. K th^
82
NIEEUHR's TRAVEL'S
the ftreets without having a perfon to attend him who knows all thofe lords, and can give him notice when they approach. At firft, when I went about in Cairo, I made my janiftary go before, and my fervant follow, both mounted on afles as well as myfelf. But, after having the mortification to fee thefe two Muffulmans remain upon their beafts, while I was obliged to alight, I determined to walk on foot.
It is true, that in Egypt, thefe distinctions between the Mahometans and perfons of other religions, are carried a greater length, than any where elfe through the Eaft. Chriftians a-id Jews muft alight even before the houfe of the chief Cadi; before more than a fcore of other houfes in which the magiftrates distribute juf-tice ; before the gate of the janiflaries ; and before feveral mofques. They are not even fuf-fered to walk by feveral mofques in high veneration for their fanctity ; or by the quarter El-Karafe, in which arc a great many tombs and houfes of prayer ; they are obliged to turn out of their way, to avoid thefe places, as even the ground on which they Stand, is fo facred in the eyes of the people, that they will not fuffer it to be profaned by the feet of infidel?.
I know not, if there be a formal prohibition, forbidding Chriftians to appear on horfeback in the ftreets of Cairo.   The laft Englifli Conful
appeared
appeared always on horfeback, dreffed like a Mahometan lord. But he was very rich, and gained the efteem of the great by giving them fplendid entertainments ; and of the common people by diftributing large alms, whenever he appeared in public. The other Confuls never ride on horfeback, except when they go to have an audience of the Pacha. As they then drefs magnificently, they are expofed to the infults of the people, who think our fhort dreffes very unbecoming for a perfon of dignity to wear. At other times, thefe Confuls ride modeitly on affes, and alight with due humility whenever they meet an Egyptian lord.
Chap. IV.
Of the Police of the Cities.
In a city, like Cairo, inhabited by a number of petty tyrants, who are ever at variance among themfelves, and fecking each others ruin, and who often proceed to open violence in determining their quarrels, private perfons can never oonfider themfelves, as in abfolute fecurity. The narrownefs of the ftreets, and the crowds which ^re conftantly prefting through them, are favourable to difordcr.   Yet, fewer inftances of rob-
K 2 hery
bcry, theft, and murther, are heard of here, than in the great cities of Europe. A few regulations, which are common through all the Eaft, maintain tranquillity, and arc nearly as carefully obferved through all the cities of the province, as in the capital.
The magiftrates contribute to the public fe-curity, by a very prompt adminiftration of juf-tice. The Cadi, and a number of other inferior judges, difpofed through the different quarters of the city, never leave their tribunals, but are continually active in maintaining order, and pacifying the quarrels which arife, each in his Own divilion.
At Cairo, and in all the other cities of the Eaft, every trade has a head, who is intrufted with authority over them, knows every individual in the body to which he belongs, and is in fome mcafurc anfwerable for them to Government. Thofe heads of the trades preferve or* der among the artifans, who are a numerous body. Even the women of the town, and thieves, have each a head in the fame manner ; not that, thief or robber is a profcihon licenfed by law ; but, the head is appointed to facilitate the recovery of ftolen goods. At Tripoli in Barbary, the black Haves choofe a chief, who is acknowledged by the regency j and this is a mean by
which
which the revolt or elopement of thofe flaves is often prevented.
The great officers of the police and of juftice vifit the different parts of the city, both by night and day, attended by a numerous train, and at feafons when they cannot be expected, in order to infpect the markets, and to take up fufpected perfons. Thofe oflicers give inflant fentence upon offenders, and condemn them to the baflina-doe, without any form of procefs ; they will c-ven hang them up if they take them in the act. The fear of being every moment furprifed by thefe officers, reflrains the people from mutiny or pillage. 1 have often witnelfed the terror which thofe awful infpectors infpirc. At light of them, my Egyptian fervant, was fo ftruck with fear, that he ran haftily homewards, and I was obliged to ufe force before I could make him turn and proceed,
AH the ftreets of Cairo have gates which are fhut at night; but a porter waits to open to thofe who can allege fatisfactory reafons for paShng from one Street to another, and approach with a light in their hands. The man, for a fmall acknowledgment, opens the gate, but ftojw every fufpected perfon. This regulation presents nocturnal aflemblics and tumults among rhc people, ft at the fame time fo entirely fc-parates the feveral quarters of the city, that the
Beys
86
nilbuhf/s travels
Beys often contend with open violence, while the other inhabitants know nothing of the matter.
To fupport this eftablifhment, there is a chamber near each gate, occupied by a guard of janiffaries, who protect the porter by night, and, in the day, maintain order in the quarter. This guard is not relieved ; the janiffaries of whom it confifts are liberally paid by the city ; and they remain in this lucrative office, while their conduct continues to give fatisfaction.
Chap. V.
Of the Egyptian Agriculture.
Having had few opportunities of obferving the ' induftry of this people, I fhall have little to fay concerning the ftate of the arts in Egypt, which is not yet very flourishing. But, there are fome which afford articles of trade, and thefe it would he improper to overlook entirely.
Agriculture, the firft and molt important of all arts, is not in a very thriving condition here; at leaft, if we compare the prefent produce of the lands with what a country of fuch natural fertility might be brought, by cultivation, to produce. I have hinted above at the natural caufes of this decline.   But the local
circumftances
Circumftances of this Angularly fituated country are fuch, that even an unhappy mode of government, and the mifery of the huibandman, cannot extinguifti the natural fertility of the foik However ill-cultivated, it ftill continues to compenfate richly the flight labour that is bellowed upon it, and to repay, with ufury, the trilling expence laid out upon it.
The foil of the Lower Egypt fee'ms to be a fandy earth that has been gradually depofited by the river (p). In a dry and torridclimate, andun-der an unclouded Iky, fuch long feafons of drought as Egypt experiences would render it an arid and barren defcrt, were it not for the fertilizing waters of the Nile.
Some defcriptions of Egypt would lead us to think, that the Nile, when it fwells, lays the whole province under water. The lands adjoining immediately to the banks of the river are indeed laid under water. But the natural inequality of the ground hinders it from overflowing the interior country. A great part of the lands would therefore remain barren, were not canals and refervoirs formed to receive water from the river, when at its greateft height, which is thus conveyed every where through the fields, and referved for watering them, wht n ocraGon requires.
The
NIEBUHR/S TRAVELS
The belt part, therefore, of Egyptian agriculture, is the watering of their grounds. The wrater which the hufbandman needs is often in a canal, much beneath the level of the land which he means to water. The water he mud therefore raife to an equality with the furfacc of the grounds, and distribute over them, as it is wanted. The great art of Egyptian hulbandry is thus reduced to the having proper machines for raifing the water, and enough of fmall canals judicioufly difpofed, to diflribute it.
Thofe machines are 'commonly very fimple ; awheel with buckets forms their whole mecha-nifm. The larger! are moved by oxen; the fmaller by the Strength of the arm. It is not eafy to fee how the Egyptians have come to be fo much celebrated for the ingenuity of their machines. Thefe are not of the invention of the modern Egyptians, but have been ufed for time immemorial, without receiving the (lighted improvement.
Their instruments of hulbandry are very bad, Their plough, which they call Marha, is no better than that of the Arabians, of which I lhall hereafter have occafion to fpeak. To fmooth the ground, they ufe a tree or a thick plank, drawn by oxen yoked with cords. The driver fits upon this machine ; for the Egyptian pca-fants are not fond of walking.
They
They ufe oxen, as the antients did, to beat but their corn, by trampling upon the lheaves, and dragging after them a clumfy machine, This machine is not, as in Arabia, a Hone cylinder ; nor a plank with fharp (tones, as in Syria ; but a fort of fledge; confiding of three rollers fitted with irons, which turn upon axles. A farmer choofes out a level fpot in his fields, and has his corn carried thither in flieaves, upon affes or dromedaries. Two oxen are then yoked in a fledge, a driver gets upon it, and drives them backwards and forwards upon the {heaves, and frefh oxen fucceed in the yoke, from time to time. By this operation the chaft is very much cut down. The whole is then winnowed, and the pure grain thus feparated. This mode of threfliing oiit the corn is tedious and inconvenient • it deflroys the chaff, and injures the quality of the grain.'
I faw no wheeled carriages in Egypt; every thing is conveyed backwards and forwards on camels or affes. When the canal of Cairo was to be cleanfed, a peafant brought two oxen drawing a fort of open tray upon the dry ground, and when it was filled, led them with it to the bank. Within the city, where the bottom of the canal was not dry, the perfons employed in cleanfmg it, threw dud from the ftreet, upon the &*W8 in the canal, and then, with their hands,
vol. t E into
into panniers upon affes, and thus removed it t* a proper diftance. Such is tlie boafted induitry of the Egyptians.
I have fcen neither wind nor water-mill here. A few large mills there are, which are moved by oxen turning a poll that forms the axle-tree of a large wheel. The poorer people have only hand-mills to grind their corn > and thefe they ufe alfo in breaking the beans with which the affes are fed.
Recourfe is had to the imprefiion of the elements, in the management of no other machine. Oxen are employed in working the oil-mills* faffron-prefle?, &C« Among the different manufactures of Egypt, th:.t of faffron merits particular netice ; the procefs by which the Egyptians prepare this article gives it a livelier colour than what is made el few here.
Chap. VII.
' Of the Arts of Sublimating Sal Ammoniac, and of hatching Chickens.
As Egypt is without wood, its inhabitants are obliged to burn the dung of their domeftic animals.   The dung of affes and camels* is chielly
ufed
tffed for fuel, becaufe thefe two fpecies are the molt numerous, and the molt common. Little girls go about, gathering the dung in the ftreets, and upon the highways; they mix it with cut ftraw ; and of this mixture make cakes, which they place along the walls, or upon the declivity of fome neighbouring eminence, to dry them in the fun.
The lower clafs live ufually in chambers vaulted with unburnt bricks. In thefe chambers, thofe cakes are burnt, with a little ftraw intermixed, or inftead of it, ftalks of certain plants.; and this both for warming the apartments in winter, and for drefling the victuals. A foot, very rich in falts, is thus produced, which fattens to the roofs of the chambers. It is fold to the merchants, who judge of its quality by its tafte, and employ it in the manufacture of fal-ammoniac. The foot of wood is of a very different nature. Sal-ammoniac was long thought to be a production peculiar to Egypt. It was thought that it could be obtained only from camel's dung. But the truth is, that foot is e-qually good for the manufacture of fal-ammo-niac, whether prepared from horfe's, afs's,iheep's or camel's dung ; and this fait may be prepared ^ any other country, where dung is burnt in^ fed of wood, as well as in Egypt.
}* % Since
$pz niebuiir's travels
Since the nature and origin of fal-ammoniac have become better known, feveral authors have dcfcribed the procefs ufed in Egypt for fubli-mating the foot. It would be improper to repeat thofe descriptions at full length. I fhall only obferve, that this fublimation is performed in large bottles of thick glafs, fhaped like bombs, and put into a furnace which is heated with dung. 1 For three days and three nights, an equal heat is kept up, and that intenie e-nough to vitrify the potter's earth with which *he bottles are coated, to make them refill the violence of the fire. The furnace is then fullered to cool, the bottles are broken, and the fal-ammoniac taken out of their necks, into which it has been raifed by fublimation.
Some travellers mention the mode of hatching chickens in ufe here, as a very wonderful invention, and a very ufeful art. But it is much neglected at prefent by the Egyptians, who probably did not find all the advantage in it that is imagined. Unlefs at Cairo there arc no furnaces for this purpofe ; thefe belong to the Pacha ; they are ufed only in fummer, for the hatching is faid not to fucceed fo well in winter. Private perfons indeed carry fome eggs to the furnaces, and pay fo much a-hundred, to a perfon who undertakes to manage the hatching of them.   The owners mark their eggs; and
the
the hatcher is obliged to Shew the marks upon thofe which mifgive in tfie hatching. But I did not learn that the number of chickens hatched in this way was very considerable.
There is nothing extraordinary about the furnace in which the procefs is performed. The great furnace contains feveral fmaller, arranged in two divifions, where the eggs ly upon ftraw, and arc turned feveral times by night, as well as by day. Whatever is peculiar in the construction of the ovens, is intended folely for the purpofe of keeping a gentle and equal heat. This is effected by the circulation of the heat, through a fort of galleries which run along the openings of the fmaller furnaces. They begin with heating the large oven with fmoke, and the proper degree of heat is kept up, by placing lighted lamps in the galleries. That degree muft be precifely the fame as in the baths. When the chickens are produced, they are Unit up very clofe in a fquare apartment befidc the furnace, where they enjoy the fame degree o£ beat, as if under a hen. Thefe chickens fell very low, and are very puny.
What appeared Singular to me about this furnace, was its being entirely buried in a fort of hill. The chimnies and fpiracles are holes made in the earth ; and when one enters one of thofe furnaces, it is like going into a grotto.   I was
told
told by perfons of intelligence, that this pofition Was indifpenfibly neceifary, in order to the obtaining of the due degree of heat.
Chap. VII,
Of the 1 rait of Egypt.
Egypt, although fo greatly declined from its an-cicnt grandeur, Hill affords many productions •which are capital articles in commerce. By its fituation too, it is well fitted to be an emporium for foreign merchandife. It has communication by the Red Sea, with Arabia, Perfia, and the Indies; by the Nile, upon one fide, with Nubia and Abyllinia,—and on the other, with Europe, Barbary, Syria, and all the provinces of the Turkiui empire, While thus happily fituated for the advantages of navigation, it lies alfo in the midft of thofe nations who are accuflomed to travel in caravans, and is, of confequence, the natural centre of their commerce.
Cairo, by means of thefe circumftances, has become the refidence of a great number of rich merchants, who carry on trade in a manner very different from that in which it is conducted in Europe. For want of eftabliihments favourable to a regular correspondence of agents, merchants
are.
arc obliged to make frequent voyages for the management of their affairs, or to fend fome of their fervants or flaves to act for them.
This inconvenience is, however, in part, com-penfated by a cuftom generally prevalent through the Eaft. Merchants from the fame country, and often fuch as deal in the fame forts of goods lodge all in the fame kan, or caravanferai, fo that you can ealily learn where to find what you want. A considerable number of couriers, always attend to guide or direct, enquirers upon fuch occalions.
Staying fo fhort a time as I did in Egypt, t had not enough of opportunities to become fuf-ficiently acquainted with the nature of the E-gyptian trade. But a very intelligent French merchant favoured mc with the communication of fome important fafts concerning both the foreign and internal trade of this province.*
I muft firft obferve, that feveral branches of the internal trudc, thofe of leather, rice, and ficnua, have greatly decayed, by the imprudent conduct of Government Ibrahim Kiaja, who for ten years governed almoft all Egypt, thought fit to farm out the duties upon thefe branches. The farmers have raifed the duties to fo high a riite, that the arti. es upon which they are paid are no longer faleablc.
Raw
<t)G niebuhr's travels
Raw hides are ft ill a confidcrable object in the Egyptian trade : about 80,000 hides of buffaloes, camels, cows, and oxen, arc exported yearly. Near 10,000 go to Marfeilles, and a flill greater number to Italy. The buffaloe-hides being thicker and heavier than the others, are chiefly tranfported to Syria. As the pafturcs of Lower Egypt are excellent, the hides of its cattle, in confequence of their being fo well fed, are of the very belt quality for leather. A prodigious quantity of thofe cattle are killed in the months of the Sacrifices, that is, while the pilgrims are aflembled at their devotions at Mecca.
1,800,000 pound weight of fafFron is annually prepared iu Egypt. The greater part of it goes to Marfeilles and Italy; the felt to Syria and Arabia. The belt faffron grows in the vicinity of Cairo \ that of Upper Egypt is not reckoned fo good.
The exportation both of lint and linen-cloth is an important article in this trade. They are exported to Syria, Arabia, Turkey, and even to Marfeilles and Leghorn. What cotton remains, after the home-confumpf is fupplied^ goes to France and Italy. But this is not much, however, for no cotton grows except in Lower Egypt. There is even fugar produced here, the canes growing in Upper Egypt j but it is fo
ill
prepared, that they cannot fell it fo cheap as the American fugars.
Were the trade in rice under no reftraint, a confiderable quantity might be exported. But, for the exportation of this article, the ports of Egypt are ihut, and therefore the Europeans dare not carry off any of it, unlefs by Damietta. The Americans are even faid to have brought rice hither, for fome time, from Carolina : And if this be fo, there can be no better proof of the aftonilhing decline of agriculture in Egypt.
Sal ammoniac, yellow wax, and fenna, which come, in part, from Upper Egypt, are articles that can never contribute greatly to increafc tue opulence of a country, The adminilU'ation appear to gain more by thefe articles than the traders ; for the duties charged upon them arc in no j aft proportion to their value.
In exchange for thefe commodities, with which Egypt fupplies other nations, its inhabitants need various articles that are imported from other countries. The French export at leaft 800 bales a-year of cloth of Languedoc to %ypt ; for even the very fervants make a point °f having a new iitit every year, to wear at the fea ft of Beiram. The Emir-Hadgi of the Mecca caravan ufes no fewer than feventy bales him-klf; for he is obliged to make prefents of fuits °f clothes to the Arabs, who meet the caravan
Vol- I. M unon
98
niebuhr's travl ls
Upon their journey, as well as to a number of perfons at Mecca. The Egyptians never drefs in filk ; when, by any accident, it happens that they do, they prefer the rich (tuffs of the ifle of Scio to the manufactures of France and Italy.
Venice and Marfeilles difpofe of more than a thoufand bales of paper in Egypt, every year ; one part of it intended for the confumpt of E-gypt, the other for Arabia. All the writing-paper mil ft be glazed : for the people of the Eaft ufe reeds and very thick ink, in writing-A great quantity of paper is ufed in windows; for, in this hot country, panes of glafs are fet-dom to be fcen
The Europeans likewife import cochineal into Egypt, So barrels of which are ufed there* and 200 fent to India. Were not the induftry of the Dutch fo well known, it might appear furprifing that the Egyptians fhould be reduced to the nceeflity of fupplyirig themfelves with fpicerics from European merchants, from whom they purchafe pepper, cloves, ginger, &c. It is more natural to fee Egypt receive from us the productions of thofe arts in which we excel, fuch as needles, cutlery ware, lead, mercury Sec.
Coffee is an article that is both confirmed in the country, and conveyed through it. As this is the favourite beverage of the Turks, they are
defirous
defirous of having it in the molt genuine purity^ The importation of American, and the exportation or Arabian coffee, are equally forbidden. But thefe prohibitions are eluded, by means of prefents to the great, and to the officers of the cuitoms; fo that the Europeans procure,- every year a considerable quantity of their Levant coffee out of Egypt. But a very fmall quantity, indeed, of the iiland coffee is ufed, and folely in mixture with that of Yemen. It is not long f nee coffee from Maninico was the only fort drunk in Upper Egypt; but it became dear during the laft war. The Egyptians then re-folved to bring good coffee from Arabia, by the way of Cnjfury and they have it at prefent for a reafonablc price ; whereas that of the Weft Indies was fold exorbitantly high.
Gum-arabic is one of the moft considerable articles of commerce that pais through Egypt. Every year, in the month of October, two or three fmall caravans of the Arabs, from the neighbourhood of Par and Mount Sinai, arrive with about 70,000 pound weight of the gum. Thofe Arabs are very much in the way of de-baling their goods with an intermixture of extraneous matters; and yet oblige the Mahometan merchants to take them without any examination of their quality. Out of an averiion to cities, or probably to avoid corporal puniiliment
M a for
ICO
niebuhr13 travels
for their frauds and robberies, thefe Arabians never enter Cairo. They encamp at half a league's distance from the walls. The merchants are obliged to go out to them, in order to traiifact for the purchafe of the gum. The Arabs don't take money, but clothes, and fuch other things as they ftand in need of in the de-fert.
A great many caravans arrive from different parts of Africa, in the months of June and July, with three different forts of this fame gum. A quantity comes aifo from Habbefch, by the way of Djidda and Suez, which, though inferior in quality, paffes all into Europe, which receives annually 500,000 pound weight of this article.
Thofe African caravans bring, at the fame time, feveral other commodities; flaves, ivory, oltrich-feathers, tamarinds, and gold dutt. They take, in exchange, Egyptian cloth, falfe pearls oral, arms, and even full fuits of clothes, which the inhabitants of Cairo make up, according to their talte, This is what has, of late, increaf-ed the demand for broad-cloth in Egypt.
SECTION
SECTION IV.
of the manners  of the orientals in general, and particularly of the egyptians.
Chap. I.
Of the Inhabitants of Cairo and its Neighbourhood.
Arabs and Turks from all the provinces u\ the Ottoman empire, form the mod numerous part of the inhabitants of Cairo. There are al-fo Magrebbins, or Arabs from Barbary, other Africans, Perfians, and Tartars : All thefe are Mahometans, and molt of them attached to the feet of Schafd.
After the Mahometans, the Copts arc the next in numbers. They occupy whole quarters of the city, and very large ftreets. They have a great many churches, both in the capital, and at Mafr-el-atik in its vicinity. Their patriarch »lfo reiides at Cairo.
The
The Jews are the moll numerous clafs, next after the Mahometans and the Copts. Some Pharifees or Talmudifts, refide here, as well as Karaites, who, though not numerous, have a fy-nagogue of their own. The Talmudifts are numerous and powerful. They have long farmed all the cuftoms ; an undertaking which brings them both wealth and credit. In the republican Government of Egypt, they find it caller to gain ftcady protectors, than in the other provinces of Turkey, where all depends upon the caprice of a Pacha who knows not how foon he may lofe his place, or of the fuperintendant of the cuftoms who refidcs in Conftantinoplc. One proof of the confequence which the Jews enjoy under the ariftocracy of Cairo, is, that the offices of the cuftoms are ihut upon their fabbath, and no goods can pais on that day, although belonging to Chriftians or MulTulmans.
The Greeks have only two churches in Cairo.! in one of which the fervice is performed by the patriarch of Alexandria, and in the other by the bilhop of Mount Sinai. The Armenians, who are not numerous, have only one church, but that a h&ndfome one. From Europe here are feveral French and Italian merchants, but no Dutchmen ; yet the Dutch have a Conful here, as well as France and Venice.
If Cairo conic ever to want European merchants, yet it is not probable, that it will be without ecclefiaflics of the Roman Communion. Here are Jefuits, Capuchins, Cordeliers, and STfe-* thcrs of the Society for the propagation of the Chriftian Faith. Thefe monks are all eager to make profelytes, and fometimes fucceed fo far as to convert, fome fchifmatic Christian of the Eaft. The Government readily tolerates thefe modern apoStles, on account of the profits which they derive from the quarrels Avhich the converfions produce between the apoftate, and the members of the Communion which he forfakes. The Pacha is often not content with fitting the contending parties, but examines tjie affair to the bottom, and exacts conhderablc funis from the monks befides.
The neighbourhood of Cairo is partly inhabited by Copts, but chiefly by Arabs, wandering or fettled. Thefe deferve to be more particularly confidered.
Chap. II.
Of the Copts,
If an ancient origin, and illuftrious ancestors could confer merit, the Copts would be an high-
ly eftimable people They are defcended from the ancient Egyptians; and the Turks, upon this account, call them, in derifion, the pofte-rity of Pharaoh. But their uncouth figure, their ilupidity, ignorance, and wretchednefs, do little credit to the fovercigns of ancient Egypt.
They have lived for 2000 years under the dominion of different foreign conquerors, and have experienced many viciffitudes of fortune. They have loll their manners, theirlanguage, their religion, and almoil their exillence. They are reduced to.a fmall number, in comparifon of the Arabs, who have poured like a flood over this country. Of the diminution of the numbers of the Copts fome idea may be formed from the reduction of the number of their bifhops. They were feventy in number, at the period of the Arabian conqueft. They are now only twelve, and moft of thefe fettled in Upper Egvpt, to which the ancient inhabitants feem to have retired from the centre of the conqueft.
The Egyptians have been always diftinguifli-cd as a melancholy, conceited, and fuperltitious race. Their pofterity maintain with the fame obftinacy, the opinions which they were com., pelled by the Greeks to adopt. The Copts have an infurmountable avcrfion to the Romifh Church.   Their patriarch is at the fame time
head
head of the Abyifinian Church, whither he fends a bifhop to govern the clergy.
It would be a matter of lingular importance to recover the knowledge of the ancient Coptic, the Rifan Pharaoun, or language of Pharaoh. In Egypt, we fee, even on the mummies, alphabetical infcriptions, which are very different from the hieroglyphics, and, ifdecyphercd, might throw light upon the ancient hiftory of Egypt, and help to an explanation of the hieroglyphics. But this language of the ancient Egyptians feems to be entirely loft. The Ptolomies were at pains to fubftitutc the Greek, intlead of the ancient language of their new fubjecls. The Greek emperors of Conftanti nople forbade the ufe of the ("optic in converfation, under pain of death j and obliged the Egytians to adopt the Greek, inftead of the Pharaonic alphabet. Hence the modern Coptic, in which thefe people have their verllon of the Holy Scriptures, is a mixture of Greek and old Egyptian. The Sultans of Egypt effaced the remains of this language, thus corrupted, by forbidding it to be fpoken, under the fame penalty, and introducing, in its room, the Arabic, which is the prefent language of the Copts. The liturgy is ft ill read in the modern Coptic ; but the people underftand it not, till c*plained from an old Arabic tran nation, that is written bcfidc the text.   Even the priefts un-
v©l. I. N derlland
derftand not the language of their Scriptures, and can fcarce read the characters,
Mr Forfkal became acquainted with a Copt, named Ibrahim Ennafcb, a man of learning and polifhed manners, whofe employment was in copying the books of the liturgy j "by which he earned at the rate of half-a-crown in three days. My friend faw, in the hands of this Egyptian, a dictionary of a great many genuine old Coptic wTords, with their explanations in Arabic. He was alfo informed by Ibrahim Ennafch, that there ftill are, in feveral convents in Upper E-gypt, a good number of Coptic books ; but his informer knew nothing of their nature or contents.    The clergy conceal thefe books with great care, for fear, as they fay, left the Catholics carry them olf, and, after faliifying their contents, print them in Europe.   Thus they have hitherto remained unknown.   If thofe ecclefiaf-tics could be perfuaded that we are not all of the fame party as the Pope, and were at the fame time gratified with fomething to alleviate their extreme poverty, copies of the books in this hidden literary trcafure might furely be obtained.
CiiAr.
Itf arabia, tsV.
icy
Chap. III.
t
Of the Arabians in Egypt.
Tris Arabians appear to have conquered and fettled in Egypt, at feveral different periods, very diftant from one another. Veftiges may ft ill be traced which prove their ancient refi-dencC in this country. The fhcphcrd-kings, whofe memory was in abhorrence among the Egyptians, mult have been leaders of troops of wandering Arabs,
But, whatever may have paffed in thofe remote ages, iince Egypt was conquered by the Saracens, the greater part of its inhabitants have been Arabs. Of thefe, fome are fettled in the cities; others live in the villages, and cultivate the ground j and the reft wander through the country with their cattle, and encamp in tents.
When I come to fpeak of the Arabian nation in general, I lhall then have occafion to fpeak. of its different branches, their manners and cuftoms : Here I lhall Only mention fome particulars relative to the Egyptian branch.
N 3 - The
io8
niebuiir's travels
The Arabian inhabitants of the cities of this province have nothing peculiar to diftinguifh them from thofe in the other cities of the Eaft or in Arabia, in particular. And the Arabian pcafant of Egypt equally refembles the other peafants of the Eaft. Yet, the pofterity of ftran-gers fettling in Egypt are thought to degenerate. Arabian horfes, too, lofe their Strength and mettle here. Egyptian peafant is a denomination of contempt through Arabia.
The BcdouinSy or wandering Arabs, being-free, almoft independent, and rather tributary allies, than fubjects of the Egyptian Government, are the moil remarkable branch of thc nation. They are divided into tribes, governed by hereditary chiefs, called Schiecbs, and thefe fubordinate to a great Schiech, who has authority over feveral tribes. Upon paying a certain tribute to Government, the Bedouins arc permitted to feed their Slocks through the rich pafturage-grounds of Egypt. But they frequently abufe this permiflion, and pillage, without distinction, as well thc huibandmen in the districts in which they encamp, as thofe travellers who have thc misfortune to fall into their hands. They are ready, too, to take part in the diffenfions which frequently arife in this military republic. When Government attempts to punith them, or to conitrain them to their du-
\ it']>itin's Ti-as < Is.
ty, they either defend themfelves by force, or retire into the defarts till their mifdemcanours be forgotten.
They are almoft always on horfeback, and armed with a lance,—at leall the more confide-rable among them,—and ranging from place to place : The care of their cattle, and excuriions for robbery or amufement, are all their employment.
Independence renders them haughty and in-folent; and their idle, unfettled way of life, with the poverty which naturally attends it, probably infpire that fpirit of theft and robbery by which they are fo much diftinguiflied. I have already had occafion to mention fome inftanccs of their propenfity to infefl: the country and in-fult palfengers, Mr Forfkal and I had a new proof of it in an excurfion which we made to the Pyramids. Setting out from Geem, we met two Bedouins on horfeback, whom we hired to guide and efcort us, Juil as we reached the foot of the Pyramids, we obferved an Arab riding up to us at full gallop. He was a young Schiech, and behaved at firft to us with great civility : But he foon changed his tone, threatened us with his lance, and ordered us to give him money, before we quitted the fpot. Upon Mr Forfkal's refufing to comply with fo infolent a demand, thc Schiech feized his turban, and
held
held his piftol to my breaft, when I offered to defend my friend. The two Bedouins, our guides, made no attempt to interpofe, either out of refpect to the Schiech, or from natural perfidy. We were at lait obliged to gratify the robber. We returned another time better attended. But this did not hinder the Arabs from gathering about us, and Healing whatever they could lay their hands on, unobferved.
The Arabic language has, from the circumstances here enumerated, become the language of Egypt: But, in the mouths of the Egyptians, and thofe vagabond Bedouins, it difplays little of its genuine purity. Mr Forlkal left a long lift of words ufed at Cairo, which differ entirely from the words expreflive of the fame ideas in the dialect of Yemen. The laft, being the dialect of a province fhut up in a manner from ftrangers, and therefore not liable to be debated by any infufion of foreign idioms, is to be regarded as the teft of the other dialects. That of Egypt is contaminated with forms of expref-fion from all the diverfity of languages which the viciflitudes of its fortune and the diverfity of its inhabitants have occalionally introduced into that country.
Chap.
Chap. IV.
Of the Drefs of the Men in thc Eaft.
There is little diverfity in the manners and cuftoms of many of the Mahometan nations in the Eaft. Wherefore, to avoid repeating afterwards what I am to mention here, I lhall explain at fome length whatever is common to all thofe nations, and which will therefore refer to the Egyptians among others.
We have feveral good dcfcriptions of thc drefs of the people of the Eaft, with fuitable engravings accompanying them. Thofe in RuflcTs defcription of Aleppo, are the heft and the lat-eft. Yet, upon a comparifon of the plates in Ruffcl's work, with thc drefs at prefent worn through the Ottoman empire and in Egypt, a great difference may be perceived. What happens in Europe, happens likewife in Turkey; millions change ; and the drefs of the great, and of the capital are imitated through the provinces.
The drefs of the Eaftern nations, fome peculiar cities among'which we obfervedwith particular attention, is adapted to their climate and manners.   As they are accuftomed to fit crofs-
legged,
legged, they wear their clothes very wide. And being obliged to exprefs their reipect for holy places, and for the apartments of the great, by leaving their fhoes at the ,gate, they find it ne-ceifary to drefs fo as that they may fuffer no inconvenience from the want of them. In many countries of the Eaft, thc climate is very unequal, with hidden variations from heat to cold. The inhabitants of fuch countries are obliged to clothe themfelves warmer, than we Ihould think neceffary, and to wear feveral pieces of drefs, one over another, which they may lay afidc and re-fume, as the temperature of the air varies.
The Turks, who fet the fafhion to a great part of the Eaft, wear a fhirt with very wide ileeves, and, under it, linen drawers joining {lockings of the fame fluff, over which they put upon their feet teiliist which are a fort of very thin flippers. Above thefe ftockings, drawers, and (hire, they put on a febakfehir, or large red breeches, to which are fewed other flippers, or wjls\ as thin as the fti-ft. Above the febakfehir, they wear an cnteri, or veil, which falls under the knees ; and over the whole, a caftan or robe, reaching down to the feet. That it may not incommode them in walking, they take up a part of the caftan by means of a broad girdle j in which is fixed the Canjar, or poignard, which the Turks conftanlly wear.   Over the caftan,
they
they put on a great coat with very fhort Sleeves, which for winter is lined with furs, but is without them when intended to be worn in the o-ther feafons of the year. They often cover all thefe pieces of drefs with another pellice or be-nifiby or furtout of thick cloth.
Such a quantity of clo:hes would be too expensive for the common people, and inconvenient for them to wear at their work. They are content with the breeches, the snteri, and the benifch. The peafant wears only the ihirt and drawers. A drefs confining of fo many different pieces is not convenient for travelling. Upon a journey, therefore, the Turks carry a large blue bag in which they put up their long clothes. They wrap their feet in pieces of cloth, and put on wide boots ; and although this mode of drcf-fing the legs and feet be not the moll convenient for walking, yet it is warmer than our Stockings.
The drefs of the Christians in the Eaft is nearly the fame as that of the Turks. Only they are prohibited the ufe of bright-coloured fluff?. They may not wear boots of yellow leather. And they mutt ufe dark colours in painting their houfes. European Chriftians are allowed to wear yellow leather, and clothes of any colour, except green, which, rather by cuitom than by
Vol. i. O law,.
114 tflEBUHR'S TRAVELS
law, is referved for the peculiar ufe of Muflut-mans.
All the inhabitants of the Eaft, except fome Mahometan clergy, of the orders of the Dervifes and Snatons, fhave their heads, referving only a fmall tuft of their hair. This cuftom has been blamed by fome perform in Europe, as rendering-apoplexies more frequent among us than they were among our forefathers; but it appears not to produce any fuch effects among the Turks, for they are not fubject to apoplexy. They perhaps guard againft it, by covering their heads better than we. Their fhaved heads feem to require a warmer covering, at leaft, and indeed they wrap it up to a degree that feems to us very unfuitable to the warmth of the climate. Neither do they uncover it in expreflion of refpecr • our mode of falutation feems to them very ab-furd and ridiculous.
Through the Eaft there prevails a great variety of modes in covering the head 5 which, at firft, feems incontinent with the conftancy in fuch matters for which thefe people are diftin-guifhed. This diverfity, "however, depends not on fafhion. Differences in the head-drefs ferve as diftinctive marks of the nation, the condition, and the employment of the perfons who wear them. They even ferve as livery to fervants 5 each clafs wear a particular form  of bonnet,
corrcfn ending
correfponding to the nature of their bufinefs. It *s very convenient to find among perfons with whom one is unacquainted, fuch external marks indicating their refpective conditions.
Thefe various head-dreffes, which the Europeans confound under the general name of Turban, may be all reduced to three forts. The firft is a very high cloth bonnet lined with cotton, and wrapped round upon the under part with a piece of white muffin.   This head-drefs, which is called the Kaouk, is nothing but the Turcoman bonnet, with fome ornaments, and is therefore to be conlidered as a Turkifh piece of drefs.   The fecond is a cloth bonnet, fmaller, and much, lower than the former ;  it is alfo wrapped upon the under part with a piece of linen, and then receives the name oifafch or turban ; this is the national head-drefs of the Arabians, and by them the falhion has been communicated through the reft of Alia.   The third is alfo a bonnet of cloth, lined with cotton, of various heights in the crown ; but inftead of being wrapped with linen, bordered with a piece of lambfkin.   It is called Kalpak, and is of Tartar origin, although now worn by many of the Chriftians in the Eaft.
All the great men in Turkey, wear the Kaouk of yellow cloth, with a piece of fine white muf-lin wrapped round it.   The Scheriffs, or defecn-O 3 dents
dents of Mahomet, although in little eftimation, and fcarcely ever admitted to any public employments, dittinguifh themfelves by a piece of
* * green linen, rolled rouud their turbans, or Ka-
ouks. The Copts, and fuch Chriftians as ufe not the Kalpak, wear a piece of linen ftriped blue and white round their Kaouk, which is commonly made of red cloth. They are imitated in this fafhion by fuch Europeans as alfume the drefs of the country. Even the clergy wear it, as well as others ; except the cordeliers and capuchins. Thefe laft wear, through the whole Eaft, the dirty tattered drefs of their orders, which is very difgufting to the Mahometans, who conli-der neatnefs and clcanlinefs as parts of religious duty.
Chap. V
Of the Drefs of thc Women.
It is more difficult for a traveller to become acquainted with the drefs of the women than with that of the men in the Eaft. So far from being permitted to enter the harem, a ftranger mull not even fee a Mahometan lady in her own houfe.
It is impoflible to obferve their drefs, when one meets them in the ftreet j for the Mufiul-
mans
maris think it extreme indifcretion, or even an in-fult, to look with an eye of curiofity upon a woman in the ftreet. Befides, they wrap themfelves fo clofely up, when they go abroad, that it would be vain to attempt to' diftinguiih the different parts of thejr drefs. At Conftantinoplc, when they appear in the ftreet, they have fo much white linen about them, that nothing but the eyes of the walking mummies can be feen. At Cairo, they conceal the head, and a pan of the body, with a large black veil; and their rich habits are covered with a fort of large wrapper of plain linen, which they put off, when they enter the apartments of their friends.
As I never had any opportunity of feeing a lady of distinction, I mull confefs my ignorance upon this head, and refer the reader to Lady Mary Wortley Montague's admirable Letters. She was admitted into many harems, and had opportunities of feeing women of rank in full drefs. She has been i'ufpected of exaggerating the beauty, magnificence and politenefs of thq ladies of the Eaft. But I know, from what I have feen and heard, that her descriptions are true. She has indeed confined herfclf chiefly to what merited praife aboui thofe ladies, while other travellers have fpoken only of their defects. But, whatever may be iaid of the truth of her relation, I can_on!y fpeak
of
of the drefs of the lower claffes of women, and make fome general remarks.
All the women in the Eaft wear drawers* even where the men do not wear breeches. The poorer fort wear nothing but thofe drawers, and a long blue fhirt. But, although in this manner half-naked, they all, without exception, wear veils.
The veil feems to be the molt important piece of their drefs: their chief care is always to hide their face. There have been many inftances of women, who, upon being furprifed naked, eagerly covered their faces, without Ihewing any concern about their other charms. The Egyptian pcafants never give their daughters fhirts till they are eight years of age. We often faw little girls running about quite naked, and gating at us as we pafied : None, however, had her face uncovered ; but all wore vails. The veil, fo indifpeniible a piece of drefs with the female fex, is a long, triangular piece of linen cloth, fixed to the head, and falling down before, fo as to cover the whole face, except thc eyes.
In fome provinces, efpecially in Syria, thc women wear a fort of ftlver or lackered hat, fhaped like a cone, a platter, or fome other ian-taftic form. The Arabian women, in Egypt and in the defert, wear a number of fingular ornaments ; large metal rings in their ears or no-
fes;
<
fes; others, of the fame kind, upon their legs, immediately above the ancle, and upon their arms, as bracelets ; on their fingers, fmall rings of little value ; pieces of coral hung about their faces ; and necklaces of all forts. They fome-times hang fmall bells to the trelfes of their hair and the young girls fix them to their feet. Some fancy themfelves highly adorned by the impreilion of indelible blue marks, by punctures upon the cheeks, the chin, and the other parts of the body. Some paint their hands yellow, and their nails red, fancying thefe whim-fical colourings irreiiflible charms.
The drefs of the Greek women is not materially different from that of the Turkifh. As Europeans occalionally marry wives out of Greek families, we have frequent opportunities of feeing in what manner they drefs ; and, by this means, we are enabled to form fome idea of the Mahometan women of rank.
All the Greek ladies wear drawers reaching to their feet; the lower part of their drefs is indeed nearly the fame as that of the men j and they walk, like them, in large flippers. Over the drawers, they wear a fhirt of fine linen, and, over it, a veff, bound with a girdle of confide-rable breadth. Over the vett is a habit, or pel-bee with fhort fleeves, not ftretching more than a tyan under the fhoulder. The head-drefs varies
HO
niebuhr's travels
ries with thc caprice of fafhion ; and they are, if poflible, more attentive to it than even our European ladies. Nay, fome of thefe head-dref-fes appeared to me more elegant than thofe worn in Europe ; their drefs has at leaft fomething more rich and fplendid in its appearance. But, to view thofe Eaftern beauties with admiration, we muft fee them on their fophas ; when they move, their graces difappear. Being accuftom-ed to lit crofs-legged, and to wear a fort of thin leather boots, in wide flippers, they walk very aukwardly. European ladies, living in Turkey, ufe (hoes, even though dreffed, in other refpects, like the women of the Eaft. But it is eafy to diftinguilh, by their walking, whether they are accuftomed to fit crofs-legged, or continue to ufe chairs. At Conftantinoplc, the ladies have carriages, but feldom ufe them. The Turkifh carriages refemble ours externally, only they are without doors, and have wooden blinds inftead of falhes of glafs; you enter by a ladder placed to the back of the carriage. Within, inftead of feats, are carpets, on which the Turks fquat themfelves.
As carriages of all kinds are unknown at Cairo, women of the higheft rank, as well as thofe of the lower claffes, are obliged to ride upon affes.   Out of refped to the fex, the wives of
Jews
Jews and Chriftians are fufTcrcd to vide on, without alighting, as they pais the Egyptian nobles.
Chap. VI.
Of the Diverfons of thc Orientals.
It may appear trifling to defcend to a detail of l he arts by which a people have contrived to while away the leifure hours that hang heavy on their hands: Yet are thefe arts cxpretlivc of the character and manners of a nation. The nature of the amufements followed in any country can never be a matter of indiifernce-to an obfjrver, who wiihes to ftudy the character of its inhabitants. Bolides, what renders the amufements of the Eaft peculiarly intereftmg, thefe aie im of ancient origin, and an acquaintance with them clears up fome difficulties concerning old cuftoms.
The climate, cuftoms, and government, con-fpire to give thc manners of the Orientals a melancholy eaft. Their ferioulnefs is encreafed by the want of fecial intercourfe, from which they a,ra fecluded by means of that jealoufy which hinders them from admitting one another into their houfes. They are filent, becuufc, when fhut up with their women, where they have few topics for converfa-
Vol. I. P tion,
122
IN ARABIA, r<$C.
tion, they unavoidably acquire habits of taciturnity. As power is confined to a few hands, and induftry opprelfed by Government, the fub-jecls of the Eaftern defpots naturally become gloomy and languid for want of employment\ and the more fo, for their being unacquainted with letters, or with the fine arts, which afford the belt relief from the tcrdium of fuch a life, The exactions of Government render fortune fo precarious, as to bewilder the people in endlefs fpeculations about their interefts, and to render them more attached to bufinefs than to plea-fure.
The amufements of nations in fuch circumftances muft be very different from thofe of a people among whom the idle and opulent form a numerous clafs; where thc women lead the fa-fhion, and give the tone to manners and conver-fation, while all thc world are obliged to bend to their whimfies and humours. In Europe, all the pleafures of fociety are marked with the lbft-nefs and domeftic, fedentary life of the fex ; and the men are daily adopting more entirely the a-mufements of the women. But, in the Eaft, a-mufements take their eaft more from the transactions of public life, and have fomething more mafculine and auilere in them. The ignorance of the Orientals, indeed, leaves them a relifli for very infipid diverlions.
In the evening, the great generally (hut themfelves up in their harem. We know not what paffes in thefe folitary retreats: But, as the women of the Eaft are excelfively ignorant, and merely great children, it is very probable that the amufements of the harem are extremely chil-difli. Some hints which have occafionally efca-ped from hulbands of my acquaintance confirm me in this opinion*
The Ofmanli, or Turks of diftinction, who are ftill attached to the ancient military inftitu-tions of the nation, amufe themfelves chielly with equeftrian exercifes. The principal inhabitants of Cairo meet twice a-week in a large fquare, called Maftabe, with a number of attendants on horfeback. In this fquare they play at Gerid; which confifts in running, by two and two, with the ftirrups loofe* purfuing one another, and tolfing ftaves four feet long: thefe they throw with fuch force, that if any one be not upon his guard, he is in danger of having a leg or an arm broken. Others, while riding at full gallop, throw balls into a pot placed upon a heap of fand. Others, again, lhoot the bow ; an exercife in fuch repute, that pillars are erected in honour of thofe who exhibit extraordinary proofs of ftrength or dexterity in launching the arrows.
T 2 When
When the Nile is at its greateft height, the great about Cairo divert themfelves in little boats fplendidly decked out, upon the Birkets in the middle of the city. Upon this occaiion, they regale the inhabitants with nvulic, and often with fire-works.
A man originally from Tripoli in Barbary informed me, that the Pacha of that city ufed fometimes to erect two fcaffolds, with cords running between them, and upon thefe miniature models of fhips of war, armed with cannons of a fixe in proportion to that of the veffel. Thofe veffels, thus fufpended in the air, and commanded by naval officers, who directed the evolutions and the fire of the fmall artillery, prefented no imentcrtaining reprefentation of a fea fight. The captain whofe veffel firft fuffered confider-able damage was confidered as conquered. But this diveriion often ended in ferious quarrels among the commanders, and was therefe -e abolifhcd.
The fervants of the Egyptian nobles exercife themfelves on foot, in throwing, one againft a-nother, flaves five or fix feet long ; and thii3 learn to throw the Gerhly when on horfeback. The common people and peafants divert themfelves with cudgel-playing. Gladiators by pro-fefTion there are, too, who exhibit in public. But flaves are their only weapons; and a fmall
cufhoin
cuihion faftened under the left arm, ferves them as a buckler.
Through the villages, the young people ,a-mufe themfelves at diverfions much the fame as feveral of thofe which are practifed in Europe. They run, leap, play at the ball, fometimes at odds and evens, and at tolling a number of fmall ifones into the air, and receiving them again into the hand.
It is natural for a people who live in feclunon from fociety,and infubjectionto arbitrary authority, to be fond of public feflivals. Thefe are celebrated in Egypt with much pomp and ceremony, particularly the feflival upon the departure of the pilgrims for Mecca, of which feveral authors have given a defcription. The o-thcr feafts, befide this, are numerous : Each mofque celebrates a feaft in honour of its founder ; upon occafiou of which there is a proceffion of perfons of all ranks; and the people are permitted to divert themfelves in an adjoining fquare. The Copts have their feafts, as well as the Mahometans, and contribute, by their ceremonies, to the general amufement.
Thefe feftivals are fometimes celebrated by-night. The ftreets are then illuminated by the blaze of refmous wood in a chaffing dim, held up on a long pole. They ufe alfo another more luminous flambeau, which is a machine confiding
ing of divers pieces of light wood, to which are hung a number of (mall lamps, and the whole carried on a pole, as the former. When thefe feftivals are celebrated by day, the people divert themfelves upon fwings* and with other limilar amufements.
In Egypt, Syria, and Arabia, the favourite a-mufement of perfons in any degree above the very loweft claffes, is, to fpend the evening in a public coffee-houfe, where they hear muficians, lingers, and tale-tellers, who frequent thofe houfes in order to earn a trifle by the exercife of their refpective arts. In thofe places of public amufement, the Orientals maintain a profound lilence, and often fit whole evenings without uttering a word. They prefer converfing with their pipe ; and its narcotic fumes feem very fit to allay the ferment of their boiling blood. Without recurring to a phyiical rcafon, it would be hard to account for the general relilh which thefe people have for tobacco ; by fmoking, they divert the fpleen and languor which hang about thorn, and bring themfelves, in a flight degree, into the fame flate of fpirits which the opium-eaters obtain from that drug. Tobacco ferves them inftead of Itrong liquors, which they are forbidden to ufe.
This fondnefs for tobacco has rendered them very nice, with refpect to the form and materials
of
of their pipes. Thofe ufed by the common people, have thc bole of burnt clay, with a reed for a Stalk. Perfons of condition have their pipes made of fome more precious matter, and more ornamented. They cover the Italic with a piece of cloth which they wet, when the heat is cxcefTive, in order to cool the fmoke, as they inhale it. Over great part of Afia, the Periian pipe is ufed, which^ by paifmg the fmoke through water, renders it milder, and more agreeable to thofe who fwallow it. In Egypt, this Perfian pipe is nothing but a cocoa nutihell, half filled with water, with two Stalks, one communicating with the boh?, the other entering the mouth of the perfon who Smokes. Kerim-Kan, the prefent Scbah in thc fouth of Pertia, feems to distinguish himfelf at this amufement j for the pipe that is moft in fafli ion, is called, after him, a Kerim-Kcin.
Smoking with the Perfian pipe ferves to warm a perfon upon occalion, as well as to amufe. The fmoke inhaled from it enters the lungs, and thus communicates through the whole body a gentle heat. In a voyage upon the Euphrates, which I performed in winter, the boatmen were often obliged to go into the water, to fet the boat a-Sloat. As they durft not drink brandy to Save themfelves from fullering by the cold, I could not do them a greater pleafurc, than by giving them a pipe of tobacco in this way.
CiiAr.
128 IN ARABIA, fcPf.
Chap. VII.
Games in the Eajl\
The Koran prohibits playing for money j andfor this reafon the Orientals feldom play at any game of chance. The Mahometans have therefore the happinefs of never being forced, as we are in Europe, to engage, out of politenefs, in an inhpid amufement, which ~waft.es the body, by agitating the unfocial and malignant paflions; blunts the powers of the mind, by fixing its attention upon 3 few unmeaning combinations ; and chills the fecial ardour of the heart, by the conteft of vanity and intereft among the players.
However, as there are in all countries giddy and though tie fs perfons, I have feen Mahometans, who might pofiibly be feduced by the example of the Europeans, play, although at a piddling game, when they were not with their wo. men. They know nothing of our cards; but at Bombay, I met with four Arabian merchants, who played with Chinefe cards, fo large and thick, that not one of the four but had enough to do with both hands. Some young Mahometan merchants, whom I furprifed playing at Bombay, concealed their game with an appearance
ance of anxiety, till they learned that I was an European. The Greeks are too poliihcd, not to imitate our manners; they mew themfelves good Chriftians, by playing with our cards, and a deep gume too.
The inhabitants of the Eaft have, however, fome games, more fuitable to their fedentary life, and fplenetic humour, at which they play without keennefs, and merely to fill up the vacant hours. Such are chefs, draughts, trictrac. The Arabic names of thefe games, and their antiquity prove them to have been originally introduced from the Eaft into Europe. If the Mahometans fhew any degree of paflion for any one game, it is for chefs, at which they fpend, fometimes, whole days without interruption. But thofe who enter into the game with this keennefs and ferioufnefs, are reckoned dull by their companions. Inftead of wooden chefs-boards, they ufe a white linen cloth, with pieces of a different colour fewed upon it. When the game is ended, the cloth is wrapped up, with the victors and the vanquifhed, amicably mixed within it.
They have another game, which is played upon boards, marked with two fquares, one with -pi another, and thefe divided diagonally,—with itones or fliells of different colours. This game has found its way into Europe, where we fee
Vol. I. Q., people
people play at it with black and white beans. The re are many others, which, being lefs di-verfified or ingenious, have not yet reached us. Such are the Mankale, which bears fome refernblance to chefs ; and Tabuk Duk, in which being a mixture of hazard, it bears fome refernblance to back-gammon. The hazard depends upon the play of four broad ilicks, half white half black ; and the fides, thus differently coloured, determine, by their combinations, the movement of the pieces upon the board.
A more ancient game is If ill in ufe among the inhabitants of the Eaft. The Arabs call it Lai el Kab ; it is played with fmall bones of fheep or goats; and the value of the feveral ftrokes in the progrefs of game is determined by the appearance of one or another of the fides of the bone abovei The elder Greek and Latin authors fpeak of this game, which mull have given rife to the ufe of thc dice.
Chap. VIIE
Of the Mujtc of the EaJL
Among the Turks and Arabs, a man of rank would think it a difgrace to learn mufic. A certain aufterity in their manners, too, renders this
people
people infenfible to the charms of harmony. The contempt in which the art is held, extends to its profeifors and muiicians are accordingly little efteemed and ill paid. An art thus delpifed by the great, cherifhed or admired by no connoir-feurs, and not fitted to conduct either to fame or fortune, cannot make rapid advances.
The mufic of the Eaft, which is thus neglected, is not of the fame character as ours. It ia grave and fimple, without any complexity of modulation. Tlie lingers, to gratify the national tafte, are obliged to ling flow, that the fenfe of the wrords may be underftood. I have heard feveral Schicchs fing fome pailagcs from the Alcoran, in an eafy, natural key. There was fome. thing pleafingly affecting and folcmu in thofe pieces of muhe, joined with the words that accompanied them. In my voyage up the Nile, 1 joined with the failors in linking amorous longs, by altemate*couplet.>, in which they compared their miitrelfes to thc cucumbers of Damai-6tt«, and the eyes of the gay.elle ; and praifed their beautiful yellow hands, and red nails. This chorus of fingers allbrded us no fmall entertainment.
Airs of that fimplicity are cafily learned by heart. The Orientals, accordingly, life no notes, but fing by the ear.   1 was told, in fome provinces of Turkey, that there were in Conftanti-CL2 nople
nople great muiicians, who employed leered figns in recollecting tunes. But, having made enquiry concerning tins, upon my return to that-capital, I could fuiu nobociy that had the liight-efl idea of mufical notes ; not even thc dervifes of thc order of Merlavi, who are, however, efteemed the beft muiicians among the Turks,
At Bagdad, and at Conflantinople, I affifted in fome concerts, which, though not to be compared to thofe of Europe, were not ill form-, ed to pleafe an ear unuccuitomed to the intricacies of the mufical art. What is molt difagree-able, at firft, is to hear all the inftruments play in unifon ; unlefs it happen, that one or another take the fancy to play a continued bafs, by making an incctfant repetition.
If the mufic of thc Eaft be not to thc tafte of the Europeans, ours is not lefs difagreable to them. MrBaureniiend and 1 often played upon the violin before Arabs of diftincfion, who came to fee us. Although they did not openly or directly exprefs their difapprobation of our mufu, yet they laid enough to let us underhand that it was not a-greeable to them, and that they preferred their own country mufic, as more mafculine, and con_ fequenrly more excellent. As we were returning home in the dark one evening, during our ft ay at Cairo, from aflifting at a concert with fome European merchants, we overheard an E-
gyptiat;
in arabia, fcfc, i33
gyptian voice finging, and accompanied with a flute. One of our fcrvants, enchanted with the found, exclaimed, " My God ! how hue ! God <« blefs you !" We were furprifed, and alked him what he thought of our concert ? " Your " mufic," replied he, " is wild and difagree^ *' able ; and no man of fenfe or gravity can take pleafure in it."
It mould feem, from the Ample conftruction of their mufical inftruments, as well as from various other circumftances, that thofe are of a very ancient origin, and have been transmitted down, without undergoing any remarkable alteration. Several of them are likewife common among the inhabitants of the ifles in the Archipelago ; as are alfo three different forts, with three or four wires, called by the Greeks, Icitali, Semari, and Baghuna; and by the Arabians, diftinguifhed by the Generic name of Tambura, which is common to all mulical inftruments with wires. The Greeks have a bow inftrument with three catgut ftrings, upon which they play • with an wooden bow, fitted with horfe's hair, to which they give the ncceflary tenfion in play* iug, by preihng it with the Little linger; it is called the Lyra. Thefe inftruments are always accompanied with the voice.
Some bow ••inftruments belong in a peculiar manner, to the Arabs 5 fuch as the Semenge, a
fort
fort of bad violin, joined with a drum. Its body is commonly a cocoa nut-fhell, with a piece of {kin extended upon it; three firings of catgut, and fometimes of horfe hair, are fitted to it ; and it is played with a bow, not lets auk-ward in its form than the Greek Lyra. The Semenge is the inftrument of thofe wandering muiicians who accompany the dancing women. The Arabs give the name of marabba, to another violin, with a firing of horfe's hair, and a ikin retched upon the body of the inftrument. This violin makes a very fuitable accompaniment to the flirill voices of the common fingers, in the coffee-houfes. I faw, at Bafra, another violin, not unlike the Mar abba with one firing, too, and covered with fkin, like the drum, and ufed in the fame way. At Bagdad I heard the drum beat in the European fafhion ; a lady at Alexandria put on filver nails, and beat it with her fingers. ■
The Egyptians are fond of noify mufical inftruments j but the inhabitants towards the fouth of Africa, feem to prefer a fofter fpecies of mufic. In the hands of a Barbari, or native of the kingdom of Dongola, I faw a fort of harp that afforded a very pleating found. The hotly of the inftrument was a piece of wood of an oval form, hollowed, with a piece of fkin ft retched upon it, and mounted with five catgut firings,
with
with a turning handle, to which thefe were fixed, and by which the inftrument was tuned. It is played either by pinching the chords with the fingers, or by touching them with a piece of raw leather, in the fhape of a bow. My Bar * bari acquaintance danced while he played. This inftrument feemed not unlike to David's harp. The Barba/i call it KuJJir ; the Arabs, Tambura.
Among the wind inftruments is the true Tur-kilh flute, called Salamanie, and in ufe among the Turcoman fhepherds. It is entirely open, and without any reed, fo that to wind it is no eafy matter. This is thc favourite inftrument of the Merlavi dervifes, who, as they ufe mafic in their acts of religious worth ip, are the bed muficians in the Eaft, and excel efpecialiy in playing on thc flute. It is made either of a reed, or of a piece of fine wood. I faw a peafant at Cairo having Pan's flute, made of feveral different pieces of reed.
The Sumara is a fort of flute with two pipes, one of which, the fhorter, is ufed for playing airs, and the longer, in a continued bafs ; juft like the long pipe in the Bulgarian bagpipe* They have a bagpipe in Egypt, called Sumara el Kurbe; but this is not equal to the Bulgarian bagpipe, which affords the fineft mufic I heard in Turkey.   It is true, alfo, that the Bulgarian
fhepherds
kiebuhr's travels
fhepherds have already fome tafte for the mufic of Europe.
The Aiiatics are fond of accompanying their dancing and ringing with the found of tambourines, in order the better to mark the meafure. Thefe are of different forts ; either circular pieces of wood, or earthen pots made for the purpofe, covered with fkin, and founded with the fingers. The molt elegant tambourine is the Dojfl to which the women dance in the ha-rams. The caflahet is to be reckoned among thefe mufical inftruments \ it is carried by the public dancing girls ; beggars, too, and fome orders of mendicant Mahometan priefts, carry different horns and drums, which they found when they afk alms.
The military mufic of the Turks is beginning to be known in Europe. That which is to, be heard through the Eaft, however, affords nothing but an unpleafant, jarring noife, and would be entirely unworthy of notice, did it not ferve to mark the diftinctions of rank. A Pacha of three tails is preceded by a greater variety of mu fical inftruments, playing martial muiic, than a a nobleman of inferior rank dares ufe, fo that a perfon's employment may be known by the mufic which goes before him. The principal inftruments ufed in thofe martial concerts, are a fort of trumpet exceedingly noify, which is called
led in Egypt Surma : the Tabbel, or great Tur-kifhtabour, which is held horizontally, and ft ruck upon both (ides; a hautboy of an acute found, and another that founds not unlike our baboon. Laftly, tney have plates of fonorous metal, which they flrike one againft another, to mark the cadence (r).
Chap. IX.
Of Dancing, as it is praclijed in the Eajh
A refpeclable Mahometan, who mould indulge in dancing, would difgrace himfelf in the estimation of hia countrymen. The women, however, value themfelves upon excellence in this exercife, and practife it without fcruplc, reckoning it their duty to contribute to the pleafures of their huihands, by every little art in their power. When by themfelves, too, in an affembly confifttng only of women, on oc-cafion of a marriage, or any other folcmnity, they vie no lets than before their huihands, in dancing.
A perfon from Tripoli related to me in what manner the women of that city amufe themfelves upon fellive occalions, and I have good reafon to believe, that the fame cuftoms prevail alfo in
Vol. I. I* Turkey
Turkey and Arabia ; however, I do not pretend to be abfolutely certain; for it is impofiible to meet with an eye-witnefs of thofe amufements. My Tripoli acquaintance had his information from his wife, who ingenuouily told him whatever he afked.
No woman would prefume to appear in an af-fembly, if die were not handfome and magnificently dreffed. If the entertainment happens to be in the houfe of a family of rank, fifty of the grcatcft beauties in the city aileinble, all .dreifed out in great fplendour. In their train, they bring their handfome ft flaves, who attend in a feparate room, to take care of the coders containing their rniftreffes clothes. After the ladies have been feated for fome time, and have been ferved with refreshments, young girls are called in, to divert the company with vocal and inftrumental mulic. The moft diftinguifhed lady in the company then rifes, dances for a few minutes, and paffes into the next apartment, where her flaves are in waiting to change her drefs. She lays all afide, even her flippers embroidered with gold and fiiver, and retains only her head-dreis and bracelets, which are richly ornamented with jewels. In the mean time, the reft dance, and in their turns leave the room to change their drefs; and this is fucceflively repeated, fo long, that a lady will fometimes change her dref$
ten
ten times in one night; and put on fo many different fuits, every one richer than another. They ftrive all to command admiration ; and their endeavours end, as among us, in jealouiies and grudges.
The Greek women have fo fully adopted this piece of Eaftern luxury, that they change their drefs on the flightell occafions. An European fettled at Conftantinople, told me, that he had feen a Greek lady, the wife of one of his friends, whom he Tinted, put on five different drefies, in the fpace of two hours. Thefe inftances prove the power of inflinct, and thc uniformity of the character of the fex, all over the world.
The men difdain to practife this exercife, but amufe themfelves fometimes with feeing dancing girls exhibit, who go about, and dance for hire, either in places of public refort, or in private houfes upon fcftive occafions. Thofe dancers are called, at Conftantinople, Tfdringane or gyp-lies, and at Cairo, Ghajie. Tbey are young married, or unmarried women, belonging to a lepa-rate and defpifed clafs of the lower people, who intermarry only among themfelves. Their parents are commonly farriers by trade. They are attended only by one man, who plays on the femenge, and fometimes by an old woman, who plays on the tambourine, and appears to watch over their conduct; they are faid, however, not
R 2 to
I40 NIEEUHn's TRAVELS
to be of the molt demure and rigid virtue. Yet no married Mahometan incurs any obloquy by carrying them to dance in his houfe ; and they go wherever they are well paid. But an unmarried Mahometan dares not invite them to his houfe ; and we never met with any of thcin in the houfes of any of the French merchants, who, by a regulation of their fovereign, are all reftricted to celibacy.
At firft, we never faw them but by accident, and in a public houfe without the city ; but, towards the conclulion of our ftay in Egypt, we had better opportunities of gratifying our curi-ofity. A great part of the houfes in which the Europeans live, Hand along the great canal which panes through Cairo: and thofe Gbafi accordingly derive their bcft profits from dancing oppofiteto thefe houfes in the canal, when it is dry, before the opening of the dyke. At that period, we made fometimes one troop, fometimes another dance before us. We needed fuch amufe-ments to divert the gloomy ideas which the prof-pedl of our departure raifed in our minds. Yet, however much difpofed to receive entertainment, they did not pleafe us at firft; their vocal and inftrumental mufic we thought horrible, and their perfons appeared difguftingly ugly, with their yellow hands, fpottcd faces, abfurd ornaments, and hair larded with ftinking pomatum.
But,
NiehtfhriTrav els.
__,_____f. 141^
But, by degrees, we learned to endure them, and for want of better, began to fancy fome of them pretty, to imagine their voices agreeable, their movements graceful, though indecent, and their muiic not abfolutely intolerable.
There is nothing peculiar in the drefs of thefe women ; when dancing, they throwT up their veils, and leave them to float on their fhoulders^ They wear a petticoat reaching fcarcely under the knee, open behind, and fixed by a broad girdle with two large buttons. As they were defcribed to me, the Tfchwgane dance at Conftantinoplc, juft like Ghafie at Cairo. Mr Baw-j renfiend made a drawing of a party of the latter, with the man who plays to them upon the Jemenge, and the old woman who beats the tambourine.
The Chriftians in the Eaft have different fpe_ eies of dancing and mufic, according as they belong to one or another nation. At Mofult 1 faw Jacobites and Neftorians dance at one of their feftivals. None of them all are cither fo fond of dancing, or dance fo well as thc Creeks. They dance round in a ring, with fome pretty woman leading the dance. The Wallachians and Bulgarians have likewife their national dances; but theirs arc not equal to thofe of the Greeks.
It is always prudent to accommodate one's fclf to the manners and opinions of the country
in
I42
NIEBUHr's travels
in which one lives. The Europeans at Conftan-tinople obferve not this rule. They divert themfelves in the capital of the Ottoman empire, as they would at Paris or London. They have neither play nor opera, but they often give maiked balls at Pera and Galata. The Mahometans have an avernon for thefe amufements ; and, as none but the very loweft among them dance, they extend their contempt to dancers in general, whom they look upon as perfons of no morals or education. The promifcuous dancing of the two fexes, which they mentioned to me with horror, renders our balls ablblutely deteftable in their eyes. The Europeans, who live among Mahometans, would be more beloved and re-fpccled, if they did not vilify'themfelves in the eyes of the Orientals, by amufements which they might ealily fpare.
An anecdote was told me of a Turk, who, upon his return from Italy, where he had feen the Carnival, imagined that the Chriftians became mad at a certain feafon of the year ; and recovered their wits by putting allies on their heads. This ftory, whether true or fiction, is to be found in Montefquieu's Perfian Tales.
Chap.
Chap. X.
Public Shews of the Rajl.
We did not expect to fee a play in Egypt; But there was in Cairo a numerous company of players, Mahometans, Chriilians, and Jews, at the time of our arrival in that city. Their appearance hefpoke their poverty. They played their pieces, wherever they were invited, for a moderate hire. They exhibited in the open air. The court of the houfe was their theatre ; and a fcreen concealed them from the audience, when they changed their dreiles. Several European merchants had lived long at Cairo without feeing an Egyptian play j and we therefore invited the company to the houfe of a married Italian : But we were not much gratified either hy thc mufic or the players.
The piece was in Arabic. I was not then fuiiiciently mailer of this language to underftand the dialogue j but thc fable was explained to me. The principal character was a female ; but was acted by a man in woman's drefs, who had much to do to hide his beard. This heroine enticed all travellers into her tent; and, after rob-*n£ them of their purfes, caufed them to be
beate»
144
NIEBUHR*S TRAVELS
beaten off. She had already plundered a good * many, when a young merchant, weary of the inhpid repetition of the fame tricks, expreffed aloud his disapprobation of the piece. The o-thcr fpeclators, to mew that their delicacy was not inferior to his, joined his expremon of difappro, bation, /and obliged the players to flop, although thc piece was not more than half done.
If few plays are represented in Cairo, puppet-thews are, however, very common, and are to be met with through all the ftreets. This exhibition is reprefented upon a very narrow ftage, a fort of box which a tingle perfon can eatily carry about, and into which the performer goes. He fends forward his figures through holes in the coffer, and makes them perform the neceffary movements by means of wires paffmg through the grooves in the lid of the box. With an inftrument in his mouth, he gives his voice a fhrillnefs anfwerable to the fize of the figures. The whole together might merit atten_ lion, were not thc pieces, which the tafte of the fpeclators in Cairo requires to be performed, ab-fblutely execrable. The puppets begin by paying compliments, quarrel by degrees, and end with beating one another.
The magic lanthorn is a favourite amufement in the Eaft. I was not, however, fond of fuch entertainments;  as their fcope was always to
turn
IN ARABIA,
145
turn the drefs and manners of the Europeans into ridicule.
Jugglers are to be feen in all the more public ftreets; who amufe the people by tricks that are thought wonderful in Egypt, but would not be reckoned fo in Europe. One of thofe fellows drew great admiration by means of an intermitting fountain, the fecret of which is not under-ftood in thofe countries, and which appeared therefore to ftop and flow at his pleafure. Thofe jugglers are paid by a voluntary contribution of the fpeclators, but that fo moderate, that they can fcarce live by their profcffion.
Monkies, drefled up like human beings, contribute likewife to the amufement of the populace. They are of that fpecies which abound in the foreft of Yemen, and difcover extraordinary intelligence and docility. This animal feems naturally fond of dancing. A captain, in the fervice of the Eaft India Company, informed me, that he had often made his drums enter ruinous pagodas, where monkies were the fole inhabitants; and that, at the found of the martial mulie, even the mothers, with the young in their arms, left their holes, and fome hundreds of thefe animals would join at once in a dance. The long robes worn in the Eaft would be an incommodious drefs for monkies: they are therefore clothed like Europeans j a cuftom which
Vol. I. S encreafes
NIEBUHR.'S TRAVELS
cucreafes the contempt with which the Oriental* are otherwife fufheiently difpofed to regard our manners: A monkey, with his tail, appears to them no unfit representation of an European with his head uncovered, wearing a fword in a horizontal pofition, the end of which appears behind, iffuing from beneath his clothes, and in all other refpects in full drefs.
Thofe who lead about beafts for exhibition, have often likewife affes and fheep, whom they have taught to perform certain little diverting-tricks. Another thing, at which we were at firft not a little furprifed, was to fee ferpents dance. But, upon becoming better acquainted with the inftincts of this animal, our aftonifh-ment ceafed. The ferpent feems to have a natural tafte for founds; at the beat of the drum, it raifes its head, and erects its body, making, at the fame time,, a certain movement which is called its dancing.
I faw a man of a lingular character, who exhibited himfclf for a fhew in the ftreets of Cairo. He was a beggar, who, to move companion, displayed a huge chain, which he pretended to have borne in captivity at Malta. He enumerated, in a piteous tone of voice, what miieries he had fullered in flavery among the barbarous Europeans. What he complained moft of, and what feemed to excite the greateft horror in
his
in arabia,, <l3v.
*47
his hearers, was, that he had been obliged to keep fvvine, and to fleep at night in the fame fly with thofe impure animals. People of fenfe, indeed, heard him with indignation; but his narrative failed not to infpire the populace with abhorrence for the Chriftians.
Chap. XI.
Marriages of the Egyptians.
The fecrecy which is ohferved with refpecr to every thing that panes in the harems, or regards the women, rendered it impoflible for me to obtain particular information concerning the cere* monies of marriage among the Egyptians. I cm only defcribe what I faw in a public pro-ceflion at Cairo, on the occafion of a marriage. Mr Baurenfeind made a drawing of the pro* ceflion.
The bride, clofely covered from head to foot, walked under a canopy borne by lour men, between two women, who conducted her. Several flaves walked before, fome playing on the tambourine, others bearing fly-flaps, and Others Sprinkling fcentcd waters. She was followed by *t number of women, and by fome muficians,
S 2 riding
riding upon affes. A number of Servants attended ; and, as they palfed on, performed feats of ltrength and agility. All the women in the pro-ceffion cried incefiantly, Lut Lit, Lu \ an exclamation expreilive of joy, among the Mahometans. If the proceffion take place at night, flaves attend with flambeaus.
We met, one day, an Arab bride near Alexandria. She rode upon a camel, and behind her followed her dowry in cattle and furniture. The proceflion marched on llowly, and flopped fometimes, to difplay itfelf. As it proceeded, mufic played, guns were fired, and the women raifed continued lhouts of joy.
SECTION
in arabia,
149
SECTION V.
egyptian antiquities.
Chap. I.
Egyptian Antiquities in General.
Of all countries in the known world, Egypt prefents to curious obfervation the greaterl number of monuments of remote antiquity. Various caufes concur to give this country the advantage in this refpecf. over every other part of the globe.
A potent, rich, and enlightened people, are naturally led to leave fome marks of their existence, and fome proofs of their profperous condition that may defcend to the latelt pofterity. We know, by the unanimous teftimony of the ancients, that the Egyptians have been, from time immemorial, a polifhed and and flourilhing nation, before thc comparatively recent period
which
niebuhVs travels
which wc regard as the a?ra of ancient hiftoryv Three thoufand years have elapfed, fince the memory of the authors of many of the celebrated^ works in Egypt, was loll from among the traditions of priefls. So ancient a people mull un-, doubtedly have had a great ihare in the firft population, and the civilization of the fouth of Eu-" rope. All hiftorians agree concerning the fplen-did exploits, of the ancient Egyptians ; and of fuch a people there cannot but remain fome vef-tiges in the country which they inhabited.
It is true, that we have many decifive proofs of the exiftence of other nations in the remote, ages of antiquity, as powerful as the Egyptians, and even more enlightened. Yet, of thofe nations^ no veftige remains ; their buildings, and other public works, are totally effaced. The country which they cultivated and embellifhed, is, at prefent, a barren defart, deftitute of every remain that might mark its ancient ftate, and inhabited, or rather ravaged, by wandering barbae rians (s).
Some phyfical caufe muft, therefore, have contributed to the prefervation of the antiquities of Egypt. Such a caufe is difcernible in the nature of the climate and of the foil. The air is dry; rain feldom falls, and froft is unknown.. Wet. and cold, therefore, whofedeftructive agency
waftcsj.
ttf arabia, fcfc l~t
Vaftes away, even the moll folid wrorks of human con ft ruction, have here no influence.
The foil of Egypt, too, might furnifh the inhabitants with the molt durable materials for building. Through Lower Egypt, and in the riling ground on its confines, calcareous ftones are found, of a particular fpecies and full of final! cavities. But, of thefe, no building, except the pyramids, has been conftrucled. In Upper E>-•gypt, again, where thc furface is unequal and e-levated, are granites of all colours, the harden: known. The ranges of mountains are compof-ed of granite ; and it was therefore eafy for the Egyptians to employ in their buildings large' malfes of ftone, of a nature the moft proper to refift the influence of all unfriendly agency, whether phylical or moral. The modern inhabitants of Egypt cannot break a column of granite, to employ it in building a cottage, as thofe •of other countries break pillars of marble, for find lar purpofes.
Beftdes, the ancient Egyptians appear to have (pared no expence or pains, in order to confer durability on thc works which they reared. Their pieces of fculpture are all faliant, and all ofalize and folidity, unufual in the buildings of the other nations of antiquity. The infcrir> tions, although on fo hard a fpecies of ftone, are
fo deeply engraven, that the authors mun certainly have intended them never to-be effaced.
Upper Egypt being more elevated than the Lower, mutt have been firft inhabited. It feems to have been the principal feat of the ancient Pharaohs, who were fo powerful and magnificent; for in it are the moft numerous and molt fuperb monuments of antiquity to be found. Many travellers have defcribed thefe in. -retting ruins. Pococke and Norden are the nr T eminent. They have carried their refearches fartheft, and have given the molt exact and particular descriptions*
I had not great opportunity of examining the curious antiquities of Egypt. All that 1 could bring away, was a few of the figures that were worlhipped as idols, of bronze and burnt clay : and thefe do no credit to either the talte or the fkill of the Egyptian artifts. In general, it appears, that this nation never excelled in the arts of delign. Their paintings are remarkable for nothing but glaring colours ; and their fculpture is equally faulty in the defign, and in the figures.
Chap.
Chap. II.
Of the Pyramids.
Of the antiquities of Egypt* the moft aftonifh-ing, are, douhtlefs, the Pyramids. The eye, if not pleafed, is at lead Angularly ftruck by the appearance of thofe enormous malfes.
The three principal pyramids are feen from Cairo ; and every flranger who arrives in that capital is tempted to approach and examine them. We have a number of defcriptions of thefe pyramids already, and I lhall not encreafe the number. I lhall only mention fome obfervations in which I am obliged to differ from thofe who have gone before me.
The pyramids If and upon the firft hill between Cairo and the weftern bank of the Nile. In going thither from Gee/}?, we pafs a confiderablc arm of that river, over two beautiful bridges, confifting each of ten arches. Between the two bridges is a long dyke, of fubftantial mafon-work. Several travellers reprefent the bridges as works of the ancients. But the Arabic in-fcriptions upon them, prove them to have been built by the Mahometans.
Vol. I. T The
154
KIEBUHr's TRAVtLG
The traveller is aftonilhed, and feels his imagination in fome meafure expanded, when he arrives at the foot of thofe prodigious malfes. It is from this circumftance, I fuppofe, that the pyramids are thought much higher, on a firft view, than they actually are. My firft care was to meafure them. This I performed with all the exadnefs poflible, amongft a crowd of jealous and troublefome Arabs, by whom I was furrounded ; and found the largeft and fore-moft pyramid to be four hundred and forty feet. I was furprifed to find the refult of mymeafure-mcnt fo different from what many other travellers had given out to be the height of this pyramid ; and was for fome time uneafy about communicating it to the public. Upon my return to Europe, I found in the Defcription of the plains of Heliopolis and Memphis by Mr Foimnont, the following paffage : " Lord Charlemont, who t* arrived in Egypt, while I was there, told me, <* that he had meafured the height of the fore-" moft pyramid, and alfured me, that it was on-«« ly four hundred and forty four feet." The agreement of this meafurement with my own, rendered me lefs doubtful of the correcTinefs of my operations.
Thofe enormous maffcs are built of foft calcareous ftone, of the fame nature as the rock on which they ftand.    It is prefumeable, then,
that
that all the polifhed ftone has been taken from the fame place, and wrought at fmall expence. The fondnefs for the marvellous, therefore, fo common to travellers, has caufed them to magnify the expence and labour which thofe mountains of hewn ftone muft have coft. With the help of natural philofophy and natural hiftory, wonders of all kinds are reduced to their true value.
To enhance the high ideas which they hold out, of the magnificence of thofe monuments ; various writers reprefent the pyramids as having been once coated upon the outfide with marble. But, of this, I could not, by any pains, difcover the llighteft veftige. Befide the third pyramid, indeed, fome pieces of granite are to be' fcen; but thefe are neither large,nor numerous enough, to afford reafon for fuppofing, that even one pyramid could be covered with them. Thofe blocks might perhaps ferve as ornaments, and might poflibly bear the inferiptions, of which none are, at prefent, difccrnible on the pyramids.
I entered the foremoft pyramid, and examined the large chamber, with the coffer in it, of which all travellers fpeak. But I did not fee the fecond chamber, which was difcovered immediately after our departure, by Mr Davifon, who had accompanied Mr Montague into E-
T 2 gypt.
I56
niebuhVs travels
gypt. That chamber is thirty feet above the firft, and as large, but not fo lofty in the roof.
The famous Sphinx is finking ft ill deeper in the fand ; and a great part of the body is already buried. It feems to be formed out of the rock upon which the pyramid ftands; a circum-fiance which confirms my conjefture concerning the place from which the ftones for building the pyramids were quarried. I found the chin of the Sphinx to meafure ten feet fix inches in height; and the whole length of the countenance nearly eighteen feet.
The memory of the authors of thefe ftupen-duous and fantaftic monuments has been loft fome thoufand years lince : the pyramids are vi-fibly decaying, and muft perifh in their turn ; although, if we may judge of the future by the paft, feveral thoufand years muft ftill elapfe before their entire decay.
Ghap. III.
Of the Hieroglyphics.
The mod judicious and enlightened authors of antiquity, a part of whom had travelled in E-
gypt,
in arabia,   We. 157
l
gypt, fpeak of this country in the mod favourable manner. They celebrate the wifclom of its Government, and the knowledge of its inhabitants. Such a country, which muft afford fo much information concerning the earlieft revolutions of human fociety, may. well engage our particular attention. It is natural for us to wilh to know its hiftory and inftitutions.
That we are at. prefent ignorant of all thefe things, is not the fault of the Egyptians : no people on earth were ever more anxious than they to tranfmit to pofterity the memory of their ^evolutions, and of their knowledge too, perhaps. No country in the world contains more inferip-tions engraved on ftones of the molt durable na-' ture, than Egypt. But, this pains to inform us has been rendered fruitlcfs by the imperfection of the mode of writing this people employed. Inftead of characters expreffive of the diffe^ rent founds in their language, or iigns marking each a fyliable, with a determinate idea'affixed to it, fuch as the Chinefe ufe ; the ancient Egyptians made ufe of emblems, to mark ideas fome-, how referable to them, although by a very forced and diftant analogy. This is what we, after the Greeks, call hieroglyphic writing. .
As the relation between allegorical figures and the ideas which they are employed to represent, cannot be at all times equally evident; and as
they
they depend often upon the way of thinking peculiar to thofe by whom the figns were invented, it is plain, that writing of this fort cannot be legible without a key to explain the original bonification of the characters. Some of the ancients have, indeed, explained a few of thofe fymbols ; but we meet with an infinite number of which nothing can be known. The hieroglyphics, therefore, cannot be decyphered, be-caufe we want the proper key.
When the Tablet of IJis became firft known in Europe, fome learned men attempted to explain it by gueffing from one figure the meaning of a' nother ; but their data were infufficient.
Yet, I would willingly hope, that the key to thofe myfterious writings of the ancient Egyptians may yet be recovered. Various learned men have difplayed aftoniftiing fagacity and penetration in decyphering inferiptions in unknown languages, where there has been a confiderable quantity of characters for them to exercife their conjectures upon. Travellers fhould therefore colled: as many as poflible of the hieroglyphic characters, and publifti them carefully, that we may thus be furnifhed with more points of companion for thofe fymbols, through a greater variety of combinations.
The ftudy of the ancient language of Egypt would be equally ncceflary for this purpofe. I
fufpecl;
fufpect that the true nature of the hieroglyphics has hitherto been miftaken, while all the fym-bolical figures and characters have been fuppofed to be of the fame fort. After copying a confide-rable number of hieroglyphics from obelilks, far-cophagi, urns, and mummies, I began to think I could perceive plainly that the large figures were emblems of which the fmaller might afford an explanation. I* thought I could alfo diftin-guifh, in thefe fmaller hieroglyphics, fome marks of alphabetic characters, or at lealt of a mixed fpecies of writing, bearing fome refemblance to the alphabetical. Wherefore, by the ltudy of the language of the Pharoahs, we may come, with more eafe, to decypher thefe fmall characters.
The hieroglyphic inferiptions are found chiefly in Upper Egypt, where all thc monuments, and even the walls of thofe fuperb temples which are ft ill Handing, are covered over with inferiptions of this fort. It is no lefs common upon the tombs of the mummies at Sakaru. The embalmed bodies have covers full of hieroglyphics ; and the fepulchral urns are marked with them. Such as have been painted upon wood and cloth are in as good a ftate of prefervation as thofe wjiich are engraven upon ftone. It \% very probable, that, in the caverns of Sakara, \ t
thefe
thefe were examined, there are other more precious antiquities..
To colled: thefe fcattefed remains, would be a matter of great importance. But travellers feem to have neglected this care ; or at lead to have mifemployed their pains upon it. They fatisfy themfelves with examining what can be feen for money, by paying an infidel guide. Eut, they ufe no means to gain the friendlhip of the Arabs who rule in Upper Egypt. Without the good will of this jealous race, it muft be im-pofliblc to make fuch refearches with cafe or fecurity. The Arabs, if cured of their natural diftruft, would affift, inftead of obftruding the curious refearches of ftrangers. But a perfon, who would gain their friendlhip, muft ftay longer in this country than is common for that tribe of travellers who go into Egypt, merely that they may fay that they have been there.
Other travellers are too indolent to take the trouble of copying thefe ft range and fantaftic charaders. This talk became irkfome to mey too, at firft ; but, in a lhort time, the hieroglyphics became fo familiar to me, that I could copy them with the fame eafe as alphabetic charaders, and found the talk an amufement inftead of a toil.
But one cannot engage, particularly in fuch purfuits, without expoling one's felf to a variety
°f
inconveniences among an ignorant race, who regard Chriftians with diftruft, and are always ready to infult or abufe them. But we often bring fuch troublefome accidents upon ourfelves, by neglecting to acquire a fufficient knowledge of the manners and language of the country.
I myfelf often met with fuch inconveniences^ in copying hieroglyphics at Cairo, where the people are more mifchievous in their difpoli-tions than in the country. Going to make a draught, at one time, of a piece of curiofi-ty that ftruck me, I carried with me a Mullah for protection. The ftreet in which it flood was very much frequented ; and a crowd of people drew round us ; but, without offering any infult, only admired my European dexterity in writing with a pencil without ink. A Saraclgi, however, one of a body of foldicry, fomewhat of the character of huffars, in the fervice of the Beys, came up, and, to fhew his confequence, attacked me with abufive language. The Mullah advifed me to go away, before the fellow fhould proceed to ftrike me. I returned at another time ; and, to fecure myfelf agaiiift a fimi-lar interruption, gave a trifle to a faradgi, who was Handing near. But another faradgi came up, and a Iked me who had given me permiifion to write there ? fie whom I had paid, an-fwered,   " His matter."    The other replied,
Vot. I. 1T that
1(j2 nileuhr's travels
that " bis Drafter forbade me." A third tim*» I returned, and had nearly finifhed my copy, without disturbance, when the Imam of a mofque ohferved how I was employed, and made a noife that obliged me to retire. Thus thould I have been difappointed of my purpofe, if I had fuf-fered myfelf to be difcouraged, and not oppofed coolnefs and patience to their teazing and mifchievous arts.
At another time, when I was drawing (ketches of fome fragments that ltood before the governor's houfe, 1 was fuifered to proceed, without interruption, for feveral hours. But at lait the governor fent a faradgi to carry me before him. When I appeared, he aiked my reafon for copying the Pharaonic inferiptions. When I had explained it to him, he took my paper, and fliewed it to the nobles about him, who laughed at the vain curiofity of the Europeans* The Saradgi carried away my paper ; and, when I alked it from the governor, he told me, that I might have it from the Saradgi, when I chofe. This I undcrftood to be a hint to give the fet* low a prefent; and accordingly prefented him. with a crown ; upon which I had my paper re-ftorcd, and obtained leave to copy the reft of the infeription.
That which is the grcatett curiofity, and contains the greateft number of hieroglyphics, is, a
coffer
coffer of black granite, feven feet long, Handing near the old' cattle, Kalla el Kabji'b. It was this coifer that I had to come and go fo often to, before I could get a drawing of it made. Pocoke and Maillet mention it by the name of the foun» tain of treafures, or the fountain of lovers. A part of thofe infcriptions is covered over with platter,; for this fine piece of antiquity now ierves as a cittern for water. This coffer feems, to have been the coffer of fome perfon of distinction.
A fimilar coffer was dug up twenty years ago^ and was conveyed to Cairo, to be placed in-a mofque. But it was broken in bringing it afhore at Bulak.. The fragments were placed a-round a tree before the governor's.houfe; and while they were in, that fixation, I made a draught of them.
I was told, that fimilar coffers flood at the entrance of feverjalother mofques, containing, in like manner, hieroglyphic infcriptions. But, not being permitted to approach, thofe mofques, I could learn nothing- pofitive about them*.
I copied the infcriptions from a, broken obe-lifk, and from fome urns of white alabafter, of which Norden has given reprefentations. Thc French conful permitted me to make a drawing of a very interefting piece of antiquity at his houfe.   It was the wooden lid of a coffin that
U % had
had contained a mummy, and was covered al«, over with hieroglyphics, and with other characters that had fome appearance of being alphabetical. But as Cairo was not the place in which fuch infcriptions were to be found in the great-eft abundance, I could not copy fo many of them, as I fhould have wifhed.
To facilitate the explanation of the hieroglyphics, I have made out a table of fuch as occur moft frequently in all infcriptions. It may be farther remarked, that certain figures or characters occur oftener upon the obelifks, and o-thers, again, upon the fragments of tombs. This fact may be of fome ufe in helping to an under-ftanding of the meaning which they were intended to convey (u).
SECTION
jn arabia, If's.
1^5
SECTION VI. B
journey from cairo to suez and mount sinai.
Chap I.
Preparations for our departure.
A lthough the chief object of our voyage wa-j to vifit Arabia, we were unwillingly detained in Egypt for nearly a year. Several circumftances obliged us to this involuntary delay.
On account of the pretended fanctity of the pilgrims, Chriftians are prohibited from travelling to Arabia by land, with the caravan for Mecca. They are under a neceffity, therefore, of waiting till the feafon when the Red Sea becomes navigable, and velfels fail from the har-ber of Suez for Jidda.
Whilo
While we waited thefe opportunities, we founci it equally impoffible to vifit mount Sinai, or Jtib% hel-el-Mokatteb, the celebrated hill of infcriptions, both of which we deligned to examine. The Egyptians had been at war, during all the lad year, with a fmall tribe of Arabs who dwelt' W the environs of Tor, which rendered fuch a journey impracticable before the return of the caravan from Mecca, the conductor of which had been commiffioned to negotiate a peace with the offended Arabs*
Thrs fkirmifiling war had arifen from the intemperate rapacity of the Arabs, who gain their livelihood by hiring out camels, and carrying goods between Sue/, and Cairo. A number of velfels laden with corn, are lent every year from Egypt to Mecca. One of thefe veffels had anchored near Tor, to take in water, which is better and cheaper there than at Suez,; and the Captain had made his whole crew go on fhore. The Arabs could not refill fuch a temptation y but feized the Captain and the failors, and plundered the veffel. While this fupply of provi-fions failed, they gave themfelves little concern about the refentment of the Egyptians. But, when they had ufed all the corn, and durft no longer go to Cairo, for fear of having their camels taken from them, and being otherwife pu-[ nifned, they found themfelves much at a lofs for 1 the
the" means of fubfiftance. They began, therefore, to pillage the caravans which go and come regularly between Suez and Cairo. They had even the confidence to reprefent to Government, that they would continue to rob the caravans, ' till an amnefty Ihould be granted them for what Was part, and fecurity given that they and then* camcls might come and go in fafety.
So feeble is the authority of the Sultan who calls himfelf fovereign of Egypt* that an handful of raggamuflins ventured to brave the pride of the Ottoman throne, and came off with impunity. To reflore peace and fecurity, the regency at Cairo found themfelves obliged to empower the Emir Hadgi to make the concetti on which the Arabs required. The treaty was accordingly concluded at a place where the caravan halted, on their return from Mecca.
Affoon as we received notice of this event, by the difcharge of a cannon upon the arrival of a courier with the news; we immediately prepared to fet out. Preparations for fuch a journey as that which we propofed to make, would not occafion much trouble in Europe; but in the Eaft, make a very ferious and difficult concern. They merit a place here : for an account of them may contribute to the fuller reprefen-tation of the manners of the Eaft, and will fhe\V
what.
✓ -
l68 hiebuhr's 1 ravels
what a variety of means mud there be employ ed to obtain the common conveniences of life.
A traveller, although he know a little of the language, cannot want fervants, who muft have been previoufty in thole parts which he means td vilit. With fuch, we were ill provided. Our Swedifti fervant was, as much a ft ranger as we ourfelves; we had a Greek cook who had lived long enough in Cairo, but had never been out of Egypt • an interpreter to aftift ourphylician in his practice, who was a renegado Greek, and had never travelled before \ and a young Jew of Sana, who had before travelled the fame road upon which we were entering, but was regarded with fovereign contempt by the Mahometans, on account of the nation to which he belonged. None of thefe could be of much of fervice to us, in our intercourfe with the Arabs.
We had fo much the more occafion to fupply ourfelves carefully with provifions and articles of furniture; fome of which might be ufed, with advantage in Europe, in military expeditions. In the defarts through which we were to travel, a tent and beds were indifpenfibly ne-ceffarys We had a neat collection of kitchen u-tuilils made of copper, and tinned without and within. Inftead of glafles which are fo liable to be broken, we ufed alfo copper bowls completely tinned.   A bottle of thick leather ferved us
as
as a caraffe. Our butter we put up in a leathern jar. In a wooden box, covered with leather, and parted out into fhelves, we ftorcd our fpice-ries of all forts; and in another fimilar box, we laid our candles; in the lid of the latter, we fixed an iron focket which ferved us for a candle-Hick. We had large lanthorns of folded linen, with the lid and bottom of wmite iron. For a table, with table linen, we had a round piece of leather, with iron rings at certain diftances round it, through which cords were paffed, after our meals, and the table hung, in the form of a purfe, upon one of our camels. But we imprudently put our wine into great flafks, culled in the Eaft Damasjanes, and large enough, each of them to contain twenty ordinary bottles. Thefe vufes are very liable to be broken by the jolting of the camels, as we found by the lofs of a part of our Wine. It is much better to put your wine, when you are to carry it upon camels, into goat's1 fkin bottles. This fpecies of veffels, may, at firft^ appear little fuitable for the purpofe; but they communicate no bad tafte to thc liquor, if the fkins have been properly dreffed. The fame veffels anfwer bell to carry the ffore of water that is requiiite in travelling through dry and defart countries.
My companions hired horfes. But I, out of curiofity, preferred a dromedary, and found no
Vol I. X rcafon
reafon to repent of my choice. On a camel, th« faddle is always open above, that it may not hurt; the bunch of the animal ; but a dromedary's faddle is made like a horfe's, and covers the bunch. The dromedary, as well as the camel, kneels to receive a load, or a rider upon his back. At a certain fignal, he droops his head and neck, fo that one can alight and remount whenever there is occafion, without making the animal (lop. I fpread my bed clothes upon my faddle, and was thus enabled to change my poflure, and to feat myfelf fo as to avoid the direct im-pulfe of the fun's rays. A dromedary walks with long and regular Heps, and the rider, of confequence, feels the motion no otherwife than if he were rocked in a cradle. When my companions, who rode on horfeback, were weary and flint by the fatigue of riding, and by the excef, five heat, 1 found myfelf as little fatigued i\\ if I had iitten all day at my eafe, in a chaife.
Chap. II.
Voyage from Cairo to Suez..
The caravan with which we ,had defigned to travel, waited a long while for the concluhon o£
peace
IN arabia,  W, lyi
fteace between the Governors of Egypt and the Arabs of Tor. A difcharge of cannons, on the 27th of Auguft 1762, gave us notice of the return of the caravan from Mecca, and, by confequence of the conclufion of a peace, which would render the road fecure, by which we were to travel. We went immediately to find the Schiech from whom we had hired our beafts for the journey. He had pitched his tent near the village of Seriagus, where he, with his party, lay encamped, till we fhould find it proper to fet out.   But no body muft ftir on that day.
When large caravans pafs through the territories of the independent Arabs, they have at their head a Caravan-Bafchi, whofe buiinefs is to guide the caravan, and to treat with the princes who may exact duties for the liberty of paf-fmg through their dominions. This chief regulates the departure of the caravan, its journie^, and the times at which it is to reft. But fmall caravans, fuch as ours, whofe expeditions are fhort, have no fuch guide. The chief merchant in the party, always halts and proceeds as he pi cafes, and the reft follow his example. When none of the merchants in the company is confi-derable enough to have this influence, the Arab who has moll beails of burden, regulates the reft* We did not know the precife time at which we X 2 were
were to fet out, till the 28th of Auguft, when we faw troops of paifengers begin to move.
Our caravan had no very formidable afpect. Being in hafte to fet out from Cairo, before the great caravan, which goes always to Suez, immediately after the departure of the veifels, we had not more than forty camels which were loaded with corn and materials for building. Three or four camels were employed in carrying an anchor. I have already had occafion to remark^ that carriages are unknown in Egypt and Arabia.
We could not have been very formidable to any that might have been difpofed to attack us. Our camel-drivers, who were but few, carried broken guns, and rufty or pointlcfs fabres. A few Schiechs, indeed, to whom the moft of our camels belonged, carried complete armour, and rode upon dromedaries. But we could not truft. to them for defence ; for no Arab will willingly rilk his life to fave a Turk. It was our part, therefore, to keep in the middle of the caravan, and on no account to leave them, or encamp a-part, unlefs we wiihed to be plundered. In fome places, where thc danger was leaft, my comrade and I ventured to go before the main body of the caravan, to reft and enjoy purer air for a little.
Leaving
Leaving Seriagus on the evening of the 28th of Auguft, we palled near by a large village, called Hanjke, after which we returned into thc great road, and about eleven at night, encamped in a place, named Fl lirn bebacL The great road confifts of a number of parallel paths, formed by camels who travel in files, juft as they pleafe. Two miles from Cairo, we faw a fquare area inclofed within a wall, feveral feet high, in which the principal inhabitants of Cairo af-femble to receive the Emir Hadgi, at his return from Mecca. From this place to Adgerud, within four leagues of Suez, the country is absolutely a defart; for the fpace of three and twenty leagues, neither houfes, water, nor the fmalleft fpot of verdure being to be feen.
On the morning of the 29th, wre decamped arly, after taking a very flight refrelhment. We travelled onwards, thirteen leagues, croffed the mountain of Webhe \ and about funfet, encamped near the hill ofTaja. The great caravan from Mecca had paffed on the preceding night ; but they travelling farther than we to the fouth, we had, in confequence of this, failed to meet them.
On the 30th of Auguft, likewife, we fet out early, and proceeded to Adgerud, where travellers are induced to halt, by finding water fit for drinking.   Adgerud is a fmall caftle, that has
been
174
niebuhr*s travels
been built by the Turks for the protection of the road, mid the prefervation of the wells between Suez and the entrance into the defart. Although built only about the end of the fix-teenth century, it is now ruinous. Within three hours, we reached Bir Suez, where are two deep wells, unrounded with walls, and fhut up with itrong gates, to exclude the Arabs from the water. This water, although bad, and almolt unfit for human ufe, is however precious to the inhabitants of Suez, as it fetves for their cattle. It is drawn from the wells in leathern buckets. Bir Suez being only a league from Suez, we reached that city in good time. By my obfervations, it is thirty two ordinary leagues, or three and twenty German miles from Cairo.
Caravans ufed formerly to travel by Knjhwi, a city that flood farther to the north of the Arabic gulf, and of which coniiderable ruins ftill remain. In former times, fhips entered the harbour of this city, which was famous among the Arabians. But the waters of the Red Sea having here fublided within their ancient limits, this harbour was of neceffity deferted, and that of Suez conitructed. It appears, from the relations of the earlier travellers, that the city of Suez was not in exiflence in the end of the fifteenth century. It is firft mentioneddn the beginning of the fifteenth century, and Suez is
therefore
therefore to be conudered as a city of modern origin, „
Chap. Ill,
Of the City of Suez.
The city of Suez ftands upon the weftern fide, but not juft upon the weftern extremity, of the Arabic gulf. It is not furrounded with walls; but the houfes are. built fo clofely together, that there are only two paifages into the city, of which that neareft the fea is open, the other fhut by a very infufficient gate. The houfes are very forry (tructures ; the kans being the only folid buildings in the city. Hardly any part now remains of the caltle which the Turks built upon the ruins of the ancient Kolfum.
It is very thinly inhabited. Among its inhabitants are fome Greeks, and a few families of Copts. But, about the time of the departure of the fleet, it is crowded with flrangers.
The ground lying around it is all one bed of rock, ilightly covered with land. Scarce a plant is to be feen any where in the neighbourhood. Trees, gardens, meadows, and fields, are entirely unknown at Suez. Fifh is the only article of pro,
vifions
176 niebuhVs travels
virions plentiful here, All other neceffaries of life, for both men and the domeftic animals, are brought from afar ; from Cairo, which is three days journey diftant from Suez; Mount Sinai^ at the diftance of fix days journey ; or Gbajb, at the diftance of feven.
At Suez, there is not a fingle fpring of water. That at Bir Suez is, as I have already ohferved*. fcarcely good enough for cattle ; but it is drawn to Suez twice a-day for their ufe. The water of the pretended wells of Mofes is ft 111 worfe ; and befides, thefe wells ly at a league and a half's, diftance, on the other fide of the Gulf. The only water fit for drinking that is to be had here^ comes from the wells of Naba, upon the other fide of the Gulf, and more than two leagues diftant from Suez. The Arabs are the carriers • and they fell this water at the rate of nine French fols a fkin 5 but, though reputed the beft, it is ftill very bad.
Ship-building is the chief employment of the inhabitants of Suez : Although wood, and iron, and all the other materials, are to be brought from Cairo upon camels, and are, of confequence, very dear. I know not the precife number of veffels annually employed in the navigation between this port and Jidda : I was informed that four or five are freighted by the Sultan with corn for Mecca and Medina, which they convey to
Jidda
Jidda and Jamho ; and that fourteen others ferve to carry paflengcrs between Jidda and Su, ez. The mips built at Suez have a very auk-ward rudder, made of a large beam, the ufe of which is dangerous and inconvenient. I faw a velfel in this harbour of a different conff ruction, which had been built at Surat. So durable was the wood of which it was formed, that, although it had been in conftant ufe for twenty years, it was ftill in a perfectly found Hate.
The governor of Suez was a Bey from Cairo; and he kept a very numerous houlhold. Thi3 employment place^l him in a fort of honourable exile ; and being therefore very defirous of returning to the Capital, he liitened eagerly to any predictions refpecting the period of his return thither. He afTured us, that a learned Mitllul"* man had foretold thc time when he was to be recalled ; and he wifhed us to confult the unknown infcriptions in the defert, and fee whether they might not confirm the prediction of the prophetic MutTulman. We excufed ourfelves, as ignorant of the fublime fcience which unveils futurity. This Bey was a Mahometan by birth, and the fon of a fugar merchant.
Vol. i.
X
Chap.
Chap. IV.
Particulars concerning the Arabs in the neighbourhood of
Suez.
The Arabs who live about 7or, upon the other fide of the Gulf, are little afraid of the Turkifh governor of Suez. When dilfatisfied with himx or with the inhabitants of the city, they threaten to bring no more water, and forbid them to come near the wells of Nuba*. Thefe threats, if carried into execution, would reduce the city to the lail extremities ; and all means are, there, fore, ufed to pacify them. They might eafily ruin this city, if they could refolve to give up the profits which they derive from the carriage of goods upon their camels from Cairo to Suez, We ourfelves experienced the infolence of thefe Arabs. The Schiechs, whom we had hired to conduct us to Mount Sinai, not having fulfilled their engagement, we refufed, upon our return to Suez, to pay the whole fum that had been flipulated. They threatened to kill us: We let them know that we were able to defend ourfelves. They then declared that they would deprive us of the water of the Naba.   Mr Von
Haven
ilaven replied, that this was a matter of no confequence to Europeans who drank wine; an anfwer which moved the Turks to laugh at the expence of the Arabs. But, as their tribe ef-poufed their quarrel, it was ferioufly feared that they might execute what they threatened, and reduce thc city to diflrefs for want of water. Wherefore, the governor begged us to terminate the difference^ and pay the Shiechs what they demanded.
One thing that we had in view in our journey, was, to examine the Hill of Infcriptions in the defart \ and we were, therefore, defirous of receiving ail poffible information concerning fo remarkable a place. On this occahon, we difcovered a cuftom of the Arabs, which de-ferves explanation, becaufe it is connected with their manners.
On our arrival at Suez, we applied to fome Greeks for information concerning that hill. But none of them had ever beard of the name of Jibbel el-Mokatteb. They direaed us, however, to a Schiech of the tribe of Said, who had paffed his life in travelling between Suez and Mount Sinai. That Schiech was equally a flranger to the name of the Hill of Infcriptions. But, underftanding that we would give a conli-derable reward to the perfon who fhould guide us thither, he returned next day with another
X % Schiech,
Schiech, of the tribe of Saccalba, who pretended to have a particular knowledge, not only of that mountain, but of all other places in the de-iart where infcriptions were to be met with* By his anfwers to our queltions, however, we ,<>on law that he knew as little as the former of thc place which we wifhed to vifit.
At laft, a Schiech of the tribe of Legbat was brought us, who, by his converfation, convinced us, that he had feen Hones infcribed with unknown characters. When he learned that the object of our curiofity was called Jibbel-el-Mo-kat!.el\ he allured us that this'was the name of the mountain among all the Arabs who knew it.
Pleafed with finding, at length, an inhabitant of the defart, at lealt, who could guide us to the place where the infcriptions Were to be feen; we determined to take him for our conductor, especially becaufe his abode, as he told us, was near to that mountain. But the other two Schieclis, who had brought us the latter, warmly oppofed our purpofe, and inlifted upon accom-* panying us, as well as he. The inhabitants of Suez, advifed us to take them all three, and told us, that we could not travel thc defart in fafety, without having guides from every one of the three tribes, that inhabited the country between Suez and Mount Sinai.
This
This advice referred to the cuftom above-mentioned, which renders Arab guides or Gba-firs neceffary. Any- perfon, whether Chriftian or Mahometan, who travels either by fea or land along the coalt of Arabia Petnea, choofes a Gha-Jir, a guide, or protector, to whom he makes pre-fents, either from time to time, in the courfe of his journey, or at leaf! upon his fafe return. He thus travels fecure and unmolellcd. If the veffel in which he fails, happens to be (hipwrecked, it is plundered by the Arabs j but his Gbajir, if prefent, faves his goods from pillage. If the perfon whom he names as his Ghafir, be abfent, his property, is however, fet apart. But, if he have no Ghafir, or name a fictitious on*?, he is plundered, without regard to his rank or character. The Turkifh merchants, from avarice, to fpare a trifling prefent, or from pride, to avoid alfociating with an Arab Schiech, feldom take Ghafirs, but they fuller for the neglect. For thefe rights of hofpitality and friendlhip are held facred among thofe Arabs.
We therefore took with us the three Schiech^ to guide us to Mount Sinai. They fupplied us with camels for ourfelves and our fcrvants. To prevent difputcs, we had our contract written out by the Cadi of Suez, in the prefence of the Governor.
Chap.
nieburVs travels
Chap. V.
Journey frotn Suez, to Mount Sinau
\Ve were anxious to fet out, that we might return to Suez before the firft fhips fhould fail, in the beginning of October. In the fucceeding months, the paifage to Jidda becomes too dangerous. But our painter, Mr Baurenficnd, had fallen ill, immediately after our arrival at Suez, from the exceflive fatigues which he had undergone. Although his afliftance was neceffary in our expedition, yet Mr Von Haven and I refol-ved to fet out by ourfelves, leaving Meflrs For-fkal and Cramer at Suez, to take care of our fick friend.
On the 6th of September 1762, we crofted the gulph, and fet out next morning with our Arabs; Befide the three Schiechs and their fervants, we were accompanied by feveral of their friends, who had, for fome time, carried water from the wells of Naba to Suez, and were now going to fee their friends in the defart, hoping to live at our expence by the way. It is a rule with thefe people, that an Arab of diftinction, travelling, muft maintain all who choofe to accompany
him,.
»
liim, whether it be at his own defirc or not. We, as we lived at fome expence, were thought to be very rich.
The firft day we travelled along the coaft of the Arabic gulph, through a fandy plain, having a few hills fcattered over it. The Arabs calj fuch plains, when they ly fomewhat low, Wadit or vallies, becaufe water remains ftagnant in them, after heavy rains. We relied under a palm-tree, in a place called Aijnm Mufa, Mofes9 Fountains. Thefe pretended fountains, are five holes in the fand, in a well of very indifferent water that becomes turbid, whenever any of it is drawn. As the holes bear the name of Mofes the Arabs afcribe them to the Jcwifli law-giver. After a day's journey of five German miles and a half, we encamped on the fand, in the plain of El-Ti. In the evening, a violent blaft. of wind railed the fand about us, by which we were not more incommoded than a fimilar incident would have incommoded us inEurope.
The country through which we palled, is famous as the fcene of the emigration of the Jews, under Mofes. We were therefore defirous of learning from the Arabs, the names of all the places, and of all the mountains, efpecially in our way. Mr Von Haven who could not refolve to make himfelf familiar with the Bedouins, could obtain nothing but vague and uncivil an -
fwers
1$4 niebuhr's travels
fwers from them. I again fought to gain the-confidence and friendlhip of one of thofe Arabs, by making him fome prefents, and caufing him to ride fometimes behind me upon my came]. From him I received honed and diftinct anfwers. To the objects which I pointed out to him, he gave the fame names coming as going. 1 like-wife meafured the diifances of places, by counting the Heps of the camel, and comparing the number with the time in which they were travelled, by my watch* By means of a compafs, I dillinguiHied, likewife, the directions of the road. None of the Arabs underftood the nature of this inftrument. It is plainly, therefore, an idle tale, that they follow the direction, of the compafs, in travelling through their de-farts.
On the 8th of September, we travelled through the plain of Girdan. We faw, on our way, an enormous mafs of rock, that had fallen from a neighbouring mountain. We entered next the valley of Girondd, and, after proceeding five miles and a half farther, found ourfelves in the vicinity of Jibbel Hammem Fauntm. Next day,, fending our fervants forward, we ourfelves flayed to examine thefe environs. In the rainy fea-fon, a conliderable torrent runs through the valley of Girondel. It was at this time dry ; yet, by digging in the bed, to the depth of two feet,
we
we found better water than that which is ufed at Suez. This valley not being deficient in water, has in it feveral trees, and even groves, that appear Angularly itriking to travellers from Cairo, who have feen no fimilar appearance in the previous part of their journey.
Hammum Faraun is the name of a hot fpring which rifcs by two apertures out of a rock, at the foot of a high mountain. It is ufed in baths by the neighbouring lick, who commonly flay forty days for a cure, during which their only food is but a fruit* called Lafliif, which grows here. An exteniive burying place near the baths, fuggeflcd doubts in my mind of the beneficial effects of this regimen. The tradition that the Jews paffed this way, and that Pharaoh's army was drowned here, has occalioned this place to receive the name of Birket-el-Faraim. The Arabs imagine, that Pharaoh is doing penance at the bottom of this well, and vomits up the fulphureous vapour with which the water is impregnated.
This Eaffern fide of the Arabic gulph, is tolerably level and uniform. Bat the oppofite fide is. one range of lofty mountains; broken, however, and divided by two vales, by one of which we mud pafs in travelling from Egypt to the fli ore of the Red Sea.
Vol I. A a We
We turned by degrees towards the north-eaft, in purfuing the direct road to Mount Sinai, and at length entered a narrow vale, which appeared to have been cut by the torrents, in the rock. The mountains which role upon every fide of us, in uninterrupted chains, were malfes of a fort of limeftone intermingled with veins of granite. In feveral places through them, I difcovered a quantity of putrified (hells, of a fpecies which h to be found with the living fhell-fifn in it, in the Arabic gulph. One of thofe hills is entirely covered with Hints. Thq granite becomes more and more plentiful, as we approach Mount Sinai.
Our road lay often along the brink of precipices, commonly through flony glynns, and fometimes through wide vallies, watered and fertile. Such were Ufaitit, El Hamer, and Warfan. We paf-fed, alfo, in our way, by Nafie, the feat of fome Bedouins of this country. As water was fometimes at a diftance from the places where we encamped, our fervants were obliged to go to bring it. We could have wiflied to accompany them, in order to fee a little of the country ; bnt our guides would not always permit us.
After palling through the valley of Warfan, we turned a little out of the highway, and in the fame evening reached the abode of our chief of the tribe of Leghat,   As it could not be far from
Jibbel
Jibbel el Mokatteb, J began to hope that I might take this opportunity of going thither. But the converfation of the Schiech made me foon give up that hope. In my defcription of this mountain, which I did not fee till my return, thc reader will find an account of what happened to me upon this occaiion.
The Schiech had given notice of his arrival to feveral of'his friends, who, to the number of ten or twelve, came to fee him. I left him to entertain his guefts, and in the mean time ranged over feveral hills in the neighbourhood. I faw by accident, in a fcqueilered fpot, a wretched tent, the dwelling of our Schiech, in which were his wife and filter, bufy grinding corn. Gne of the women came out of the tent, to prefent me with a bit of gum, and did not refufe a fmall piece of money in return. At a little farther diftance, I met the Schiech's fon, who was tending goats, and converfed with him for a con-lidcrable time. I was furprifed at the fenfe, gravity, and affurance of the child, who fcemed to be, in no degree, embarrafled by the prel'ence of a ftranger. He invited me very kindly to the houfe, to drink fome excellent water which had been drawn on that fame day from the well. I had here an opportunity of remarking die relation between language and manners. A tent, of which the original Arabic name is Chcime, is, A a 2 however,
however, called by thefe Bedouins, Beit, which ligniftes houfe ; becaufe they have no other houfes than tents.
Molt of our Schiech's friends were diftinguifh-ed by the fame title of Schiech, although no-wife fuperior in their air or drefs, to the vulgar Arabs. I hence fuppofed the title to mean no more among the Arabs, than Matter, or Sir, with us.
Being determined to proceed on to Mount Sinai, we fet out from the dwelling of our Schiech of Beni Leghat, on thc 12th of September. The country became more mountainous, as we advanced. Yet we pafTed through fome pleafant val-lies ; fuch were thofe ofCbamela, Dahur, Barak, and Genua. Before reaching the vale of Ifraituy which, although furrounded with rocky and precipitous mountains, difplays fome rich and cheerful profpects, we were obliged to go over another lofty and almoft inaccelfible hill.
In th"»s vale we met an Arabian lady attended by a fervant. In refpect to our Schiech, fhe quitted the road, alighted from her camel, and paffed us on foot. Another woman veiled, and walking on foot, who happened to meet us in fo narrow a part of the valley of Genna, that fhe could not avoid us, fat down as we paffed, and turned her back upon us. I gave her the falu-tation of peace ; but my conductors told me, that
fhe
fhe had turned her back in refpect to ris as ftran-gers, and that I had done wrong in faluting her.
At the diftance of nearly feven German miles from the dwelling of our Shiech of the tribe of Leghat, we found the abode of our other Schiech of the tribe of Said. The latter was as little willing as the former had been, to pafs fo near his family without feeing them. We were a-gain therefore obliged to leave the highway, and to follow our conductor half a league out of the road. The Arabs fet up our tents near a tree, in the valley of Faran, and left us to amufe ourfelves there, in the belt manner we could, till they went to fee their friends in gardens of date-trees, fcattered over the valley. We were at no great diftance from our Schiech's camp, which conlilted of nine or ten tents. We were informed that the ruins of an ancient city were to be feen in the neighbourhood. But, when the Arabs found us curious to vifit it, they left us, and would give us no farther account of it.
The famous valley of Faran, in which we now were, has retained its name unchanged fince the days 'of Mofes, being ft ill called Wadi Faranf The Valley of Faran. Its length is equal to a journey of a day and a half, extending from the foot of Mount Sinai to the Arabic Gulf. In the rainy feafon, it is filled with water ; and the
inhabitant-
inhabitants are tben obliged to retire up the hills: It was dry, however, when we paffed through it. That part of it which we faw was far from being fertile, but ferved as a pafture to. goats^ camels, and aiTes. The other part is faid to be very fertile J and the Arabs told us, that, in the diftricts to which our Ghafirs had gone, were many orchards of date trees, which produced fruit enough to filftain fome thoufands of people. Fruit mult, indeed, be very plenteous there : for the Arabs of the valley bring every • year to Cairo an aflonifhing quantity of dates, raiiins, pears, apples, and other fruits, all of excellent quality.
Some Arabs, who came to fee us, offered us freih dates, which were yellow, but fcarcely ripe. The chief our Schicch's wives, (for he had two) came like wife to fee us, and prefented us with fome eggs and a chicken. The two wives of our Schiech prefided over two different departments of his affairs. One was placed at fome diilance where our tents happened to be pitched, in order to manage a garden of date-trees. Thc other was our neighbour, and fuperintend-ed the cattle and the fervants. Thc latter would not enter our tents ; but fat down, near enough by to converfe with us. She complained of her bufband, who negle&ed her, the faid, for her s   rival, and fpent all his time in drawing water
in
in Egypt, or in carrying articles of merchandize from one place to another. Our law, by which every man is confined to one wife, appeared to her admirable. This was the firft opportunity I had of converting, without reftraint, with a Mahometan female.
We left this place on the 14th of September, and, after travelling two miles farther, in the valley of Faran, arrived at the foot of Jibbel Ma-fa. Up this mountain we afcended a mile and a half, and encanrped near a large mafs of ftonc, which Mofes isfaidby the Arabs to have divided into two, as it at prefent appears, with one blow of his fword. Among thofe mountains we found feveral fprings of excellent water, at which, for the firft time fince my arrival in Egypt, 1 quaffed this precious liquid with real fatisfac-tion.
Chap. IV.
Of Mount Sinai, and the Convent cf St Catherine,
The Arabs call jibbel Mufa, The Mount jif Mofes, all that range of mountains which rifes at the interior extremity of the valley of Faran;
and
19-
nieeuhr's travels
and to that part of thc range on which the con-, vent of St Catharine ftands, they give the name of Tw Sina. This iimilarity of name, owing, mod probably, to tradition, affords ground for prefumption, that the hill which we had now reached was the Sinai of the Jews, on which Mofes received the law. It is, indeed, not ea-fy to comprehend, how fuch a multitude of people, as the Jews, who accompanied Mofes out of Egypt, could encamp in thofe narrow gullies, amidft frightful and precipitous rocks. But, perhaps, there are plains, that we know not of, on the other fide of the mountain.
Two German miles and a half up the mountain, ftands the convent of St Catharine. The body of this monaftery is a building one hundred and twenty feet in length, and almoft as many in breadth. Before it ftands another fmall building, in which is the only gate of the convent, Which remains always (hut, except when the bilhop is here. At other times, whatever is introduced within the convent, whether men or provifions, is drawn up by the roof in a baf-ket, and with a cord and a pulley. The whole building is of hewn ftone ; which, in fuch a defart, muft have coft prodigious expence and pains.
Before the convent is a large garden, planted with excellent fruit-trees.   The Arabs told us,
that.
that the monks enter it by a fubterraneous paf-fage.
Thefe Greek ecclefiaftics are not allowed to receive an European without an order from the bifhop of Mount Sinai, who reiides ordinarily at Cairo. He had promifcd us a letter, but had fet out, without our knowledge, to Conftanti-nople. By the favour of the Englifh ambaffa-dor at Conftantinople, we had obtained another letter from a depofed patriarch, who had refid-ed three years in the convent of St Catharine. Believing that this letter might be fufficient to gain us admittance, we prefented it to thofe clergymen, through a fmall chink in the wall. They took fome time to conlider, and, after making us wait long, let us know that they could not receive us, as we had not a letter from their bifhop.
During this parley, many Arabs, wdio had ohferved us from the neighbouring hills, gathered round us. They are paid a certain fum for every flranger that is received into the convent. When the bifhop happens to be prefent, the gate is opened, and the convent muff entertain all the Arabs who come in then. This custom is very burthenfome to thofe poor monks, who have nothing but alms to live upon ; and have their proviiions, which they are obliged to bring from Cairo, often ftolen by the way. The
Vol I. B b Arabs
Arabs are in general very dangerous neighbor They often fire upon the convent from the adjacent rocks. They feize the monks whenever they happen to find them without the walls of the monaftcry, and rcfufe to releafe them, with-oat a confiderable ranfom. We witneffed the ■ infolence of one of thofe Bedouins, who uttered a thoufand abides againlt the inhabitants of the convent, becaufe they would not give him bread at the very inftant wlien he alkcd it in a roguiih, t Hinterfeit tone of diftrefs.
That We might not occafton unealinefs to thole monks, we retired, and encamped at a quarter of a league's diftance from the monafte*-ry. As a recompence for our difcretion, they immediately lent us a prefent of fruits. GrapeS could not but be delicious to perfons like us^ who had travelled fo long in parched and uncultivated regions.
I w illied to chufe from among the Arabs who had gathered about us, a guide to conduct me to Sinai. This, however, our Ghalirs would.not permit \ which occasioned a quarrel among them and the other Arabs. Next day, however, our Schiechs brought me an Arab, whom they qualified with the title of Schiech of Mount Sinai, 15 procure him fome profit from us, by the right which he then arrogated to himfelf of attending flrangers who came to viiit the mountain.
Under
Under the conduct of this newly created Lord of Sinai, with our Schiechs, I attempted, on this fame day, to clamber to the fummit of that mountain. It is fo fteep, that Mofes cannot have afcended on the fide which I viewed. The Greeks have cut a flight of Heps up the rock. Pococke reckons three thoufand of thefe Heps to the top of the mountain, or rather bare, pointed rock.
Five hundred Heps above the convent, we found a charming fpring, which, by a little pains, might be improved into a very agreeable fpot. A thoufand Heps higher Hands a chapel dedicated to the Bleifed Virgin; and five hundred above, this, two other chapels, Unrated in a plain, which the traveller enters by two fmall gates of mafon-work. Upon this plain are two trees, under which, at high fefiivals, the Arabs are regaled at the expence of the Greeks. My -Mahometan guides, imitating the practices which they had feen the pilgrims obferve,, killed the images, and repeated their prayers in the chapels. They would accompany me no farther ;• but maintained this to be the higher! acceftiblo peak of the mountain ; whereas, according to Pococke, 1 had yet a thoufand Heps to afcend, I was therefore obliged to return, and content myfelf with viewing the hill of St Catharine at a, diftance (v).
ClIAJV
Chap. VII.
Our return from Mount Sinai.
In the afternoon of the 16th of September, we <}efcended Jibbel Mufa, and palled thc night at the bottom of that cliffy mountain, at the opening into the valley of Faran. Next day, after advancing three miles through the vale, we halted near the dwelling of our Schiech of the tribe of Said.
Our Ghafirs left us again, and went to fee their friends in the gardens of date-trees. During their abfence, we met with a young Arab^ riding on on a dromedary, who had made him-felf drunk in one of thofe gardens. Underftand-ing that we were Europeans and Chriflians, he began to pour out abulive language againfl us, much in the fame flrain in which an infolcnt and ill-bred young man in Europe might perhaps wantonly abufe a Jew. From this incident, we judged that the Bedouins ufe wine. We could not help remarking, at the fame time, that thc law of Mahomet, with great wifdom, forbids the ufe of flrong liquors, as they have fuch tendency to warm thc paihons, which, with the inhabitants
habitants of hot climates, have naturally but too, much violence. In thc cities, indeed, many of the Mahometans are in the habit of getting drunk. But, either for fhame, or for fear of pu-nifhment, they never appear drunk in public; and take this vicious indulgence only in private, in their own houfes. Except that young man, I never faw another Mahometan brutally drunk, in all my travels. '
Our Ghafirs returned, and we continued our journey on the 20th of the month. Next day I advanced before my fellow-travellers, of purpofc, again to view the mountain, of which I find* fpeak, when I come to defcribe the Egyptian place of burial.
On the day following, we had an opportunity of feeing a part cf the road which we had paffed by night, when travelling to Jibbel Mufa. In this place, near a defile, named Qm-er-ridg-lehi, I found fome infcriptions in unknown characters, which had been mentioned to me at Cairo. They are coarfely engraven, apparently with fome pointed inflrument of iron, in the rock, without order or regularity. Our Arabs thought the time loft which I fpent in copying thofe infcriptions. . They were not very wrong ; but I fhall fpeak my fentiments on this head, when i give an account of Jibbel- el-Mokatteb.
On
On the 25th of September, we arrived again at Suez.   Mr Baurenfeind was much recovered. Before we could reach the city, we had to crofs, the fame arm of the fea, over which we had been ferried when we fet out on our journey ; but we could find no boat on the Eaftcrn fide. Perceiving, however, that the tide was ebbing, we ventured to ford this part of the gulf.   We fuc-ceeded happily, a little north from the ruins of. Kolfum.   Our camels walked ffeadily j and the Arabs who waded, were only in water to the knees.   This was perhaps the firfl time that any Europeans attempted to pafs here in this manner. This attempt (hewed us that the waters in. the gulf are much influenced by the tides, and\ convinced us, that in the ebb, the Red Sea maybe fafely palled on foot (wTJ.
After my return to Suez, I was defirous to examine alfo the weftern fide of the Gulf, and the adjoining hills. I could prevail with no perfon. to accompany me in fo dangerous an expedition, for, at the fmalleft diilance from the city, the. paffenger is in no lefs danger of being robbed, than in the defart. At length, however, an A-rab undertook to be my guide. But he trembled at the fight of every human being that we met -y and indeed thofe whom we met, feemed to be no lefs afraid of us.   Thus teazed and vex-
7317
IK ARABIA, 13C. 1^0
^0° as I was, I could make but few intcrefting obfervations in thefe petty excurfions.
I now, for the firil time, obferved an appearance with which I was Angularly ftruck; but which became afterwards familiar to me. An Aral), whom I faw approaching at a diftance, upon a camel, appeared to move through the air, with the gigantic bulk of a tower; although he was travelling along the fand like ourfelves. Several travellers mention this error of virion, which is owing to a peculiar refraction produced in thefe torrid climates, by vapours differing greatly in their nature, from thofe which fill thc air in temperate regions (x),
I could learn nothing certain concerning the canal which is faid to have joined the Nile with thc Arabic gulph. No Arab would conduct me into that part of the country through which it is probable that the canal might pafs ; becaufe the tribe who inhabit it, were at variance with the inhabitants of Suez. In the neighbourhood, of Suez, I could find no trace of any canal; un-lefs the valley of Mc/beiha, between Bir Suee and the city, may be regarded as fuch. After the rains, a conliderable quantity of water remains ftagnate in this vale, which thc inhabitants draw for ufe ; and when the waters are gone off, it is foon covered with gnus (y).
Chap.
2GO
NIEBUHr's TRAVEtS
- f
Chap. VIII.
.  Of the Mountain of Infcriptions, and of an Egyptian Bury'mg-place.
Since Mr Clayton, bifhop of Clogher, publifh-ed the narrative of the Superior of a convent of T'rancifeans at Cairo, we have heard much talk in Europe of a difcovery made by that monk of a mountain covered wholly over with infcriptions in unknown characters. It was imagined that thofe infcriptions might furnifh fome tefti-mony concerning the ancient relidcuce of the Jews in that country : And, in this expectation the Bifhop of Clogher offered five hundred pounds flerling, to defray the expences of journey, to any man of letters who would undertake to copy them.
But the marvellous part of this difcovery by degrees difappeared ; and the fanguine hopes which had been built upon it, vanifhed. Several travellers had before obferved, upon the way to Mount Sinai, fome rocks infcribed with ftrange characters : even in the third century, thefe infcriptions had been mentioned by a
Greek
in arabia,
Greek author. Momonys had formerly copied fome of them ; Pococke and Montague had copied others, and had communicated them to feveral men of letters. They were judged to he neither Jewifh nor Arabic, from the appearance of fome coari'e pieces of fculpture that accompanied them. Some confidered them as a mixture of Coptic and Arabic characters. At lafl, a perfon, who was very well verfed in Oriental literature, conjectured that they might be Phoenician : an opinion which is the more probable, as the Phoenicians had, at a very remote period^ fettlements upon the eaftern coaft of the Arabic Gulf.
As little were the learned agreed concerning the purport of thofe infcriptions, and the information which they might afford. Thofe who examined them the moft accurately, concluded^ from their pofition, and the manner in which they were engraven, that they related nothing more than the names of travellers, and the dates of their journies. In the fame place are it ill to be feen a vaft number of ill-engraven infcriptions, in Greek and Arabic, of the names of perfons who have fought, by this means, to tranf. mit the memory of their exiftence to future times-
That I might be enabled to guefs for myfelf, I copied a good number of thofe infcriptions in unknown characters, which we found engraven
Vol. I. C c upon
upon the rocks on the way to Mount Sinai, and fome of them upon the mountain. I have in my poffeffion a copy of another infcription, the characters of which differ from thofe which I copied myfelf. It was copied by Mr Donati, a learned traveller, whofe papers will be loft, as he himfelf has not returned to Europe. The place where thefe infcriptions are moft numerous, is in the narrow pafs of Om-cr-ridjleiny which I have already mentioned. The pretended Jih-belel-Mokatub may poflibly be in its neighbourhood.
After examining the fituations and the engraving of thefe infcriptions, I incline to thc opinion of thofe who think them of little importance. They feem to have been executed at idle hours by travellers, who were latisfied with cutting the unpolilhed rock with any pointed inftrument \ adding to their names, and the date of their journies, fome rude figures, which be-fpeak the hand of a people but little Ikilled in the arts. When fuch infcriptions are executed with the defign of tranfmitting to pofterity the memory of fuch events as might afford inilruc-tive leflbns, greater care is generally taken in the preparation of the ftones, and the infcriptions are engraven with more regularity, as I fhall have occafion to obferve, when 1 come to fpeak of the ruins of Perfepolis.
Although
Although convinced that the wonderful part of the ftory of that mountain was perfectly imaginary, we took pains at Cairo to inform ourfelves particularly concerning its fituation ; and, as I have before mentioned, we found a Schiech of the tribe of Leghat, who pretended to know the famous JlhheUel-Mokatteh, and promifed to conduct us thither. We had been directed to examine thofe curiolities ; and we were eager to fee them, even for our own gratification.
Arriving, on the evening of the 10th of September, at our Schiech's dwelling, he conducted us next day, with our other Ghafirs, to that hill, which, he had told us, lay in his neighbourhood. We climbed up it by a fteep and rugged path, and, inftead of infcriptions, were furprifed to find on the fummit an Egyptian cemetery. We gave this name to the place, although we had feen nothing of the fame kind in Egypt, where all fuch monuments are now funk in the fand. But a flight acquaintance with the Egyptian architecture and hieroglyphics, and with the antiquities difcov.ercd by Norden in Upper Egypt, may enable any perfon to fee that the ruins on the top of Jibbel-el-Mokatteb. can be no other than Egyptian.
It is covered with ft ones of from five to feven feet in length, inferibed with hieroglyphics, and C ca fome
fome of them Handing on end, while others are lying flat. The more carefully they are examined, fo much the more certainly do they appear to be fepulchral flones, having epitaphs in-fcribed upon them. In the middle of thefe Hones is a building, of which only the walls now remain ; and within it are likewife a great many of the fepulchral flones. At one end of the building feems to have been a fmall chamber, of which the roof ft ill remains. It is fup-ported upon fquare pillars; and thefe, as well as the walls of the chamber, are covered over with hieroglyphic infcriptions. Through the whole building are various bulls, executed in the manner of the ancient Egyptians. The fer pulchral (tones, and the bufts, are of hard and fine-grained fand-ftone. The Egyptians are known to have ufed granite, or fome fimilar fpecies of (tone, in all their works of fculpture or architecture.
The Arabs fulfered us to examine thofe curi-ofities at our leifure, and to note down upon the fpot, fome particulars relative to them. But, when I began to copy fome of the hieroglyphics, they gathered all about me, and told me, that the Schiech of the mountain would not permit this to be done. That pretended Schiech was an Arab of their acquaintance, whom they had a-jrreed to honour with the title, and inveft with
the
*
the power, of purpofe to draw money from us. The lord of Jibbel-cl-Mokatreb, who had waited our approach upon the top of the hill, came up upon this, and told us, that he would not for an hundred crowns, fuller us to copy the lcaft thing, or permit Chrillians to carry away any treafurcs that were hidden in }iis territories, 'J"he Arabs believe, or pretend at lealtto believe, that the Europeans are in poifeifionof fecrcts by which they can make any hidden treafure arife out of the earth, and can convey it away through the air, if they are only permitted to copy any in-fcription indicating its fituation. Upon this fancy, they railed a claim of either iharing with us in the treafurcs which might be found, or receiving an hundred crowns for their permifhon to us to fearch for them.
Dcfpairing of being able to bring thofe felfim mortals to rcafon; I fecretly promifed four crowns to one of our Ghalirs, who had always fhewn himfelf honeft and obliging, if he would accompany me, by ourfelves, to that place, upon my return from Mount Sinai, and give me time-to copy what I pleated. 1 have already ohferved, that this Arab kept his word, and 1 effected my purpofe. The hieroglyphics which I copied, were as well executed as any I. had feen in. Egypt. One thing in which they differ, is in exhibiting the goat, an animal common through
this
this country : Whereas, in Egypt, the goat never appears as an hieroglyphic fymbol ; but the cow frequently. Thefe monuments may therefore may be fuppofcd to be the work, not of perfons actually inhabiting Egypt, but of an Egyptian colony, or of fome people who had adopted the arts and manners of Egypt. The Arabs, who had, in thofe early ages, conquered Egypt, under their fhepherd kings, might bring with them, when expelled from the fcene of their conquefts, the arts and manners which they had learned from the conquered people.
Whether this conjecture be rejected or admitted, it ftill remains a difficulty how to account for the fituation of this cemetery, which muft have belonged to an opulent city, where the arts were flourifhing, at fuch a diftance from the fcenes of cultivation, in the middle of a defart, and on the fummit of a precipitous mountain. This country is indeed more populous than it feems at firft to be, for the Arabs ftudioufly conduct travellers by roads palling at a diftance from their dwellings. But, it is impoilible to conceive, how a populous and opulent city could fpring up in the midftoffuch a defart. It is more probable, that the inhabitants of fome maritime city upon the coaft of the Arabic gulph, have been induced by a veneration for the mountain, founded upon fome fuperftitious fentiments,
to convey their dead to this diftance, that they might be interred in facred ground (z).
Chap. IX.
Of fome Cujloms of the Arabs in the Defart.
The Arabs, as is well known, are divided into tribes. Speaking of thefe, they fay Benit which fignilies the fans of fome perfon ; thus Beni Leg-hat means the tribe of Leghat. Thefe fmall tribes have each its Schiech, who is commonly dependent on the Grand Schiech of fome more potent tribe,
In our way to Mount Sinai, we paffed through the territories of Beni Leghat, Beni Saualha, and Beni Said. Thefe three tribes are particularly connected with the convent of St Catharine, pretending to be its protectors, although in reality its opprelfors. The tribe of Beni Said, who are the more immediate neighbours of the convent, have a very bad character. They are originally from Upper Egypt.
Thefe Arabs, although fcattered in feparate families over the country, feem to be fond of f9-ciety, and vilit one another frequently.   A fort
of
of politenefs, too, prevails among them, but it is too ceremonious. We witneifed the etiquette of their vilits, at the dwelling of our Schiech of the tribe of Leghat. His friends having had notice of his return, came to pay their compliments to him, upon the occafion. We had likewife our fbare in their polite attentions; for they congratulated us, upon our travelling through the defart, without meeting with any unfortunate accident. When they falute, they join hands, embrace, and alk one another, in a tone of tendernefs, " How art thou? Is all well?'* When a Schiech enters a company, all rife, and the Schiech goes round to embrace every one in his turn.
Some travellers have fancied, that a part of their politenefs, upon fuch occalions, confifis in mutual enquiries after the health of their camels and other domeltic animals. But fuch enquiries are rather taken ill. Although, as it is natural for two men of the fame profeflion, when they meet, to converfe concerning their affairs; fo two Bedouins, whofe fole employment is to manage their cattle, will naturally queltion one a-nothcr upon that, head ; jult as our peafants talk of their fields and meadows.
Their way of living is nearly the fame as that of the other wandering Arabs of the Kur-des, and of the Turcomanns.   They lodge in
tents
tents made of coarfe Huff, either black, or ftrip,. ed black and white ; which is manufactured by the women, of goat's hair. The tent confifts of three apartments; of which one is for the men, another for the women, and the third for the cattle. Thofe who are too poor to have a tent, contrive, however, to fhelter themfelves from the inclemencies of the weather, either with a piece of cloth flretched upon poles, or by retiring to the cavities of the rocks. As the fhade of trees is exceedingly agreeable in fuch torrid regions, the Bedouins are at great pains in feek-ing out fhaded lituations to encamp in.
The furniture correfponds to the fimplicity of the dwelling ; the chief article is a large ftraw mat, which ferves equally for a feat, a table, and a bed ; the kitchen utenfils are merely a few pots, a few plates, and a few cups of tinned copper. Their clothes, with all their valuable moveables, are put up in leather bags, which are hung within the tent. Their butter is put into a leathern bag ; and the wTater which they ufe, is preferved in goat fkdns. The hearth for the kitchen fire, is placed any where, and without much trouble : it confifts of a hole made in the ground, and laid with flones. Inftead of an oven, they ufe an iron plate, in preparing their bread, which is made into fmall cakes. They Vol I. D d know^
2IO
nieeuhr's travels
know no mills but fuch as are moved with the hands.
Their food is equally fimple. They are fond of newly baken bread ; and in their excurliom through the defart, they are particularly careful to carry with them fufticient fupplies of meal. The only other victuals which they ufe, are dates, milk, cheefe, and honey. On occafions of festivals, indeed, a goat is killed and roafted. Although poor, and much inclined to live at the expence of ttrangers, they are, however, hofpita-ble among themfelves, and often invite one another to fiiare their meals. Our Schiechs never accepted a treat from any of their friends, without ftriving to repay it.
The Arabs of the defart are drelfcd much like their brethren in Egypt. The only difference, is, that the former wear fhoes of undrelfed leather, and of a peculiar (nape. Many of them, however, Walk with bare feet upon the fcorch-ing fand, which renders their fkin, at length, in-fjnfible. They arm themfelves, too, like the Egyptian Arabs riding upon camels, as thofe upon horfes, and bearing a lance, a fabre, and f nuetimes a gun.
The drefs of the females in thc defart, although Ampler than that worn by thc ordinary women in Egypt, is in reality, however, the very fame.   The wife of one of our Schiechs, wore
an
an uncommon piece of drefs ; brafs rings of an enormous fizc, in her cars. Thefe women, living remote from the world, and being wholly occupied in the management of their domeftic affairs, appear to be, from thefe circumftances, lefs Illy and fcrupulous than the other women of the Eaft. They make lefs difficulty of con. verfing with a ftranger, or expofing their face unveiled before him.
It is commonly known, that the Mahometans are permitted to have four wives. The Bedouins, who are poor, and cannot cafily find the means of fubfiftence, content themfelves with one, for the moil part. Thofe who are in the eaiieft circumftances, and who have two wive;? feem to have married fo many, chiefly that they might fuperintend their concerns in two different places. The conduct of our Schiech of Bern Said, as well as his converfation, led us to make this reflexion. The difagreement that fubfifted between bis two wives, afforded an in-ftance of fome of the inconveniences that attend polygamy.
1 (1 2 SECTION
nisjbuhr's travels
SECTION VII.
voyage from suez to jidda and loheia.
Chap I.
T)eparture from Suez,.
Ijuring our abfence, feveral fmall caravans had fucceffively arrived at Suez; and the arrival of the great caravan from Cairo, followed foon after our return from Mount Sinai. Although from pirates properly fo called, there is little to be feared in the Arabic gulph, yet, fo unfkil-ful arc the mariners in thefe latitudes, that they dare not venture to any diftance from the coafts. This timorous mode of tailing might expofe a ftngle veffel to the robbery of the Arabs; to a-Void which, thefe ftiipe fail in little fleets; four
always
always letting out together, that they may join to defend themfelves.
After the arrival of the caravans, Suez feem-ed more populous than Cairo; and as fuch a multitude could not long find fubfiftence there, all were eager to fet out without delay. We were recommended to the mailers of two fhips that were to make the voyage. Although now accuftomed to live with the Mahometans, yet, in our paffage to Jidda, we fuffcred a degree of uneafinefs, which we had not felt upon occafions of greater danger. Some Greeks had hinted to us, that the Mullulmans thought Chriftians unworthy of making this voyage in the company of the pilgrims who were journeying to the holy city j and that upon this account we fhould not go aboard with fhoes upon our feet. Some of the pilgrims, indeed, feemed to look upon us little lefs unfavourably than a Capuchin going to Jerufalem would regard a Protellant. But, to be obliged to walk without fhoes upon the deck, was not an humiliating diftinclion, confined to Chriftians: it was a reftraint to which all on board were fubjecled. Nobody in thofe veffels but muft walk upon deck without fhoes.
To avoid the company of the Mahometans, we had hired an apartment which we thought the beft. In a chamber oppofite to ours, lodged a rich black eunuch, who was going to Mecca \
and,
114 niebuhr's travels
and, ufelefs as it could not but be to him, was accompanied with his feraglio, like a Turkifh lord. In a large apartment under ours, were forty women and flaves, with their children, whofe crying Tmd noifc gave us no little diiturb-ance. Every one of thc other palfengers had lured a place upon the deck, where he remained with his bales and parcels around him, having only a fmall fpace vacant in the middle, where he might drefs his victuals, fit, and ileep. Our Greek failors, who were very unlkilful, were perplexed by thefe incumbrances, and could not go about to manage the veffel, without trampling upon the goods of the merchants, which produced endlefs difputes.
Our veffel, although large enough to have carried at leaft forty guns, was very deeply laden. Befides her own freight, fhe towed after her three large fhallops,and one fmall; the. three larger filled with paffengers, horfes, fheep, and even women qf pleafurc.
' The mailer, an honeft merchant from Cairo* whofe name was Scboreibe, would not have been diftinguifhed among the teamen of Europe. He took upon himfclf the talk of pilot to the veffel; but was indeed a very unlkilful pilot. Between the two compaffes, where European navigators fet a light, he had placed a large magnet, to re-ftore, imperceptibly, as he faid, their magnetic
virtue
in arabia, csv,
215
virtue to the needles. It was with difficulty that I perfuaded him to remove it.
With fuch teamen, however, we were obliged to Tail; although they duril not venture out into the open fea, but coafted round thc mores, at the rifk of being dallied in pieces upon jutting rocks, or ftranded upon banks of coral. We had paid the mailer for our paifage, immediately after agreeing for it. But, according to the cuftom of the country, we were obliged to give an acknowledgement to the failors before going on board, which, in other places, is not expected till paffengers be leaving the veffel.
To avoid any difagreeable rencounters with the other paffengers, we had taken care to go firft on board. We had yet feveral days to wait, till the Governor mould infpect the fhips, to fee whether they were not overladen. This duty he never fails to perform ; for a fum of money is payable to him from each veffel, upon the occafion, which conftitutes a part of his revenue.
At length, after all thefe delays, the four fhips weighed anchor about midnight, on the ■loth of October. The fide upon which we paffed would have been dangerous, if the wind bad not been favourable \ for it is covered all over with coral rocks.   The fhips call an-
i her
chor every night; and we had then liberty to go on fhore, if we chofe to run the hazard, in order to fee any object of curiofity.
Chap. II.
Of the Harbour of Tor.
The harbour, in which we happened to ca^ anchor, was once a place of fome conlidcration ; but the fmall fort of Kalla and Tor is now ruinous, and without a garrifon. In its neighbourhood, however, are fome remarkable villages, the inhabitants of which, as of all this barren coaft, live by fiftiing.
. The inhabitants of Bekd-en-Naffiira are Greek Chriftians. In the neighbourhood is a convent, but only a tingle ecclefiallie in it. At Bir is a well, the water of which is better than that at Naba, but not equal to what the Arabs bring upon camels from the hills. All the pilots who fail between Suez and Jidda live in the village of Jebil. Each of thefe pilots receives five hundred crowns for the voyage; and gains fomething, befides, in the courfe of it, by inftrucl-<ng young perfons who accompany him, to team his art, which confifts merely in diftin-
guifhing
guifhing where the fand-banks and beds of coral ly.
Mr Forikal went on fliore to vifit the pretended Valley of Elim. The eccleiiaftic belong, ing to the Greek convent, Tent a guide to conduct, him thither. He found it overgrown with date trees. As he did not immediately return, a report arofe in the veffel that he had been detained by the Arabs, for attempting to take draughts of their hills. Some merchants, who were alfo janiffaries, fet inflantly out, to relieve and bring him back. Happily, the report turned out to have been falfe ; and Mr Forikal returned, without having met with any unplea-fant accident.
In this place, We had an opportunity of feeing that whole range of mountains which terminates with Jibbel Mufa, and forms a mafs of which the mountain of St Catharine's is the highefl peak. One of thofe mountains rifes near Tor. We had a diftinct view of St Catharine's, and perceived how high it towers above Sinai, This vaft pile of mountains fills the whole tract between the two arms of the Arabic gulf. Near the fhore, thofe mountains fink into fmall hills, which flope into fandy plains.
Vol. I,
Chaf,
Il9 jnlebuhr.?s travels
CuAr. III.
Voyage front Tor to Jidda.
W E continued, till we had failed as far as Ras Muhornmcd, to cad anchor every night. But» between that cape and the coaft of Arabia, we had to crofs the Red Sea at its full breadth. The Europeans think this the fafefl route, as there is not, through the whole, one rock on which a fhip can be wrecked. But, the Turks think themfelves undone, whenever they lofe fight of land.
So many misfortunes happen, indeed, from the ignorance of their feamen, that they have rcafon for their fers. Out of four veffels that had fet out rather too late, in the foregoing year, two had peri died in thefe latitudes. Some perfons, who had made the voyage in thofe veffels, narrated to us the particulars of that event, which afforded no bad fpecimen of the nautical fkill of the Turks. When the ftorm arofe, all the failors and paffengers leaped into the boats, and betook themfelves to the fhore. The two fhips being thus abandoned to the ftorm, one y as dallied againit a rock, and the other fank.
The
The mailer of the third cut away the cords of his boats, for which the paffengers threatened, to cut him in pieces. But, by explaining to them their danger, and promifmg to extricate them, if they fhould not perplex and impede him, he prevailed upon them to ailiit him in. laving the fhip.
In our pafiage, we found ourfelves in danger of a worfe misfortune than fhipwreck. The females, who, were lodged under us, more than once fuffered linen, which they were drying, to catch fire, in confequence of which the vcfiel muit have been burnt, if we had not been alarm-, ed by their fcrcams, and haftened to their afiifU ance. The fecond time when this happened^ our captain was enraged, and fent down an inferior officer into the feraglio, to beat the women for their careleifnefs. The infliction of this punifhment produced, at firft, no fmall noife among them ; but it was followed by four, and twenty hours of a fwect lilence. Tljofe women were indeed extremely troublefome and in-difcreet. Hearing their voices fo very near us, I was tempted to look through a chink, and faw three or four of them naked and bathing.
Nothing remarkable appeared upon thc track by which we failed, unlets a few fmall and defart ifiands, and the fumnuts of fome diftant hills. The laft objects that remained within our view,
E e 2 upon
upon the coaft of Egypt, were the famous mountains of emeralds, called by the Arabs Jibbel Sumrud.
On the 17th of October, an eclipfe of the fun happened, which had been foretold to our Captain by Mr Forikal. I ihewed this phenomenon through glafles to the Captain and the principal merchants, with which they were much plcaied ; for, among the Mahometans, a perfon who can predict an eclipfe, palfes for an univer-fal fcholar, and efpecially for a very lkilful phy-fician. Mr lorftcai was confulted by feveral of the paffengers, who fancied themfelves lick upon a hidden. He mentioned fome harmlefs medicines to them, and recommended exercife and a peculiar regimen. At length, one of the pilgrims complaining that he could not fee by night, my friend advifed him to light a candle-This humourous prefcription did him better fer-vice than the moft profound fkill in medicine could have done : Thofe Muflblmans were pleaf-ed to find him thus accommodate himfelf to, their manners, and became very fond of him.
When we came near to the fmall file of Kajfa-ni, the Turks began to exprefs their joy at having efcaped the dangers of fuch a paifage, and having fo nearly reached- the coaft of Arabia^ Cannons and muikcts were fired ; the fhip and
the
the boats were illuminated with lamps, and lan-thorns; and all was exultation and jollity. Tine failors went round with a box, alking a dole from the paffengers; every one gave fome trifle ; and they then threw into the fea,—not the money,—but the box in which they had colkclcd it.
Continuing our courfe, w7e incurred confider-able danger, in doubling a cape furrounded with banks of coral, becaufe our pilot was drunk. He had "frequently afked us for brandy, on pretence that he could not fee the hills, or the outline of the coalt, unlefs his fight were cleared by the drinking of a little flrong liquor. We had re-fufed him, for fear of giving offence to the other Muffulmans ; but we foon faw that they are not fo fcrupulous, for the Captain fent to us e-very morning for a quarter of a bottle of brandy to his pilot. The Greek merchants might perhaps have made him drunk, by adding to the dofe which he received daily from us.
We arrived foon after at Jnmbo, a walled town near the fea, and having a fafe harbour. Not having feen a fingle houfe, iincc we had left Tor, we felt no fmall plcafure at the fight of Jambo.
Such as meant to take Medina, on their way to Mecca, went on fhore here. Three of our party alfo landed, and took their fabrcs in their
hands,
hands, like the other paffengers. An inhabitant of Jambo, fuppofingthem Turks, gave them the fa-lutation ofpeace, SalainAIicum, and entered familiarly into converfatioo with them. But learning that they were Franks, he became vexed at having profaned his form of falutation, by ad-dreffing it to Chriftians, and paflionately railed ^t the infolent audacity of thefe infidels, who dared to wear arms in Arabia. But the other-Arabs not feconding his complaint, my fellow-travellers came on board, without meeting with any other unpleafant accident..
After flopping for one day in this harbour, we proceeded upon our voyage, retiring by degrees, from the coaft, near which many beds of coral rocks were fcattered. We had an opportunity of feeing the town of Ma/lura, which ftands at the foot of a hill of the fame name. We doubled Ca^&Wardan ; and anchored near Rabogb, a permanent habitation of a body of Arabs, who live there in tents. We purchafed from them a., plentiful flock of provifions.
Pilgrims, in their firft journey to Mecca, are obliged to affume the Ihhram immediately after pa fling Cape Wardan, if the ftate of their health permit. This is a piece of linen, which is wrapr ped round the loins. The reft of the body is naked; and in this ftate, they proceed through, the reft of the pilgrimage, till they have vifited,
the
the Kaaba. The only other garment they are fuffered to wear, is a linen cloth upon the fhoul-ders, which hangs down in the fafhion of a fcarf But many, under pretext of indifpoiition, retained their ordinary drefs. Others, more devout, alfumed the lhhram, although they had been formerly at Mecca ; fo that by the evening, we faw molt of thofe Mulfulmans dreffed in a garb different from what they had worn in the morning.
It may feem ftrange, that Mahomet mould have enjoined the obfervance offtripping, which is fo injurious to the health of thc pilgrims. But this law was inftitutcd at a time, when his followers were all Arabs, and there was little probability, that his religion would be propagated in more northern regions. His defign was to •make the pilgrims appear with due humility, and in the common drefs of the Arabs. Thofe linens are flill the only drefs worn by the inhabitants of this province. But the Turks , who are accuftomed to wear warm clothes, and even furred cloaks, find it extremely uncomfortable •to change thefe for the lhhram. Superstition maintains local cuftoms and inflitutions, even after circumftances have fo changed, as to make them counteract thc purpofes for which they Were originally intended. The members of feveral religious Orders retain, in cold countries,
the
the common drefs of the warm countries in which their Orders were inftituted. In a chilling climate, we fee them repair, in the middle of winter, to damp, icy churches, becaufe the primitive Chriftians, in the mild climate of Aha, aflembled through the whole year, in fuch buildings, which were there agreeable by their coolnefs.
At length, on the 29th of October, wC arrived in the harbour of Jidda. The fame reafon which had induced us to enter the fhip before the other paifengers, difpofed us to remain in it till they had all gone on ihore. Every one was eager to get away with his goods affoon as pofiible, and to conceal them as much as he could from the officers of the cuftoms. They were particularly at pains to conceal their ready money, which pays two and a half per cent, of duty. One of the paifengers failed in the attempt to fecrete his money ; for his purfe burft as he entered the boat, and his crowns fell into the fea. Thofe who defraud the cuftoms, fuffer no confifcation of their goods upon detection ; they are only laughed at. In feveral places in Turkey, thofe detected in thefe practices are compelled to pay thc duties double,
All who had been this way in the former year, and were now returning from the city^ complained bitterly of the harfhnefs with which they had been treated by the cuftomhoufe officers.
cers. We were therefore perplexed about our ready money, not that we were unwilling to pay thc duties, but we were afraid of being plundered by the Arabs. As thc Mahometans are unacquainted with the ufe of letters of exchange, we had been obliged to carry with us in Venetian fequins, the whole fum that we intended to expend on our journey.' After various thoughts, we rcfolved to put our money in the bottom of our medicine-che.it, referving only two hundred fequins, where we expected the officers of the cuftoms to fearch. Our ftratagem fucceeded; and no perfon offered to move our medicines.
The other three veffels which had fet out witli us fromSucz, did not reach Jidda till a confidcr-able time after our arrival. One of them, by t!ie ignorance of the failors, had been in great danger in the courfe of the paflage. She was even overturned in the road, the failors having in order to gratify the impatience of thc merchants, in difcharging the cargoe, placed too great a weight of goods upon the llem of thc fhip. She was again railed upon her keel, but a great part of thc goods had 'fallen into the fea, and were much damaged, a new inllance this, of the unlkilfulnefs of thc Turkiih feamcii.
Vol I.
F f
Chap.
Chap. IV.
Of Jidda and its Vicinity.
We entered this city under ftrong apprehen-fions of ill-treatment from its inhabitants. Re, collecting with what contempt Chriitians are re. garded at Cairo, and how our companions had been intuited by the Arab at Jambo ;  we feared, that we might experience (till more of the inhofpitable infolence of the Muffulmans, as we approached nearer to their holy cities.   But we found ourfelves agreeably difappointed. The inhabitants of Jidda, who are much accuftomed to Chriftian merchants in the European drefs, were not (truck with any thing flrange in our appearance, and did not feem to take much notice of us.   We went freely to the coffee-houfes and markets, without flittering any infults. But we underftood, that none except Muifulmans, are permitted to pals through the gate that opens towards Mecca, or even to approach it; and kept therefore carefully at a diftance from that gate, leaft we might be difcovered.
Our letters of recommendation were of great life to us.   Mr Gcehler had been perfonally acquainted
quainted with the Pacha of Jidda, at Conftanti-nople, and had accordingly recommended us to him. We had letters from two coniiderable merchants at Cairo, to two of the principal merchants in Jidda. A poor Schech had given us one to the Kiaja, the Pacha's lieutenant: a recommendation from which we had not expected much, but which was, neverthelefs, of more fer-vice to us than all the relt.
That Schech was fecretary to one of the principal members of the academy of Jamea-el-A~ fiar, at Cairo. He had been born in European Turkey, and having often heard of the fuperio-rity of the European Chrillians in matters of fci-ence, he came frequently to fee us, and was eager to receive information from us. He was a truly worthy man, perfectly free from fuperfti-tion, and a friend to the whole human race* Mr Forikal and I inftructed him in the elements of botany and allronomy. He, for his part, was very ufeful to us, exercifing us in the Arabic language, and explaining to us many things of which we mull otherwife have remained ignorant. In his youth, he had given the Kiaja fome leffons. He had written, without our knowledge, by the lait caravan, to prepofiefs his old friend in our favour : and gave us, befides, this letter to him.
F f 2 As
228 nieeuhr's travels
»
As we had not time to deliver all our letters with our own hands, we lent thofe to the two merchants by our fervant, in hopes thac they might find us lodgings. But when they under-flood that we were fo many, ihey excufed themfelves, alleging that it was not poiliblc to find a houfe large enough. Had we been fewer, we might have taken chambers in the public Kan, Our Greek fervant, when we were thus at a lofs for lodgings, applied to one of his countrymen, t who was goldfmith to the fheriffe of Mecca, and in great credit with the principal men in the city. This goldfmith informed him, that the Kiaja, having had previous intimation of our coming, had given him orders to do us any fervice in his power. He even offered us the ufe of his own houfe for a night, and promifed us a whole houfe to ourfelves, by next day.
Upon receiving this notice, wc went inftantly to deliver the Schec h's letter to the Kiaja ; who received us with great politenefs. We went afterwards frequently to fee him ; and in our an-fwers to his queilions concerning the cuiloms and manners of Europe, we communicated to him and his friends, more jufl and favourable i-deas of the Europeans, than they feemed to have before entertained. The Arabs coulider us in the fame light in which we regard the Chinefe-They efleem themfelves the more enlightened
and
and ingenious people ; and think they do us great honour, when they rank us in the fecond place. The Kiaja was fond of converting about autonomy. Mr Forikal, who often vilited him, pcr-fuaded him to form a garden for plants near his houfe, and to bring from the interior parts of the country, the ihrub which produces the balm in Mecca. The Arabs looked upon this as a happy thought; and the more fo, becaufe the balm is not to be obtained pure at Jidda, but is commonly corrupted with an intermixture of extraneous fubftances, before it comes there.
After a few days, we delivered our letter of recommendation to the Pacha. He had alio fome knowledge of attronomy, and wilhed to fee our inftruments. He thought them better than thofe ufed in the Eaft, and Ihewcd them to a Schech, a learned Turk, whom he had with hiuk The Pacha and the Schech fpoke no lan. guage but the Turkifh, to which I was a itrair ger. But we had enough of interpreters ; and, among others, three French and Italian rene** gadoes in the ferviee of the Pacha. Yet they knew not the terms of fcience, either in their native language, or in the Turkifh. 1 could not, of confequence, make myfelf well undo -flood by the Pacha \ and our conversation upon thefe fubjects was not long nor profound. With lhe Kiaja I was obliged to fpeak Arabic, which
I -found
2JO
nieeuhr's travels
I found riot a little difficult, being ft ill ignorant of the terms of fcience in that language.
On the ill of November, after hiring a houfe, we made our effects be carried to the cuftom-houfe, before we mould remove them into the city, and had the pleafure ro obferve, that we were not the lefs kindly dealt with for.being known to the Kiaja.' That officer fat, in an e-levated iituation, with his clerks around him, and directed the goods of the merchants to be examined, piece by piece , but he was fatisfied with opening.our trunks, and did not make them be emptied. The officers of the cuftoms expect a gratuity when they behave with difcretion^ The Sherriffe's goldfmith, who had taken upon himfelf the direction of our expence, gave them a trifle in our name publicly.
The news of the arrival of a party of Europeans, among whom was an aftronomer, foon reached Mecca. The brother of the reigning Sherriffe was at that time advancing with an army, to attack the city. With the Mahometans, an aftronomer is always deemed an aftro-loger. The Sheriffe, therefore, directed his Greek goldfmith to enquire of me, Whether he mould remain in poffeffion of the fovereign power, or be compelled to give place to his brother ? I excufed myfelf from returning an anfwer, as being ignorant of future events, and
and as cultivating aftronomy only to improve the art of navigation. But Mr Von Haven replied, that, of the two brothers, he who bore the greateft refemblance to Haffan, the founder of the family, ihould remain victorious. This re-fponfe turned out the more happily, that thc reigning Sheriffe was enabled to maintain him-felf upon the throne.
A nobleman in Jidda alked me to difcover to him the thief who had flolen two hundred fequins which he had loft. I alleged the fame excufe as in the former cafe. He then applied to a famous Schech, who was a better a/troiQ-ger than I. The Schech gathered all his fer-vants, ranged them in a line, and, after a long prayer, made each of them' take into his mouth a bit of folded paper, telling them, that they who were innocent might fwallow it wi:h fafety, but that the guilty perfon would be choaked by it. They all fwallowed the paper, fave one, who, being thus, furprifed, and em-barraifed, confelled thc theft, and made refti-tution.
He is faid to have been Sultan El Guti, fovereign of Egypt, who, in the year 1514, fur-rounded Jidda with walls, to protect it from the Portuguefe, then beginning to become formidable on the Red Sea. Thofe walls are ftill ftanding, but are now fo ruinous, that a perfon
may
may, in many places, enter over them on horfeback. The bridge is in an equally defenccleft ftate ; a ruinous battery, with one difmounted cannon, is all that remains to fhelter it. Some cannons before the palace of the Pacha, are good for nothing but to return the ialute of fhips which'enter the harbour. This palace is but an indifferent building, like the houfes of the other Pachas through the Ottoman empire. In the city, however, are feveral fine buildings of coral none. But the other houfes are flight wooden fabrics, like the ordinary dwellings of the Arabs through the country..
The city is entirely deftitute of water. The inhabitants have none to drink, but what is collected by the Arabs, in refcrvoirs among the hills, and brought by them from thence upon camels.
People of diftinction in this place drefs nearly as the Turks in Cairo. But, thc poorer fort wear only a fhirt without breeches. The Bedouins in the neighbourhood wear only the lhhram upon their loins. The drefs of the women among the lower ranks is the fame which is worn by the Arabian females in general; large drawers, a flowing ftiirt, and a veil. Many of the poorer people are employed in fifhing, by which they feem to earn but a fcanty living-
1 The
The country lying immediately around this city, is Tandy and barren. If we may believe tradition, thefe regions have undergone no change fince the creation ; for the tomb of Eve is Hill ihewn in a fpot at no great diftance from the fea. But, I have remarked fome fure indications of the fea having receded from the furface of the land here as well as in other places. At a certain diftance from the fhore, are hills entirely compofcd of coral-rock, and having a perfect refemblance to the banks of coral lying a-long the coaft.
As I was walking by the harbour, I had an opportunity of obferving a lingular practice, which the Arabs ufe for taking up wild ducks. The perfon, who is in fearch of the game, ftrips, puts fea-weeds upon his head, and approaches the bird. The duck, not being alarmed at the fight of the fea-weeds, ftirs not till the Arab feizes it by the feet.
Pococke, and fome other travellers, were not credited, when they fpoke of this mode of taking wild-fowls as practifed in China. But no fact can be more certain (aa).
Vol. I.
Chap.
*34
niebuhr's travels
Chap. V.
The Government and Trade of Jidda.
Jidda has been always a part of the dominions of the Sherriffe of Mecca. The Turkifh Sultan fends, indeed, a Pacha to this city ; but he is not abfolute fovereign of it. The fupreme authority is fhartd between the Sherriffe and the Turkifh governor. The latter is changed every year; and accordingly rcfufes fometimes to obey the Pacha ; as did the prefent Kiaja, in one inftancc, during our ftay at Jidda.
The Sherriffe keeps an officer, who is called his Vifier, to reprefent him in this city ; and oil this Vifier, folely, do all fuch of the inhabitants of Jidda, as are the Sheriffe's fubjects, depend. This officer is always chofen out of the family of the Sherriffe, from among thofe who afpire to thc fovereign power. A dependent of a noble Arab family would not deign to compear before a judge of a meaner birth.
The revenue ariling from the cuftoms isfhar-ed between the Suit an and the Sherrifle \ upon which account the Kiaja and the Vifier always attend together, when goods are examined.
Thc
The dues of cuftom are fixed at 10 per cent, upon the value of the goods, eftimated arbitrarily by the cuftom-houfe officers ; fo that they may be conhdered as equal, in reality, to 12 or 15 per cent. The Englilh, however, are particularly favoured, even more than the fubjects of the Sultan :■ They pay only 8 per cent, and are fuf-fered to difcharge this in goods j whereas all o-thcrs muft produce money. *
Although the trade of Jidda is fo confklerable, yet this city is no more than a mart between E-gypt and India. The fhips from Suezfeidom prc-ceed farther than this port; and thofe from India are not fuftered to advance to Suez. The maf-tcr of a velfel fromSurat, heing driven one year too far north to enter the harbour of Jidda, proceeded to Suez, and there difcharged his cargo. But he was put into prilbn, next year, at Jidda; and obliged to pay thc full dues that would have been charged at Jidda, upon the goods which he had difpofed of at Suez.
Were it not for this advantage, the trade of Suez would be very trilling. The circumjacent country affords nothing but Taif almonds for an objects of traffic ; of thefe, indeed, the Englifh carry five hundred thoufand weight a-year to India. Balm of Mecca is alfo brought hither from the neighbourhood of Medina, as an article SO? exportation.
NIEBUHR's TRAVELS'
The imports are greater, becaufe both Mecca and Medina are to be fupplied from this market. Large quantities of corn, rice, lentiles, fu-gar, oil, &-c. are imported frem Egypt, without which this part of Arabia could not poifibly be inhabited. All goods from Europe come alfo by the way of Egypt ; and, on the other hand, thofe which are brought hither from India pafs generally into Egypt.
Maillet, who refided long in Cairo, imagined • that it might be of advantage to the nations of Europe, to conduct, their trade to India by the way of the Red Sea. But it is doubtful, whether fhips would be allowed to pafs the harbour of Jidda. They would undoubtedly meet with much fraud and chicanery at Suez ; for the proprietors of the veffels which trade at prefent between the two harbours, are the moll refpec-table merchants in Cairo. Beiides, the exorbitant duties, which would be exacted, would greatly curtail their profits. But European merchants would hardly be hindered to fettle a* Jidda: One Engli(hman has lived feveral years here.
A circumflance, which muft always have an unfavourable influence upon the ftate of this trade, is, the low ftate of the finances of the Government which prefides here. Continually in want of money, they often require the merchants
chants to advance fome part of the duties for the n^xt year, and promife to difcount what is thus advanced, when it falls due. But thefe advances, when once obtained, are left to accumulate, year after year, and will never be repaid. The Engliih have not yet fubmitted to thefe impolitions: but their firm refufal continually embroils them with the officers of Government.
No money is coined in this province; the fpecie current here is all foreign, and the fame as at Conilantinople and Cairo. But the larg« r coins pafs at a higher rate here than in Cairo, becaufe fmall money is more plentiful here, than even where it is coined. Pilgrims bring this a-bundance of fmall money into the country, to defray their travelling expences, and the alms which they are obliged to bellow on their journey, and in the Holy City. That fmall money is never carried out of the country ; and the province is, by confequence, abfolutely overflowed with it.
I have had occalion to fpeak of thc trading janifluries. Thofe are properly merchants, who have inrolled themfelves among the janiifaries, that they might be protected by the privileges of that body, from the impolitions to which they would other wife be expofed in conducting their traffic ; but they perform no military duty, and
receive.
receive no pay. Such a janiftary is independent of the civil magiftrate : and amenable to judges, but the officers of the military body to which he belongs. He enjoys alfo an exemption from the payment of cuftom-houfe dues, for a trunk and two baikets, which are allowed them for the conveyance of their baggage and provifions. But, inftead of baggage or provifions, the trading janiffaries take care to fill the trunk and bafket9 with their molt precious goods. I have feen, likewife, fome fhip-captains and pilots who had inrolled themfelves among the janiffaries, folely to acquire importance, and to feeure the protection of this powerful body, who are always ready to fupport and defend a brother janiffary ; for fuch janiffaries did not fhare the privileges of their Turkifh brethren.
While we were in Jidda, the janiffary traders, refenting the ftrictnefs with which their good-s were infpected, threatened to defend themfelves with the help of their fellows, from what they called injuftice. The Kiaja and Vizier ordered ftrong detachments from the troops of the Pacha and the Sultan, to attend them to the cuftom-houfe ; and the mutineers were thus reprefted. But after our departure, the janiffaries allcmbled in arms: upon which the Pacha directed fome cannons to be pointed againft the houfe in which
the
the ringleaders were affembled, and all became quiet (bb).
Chap VI.
Voyage from Jidda to. Loheia.
Our orders were, to proceed as direclly as pof-fible to Temen; and nothing detained us at Jidda, but the prevalence of the north wind, which kept back the arrival of the ihips going thither for coffee ; for there were none elfe with which We could continue our voyage to the fouth of the Arabic gulph. At laft, fome of thofe veffels arrived in the beginning of December; and we were advii'ed to take our paffage ip a fhip from Majkate, bound to ILodeida, for a cargoe of coffee.
We went in hafte to fee this veffel, but were not a little furprifed to find it more like a hogf-head than a fhip. It was only feven fathoms long, by three in breadth. It had no deck ; its planks were extremely thin, and fecmed to be only nailed together, but not pitched. The Captain wore nothing but a linen cloth upon his loins ; and his failors, - who were nine in num-"€r» and all blacll Haves from Africa or Malabar, had nothing to cover their nakednefs, but about
an
NlEBUHR*S TRAVELS
an hand-breadth of linen, bound upon their haunches with a cord. Our friends perfuaded us not to ftickle at appearances, a6 the Arabs of Maf-kate are elleemed good failors, and manage their fails like European mariners ; whereas the fubjects of the Imam are very unlkilful navigators, and ufe mats for fails, which it is very difficult to manage. We took their advice, and agreed with the mailer, for our paffage to Hodeida.
Our firll intention had been, to go ftraight by fea to Mokha, as we hoped that fome Englilh veffels might be found there. But we were told* that this paffage would be extremely tedious, and that we might travel more agreeably by land, and could meet with no moleftation in the dominions of the Imam. However, the danger of living among Arabs, whom we reprefent-d to ourfelves fuch as thofe whom we had feen in the defart, Hill dwelt upon our imagination. But our friends again affured us, that our fears were groundlefs; and we accordingly determined to land at Loheia, or rather at Hodeida, as we lliould thus begin the fooner to traverfe Arabia the happy. The Kiaja gave us letters to the Dola^s, or governors of Loheia and Hodeida; and the merchants to whom we had been recommended, gave us others to fome of the principal merchants in thofe two cities.   The Pacha gave
orders,
orders, that our baggage mould pafs unexamined.
We had freighted the veffel for ourfelves a-lone ; but yet we found it laden with goods. Thc matter excufed this by telling us, that thefe were abfolutely neceffary for ballatt. A fmall fpace was however allotted to each of us, which we found fpread with.a ftraw mat, intended e-qually for a feat and a bed upon which we might fleep if we could. Bales of goods occupied every place clfe, except one fmall corner, which ferved as a kitchen. It was impoflible therefore, to walk or take the leaft exercife. Mr Cramer loft his watch the firft night between the boards and a mat of branches of trees, which was fpread all over the bottom of the veiTel, to keep thc goods dry. It was found undamaged, when we reached Loheia ; a circumftance which proves that the timber of thofe veffels is more clofely joined than one would at firft imagine.
We fet out from Jidda on the 13th of December, and our Captain followed the practice of calling anchor every night; although the banks of coral are lefs numerous in the fouthern, than in the northern part of the Arabic gulph. If we had feen few towns or villages between Suez and Jidda, we faw not more between Jidda and Loheia.
Vol. I. H h Our
Our -voyage was uniformly fafe and pleafant. We obferved fome flying fillies, which the Arabs call fea locufts. On the fixth day of our voyage, we overtook a velfel belonging to Hodeida, which had failed from Jidda three days before us. This was an inftance of the flow-failing of the fhips of Temen, whofe mat-fails receive fo little wind, that often the Arabs can fcarce get out of the harbour. We faw alfo feveral fmall veffels, which proceeded in fuch a manner, as to lhew themfelvcs to be managed by men of much more f/pirit than theTurkiih failors.
After feven days failing, we anchored near Ghiinfudc, a  confiderable city, but conlifting merely of huts.   It belongs to the Sherriffe of Mecca, and is governed by one of his officers^ who lives in a fmall ifle, at fome dillance from the city.   He is obliged to pafs daily between the ifle and the town, in order to attend the receipt of the cuftoms.   All the fhips which are employed in carrying coffee to Jidda, are obliged to anchor here, and pay a duty to the Sherriffe.   They are under no neceflity of flopping on their return ; if the crew, however, wifti to go on fhore, they may obtain a general permif-fion for the payment of two crowns.
Next day after our departure from Ghunfudc, where wp flayed only one day, we paffed within fight of Halt, where the Sherriffe of Mecca keeps
a garrifon. This city is upon the confines of his dominions, and upon the border of the province of Hedjas. The neighbouring Arabs belong to Yemen.
As our captain needed provifions, we had an early opportunity of forming acquaintance with thofe independent Arabs who live between the dominions of the two Sherriffcs of Mecca and A-bu-Arifch. They are governed by Schiechs of their own, and profefs a religion which feems to have been that of their anccffors before Mahomet arofe. We had heard it mentioned, that thofe people have a flrong inclination to appropriate the clothes of travellers: in imitation of our fhip-captain, therefore, we dreffed ourfelves motVeftly and fimply, in indifferent fhirts, and in thisguife went on fhore unarmed, Some men immediately advanced to meet us ; inftead of a turban* they wore only a firing upon the head, to confine the hair ; and a cloth upon the loins was all the reft of their drefs. Conceiving our behaviour to be expreffive of fufpicion and diftrufb they threw down their lances, and told us that wye had nothing to fear.
As we wiflied to purchafe provifions, they led us to their tents. As we approached, two women came out to meet us, and refpectfully luffed the arms of the Schiechs, who killed their heads in return. They wore no veils H h ^ upon
upon their faces ; their eyes were blackened with lead ore and they had black fpots impref-fed, as ornaments upon their brow, cheeks, and chin. Thole beauties, whofe complexion was a yellowifh brown, and who were almoil naked, immediately alked us for Kochhel, to blacken their eyes, and for Klheune, to dye their nails yellow. We were not a little mortified, that we had forgotten to provide ourfelves in thofe articles, by which we might have been enabled to gratify the eagernefs of thofe fair ones for drefs, and to fupply them with powerful aids to their charms. They regaled us with milk and butter, which had been kept in goat Ik ins, and gave us bad bread to eat with thefe dainties. They were not difpleafed at our paying them beforehand. Although wanderers in the defart, they feemed to us more civilized than moll of the o-ther Bedouin tribes.
Next day, after this interview, we halted near a mountain called Konembel, fituate in the middle of the fea, and faid by the Arabs to have been originally a volcano. It may poflibly be the remains of that burning illand which is placed by Arrian and Ptolemy in thefe latitudes. We faw, likewife, not far off, the city of Gefan, fituate upon a tongue of land, on the coafl; but we did not venture to approach it \ for the Sherriffe
rifle to whom it belongs bears the character of being inhofpitable to ftrangers.
On the 29th of December, we arrived in the harbour of Loheia, and cad anchor within a league of the town.
SECTION
2 46
NIIBUrVs travel.*
SECTION VIII.
HOUTE from loheia to  beit el fakih.
Chap. I.
Of our JIuy at Loheia.
Between Suez and Loheia, we had heard much of the independent Schiechs, who are unwilling to fuller ilrangcrs to enter their dominions. From this circumftance, we could not readily credit what was told us concerning the eafe and fecurity with which we might travel through thc territories of the Imam of Sana. It was for this rcafon, that we had wilhed to go flraight by fea to Mokha ; although we had been often e-nough oppofed by contrary winds, to make us weary of this mode of travelling. Two merchants of Mokha, who had fet out with us, deter, mined, however, to continue their journey by
land.   We thought it might be proper to accompany
pany them into the city, where we might learn from the governor, whether we could be fafe to travel by land between Loheia and Mokha.
DoLt, or Emir, is the title which the Arabs give to the governors of cities. He of Loheia Avas an Emir, and his name was Farhan. He was a native of Africa, and entirely black ; but had been brought into Arabia in his youth, and ' fold to a man of rank, who was lince dead, after having occupied one of the hrit offices in thefervicc of the Imam. Pie had given young Earhan a good education, and had obtained for him a fmall office, in which he gave fo much fatisfaction, that his merit foon railed him to be Dola of a confi-dcrable city. We found him to pollefs the dignified politenefs of a nobleman, the ftricfeft integrity, and the candid benevolence of a true friend to mankind.
We explained to him our fituation ; and told him that we were Europeans, and wiffied to go by Hodeida to Mokha, where we^hoped to find fome Englifh fhips, in which we might take our paffage to India ; but, being ftrangers to the country through which we were to travel, had brought a letter to him from thc Kiaja of Jidda, and another from one of the principal merchants in Jidda to Machfen-cl-Makka-ivifch, the chief merchant in Loheia. The E-mir had known a good many Europeans, or
Frank*
Franks, at Mokha, but bad never before feen any arrayed in the garb of thc Eaft, which is, however, univerfally worn by the Oriental Chriftians. We knew, that the Miiffulmans regard Chriftians with greater efteem than thofe of any other religious community except their own. When we were alked, therefore, by Emir Far-han, whether we were Franks or Nazarites, we replied that we were both ; fearing that he might perhaps take the Europeans for Pagans. Machfen, the merchant, was then fick ; but the Emir fent for his clerk, to receive the letter in our hands, addrefled to him.
Hitherto, this governor had known no Europeans but India merchants. He was furprifed, when he underftood, from the letters, that one of us was a phyfician ; another in fearch of plants; and a third, an obferver of liars. Struck with' this fingularity, and fuppofmg that wo might notbe in very greathafte, he propofedto us to flay fome time at Loheia, offering to fend us to Mokha upon his own camels. Mtefchen, the merchant, who needed a phyfician, earneftly invited us, at the fame time, to take up our lodgings in one of his houfes.
We were delighted thus to find the Arabs more civilized the farther we proceeded from Egypt, and to meet with fo polite a reception among the people who were the objects of our
enquiries.
ISriebuhr's Truvelv.
(
enquiries. We were ftill more delighted to find that people themfelves contributing to afford us. opportunities of tranfverhng their country unfuf-pe&ed. To hide our joy at the propofal, wc ex. prelfed our fears of danger in travelling fo near the feat of the war between the the Schiech of Mek-krami and the Sherriftb of Abu Anjcb. But the Emir affured us, that we fhould be fafe from all danger at Loheia, and might travel in full fecurity through the whole territories of his maf-ter the Imam.
We no longer hefitated to quit the veflcl. The captain, not having taken the precaution to exact payment for our paffage, when we came firlt on board, now applied to the governor, beg. ging him to compel us to pay in full for our paffage to Hodeida. The Emir generoufiy replied, that he would pay his demand from his own purfe, if we refufed ; and the merchant Macch-fen made the fame promife. We did not put the generolity of our Arabian friends to the trial ; but felt ourfelves deeply indebted to them for their offqrs and fervices.
When we fpoke of the conveyance of our baggage to the more, the Emir fent his own boat for it \ and, to fpare us all trouble, directed the merchant's clerk to fatisfy the officers of the cuftoms. In the evening, he fent us an excellent fheep, as a prefent of welcome, and accom-
V0L. I. 1 i panied
niebu-hr'-s travels
panied it with a letter, in which he called u* his guefts, and aiTiired us of his friendlhip. His boat having only mat-fails, moved fo flowly, that we could not bring all our effects on fhore in. one day, which gave us fome concern, left we. might lofe what remained behind, or be robbed of what lay on the fhore. The Emir, under-ftanding that we were uneafy upon this head, immediately fent fome foldiers to guard our baggage.
We paffed the night on thetfhore, whither our good friend Mujcbfen, who very naturally fuppoi'ed that our cooking utenfils muft be yet in confufion, fent us an excellent fupper. Nothing was wanting but wine; and our flock of bad brandy, which we had brought from Jidda, was by this time finifhed. We might havc(fupplied ourfelves with wine, and other liquors, from the Jews of Sana, who manufacture large quantities of thofe articles: but we mould have been obliged to carry them in copper veffels, which would have rendered them noxious to the health. They offered us a fort of boivza, which we found naufeous. W"e were therefore obliged to content ourfelves with the profpect of living without ftrong liquors of any kind for fome months.
Our trunks were carried next day to the cuf-tom-houfe : they were opened ; and we were
afraid
afraid that they might be ftrictly examined. But the cuftom-houfe officers behaved with great civility. We had remarked, that the Emir's attention was fixed upon our inftruments folely, and that he feemed anxious to underftand the ufes of them : We therefore explained to him whatever he wifhed to know. Mr Forfkal fhewcd him fome fmall objects through a microfcope ; and he was moft agreeably furprifed to fee minute infects magnified to fo large a fize.
The houfe alfigned us for a lodging was built in the Eafteru fafhion, with a fquare court in the middle. There was not one well-fur-niflied room in it; yet it conlifted of feveral diftincr. apartments, into which the entrance was through an open gallery, which extended all around it. This lodging was far from being elegant, in comparifon with the fplendid inns in Europe ; but in Arabia, it was both elegant and commodious. At firft, our court was conftant-ty filled with crowds of people, curious to fee us. This we found troublefome ; and therefore hired a porter, who fuffered none to enter, but perfons who had bufinefs to tranfad with us.
Chaf,
Chap. II.
Vf the City of Loheia.
The city of Loheia has flood only for thefe three centuries. Its founder and patron was a Mahometan faint, called Schiech Salei, who built a hut on the more where Loheia now ftands, and fpent there the reft of his days as a hermit. After his death, a Kabbet, or houfe of prayer, was raifed over his tomb ; and it was afterwards by degrees embellifhed and endowed. Some devout perfons, imagining that it would be a great hapninefs to them to live near the remains of fo holy a perfon, built huts for themfelves about his tomb. Nearly at thc fame time, thc harbour of Marabea, a neighbouring city, in which a governor refided, was filled up. The inhabitants, upon this, defcrted their city, and fettled at Loheia, whither the feat of Government was alfo transferred.
I remarked, upon this occalion, that the Sun-nites, the prevalent fed in this province, although forbidden by the Koran to pay any ads of worfhip to created beings, yet regard their
faints
'. in arabia, WCk tJJ
taints with very lingular veneration. In this part of Arabia, the poilcrity of the faints are treated with as much refpect as is fhewn to thc pofterity of Mahomet at Mecca, Every perfon who can number a reputed faint among his; anceftors, is dignified with the title of Schiech, and confidered as an ecclefiaftic by birth. Families thus find it their intereft to eftablifh, by every poflible means, the fanctity of the perfon to whom they owe their origin, and to maintain the authenticity of the miracles aferibed to him. In this manner is fuperltition daily extending its influence among the Mahometans, and feigned miracles are conitantly multiplying.
The territory of Loheia is arid and barren. The harbour is fo indifferent, that even the fmailed veffels are obliged to anchor at a great diftance from thc city ; and, when the tide is at ebb, laden boats cannot approach near it, Notwithftanding this difadvantage, a conlidera-ble trade in coffee is carried on from Loheia i thc coffee is brought from the neighbouring hills, and expofed in one large heap for fale. This coffee is not reputed to be fo good as that which comes from Beit el Fakih, and is fliipped at Mokha and Hodeida. But colfee is to be purchafed here upon more reafonable terms ; and the carriage to Jidda cods lefs. On this account, feveral merchants from Cairo live at Loheia, and
others
?-54 nteeuiir's travels
others come annually hither to make purchafes of colfee. In this city, are alio forty poor Ba?iians9 employed in different trades.
Loheia, although without walls, is not entirely defencelefs. Twelve towers, guarded by fol-diers, (land at equal diftances roUnd it. Thefe towers refemble thofe in fome of the imperial cities of Germany ; the height of its gates renders it neceffary to climb up to them upon ladders. In Turkey, and even in Europe, it would have been dangerous to approach near fuch fortifications, in order to examine them. But the Arab guards fat fmoking their pipes, and drinking Kifcher, and gave me no interruption in my walks about them. Some of the officers even invited me to fit down and partake of their refrefhments. They put many queftions to me concerning the military Ikill of the Europeans, and feemed to be furprifed at what I told them. I (hewed them our invention for writing without ink, and in their prefence, drew with a pencil, the lines and angles neceffary for laying down the plan of the city, while they had no fufpicion of ray purpofe, but called on their com fades from the neighbouring towers to fee my exhibition.
Only one of thofe towers, and that newly built by Emir Farhan, is fuch as to admit of being defended by cannons. The reft are fo ill built, that the Arabs ofHafcbid, fome time fmce,
mado
made their way through them, arid fet fire to the city. The inhabitants are feniible of the weaknefs of their fortifications. After our departure, upon fome hundreds of thofe Arabs advancing through the province, towards the fa ore, many of the inhabitants left Loheia, and took refuge in a fmall illand, carrying with them their moft precious effecls. But their terror proved to have been premature ; for Emir Farhan no. fooner put his troops in motion, than thofe contemptible enemies retreated.
Several of the houfes in Loheia arc built of (lone ; but the greater part are huts conllrucled in that fafhion which is common among the A-rabs. The walls are of mud mixed with dung ; and the roof is thatched with a fort of grafs which is very common here. Around thc walls, within, are a range of beds made of ftraw, on which, notwithHanding their iimpliciry, a pe cfprj may either fit or ly commodioufly enough. Such a houfe is not large enough to be divided into feparate a-partments ; it lias feldom windows, and its door is only a ftraw mat. When an Arab has a family and cattle, he builds, for their accommodation, feveral fuch huts, and inclofes the whole with a ftrong wooden fence. The population of the cities of Arabia, therefore, cannot be proportionate
their extent.
Lime
2$6 niebuhr*s travels,
Lime is prepared in the neighbourhood of this city, by thc calcination of coral from the fea, in the open air, and without a furnace. In the larger maifes, when they were broken, we often faw oblong Ihells, with the animal ftill alive within them. Thefe feas abound in beautiful ihells and. uncommon fifties.
The water at Loheia is very bad, and is brought from a diftance. The common people drink from a well, which is a league from the city.. The beft water, which, however, cannot bepraif-ed as good, comes from two leagues and a half's diftance. As wheeled carriages are unknown, here, this water is carried upon camels or affes ; not in fkins, as in Egypt and Turkey, but in earthen jars, a number of which hang upon each fide of a camel. Within two leagues of the city is a fmall hill which affords confiderable quan. titles of mineral fait
Chap. III.
Of the Inhabitants of Lcheia,
From all that we faw, and from all that betel, us in this city, we judged the inhabitants to be curious, intelligent, and poliihed in their manners.
ners. All were eager to fee the Europeans, and the wonders which they performed. After we had employed a porter, thofe who had no other1 pretext upon which they might obtain admiffion to us, pretended to confult our phyfician. One alked him to feel his pulfe, and to tell him what medicines or regimen he itood in need of; while another enquired, how it came that he could not fleep ?
We had one opportunity of learning their i-deas of the benefits to be derived from medicine. Mr Cramer had given a fcribe a vomit, which o-perated with extreme violence. The Arabs being (truck at its wonderful effects, refolved all to take the fame excellent remedy ; and the reputation of our friend's (kill thus became very high among them. The Emir Bahr, or in-fpecfor of the port, fent one day for him ; and as he did not go immediately, the Emir foon af. ter, fent a faddled horfe to our gate. Mr Cramer, fuppollng that this horfe was intended to bear him to the Emir, was going to mount him, when he was told, that this was the patient he was to cure. We luckily found out another phyfician in our party. Our Swedifh fervant had ferved among the huffar troops in his native country, and in that fervice, had learned fome knowledge of the difeafes ofhorfes. He offered to cure the Emir's horfe, and fucceeded.
Vol I. K k • The
The cure rendered him famous: and he was often fent for afterwards, to human patients. The Arabian phyficians extend their care equally to men and horfes, and even to all other creatures.
When we fhewed our microfcopc3 to Emir Earhan at the cuftomhoufe, the other Arabs were all aftoniihed as well as he, to fee the fixe of the infects fo much magnified. A fervant, who faw one of thofe magnified infects, faid that they were the growth of Europe, and that thofe of A-rabia, were, in companion, exceedingly diminutive. But, nothing furprifed the people of distinction more, than when they faw through a telefcopc, a woman walking : they could not conceive how it happened, that although flic appeared topfy-turvy, yet her under garments did not turn about her ears, and exclaimed repeatedly, Allah Akbat\ God is Great,
The children, obferving that we gathered infects, brought great numbers, which they aiked us to buy. Thofe wdio were grown up, (hewed alfo many indications of a turn for indultry, which if properly direeled and encouraged, might render this people a commercial nation.
Two Arabs came, one day, to fee us eat. The one was a young nobleman of Sana, who had received a good education; the other a man of fome confequence, from the province of Hachtnny where few flrangers are ever fcen, and the great-
ca
eft fimplicity of manners ftill prevails. When We invited them to dine with us, the latter ear-neilly replied, " God preferve me from eating H with   infidels   who  believe   not in God.'* When I afked him fome particulars concerning his country, he replied, " What is my country M to you ? Do you want to conquer it?" He was aftonifiied at every thing he faw, our fpoons, our plates, our forks.   He alked fome iimple queilions which excited laughter.   He then went out in a paflion, and his companion from Sana had. fome  difficulty  to perfuade  him back. When he came back, he faw whole fowls before us, which furprifed that fober Arab not a little, as he imagined that we had eaten too much before.   When, at laft, he faw Mr Von Haven a-bout to carve one of thefe fowls, he flopped forward, and feized him by the arm, faying, with a peeviih tone, " What! wilt thou eat ftill ?" He then went out in a rage, and would not return.   The young man from Sana apologized for'him, and begged us to excufc the limplicity of his countryman.
Mr Kaurenfiend and I fometimes diverted our-feJves with playing on the violin, which led fuch as happened to overhear us, to think us muiicians. A rich merchant fent for us to come with our inftruments to his houfe. We refufed, hecaufe the Arabs look with contempt upon mu-
K k 2 . ficians
ficians by profefiion. The merchant, being old, and not able to walk fo far, mounted an afs, and came with two fervants fupporting him, to our houfe, in order to gratify his curiofity, by feeing and hearing us. He was very polite, and affined us, that he had no averfion to Chriftians ; for, that a diverfity of religions was tolerated by God, the Creator of all. After fome converfa-tion, he expreffed a wifti to fee our violins, and hear us play upon them. We played fome fo-lemn tunes, which are more to the tafte of the Orientals, than our gayer muiic. He feemcd to be pleafed, and offered each of us half a crown at parting. The Arabs refufe no prefents, however fmall, and he was not a little furprifed when we declined accepting his money , efpecially as he could not conceive what inducements any perfon could have to learn mufic, if not to gain by it.
This merchant was one of thofe few who wear their beards dyed red ; a cuftom which feems to bedifapproved by the more judicious Arabs. His reafon to us was, that a red beard was handfom-erthan a white one -y but others told us, that he had the weaknefs to think to conceal his age by this filly difguife. He told us, that he was a-bove feventy years of age ; but his acquaintance affirmed that he was not under ninety. We had ohferved of thc Mulfulmans in general, however,
that
in arabia, i$C. l6l
m
that they feldom know their own age exactly. They reckon by the moll remarkable incidents in their lives, and fay, I was a child when fuch an event happened, or when fuch a one was governor' of the province or city.
This merchant often afterwards invited us to his houfe, and became at length fo familiar, as to entertain us with a detail of his adventures. If we might believe his flory, he had enjoyed, one after another, near an hundred young and beautiful female Haves, all of whom he had fold, given in marriage, or rellored to liberty, after-keeping them for fome time. He had ftill two of thefe ; and he would die content, he faid, if he could only forget the frailty of old age now and then in their company \ he offered to make our phyfician a confulerablc prefent, if he could rcttore him fo much of the vigour of youth, as might qualify him for this enjoyment. Another merchant, who was fifty years of age, had pro-mifed our phyfician an hundred crowns, if he would give him fome remedies to fit him for the enjoyment of fome young and beautiful female Haves, whom he had in a houfe at Mecca. But he was fo exhausted by exccflive indulgence, that neither Mr Cramer's prefcription, not yet thofe of the furgeons of fome Engiifh fhips, whom he had before confulted, could reftore his genial vigour.
•The
2b2
niebuhr's travels
The women of Loheia wear large veils in the ftreet, which cover their countenances fo entirely, that only one of their eyes can be difco-vered, and that but imperfectly. Yet they make no difficulty of unveiling before ftrangcrs, as they pafs, cfpccially if they happen to think themfelves pretty, and are fure that they arc not ohferved by any of their countrymen. Mr JBaurenfeind made a drawing of one of thofe females. Her brow, checks, and chin, were ornamented with black fpots, impreifed into the (kin, and ihe had alfo her eyes artificially blackened,       , »
Chap IV.
Departure from Loheia.
After examining all that feemed worthy of notice in this city, and its neighbourhood, we became defirous to proceed on our journey, and to viiit the other parts of Yemen. It was requi-hte, however, that we fhould affign a reafon to our friend Farhan for our earncftnefs to depart. By good fortune we learned that an Englifh veffel was arrived at Mokha : but this velfel, the Emir well knew, was not to fail from that harbour till June.   We told him, therefore, that we
had
had fome immediate bufinefs to tranfact with our countrymen that were newly arrived upon which account we meant to fet out for Beit el Fakih, and after retting there a fhorttime, to continue our journey to Mokha. He anfwered, that Ave were finely diffatisfied with our entertainment at Loheia, otherwife we would not think of quitting it fo foon ; and yet no governor could take more concern to ferve us than he. After convincing him that we were actually under a necefhty of letting out for Mokha, we prepared for our departure.
\ye had made a large collection of natural curiosities, the carriage of which by land would have colt a great expence. We refolved, therefore, to fend by fea our trunks, and all the baggage that we were not likely to need at Beit el Fakih. The governor did us the kindnefs of fending, by the fame conveyance, a letter to the Dola of Mokha, in which he afked him to fuffer our effects to remaiu untouched at the cuftom-boufe, till we ourfelves ihould arrive.
When we fent to take leave of our friend Emir Earhan, he was indifpofed, and we could not fee him. But when he heard, that wc had determined to fet out, he defiredthat we would come *o him very late in the evening. We found him in company with feveral Arabs ; before him ™y an EngliHi telefcope which I had lent hirn^
a
a piece of iilk fluff, and a parcel of crowns. He Would return me my telefcope, but I infilled that he fhould keep it; which, after long refufal, he atlall, with vilible fatisfattion, confented to do. The piece of filk, with twenty crowns, were a prefent intended for our phyfician ; and the reil of the crowns he prefled us to accept, in order to pay the hire for our affes and camels. He and his company teitified the ftrongefl furprize, when they faw us refufe the money thus 'offered us; for inftead of refuting* Turkifh travellers are ready to demand fuch gratuities.
We were unwilling to be burthenfome to the Arabs, and would therefore accept of nothing from them, without making a recompenfe. We made the Emir a prefent of a watch, which, having never before had one of his own, he knew not how to manage. A merchant from Cairo, who was fettled at Loheia, promifcd to wind it 'up every day. We parted with fincere regret from this good governor*
We hired camels for our baggage, and horfes for ourfelves. In Arabia, Chriftians are not pro^ hihited the ufe of horfes; but thefe can rarely be had for hire. The ufual mode of travelling here, is upon affes j Which in this province are large, flrong, fpirited, and walk with a pace, not the moll pleafant to the rider.
Travelling
Travelling being as little expofed to danger in Yemen, as in any other country in the world, we did not need to wait for thc letting out of a-ny caravan. We therefore left Loheia alone, on the 20th of February, fending the camels before, and following them ourfelves, within a few hours* upon our affes.
Chap. V.
Route hj Tehama.
The territory of Yemen is naturally divided into two diftinct provinces. That part which borders on the Arabic gulph is a fandy plain, which, as it fpreads backward, rife* by a gradual afcent, into hills, and terminates in a lofty range of mountains. The plain is called Tthama. We had to crofs it on our way to Beit cl Fakih,
In the firft day of our journey, we travelled through a parched and barren tract of country, a-long an arm of the fea, which penetrates a confi-derable way into thc land. We relied in a coffee. houfe fituate near a village. Mokcya is the name given by the Arabs to fuch coffee-houfes which Hand in the open country, and are intended, like <>ur inns, for the accommodation of travellers.
Vol. I. LI They
266
niebuhr*s travels
They are mere huts, and are Scarcely furniflied with a Serir, or long feat of ftraw ropes \ nor do they afford any refrelhment but Kijiher, a hot infufion of cofTee-beans. This drink is ferved out in coarfe earthen cups j but perfons of dif-tinction carry always porcelain cups in their baggage. Erefti water is diftributed gratis. The mailer of the coffee-houfe lives commonly in fome neighbouring village, whence he comes e-, very day to wait for paffengers.
After a journey of fix German miles, we arrived by midnight, at a large city in which a Sub-Dola refides, with a few foldiers. Emir Farhart had given us a letter to the deputy-governor, "with an order to the inhabitants to fupply us with a fheep, which, however, we did not chufe to accept. But we came afterwards to undcrftand, that the inhabitants had been obliged to pay a fum of money equivalent to the value of the fheep, which had been fhared between the Sub-Dola and a fervant of the Emir's who accompanied us, upon bufinefs of his own. In thc other villages through which we paffed, therefore, we made no difficulty of accepting the fheep which the Emir had ordered us.
Through the whole country, we found water fcarce and bad. But we met with many large villages, lefs dillant from one another than we (hould have expected in fo barren a plain. Me~
negrt
egre is one of thofe villages, of which we were led to take particular notice, by finding in it thc firft Man/ale that we faw. A Manfale is a houfe in which travellers are received and entertained gratis, if they will be content with fuch treatment as is ufual in the country j they are all lodged in one common apartment, which is furnifh-ed with a Serir, and are fcrved with Kifcher, hot millet bread, camels milk and butter. When the matter of this Manfale underitood that fome European guefts were arrived, he came to fee whether his fervants treated us properly 5 and was going to kill a fheep for our entertainment, if we had itayed longer. He caufed wheat bread to be baked for us, which is in this province very rare ; and made them bring cow-milk, when he faw us naufeate the vifcidity of the camel's milk. Our Arabian fervant let us know, that he might be difobliged, if we fhould oiler anyxom-penfation for his kind hofpitality ; but the attendant who ferved us with thofe things, took an opportunity, in a place where he could not be feen by his matter, to afk a fmall gratuity.
At Babbit a large village, where is a mofque, the tomb of a faint, and feveral houfes built of done, we flayed a whole day. Near this, we faw a tannery, and a manufacture of earthen ware, which is prepared in the open air, and Without a furnace. We faw, likewife, indigo L 1 2 manufactured
manufactured here ; it is ibid at a cheap rate, but is of a bad quality. Much ci this dying fluff is ufed here ; for thc women, among the commonalty, wear bluefhirts and drawers.
From this village, there is a direct road leading to Beit el Fakih. But the tract of country through which it panes, is extremely arid, and almoil uninhabited, aim affords fcarcely any water. We therefore preferred a longer road, nearer the mountains, and found reafon to be pleafed with our choice \ for we met with feveral fmall woods, a number of villages fkirted with bufhes, and many wells, which were from an hundred and fixty, to an hundred and feventy feet deep . but happily for both men and bealts, dug in flopping ground ; for, as the water is to be raifed by a cord dragging a leathern bucket, this is more caiily accompliflicd in a going down hill than if the ground were barely level, or an afcent were to be climbed.
We paffed two large villages, under the jurif-diclion of the governor of Beit el Fakih ; but in neither of thefe did any thing remarkable offer itfelf to our obfervatibn. But in two places upon this journey, we faw fpots fcattered with fmall villages, bearing all the fame name ; from which we were led to think, that fome fmall detached tribes might have fettled, each in a particular diflrid of this province.   We paffed alfo
two
two of thofe vallies fo common in Arabia, which, when heavy rains fall, are filled with water, and are then called wadi, or rivers, although perfectly dry at other times of the year.
After retting a night in one of thofe wretched, coffee-houfes, we arrived, in the morning of the 25th of February at Beit el Fakih, and had our trunks fent immediately to the cuftom-houfe ; but they were not infpecled till noon, and then in the prefence of the Dola. We, in the mean time, delivered letters of, recommendation from Maechfcn of Loheia to Ambar Self, one of thc principal merchants in Beit el Fakih. This worthy man received us in a very obligingnian-ncr, hired us a houfe, faw our o fleets carried thither, and invited us to dine with him, till we could have matters put into order in our own habitation.
Chap. VI.
Of the City of Beit el Fakih.
/
T
his city is fituated on a plain, which, although far from being naturally fertile, is, however, carefully cultivated.   The houfes join not
one
one to another, but are built fcparate. Many are of ftonc; and the mode of building is every day improving: many, however, are ftill in that ftyie of architecture which I had occalion to remark when fpeaking of Loheia. In the city of Beit el Fakih is a citadel, which is thought of the. utmoft importance in a country where armies are without artillery.
The houfe which we occupied was a building of (lone ; but the proprietor had been dif-lodged by a fpecies of ants, named, by the A-rabs, Ard. Thefe ants, which are well known to ilaturalifts, form covert ways, through which they introduce themfelves into houfes, where they deftrow equally cloths and provifions of all kinds. They are not lefs troublefome in gardens, where they alfo form their covert ways, between thc root and the top of trees, wafting the fap, and devouring the buds and the extremities of the branches. Our chambers were full of them: We took the meafures which are ordinarily employed, to quit ourfelves of them ; deftroying their cells and paifages feveral times fucceffively. The infect indeed reftorcs thefe with amazing rapidity, efpecially in the dark but it at length yields. On our way hither, we had ohferved a number of bullies covered with earth, in which were a vaft quantity of galleries formed by thofe little animals. The
fhrub
fnrub which they bad attacked in this manner was always withered.
The city of Beit el Fakih is not of ancient origin. It ha.5 exalted only for fome centuries; and, like Loheia, owes its rife to a faint, called Achmcd iba Mufa, from whom it has derived its name ; Beit el Fakih meaning the houfe or dwelling of the fige. The tomb of that faint i» fhewn without the city, upon a fandy hill, where a fine mofque has been reared. At firft, fome devout perfons built themfelves cottages round the tomb. The harbour of Ghalefna was about the fame time choaked up ; and the inhabitants of that city, for the convenience of trade, then removed all their effects to the vicinity of this tomb, and fettled about it. Wheu it had thus become a conliderable city, the Lord of the territory built a citadel for its defence, in a place where water had been found. The city is now nearer the tomb ; and the vicinity of the tomb is almoft deferted.
That faint was a great worker of miracles. The following is the moft wonderful which he performed. A Turkifh Pacha, who had been for twenty years a captive in Spain, where he was bound with matfy and ponderous chains to two large ftones, had long invoked, in vain, the aid of feveral different faints. At laft, he bethought him of the great Achmed, and invoked
him
him alfo in his turn. The faint itretched out his hand from his tomb ; and, at that very in-If ant, the Pacha arrived from Spain, bearing with him his flones and chains, Thc miracle took place on the evening of the anniverfary feftival of the faint, in the prefence of many witneffes. Such a miracle, of fo late a date, and performed fo publicly, they conlider as proved by thc mofl unexceptionable evidence.
So modern a city cannot contain many antiquities of an interefling nature. Yet I copied here an ancient Kujic infeription, in the prefence of many fpectators, none of whom fufpectcd me, as the Egyptians had done, of any intention to feek out and pilfer their treafures. They were all very obliging, and efpecially the Schechs, or learned Arabs,] who feemed pleafed that ft ran -gers mould flievv a defire to acquire their language. In this city, as well as in Loheia, I obtained much information from a clafs of Arab literati, who come much about us. Thefe are denominated Fakih, and no where through Arabia do their circumflanccs appear to correfpond to their merit.
The city of Beit el Fakih is in a favourable fituation for trade ; being only half a day's journey from the hills in which the coffee grows, and but a few days journics from the harbours of Loheia, Hodeida, and Mokha, from which
this
this commodity is exported ; it naturally becomes the molt confiderablc mart for it. Tint trade brings hither merchants from Egypt, Syria, Barbary, Pcriia, Habbeich, India, and often from Europe. Here are alfo, as in all the other great towns in Arabia, a number of Banians, all of them natives of Diu, who are allowed the free exercife of their religion. Yet they dare not bring their women hither, nor bum their dead : and thefe prohibitions induce them to return to their native country, affoon as they have accummulated a little fortune.
Beit el Fakih is the relidence of a Dola, whofe jurifdiction extends over a large diilrict. This Dola fecmed to take little concern about us ; ( and his indifference left us more at liberty than we had been at Loheia. Emir Farhan, having underftood that Mr Forikal rambled out through the neighbourhood by himfelf, thought that he might fall into fome mifhap, by expoling himfelf fo carelefsly, and therefore would not fuller us to go out of Loheia, without having one of his fol-diers to accompany, us. 'Ibis kind of afliduity proved troublcfomc to us; as we did not wilh to have a witnefs to overhear all our enquiries, and fpv all our operations. Befidcs, v.e found the inhabitants Of Yemen in fuch a Hate of civilization, that we could travel among them with-
Vol. I. M m the
the fame fafety as in Europe. The Dola of Beit el Fakih did us a real favour by neglecting uss and fullering us to travel about the country, unincumbered with attendants.
SECTION
in arabia,
175
SECTION IX.
excursions   through   the   country about beit el eakih.
Chap I.
.Journey to Ghalejka*
In order that we might avail ourfelves of the, liberty which we enjoyed at Beit el Fakih, I, ,for my part, purpofed to viiit fome places which are now ruinous, but were once famous, and s are mentioned by Abulfeda. I hoped that I might difcovcr fome infcriptions, tending to explain what changes the manners and language of this province had undergone : I accomplished, at lead in part, what I defired.
As I was convinced that I might "travel in fafcty through all Tehama, I refolved to go by Ghalefka, and to perform this expedition in as drnple a guife as pofhble, and without any ap-M m 2 pearance
nleb'uhr's travels
pearance of fplendour or opulence that prove a temptation to robbers. I hired an afs; and its owner agreed to follow me as my fervant, on foot. A turban, a great coat wanting the fleeves, a fhirt, linen drawers, and a pair of flippers, were all the drefs that I wore. It being the fafhion of the country to wear arms in travelling, I carried a fabre, and two piftols hung by my girdle. A piece of an old carpet was my faddle, and ferved me likewife for a feat, a table and various other purpofes. To cover me at night, I had the linen cloak which the Arabs wrap about their moulders, to fhelter them from the fun and rain. A bucket of water, an article of indifpeniible neceuity to a traveller in thefe arid regions, hung by my faddle. I had for fome time endeavoured to fuit myfelf to the Arabian manner of living, and now could fpare many conveniences to which I had been accuflomed in Europe, and could content myfelf with jjad bread, the only article to be obtained in mofl of the inns.
On thc 7th of March, I fet out from Beit el Fakih ; and, before I had travelled a mile, faw feveral villages ; but, upon all the reft of the way to Ghalefka, which is four miles and a half, I faw not a iingle dwelling, nor any mark of human induury, but a few wells. For the two laft miles, thc way lies through fo fandy
a trad,
Itt ARA6IA, i$C.
% tvact, that my guide often loft himfelf; fuch are the continual changes which the wind produces on the fcenery, by demolifhing the hillocks, carrying the fand about, and forming o-thers. We were even obliged to turn feveral times out of what we knew to be the true direction, in order to avoid being buried in fome of thofe hillocks which were then forming. Ghalef ka is at the fume diftance from Zebid a I from Beit el Fakih.
Ghalefka was once a famous city ; and the fea-port town of Zebid was then in an equally flourilhing condition. That harbour is now filled up, fo that no fhip, of however fmall burden, can enter it : Not only has the fea receded, while the banks of coral have been augmented, but a quantity of fand has been here accumulated by the winds, which actually rifes into a hill of confiderablc height. The ruins of a mofque are ftill to be feen here, which was dedicated to a faint, who, by his prayers, obtained from Heaven an excellent fpring of water, for which, the inhabitants believe, that they ought {till to be grateful to him. About: a fcore of cottages now hold all the inhabitants* of this once fiourifhing city; and dates, with the milk and flefh of a few fheep, are all the provifions they have.
The
The Tea affords them no nfli, nor any thing elfe, but fait; of which every perfon may have as much as he pleafes, upon paying a fmall fee to the Dola of Beit el Fakih's fecretary.
In a burying place near this poor village^ I found two Hones bearing Kufic infcriptions ; one of them was large, and ltood on end ; the other lay flat upon a tomb, and was but fmall. The inhabitants could not comprehend for what rea-fon I was fo eager to copy the infcriptions from the larger ilone ; but when I returned next day to do the fame for that upon the fmaller if one, I found it to have been carried away in the night? I applied to the Hakim or judge of the village, and offered him a trifle if he could procure me another light of it.   He led me through many turnings and windings to a poor hut, in which was the tomb of another faint ; and we there found the Hone that I was in fearch of; by his account of the matter, it had not been hidden by thc inhabitants, but the faint had brought it hither himfelf. Notwithllanding the faint's care of it, the Hakim offered me this Hone with me to Beit el Fakih, if I would be at the expence of having it conveyed.
Chap.
in araeia,
Chap. II.
Return to Beit el Fakih by the way of Hodeida*
I set out next day from Gbalefka, with my afe and his owner. The road lies, for the greater part of it, along the fhore, through a fandy and barren country. The only vegetables by which it is enlivened, are a few date trees. A number of coffee-houfes, however, and one village occur here to the traveller. At fome diftance from the village, are a few'houfes fcattercd among groves of date trees, but which are inhabited only in the feafon when the dates are gathered. I arrived thc fame evening at Hodeida, which is about five German miles diftant from Ghalef ka.
The harbour of Hodeida is fomewhat better than that of Loheia, Yet large veifals cannot enter it. The Dola of Hodeida is accountable only to the Imam. But bis jurifdiction is confined to this city. His revenues confift in part of the duties upon coffee exported. The man-fion of the Dola, the cuftom-houfe, and the houfes of the principal merchants are ftone buildings. The reft of the town confifts of huts built in thc ordinary flilc. Near thc fea, ftands a fmall citadel,
Ni ELuUK'S TRAVELS-
del, which, could not prove a very ftrong defence,. This city has alfo its patron faint, Shech Sddik% who is honoured with due veneration.
At Hodeida, I found my friends Von Haven and Cramer, who had come hither to deliver two letters of recommendation, from our friends in Jidda to theDola, and an eminent merchant in this place. They had been received, lodged, and treated in the kindeft manner. But I*, not being difpofed to lofe my time in vilits, returned on the next day, which was the 9th of March, to Beit,, cl Fakih.
In this feafon of thc year, night is always preferred for travelling through Tehama. I mould not have had it in my power, therefore, to diftin-. guifh fuch objects as deferved notice, if I had not chofen to depart from the prevalent cuftom, and to expofe myfelf to the torrid heat of the day.
On the road, are a number of coffee-huts, but very few villages. A mile and a half from Hodeida, there is a well of excellent water, which, is carried to that city for the ufe of the inhabitants \ the water which they have nearer, being very bad. As I approached Beit el Fakih, I paffed through fome paultry villages; and arrived at my place of deftination, on thc fame day upon which I had fet out. The diftance between Beit el Fakih and Hodeida, is, by my eftimation* feven German miles ; and this journey I pcrfor-
medA
iff ARABIA, We. 281'
med in one day, under the mod fcorching heat and upon a hired afs.
Chap. III.
jfourtiey to Zebid.
H aving found the Arabs very civil, and having met with no difagreeable accident in my firft ex-curfion, I was impatient to fet out again. I accordingly departed for Zebid on the nth of March, to fee the remains of that famous city, which was once the capital of Tehama ; and to inveftigate fome ancient infcriptions which were faid to be concealed at Taheete, a fmall town in that neighbourhood. An Arab who was learned, but poor, accompanied me in this expedition, and was glad of the opportunity of viliting an old friend at Zebid, without expence. I was no lefs pleafed to have him for the companion of my journey, as his converfation was very entertaining.
After pafting by feveral coffee-houfes, and through fome fmall hamlets, we came to a large village called El Mabad, Handing in a beautiful valley which receives the waters that fall from Mount Rema. In the rainy feafon, thefe waters form a river which fpreads into feveral branches,
Vol. I. N n und
and fertilizes the adjacent lands. A large quantity of indigo grows in this valley. In this neighbourhood, too, there flood anciently a confidera-blc city, called alfo El Mahad ; but of it no vef-tige now remains.
Near 7-ebid are fome heaps of Hones, which are faid to be a part of the ruins of another large and ancient city that was called Ml Hand. I arrived early in the morning at Zebid ; having travelled in a fhort time five German miles, which is the computed diltance between this town and Beit el Fakih.
Zebid is lituate near the largeft and molt fer_ tile valley in all Tehama. It was dry when I vilited it j but, in the rainy feafon, a large river runs through it, and being, like the Nile, conducted by canals through the neighbouring field?, communicates to them an high degree of fertility.
Zebid was once the place of a fovereign's refi-dence, and the molt commercial city in all Tehama. But, iince thc harbour of Ghalefka was choaked up, its trade has been transferred to Beit el Fakih and Mokha ; and this city now retains nothing but the fhadow of its former fplendour. Viewed from a diftance, it appears to fome advantage, by means of the mofques and Kubbcts, of which it is full. Several of thofe mofques were erected by different Pachas who refuled
here,
here, during the fhort period while this part of Arabia was in the poffeflionof thc Ottoman Porte. But 7,ebid pays dear for its exterior magnificence ; its inhabitants are impoverifhed by the numerous clergy belonging to thofe pious foundations, by whom the wealth of this place is al-moH wholly engroffed. I was told, as amattcrof certainty, that if the whole revenue of thc territory be contidered as divided into live parts, the clergy receive three of thefe, the Imam one for the taxes, and the inhabitants have only one-fifth remaining for their maintenance.
The Turks have left here one ufeful monument of their power; an aqueduct, Which conveyed water from the hills into the city. But this work has been fo neglected, that only its ruins now remain, and the inhabitants are obliged to content themfelves with water from their draw-wells ; which is fortunately not bad, and in fuch plenty as to water many fine gardens that are to be feen in the neighbourhood of the city.
Abulfeda afcribes eight gates to Zebid ; but of thefe, only five are now Handing, and the river is gradually breaking down a part, of them, 'fhe walls of the Old City are demolifhed, and the very ruins are fold by poor people who gather outthe Hones, and fell them for building new N n 2 houfes-
houfes. The prefent buildings occupy about one half of the ancient extent of the city.
Zebid is ftill diftinguifhed for an academy, in which the youth of Tehama, and of a part of Yemen, ftudy fuch fciences as are cultivated a-mong the Muffulmans. This is, befides, the feat ofaDola, a Mufti, and a Cadi, of the feci of Scha-■fey ; and of two other Cadis of the feet of Zeidit to which the Imam and the greater part of his fubjects profefs to belong.
In the inn, I met with the vaineft and moft foolilhly loquacious man I had yet feen among the Arabs. He was a Sherriffe, or nobleman of the firft rank, but, being poor and beggarly, travelled about the country, living at the expence of the more opulent profeifors of his religion. Having been in Egypt, Syria, and even Abyfli-nia, he boafted, that he could fpeak feveral foreign languages, although all that he knew of thefe, was, a few proverbs. I wilhed to obtain fome information from him concerning the countries through which he had travelled ; but he could tell nothing but the names of a vaft number of Schiechs, Pachas, and Dolas, by all of whom he pretended to have been received with the honours due to a defcendent of Mahomet. He difgufted and fickened me with everlafting babbling about his genealogy and high birth. He looked with difdain upon the Turkifh Scher-
rifes,
rlffes, and the Arabian Seids, becaufe they connected themfelves in marriage with tlrange women. No perfon, in his family, he faid, had e-ver married a vulgar wench. He gave the name of Sberriffa, to a poor woman who made coffee for us, this being the title by which ladies of the highefl quality are here dillinguifhed ; and harangued long upon her pure and illuftrious genealogy. His fon, a boy of ten years, who acted as his fervant, never received another name from him than Sherriffe Achmet. The father had hired only one Ssrir for his fon and himfelf together : whereas every other traveller who is not abfolutely mendicant, hires here a feparate couch, juft as feparate rooms are occupied by different travellers in the inns of Europe. With all thofe airs of greatnefs, he often abufed his fon, and called him Kadb ibn Ka-lb, dog fon of a dog.
When I had fmifhed my refearches at Zebid we fet out on the 12th of March, and, after a ride of two German miles, reached Tabeete, which was once a town of fome magnitude, but has now dwindled to a fmall village. The road' leads ftill through Wadi Zebid, the vale or the bed of thc river ; in which the fields had a beautiful and rich appearance, wherever they bad not been encroached upon and ravaged by the torrents.    Much indigo is raifed here; \
counted
counted more than fix hundred large veffels, in which this colouring matter is prepared for file.
In this village are alfo feveral mofques and houfes of prayer, reared over the tombs of faints or opulent perfons. Ibn Ha (fan is the chief of the faints. His tomb is always illuminated by night with lamps; and one of his defcendants keeps a Manfale, or houfe of hofpitable entertainment, in the village. I lodged in a common inn : but thc matter of the Manfale came, to invite me to his houfe, and, when he found me unwilling to remove, fent me a good fupper. 1 had been told, that the mailers of Manfales accept no money ; But he of Tabecte did uot refufe a fmall gratuity.
finding nothing remarkable in this village, we fet out upon the 13th of March, for Beit el fakih. I faw no houfes by the way except the populous village of Murra, fituate in the beautiful vale el Mabad. In this village are many Kubbets, and a large Manfale, in which thirty or forty people arc daily entertained (cc).
Chat.
Chap. IV.
Journey to Kahhnie.
Being now ftill more fatisfied by experience of the eafe and fecurity with which a perfon might travel through Yemen ; I immediately prepared for another excudion. The approach of Ramadan, which was this year to begin on the 16th of March, gave me fome concern.
I was afraid, that thc Mulfulmans, who lived fo near the Holy City, might be flili more rigid obfervers of this fait, than their brethren who were placed at a greater diftance.   The Egyptian Arabs, who had been in company with us in the preceding Ramadan, kept the fail as reli-gioufty, while  we  were travelling, as they could have done  at   home.     Through the whole day they would eat or drink nothing; and they were difpleafed to fee us take the fmall-eft refrefhment.   I fhould not have liked to fuller the fame inconveniences here.   Hut I was not a little furprized to find, that the Arabs of Yemen were lefs fcrupulous, and, upon a journey, continued to take the ufual refrefhments, without mortifying themfelves with abftinence ; but intending, as they faid, to keep Lent for as many days next month.   But it is probable, that they
would
would not always recollect the number of dayt very accurately (dd).
After being thus fatisfied, that, although it was Ramadan^ I might ftill eat as ufual, I fet. out upon the 19th, accompanied only by the owner of the afs upon which I rode, for Kahhme* where I expected to find fome remains of antiquity in the ruins of the city Lelue.   i palfed by fome villages; and, nearer the mountains, vii-' lages are indeed more numerous.   The moft confiderable of thofe which I paffed was el Ach-fat famous for the tomb of a faint, named Schiech el Achfa, fon to the holy Achmet ibn Mufa, whom I have before mentioned as the patron of Beit el Fakih.   I alfo crofted a vale, through which runs a river which joins the river of Re-ma.   In the rainy feafon, the latter holds its courfe to the fea, and enters it near Schurem.
i went, immediately after my arrival at Kahhme*, to fearch for the antiquities of Lelue. But i found only a large burying place, filled with pentagonal ftones, each eight inches in diameter, and four or five feet long. When I faw thofe ftones, fo uniformly of this regular figure, I was at firft inclined to think, that they might have received it from the hand of art. But I foon perceived a hill in thc neighbourhood wholly compofed of pentagonal ftones, where thofe people had found the feemingly artificial ornaments
meats of their burying place. The rocks of that hill are a pile of vertical columns, of the figure and thicknefs above mentioned, riling one over another, as well as fpreading for fome extent, in a parallel body, and feemingly joined by a fort of flight cement. I faw fome other piles of rocks of the fame fort, in other places through Arabia. After my return to Europe, I found, in a manufcript written by Mr Kanig, that this learned Dane had difcovercd in Iceland, mountains confifting of fimilar pantagonal columns, arranged in a vertical pofition, each column three ells in height, and half an ell thick. Thefe
* flones are called by naturaliils, Bafaltes (ee). After examining the few curiofities which Kahhme afforded, I returned to Beit el Fakih,
-   purpofing foon to fet out on fome new excur-fions.
Chap. %
"^uurncy to Cojjfti'-Mountaws.
During my ah fence, Mr Forfkall had not been idle upon the hills where the coffee is produced, whither he had gonetoprofecute his botanical refearches, His defcription of that part of Vol. I. O o the
2,qo
niejbuhr's travels
country had already induced MefTrs Cramer and Baurenfeind to follow him : I alfo refolved to join my comrades, that I might breathe cooler air, and drink better water. The fpace I had to travel was only half a day's journey ; and, in the courfe of this, I met with nothing remarkable.
I foon came within fight of the fmall town of Hadie, lituate upon one of the foremoft eminences. The roads are very bad: A caufeway was indeed formed by the Turks; but it has been fullered to fall away, without receiving any repairs. My friends, whom I had expected to find in this town, were in the gardens upon the hill. I came up with them, after travelling two hours longer, near Bulgofa, one of thofe villages whofe inhabitants fubiill upon the profits which their crops of coffee afford. Neither affes nor mules can be ufed here : the hills are to be climbed by narrow and fleep paths: Yet, in companion with the parched plains of Tehama, the fcenery feemed to me charming ; as it was covered with gardens and plantations of coffee-trees.
In the neighbourhood of Kahhnie, I had feen only one fmall bafaltic hill ; but here, whole mountains were compofed chiefly of thofe columns. Such detached rocks formed grand objects in the landfcape, efpeciaily where cafcades
of
of water were feen to rufti from their fummits. The cafcades, in fuch inftances, had the appearance of being fupported by rows of artificial pillars. Thefe bafaltes are of great utility to the inhabitants ; the columns, which are eafily fe-parated, ferve as fteps where the afcent is moll difficult; and as materials for walls to fup-port the plantations of coffee-trees, upon the fleep declivities of the mountains.
The tree which affords the coffee is well known in Europe ; fo that I need not here describe it particularly. The coffee-trees were all in flower at Bulgofa, and exhaled an exquifitely agreeable perfume. They are planted upon terraces, in the form of an amphitheatre. Mofl of them are only watered by the rains that fall; but fome, indeed, from large refervoirs upon the heights; in which fpring water is collected, in order to be fprinkled upon the terraces; where the trees grow fo thick together, that the rays of the fun can hardly enter among their branches. We were told, that thofe trees, thus artificially watered, yielded ripe fruit twice in the year : but the fruit becomes not fully ripe the fecond time : And the coffee of the fecond crop is always inferior in quality to that of the firft.
Stones being more common in this part of the country, than at Tehama, the houfes, as well •f the villages, as thofe which are fcattered fo-
0 02 lit it
niebuhVs travels
litirily over the hills, are built of this material. Although not to be compared with the houfes in Europe, for commodioufnefs or elegance, yet they have a good appearance ; efpecially fuch of them as {land upon the heights, with beautiful gardens, and trees, arranged in the form of an amphitheatre, around them.
Even at Bulgofa, we were greatly above the level of the plain from which we had afcended : Yet, fcarcely had we climbed half the the afcent to Kufma, where the Dola of this diflncl dwells, upon the loftiefl peak of this range of mountains. Enchanting landfcapes there meet the eye upon all fides.
We paffed the night at Bulgofa. Several of the men of the village came to fee us; and, after they retired, we had a vifit from our hofl-efs, with fome young women accompanying her, who were all very defirous to fee the Europeans. They feemed lefs fhy than the women in the cities : their faces were unveiled ; and they talked freely with us: As the air is frefher and cooler upon thefe hills, the women have here a finer and fairer complexion than in the plain. Mr Baurenfeind drew a portrait of a young girl who was going to draw water, and was dreffed in a ftiirt of linen, chequered blue and white. The top and the middle of the fhirt, as well as the
lower
lower part of her drawers, were embroidered with needle-work of different colours.
On the ioth of March, we returned downwards as far as Hadie ; a place well known to the Europeans ; who come hither from Beit el Eakih, to pafs fome time occafionally in this little town, where the air is cool, and the water frefh and pure. It is, however, but ill-built, and has nothing elfe of confequence, except its trade in coffee, which the inhabitants of the hills bring down upon certain days in the week. After the duties are paid to the Dola, the coffee is packed up and conveyed upon camels, either to Beit el Fakih or directly to Hodeida.
We enjoyed a lingular and beautiful profpccT from the houfe of the Sub-Dola at Hadie, and returned in the evening to Beit el Fakih, by the fame way by which we had gone, in our journey up the mountains.
SECTION
SECTION X.
journey through the  mountainous part of yemen.
Chap I.
Departure from Belt el Fakih.
W e met with lefs difficulty in the profecution of our refearches at Beit el Fakih, than any where elfe through Yemen. The inhabitants of that, city were no ftrangers to European manners, and knew that we could not, like them, reft conftant-ly in one place, They were therefore nowife furprized at our excuriions, but were fully fatisfi-ed when we told them, that the cxercife was ne-ceflary for our health.
Our
Our Friends, whom Mr Forikal and I confulted upon the fubjecl: of our expeditions, could not comprehend why wechofe to travelabout in the feafon when'theheats were moll intenfe; while they who wereaccullomed to the climate, never went without doors when they could avoid it. Believing^ that we had come int© Arabia, only to find an opportunity of a palfage to India, they advifed us to take no fatigue, but to attend to our health. At length, when they faw us periiit in neglecting their advice, and obfe-rved, that we lived at a coniiderable expence, without feeking to gain by trade ; they began to imagine, that we had the art of making gold, and that Mr Forikal, in his excuriions upon the mountains, was feeking plants which might be neceffary in this great work. My affronomical obfervations, again, acquired me the reputation of a magician.
Happily for us, thefe fhrcwd conjectures were confined to the fmall circle of our acquaintance. The Dola feemed to have abfolutely forgotten usi and had as yet made no enquiry concerning our purpofe in viliting his dominion. 1 was defirous, therefore, to avail myfelf of this ihort period of liberty, and to penetrate into the interior parts of Yemen, after rambling through the environs of Beit el Fakih, in Tehama. The fouthern part of the mountains I expefted to fee, in a journey which we purpofed to make from Mokha to Sa.
na ;
2<)6 NIEBUHR's TRAVELS
na ; at prefent, therefore, I determined to vifit Udden and Taas. But I found that the fituation of thefe towns had been reprefented to me, as more northern than it really was.
Through all Tehama, travelling is equally fafe by night as by day. Still, however, I feared that it might be dangerous to travel alone in a mountainous country, in folitary roads, where difagreeable accidents might befal one by day not lefs than by night. Bclidcs, I could not fpeak the language of the Highlanders, which differs confiderabiy from that of the inhabitants of the plain. For all thefe reafons, I was induced to beg Mr Forikal, who had learned fome-thing of the language of thc Highlands, upon the coffee-mountains, to accompany me in my intended expedition. My friend agreed, in the hope of finding new matter for his botanical refearches.
Thc preparations for our journey were cafily made. We hired two ailes, and the owner attended us on foot, as our guide, our fervant, and occalionally our interpreter. We had already large beards in the Arab fafhion; and thefe, with our long robes, gave us a very oriental appearance. To difguife ourfelves ftill more, each of lis affirmed an Arabic name • and, under thefe pretenfions, our real condition was fo perfectly concealed, that even the owner of affes thought
us
in Arabia, &c. 297
lis Chriftians of the Eaft ; and had no fufpicion that we were Europeans. In this garb, and at" tended by the afs-hirer, we fet out on the 26th bf March, from Beit el Fakih,
Chap. II.
Route by Udden.
We paffed through feveral villages in crofting the plain, and, after ajourney of five Germaii miles and a half, reached Robe, where is a weekly Suk or market.   Here we lay the firft night.
Next day, after advancing a mile farther, we entered upon the mountains. Near thc firft village, we ohferved a running ftream, the firft we faw in Arabia. Till it enters Tehama, this river is called Wadi Zebid. Its channel is very broad > but as no rain had for a long time fallen, the ftream covered the breadth of twenty, or four and twenty feet. In this place it runs with a . confiderable current; but in Tehama it fpreads into a fhallow lake, and is loft among the fands.
The fame day, we paffed near Mount Sullam, where, from the account given by an Arab wl o lived in the country, I had been led to expect, that I fliould find hieroglyphics or infcriptions,
Vot. I. P p cut
298 NIEBUHk's TRAVELS
cut upon the rock. But, I found only foirtc figures which had been impreffed at an idle hour by fome fhepherd, and were as coarfely executed as thofe upon Mount Sinai.   We lay at Machfa-
The road by which we travelled is not much frequented by travellers. The ways are very bad and unfafe, and fcarce a houfe appears upon any hand. Within thefe few years, however, they have become lefs dangerous than they were before. The lord of Udden has placed fome fol-diers with a Sub-Dola, at Machfa, who is re-fponfible for the thefts or robberies that happen in his diffrict. This regulation of the police has difperfed the robbers.
Machfa is one of the villages in which weekly fairs are held. The houfes are flill more wretched here than in Tehama. They have no walls, and confift merely of a few poles laid together and covered with reeds. We could fcarcely lodge in one of thofe huts; fo fmall were they, that a perfon could not fland flraight in the middle ; and two perfons lying together upon the floor, occupied the whole area of the houfe. It would not have held a fingle Serir. The inhabitants fit and fleep upon the bare ground. The air being colder in this part of the country, than in Tehama ; the people here put on a bag upon their bodies when they go to fleep, and are warmed by their natural perforation.   In none of the
inns
inns, could we find any other fort of food hut coarfe Ditrra bread, made of millet with camel's milk ; but the water is every where delicious.
On the 28th of March, we palled, by winding roads, through a diifrict. in which the lands began to appear more fertile and better cultivated. The houfes are here much more commodious, being built of flone, and flat-roofed. Yet, the houfes of the peafants are, here too, without walls, unlets we give the name to dry flones, piled one upon another, and having no mortar to cement them.   The roofs are covered with earth.
We palled through a village in which was a fair ; a circumftance which made us hallen forward, as we were defirous to avoid the crowd. Near this place, at the foot of a high hill, wTe ohferved a fort of glillering, micaceous fand. The people of the country have been led, from the appearance of this fand, to fancy that the hill affords gold. On the heights, we faw the toaibs of feveral faints too ; and near one of thofe tombs a wooden trough, into which fome devout perfons are conftantly pouring water for the ufe of thc cattle which pafs. We lay in a coffee-hut, near a village which is inhabited only for one day in the week, namely thc market-day ; fo that we found no inhabitant there, when we paffed, except our landlord.
P p i The
The inhabitants of thofe parts had been long looking impatiently for rain. In order that they might make the moft of it, when it fhould fall, the peafants had raifed dykes along the heights, to direcT: the courfe of the waters upon their fields. The fields lay favourably for receiving it, being formed into terraces, and thefe fupported by walls, with ditches to preferve what water may be neceffary to fupport vegetation. If this practice merit approbation, yet we cannot avoid condemning the unfkilful expedient which thofe Highlanders employ for felling trees i they fet fire to the root, and keep it burning till the tree fall of itfelf.
Next day, we came to a fmall river which runs into the Zebid, and croffed alfo feveral rivulets, which feem to be numerous in this part of the country. Here, for the firft time fince our departure from Beit el Fakih, we faw plantations of coffee-trees, along the fides of the road. We now drew nearer to the river Zebid, of wdiich a branch at this time was dry, and having its channel filled with reeds growing to the height of twenty feet, ferved as a line of road, which was agreeably fhaded by the reeds. In the evening we arrived at Udden.
The town of Udden is fmall and unprotected. It contains three hundred houfes, all of flone. I tie imam keeps no Dola here.   An hereditary
Schiech,
Schiech, who is a vaifal of thc Imam's, is the governor. The Schiech refides in a palace, fland-ing upon a high hill without the city.
Except the immediate neighbourhood of Udden, the whole tract of country through which we travelled in this excurfion is thinly peopled. But the territory of the town is fo much the more populous, on account of the abundant produce of its coffee-trees, which is eflcemed the very belt coffee in all Arabia.
Chap. HI.
From Udden to Dsjobla.
-Leaving Udden on the 30th of March, we proceeded through a country which we found every where more populous. Near avillage we faw a plain planted with very indifferent fugar-cancs.
Half the way lay over a very fleep Mountain ; and had been formerly paved ; but had now been long left without repairs. On this mountain, I faw a new in fiance of the care with which the Arabians provide for the accommodation of travellers. Here, for the firft time, we found a Madgil, or refervoir of excellent frefh-water for the ufe of paifengers.   Such refcrvoirs are of ma-
fon
fon-work, of a conical figure, and befide a refer-voir, a vafe always ftands for drawing the water. The traveller will do well, however, to carry" with him a cup of his own ; and ftill better, if, with the enp, he have alfo a bucket. Through all the fertile parts of Yemen, we found many of thofe Madgihy by the fides of the highways.
As ftorms are pretty frequent among thefe mountains, fome fmall vaulted houfes have been built upon that over which we paffed, to fhelter travellers when furprized by any hidden blaft.
The thermometer which we had with us, compared with that which Mr Baurenfeind at the fame time ufed in Beit el Fakih, fhewed the great difference between the temperature of the air upon the hills, and that of the plain. The drefs of the inhabitants affords the fame indication, in a fimpler and more natural manner ; while the inhabitants of Tehama went almoft naked, thofe of the mountains wore warm fhecp-tkins.
As we advanced on our journey, we faw feveral villages fituate in a cultivated tract. The fides of the hills were covered with rye, and had an agreeable afpect. This part of the country, although in other refpccTts very fertile, produces no coffee.
The Arabs of Yemen, and efpecially the High, landers, often flop ftrangers, to afk whence they
come,
IN' ARABIA, &ff. • gpj
and whether they are going. Thefe queitions are fuggefted merely by curiofity ; and it would be indifcreet therefore to re fide to anfwer. We told them commonly, that we came from Efcbamt the north ; which led them to imagine, that we were Turks from Syria. When afked whether we were Turks, we replied that we were Najjii-ra ; and they thenfuppofed us Greeks or Armenians. We concealed our country, left we ihould have expofed ourfelves (till more to the impertinence of their curiofity. The miltrefs of the coffeehoufe fuppofed us to be Turkilh clergymen, and recommended herfelf to our prayers. At Dsjobia a man faluted me by the name of Hadsji Achmed ; taking me for an old acquaintance.
Through the whole of this journey, we were not once teized for palfports, or required to pay duties of any fort, nor fubjecled to any of thole difficulties, which, even in Europe, are fo generally troublcfome to travellers. Although it was in Ramadan, we ilill found our ordinary food, even in the moll folitary coffee-houfes ; and, in the towns, gave no offence, when we purchafed thofe articles which we preferred, in open day.
The town of Dsjobia is the capital of a dif„ tricl, and the feat of a Dola. It Hands upon tie brink of a llecp precipice, and feems to contain about fix hundred houfes, of a confulerable height
and
and a good appearance. Its ftreets are paved ; a cafe uncommon in Arabia. The Jews dwell here, and through all Yemen, in a feparate quarter, without the city.
This place has been celebrated for ages ; and yet I could difcover no remarkable infcription about it. I was fhewn the ruins of fome mofques ; but thefe did not appear to me very ancient. The town has neither a caftle, nor walls. At fome diftance is a place inclofed with walls, where a Turkifh Pacha has been interred : and this proves that the conquefts of the Ottoman Porte have been extended even over thefe moun-tanous regions;
Chap. IV.
Route from Dsjobia by Tas to Has.
On the 31ft of March, we continued our journey, by winding paths, over a tract of country diverfified by many inequalities of furfacc. We lay in a very large Simfera, (the Arabic name for Kan or Karavatiferai,) fituate on the fide of a lofty hill.
From this Kan we took a guide, to conduct its over a contiguous mountain, which was much
higher
higher, and on which, we had been told, that we fhould fee an old Arabic caflle. On the fummit of this mountain we accordingly found the ruins of a conliderable building of hewn flone, the walls of which were flanked with towers. Here are ftill two refcrvoirs, of folid mafon-work. The whole ftruclure appears to be of great antiquity: the Arabs afcribe it to one Affane Jcehheli. The word Jabbeli iigni-fies an unlettered perfon ; and by this appellation the Arabs diftinguifh their own Pagan an-ceftors from other idolaters, whom they call Kafr, or infidels. I found no infeription about this caflle. From this eminence, a noble prof-pecT opens, of towns and villages fprcading over the country, to a confiderable diftance.
From the Simfera, where we had flept, we proceeded down the hill by the highway, which paff-es between Mokha and Sana. This road is paved, and not at all incommodious to the traveller, although it winds around the fleep declivity of a hill. We then crofted a pretty large plain, and paffed near by a great number of villages, coffee-huts and Madsjits.
We lay in one of thc huts, which wasfo ill-provided in victuals, that we could procure nothing for fupper,buta fmall portion of bad bread. The landlord had even difficulty in gathering fome forage to feed our affes. Early next day, we came
Vol. I. C^q within
within fight of the citadel of Tees,'but it WaS noon before we reached or faw the city.
Not withing to be known, and intending to fee Tees again on our journey to Sann, we did not enter the city, but continued our progrefs to-wrads Tehama. We foon left the great road from Mokha, and turning wellward, travelled a-long ftony and irregular paths, without feeing a-ny thing remarkable.
Next day, the third of April, we continued cur journey through a thinly inhabited and unfertile region. We were furprifed at the quantifies of ftones which lay over the arable lands, Some pf the inhabitants think them neceffary, to prevent the lands from being parched by the fun, but they rather mark negligence in the hufband-men : And, indeed, to fuch a degree is every exertion of induftry that might contribute to fur-niih the neceffaries of life, relaxed here, that we fhould lcarcely have found food in this diftnet, if we had not taken the precaution to bring with us eggs and bread.
We then crolfed a plain covered with date-ti'ees; but foon after, regaining the mountains, we entered the territory of Ibn Aklan, where thc fields, though left ilony, appeared to be equally ill-cultivated. The ten ace walls were generally in aburlling, broken condition. This delola-tion is the confequence of a war between the 1-
main
mam of Sana, and the independent Schiech of the family of Aldan, to whom this diurict appertains. But, in the ilTiie of the war, the Schiech was o-bliged to acknowledge the fovereign authority of thc Imam, and now no longer maintains troops.
Proceeding on our way to Tehama, wc faw federal villages, and crolTed fome fmall rivers. We paffed the night in a detached coffee-hut : and even the matter of it left us by night, and retired to a-neighbouring village. Win n alone, we could not help congratulating o:;e another, on being thus far returned in faicty front a journey-among thofe Arabian mountains, which would not have been without danger, even in the befl regulated dates in Europe.
On the 4th of April, we travelled along roads, among hills, and eroded feveral times over the IVadi Suradsji, a coniiderably large and rapid river, even at that time, although no rain had fallen for a long while. We faw no village ncar> but feveral coffee-huts.
In this defart tract, upon the confines of the Tehama, Mr Eorfkal was much rejoiced to discover the tree which affords the halm of Mecca. The plant which he found was pretty large, and in flower. Here was nothing to hinder my friend from examining, and making a description of it. This tree grows in many places through Yemen* Q^cj 2 \Vc,
But thc inhabitants, who call it Abu Scham, the fweet fmclling tree, know no other ufe for it? but to perfume their apartments, by burning the wood. Many branches of the fpecimen which we found, had been torn off for this purpofe.
Continuing our journey, we paffed through feveral fmall rivers, which appeared all to empty themfelves into one large river. To the fouth, we had a view of a large chain of mountains -? but the only habitations that we faw in this hilly region, were a few inns. We came at length to a large village, containing many Kubbets, and at no great diftance from Hoes, where we arrived this evening.
The city of Hces, twelve miles diftant from Tecs, and fituate in the Tehama, is fmall and ill-built. However, it is the capital of the diftrict, and the feat of a Dola, who occupies a fmall fbrtrefs. A confiderable quantity of earthen-w a re i s m an u fa ct u re d he r e, e fpe ci ally c o a rfe d r inking cups. This diftrict is but of narrow extent, being bounded on one fide by Zebid, and on che Othefj by the territories of the Schiech of Ibn Aklan.
Chap.
JN ARABIA, UV.
3°9
Chap. V. Return to Beit el Fakih.
We left Hoes on the 5th of April, and, after paffing feveral villages and coffee-huts, arrived on the fame evening at Zebid. We paffed without wetting our feet, over the river Suradsji, which we had lately feen fo large among the hills. But as we proceeded through the beautiful and cultivated plains which it watered, we perceived both the caufe of its diminution, and the effects which it produced.
Our way from Zebid to Beit el Fakih was the fame that I have already defcribed. We arrived at the latter city on the 6th of April.
Upon leaving the mountains, we felt the heat exeelhve. We halted to reft ourfelves at an inn in a village between Flees and Zebid. There we were refrefhed by an agreeable breeze, although all was calm and torrid without, for the walls were built of loofe ftones, the many chink?, among which, naturally admitted a current of air. We found this coolncfs a great refrefhment amidft the burning heat which prevailed all a-round. I was fo imprudent as to fit down on the ground, without wrapping myfelf in my large
cloak*
cloak,and being faint,from the heat and the fatigue^ of my journey, I fell afleep. My imprudence coll me dear ; I was in a violent fever before we reached Zebid, which continuing after my return to Beit el Fakih, rendered me unable to take any fatigue,
On our arrival in this city, upon thc 6th of April, we found Mr Von Haven likcwife indif-pofed. He had been attacked with a fcurvy, and was weary of the mode of life to which we were here confined. We had long wanted wine and brandy ; we were difTuaded from coffee, as being of a heating quality. Kifcher, although efteem-ed wholefome, is but an infipid drink ; and through all Tehama, the water is very bad. Our cook could prepare us no fuch fimple diflies of food as thofe ufed by the Arabs, a nation diftin-guilhcd for temperance. Upon this account, wc daily ate'animal food, although our friends, who knew the climate better, had advifed us to abflain from it. Our perfilling in this, doubtlefs^ greatly injured our health; and was, in a particular manner hurtful to Mr Von Haven, who, except to fit down at table, never rofe from his fo-pha.
The firft day of Bairam happened this year to^
he the 14th of April.   On this day the Dola
proceeded out of the city with a multitude of attendants,
tendants, to perform prayers in a large inclofed fquare area, in the open air. This feftival lafts three days, during which the Arabs indulge in feftive amufements, and begin no piece of work, nor enter upon any journey.
On the 17th of April, we fawT an inftance at Beit el Fakih, of the coolnefs of temper, and firmnefs of mind, by which the Arab character is diftinguifhed. The fouthern end of a houfe caught fire ; and, as the wind blew ftrong from the fouth, a great part of the city was foon burnt down. The inhabitants, however, retained their ufual tranquillity. No cries nor complaints were heard in the ftreets, and when addrcffed with ex" prdlions of condolence,upon their misfortune, they would calmy reply ; " It is the will of God.1* We occupied a houfe with Hone walls, in that part of the town which was fparcd by the flames ; we went upon the roof, and faw the roofs of the other houfes crowded with people, who were beholding the conflagration with thc utmoft indifference. A poor feholar, who ufed often to vilit us, came, after removing his eflects to a place of fecurity, to fee us, and, with an air of indifference, marked the inftant when the flames reached his own houfe. When fuch an accident happens, indeed, an Arab does not lofe much ; as the fire approaches, he removes his '■vv . goods,
312 N1EBUHR*s TRAVELS
goods, and takes refuge, either in a different quarter of the city, or in the open country. He thus lofes nothing but his paltry hut, which is rebuilt eaflly, and at a fmall expence.
SECTION
SECTION XL
journey erom beit el fakih to mokha.
Chap I.
Route to Mokha*
Assoon as Air Von Haven and I were fuffi-ciently recovered to bear the fatigues of travelling, it was refolved, that our whole party Ihould leave Beit el Eakih. We fet out, therefore, on the 20th of April, and took the road to Zebid, where I had already been.
In Tehama, it has been ohferved, people generally travel by night, rather than in the day. But if we had regulated our journies in this manner, Mr Forikal could not have continued to examine and collect plants, nor could I have furveyed the face of the country.   He and I»
Vol. I. R r therefore,
314 nieb-uhr's travels
therefore, refolved to proceed forward by day, taking the owner of our affes to attend us, and to leave the refl of our party, with the fervants and the baggage, to come up by night.
In confequence of this arrangement, we fet out alone next morning, and paffed through the plains contiguous to the rivet Zebid, and by the canals which are fupplied from it. This beautiful tract of country is about two miles in breadth* The peafants were bufy cultivating the fields, and railing earthen dykes about them, to retain the water for a certain time, after which it would be conveyed into other fields, to water and fertilize them in like manner. From thefe fields, to Mokha, hardly any villages are to be feen. The whole intervening country is dry, fandy, and covered with that coarfe fpecies of grafs with which the houfes are thatched here. On thefe fandy plains, the heat is excefhve : We were o-vcrjoyed whenever we could fhelter ourfelves for a little, in any paltry coffee-hut.
On the fecond and third days of our journey, we faw nothing but coffee-huts, till we, at lull, arrived in the large village of Maufchid. We were there alarmed with an account of a fkir-inifhing war between two families, ;n which a man had been killed on the day preceding. But they affured us, that fuch private quarrels never interrupt the public tranquillity.   When an A-
rab
T#b happens to be killed, his family may com. promife with the murderer for a fum ot money, or may demand of the mugillrate to put him to death, or, if unwilling to receive fatisfaction in either of this ways, may declare a refolution of taking vengeance themfelves upon the perfon of the atfallins, or upon his relations. A peafant of Maufchid had been ilain fome years before, 1 y a man belonging to another village \ and the family of the deceafed had determined to inflict peribnal vengeance. Unfortunately, the man who had been newly (lain in the contcft was of the fame family with him whofe death had given rife to it, fo that there were now two death! to revenge in a fet combat. Next day we met in a coffee-hut, a man belonging to the viclori-ous party, who was armed with a large club, and told us, that he was eager to fight, as it was an affair of honour. The only thing that he regretted, was, that his family was to fuffer for the death of two perfons in whofe life they had no fort of intereft f ff).
In that fame village, a Sub-Dola refides, with a few foldiers from the troops of the Dola of Hces. Here, as at 7.ebid, a tax was demanded for each of our camels, from which I prefume, that thefe duties are to be paid upon entering the territorie under the jurifdiclion of each feparate Dcia. By our agreement with thccamel-R t 2 driver,
316 nieeuhr's travels
driver, he was obliged to difcharge all demands of this nature. But he contrived to fhift this pay merit, by entering into a fecrct underftanding >\ ith the oilicers who were to receive it. They told us, that we muft either pay it ourfelves, or fuller them to open and infpeft our baggage. However, on our threatening to complain to the judge of the place, they deiifted from their in-folcnt pretentions. Thus the eftabliftiment of cuftoms, and cuftom-houfe officers, is everywhere a fource of" endleis villanies and vexations.
We palled through two other villages, and feveral more coifee-huts. We faw, near the road, a fait work, from which fait is carried to the mountains, upon camels. The whole of this way is over fands.
Chap. II.
Arrival at Mokha.
After a difagrccable enough journey from Beit el Fakih, we entered this city, on the 23d of A-pril. All who travel by land to Mokha, are o-bligcd to enter by thc fame gate ; and Europeans are under tlje humiliating ncceftity of alighting, from their affes, and proceeding to their lodgings • on
on foot. We therefore alighted, while our hag-gage was infpccted. Thofe who examined that, afked neither our names nor our paflports, but directed us to a Kan, where Turks lodge, and where, as they fuppofed, we might poffibly find fome of our countrymen.
At the time of our arrival, there was an Eug-lifh merchant from Bombay, in the city. V/c were unwilling to addrefs ourfelves to him, left he might think us vagrants of fufpicious character. Betides, we had letters of recommendation from our friends at Jidda, Loheia, and Beit el Fakih, to the Dola, to the English interpreter, a Banian in great credit, and to a merchant of the city, whole name was Seid Salek. Having ob-feved, that the Mulfulmans treated thofe Pagans from India, commonly in a very contemptuous manner, we were in no hafle to begin an acquaintance with the Banian, whom we found afterwards to be a very worthy man. We were already acquainted with Seid Salek's fon Ifmacl, who had been our companion in the paffage from Jidda to Loheia, and had made advances to obtain our friendlhip. This Ifmacl, befnles, had early prepoifelfed us in his favour, by fpeakn.g Dutch tolerably well. We unluckily, there, fore, addrclfed ourfelves to him in preference to every other perfon.  
TIk fc
31$ niebuhr's travels'
Thefe two, the father and fon, were accuftom* ed to attach themfelves to ftrangers with dif-honeft views; and the fon had ftudied fome of the languages ©f Europe, in order that he might he the better able to accomplifh his knavilh pur-pofes. They had enticed a Dutch veffel from Batavia to Mokha, the mafler of which falling without refource, into their hands, was cruelly duped and plundered. By their intrigues, they had kept every other merchant at a dillance . fo that, with refpect to the fale of the cargo, he was abfolutely at their mercy. They had hoped to make their gain of us, in the fame manner ; and, when they faw their hopes of this fruftratcd, laboured, out of fpite, to do us every ill office in their power.
We paid ©ur full vifit to Ifmael. He received us fcemingly with great kindnefs, treated us with punch, and invited a renegado from India, who was fettled, as a merchant, at Mokha, to keep us company. This renegado was a deep drinker, and endeavoured, but without fuccefs, to make us drunk. Ifmael advifed us to refume our European drefs, and not to difcover our knowledge of Arabic, left we fhould be taken for renegadoes. He endeavoured to dilfuade us from our intended journey to Sana ; telling us, that thofe highlanders were a favagc, inhofpk. table race, and the Imam treated all ftrangers
wh$
who had the misfortune not to be Mufulmans, in the moll abufive manner. He was alfo careful to prepoffefs us againft the people of Mokha, who, by his account, entertained inveterate hatred againlt Europeans; but encouraged us, by ottering the powerful protection of his father, to ward off every danger or mortification, that we might have to fear. In fhort, his whole converfation was of fuch a nature, that I could not help perceiving from it, that travellers mult be grofsly impofed upon, whenever they truft creduloufly to the relations they receive from the inhabitants of the country through which they travel. Had we not known Arabic, we might have returned into Europe with very falfe imprefiions of every thing in Arabia.
Thc only piece of fervice that this man did us, was, in immediately hiring for us a houie that was large enough to lodge us all.
Chap. III.
Dlfagreeablt incidents at Molha.
From what happened to us firft, after our arrival in this city, we found reafon to fufpect, that Ifmael had fecretly inftigated the under-oflieers of the cuftoms to harrafs and opprefs us,
in
NIEBUUi;\s TRAVELS
in order that we might thus be forced to throw ourfelves into a blind and implicit dependence upon him. Our baggage was carried ltraight to the cuftom-houfe, where was the Dola in perfon. We begged, that thofe articles, which, we needed for immediate ufe, might firft be in-fpected : but the officers would begin with examining our chefts of natural curiolities, which we had fent by fea from Lobeya, and which had been kept, here unopened, ever iince the arrival of the veffel by which they had been brought. In one of the chefts were fifties from the Arabic gulp!), preferved in fpirit of wine, and inclofed. in a fmall barrel. We begged the officers of the cuftoms not to operfthe barrel ; for that the fifties fmelled difagreeably. They, however, not only opened it, but fearched it with a pointed inftrument of iron, and at length emptied it. entirely of the contents. Thc Arabs, who have a violent avcrfion to ftrong liquors, were much prepoffefted againft us, when they felt the fmell of thc jfpirituou* liquor ; and were no lefs uif-jrleafed to find the ilctor of the dead fifties fpread through the whole cuftom-houfe.
We infilled that they fhould, at leaft, let us have our beds. Bo:, without liftening to our re-queft, the)- continued to tofs oyer and examine our chefts, which contained rf ens of ftiells, at the rifk Of breaking them.   The Arabs could
not
not comprehend, how a man of fenfe could collect fuch trifles, without fome interciled views « and they accordingly accufed us of intending to abufe the Dola, by producing only articles of trifling value, to amufe his people, while we concealed our more precious effects.
At laft, appeared a velfel in which Mr Forikal had preferved fome ferpents in fpirit of wine. At fight of this, the Arabs were terrified. A perfon, who was fervant to the Dola, ohferved, that thofe Franks had come hither to poiibn the Mufulmans, and that it was in order to their fuccefs in this, that one of them pretended to be a phyfician.   The Dola, who was a mild old man, and till now did not feem to have conceived any prejudice againft us, became fudden-ly in a paflion when this idea was fuggefted, and fworc, by God, that we fhould not remain a tingle night in the city.   The reader will readily conceive, how the infolence of the people of the culfom-houfe, and of the attending mob, would naturally rife upon this.   Thc cuflom-houfe was abruptly (hut, and we could obtain none of our goods from it.
While we were in the cuflom-houfe, a fervant came to tell us, that our books and other kings had been all thrown out of the windows of the houfe which we had hired, and the door Vol. I. S f fhut
fhut againft us. We went to fee what might be the reafon of that outrage, but could find neither Ifmael nor his father. One of the citizens, who was a friend of Ifmaers, attacked us with abufive language. No perfon would afford us lodgings ; but every one looked upon us as vagrants who would inftantly be driven out of the city in difgrace. At length, one of the citizens expreffed himfelf willing to receive us into his houfe, if he were fure, that government would not punifti him for it. We led him to the Cadi, who allured him, that he ftiould rilk nothing by lodging us. In Turkey, the Cadies are reputed very corrupt and felfifh : but in Yemen, we found them perfons of great worth and integrity, earneft to do prompt and candid juftice. The Englifh merchant whom I mentioned above was Mr Francis Scott. He had heard of our difficulties and perplexity; and, although we had not yet vifitcd him, gave us an invitation to dinner, which we accepted with the greateft pleafure. He expreffed a warm de-fire to ferve us; and we now perceived, how foolifhly we had acted in not applying, at firft^ to him and his Banian interpreter. However, we durft not break off abruptly, with Ifmael and his father.
When we could not obtain any of our things from the cuftom-houfe, Ifmael advifed us to offer
fer the Dola a prefent of fifty ducats ; and hinted that he mould he the bearer of the prefent, for that the Dola would not condefcend to fpeak with Chriftians. We had no intention of making fo large a prefent, ftill lefs of intruding him with it. But, after various reflections, we at laft refolved to facrifice thofe fifty ducats upon the occafion ; and it was agreed, that I fliould wait upon the Dola with this prefent, next day. On my way, however, I learned, that the Dola having been exerciling his troops, had received a wound in the foot. Upon receiving this information, I returned home ; hoping that our phyfician would be fent for, and that we might thus avoid the expence of the prefent.
But, as Mr Cramer was not called by the Dola, and our effects ftill remained at the cuf-tom-houfe, we underftood, that a conliderable prefent was expected from us. Mr Forikal had hitherto been always refufed admiflion by the fervants of the Dola, upon pretence, that their mailer would not treat with us otherwife, than through the medium of Ifmael and his father; yet, he now undertook to make a new attempt to obtain an audience. When he had explained the purpofe of his vilit, he was admitted, and fo gracioufly received, that the Dola kindly chid him for not applying direccly to himfelf at the firft. Next day, he, in his turn, fent us a pre-S f 2 fent
324
nieeuhr's travels
fent of four lambs, and two fmall bags of rice ; and at the fame time gave orders, that our effects mould be delivered to us, without being more particularly examined.
Chap. IV.
Our flay at Mokha continued   and the death of Mr Vvi Haven.
The Dola, when he received his wound, had been advifed by the principal perfons about him, to fend for the European phyfician. But he was afraid, that Mr Cramer might, in revenge for the ill treatment which we had fullered, adminifter to him improper medicines, or might apply heating drugs, which thc Arabs think very dangerous. But thc Cadi represented to him, that no perfon had yet complained of us; and that it was nowile ftrange, that a phyfician mould have dead ferpents in his poffeftion, thefe being ufed as ingredients in fome medical compofitions. The Europeans, he farther told him, ought not to be defpifed or flighted for collecting fhells or infects of which the Arabs knew not the ufe.
Thefe rcprefentations, and the alarming ftate of the wound, which was becoming worfe, in
the
IK arabia, SsV. 325
the hands of four or five empirics, induced the Dola to fend, on the 4th of May, to enquire whether we were ftill angry with him, or if our phyfician would undertake to cure him. We were all overjoyed to hear that the prejudices which the governor had conceived againft us were fo perfectly removed ; and Mr Cramer gladly offered his fervices. No fooner had our anfwer been carried to the Dola, than he fent one of his fervants with a mule for Mr Cramer. Europeans, when they pafs before the Dola's palace, are ufually obliged to alight and walk, if they happen to be mounted : but, to evince to the people the entire reconciliation that had taken place between the Dola and us, Mr Cramer was permitted to pafs through this forbidden ground, and even to enter the court of the palace without difmounting.
We had, after this, frequent opportunities of feeing the Dola, and teftifying our friendlhip to him. Mr Forikal one day related to him, how we had been infulted and turned out by the owner of our firft lodging. The Dola promifed him fatisfaction, and made the perfon of whom he complained, be eaft, that very night, into prifon, Ifmael, enraged to fee his friend punifh-ed for an act of infolence which he himfelf had prompted, threatened us with a mob, by which we might be torn in pieces. Mr Forikal, although
't
326 NlEBUHPv's TRAVELS
though regardlefs of his threats, waited on the Dola, and entreated him to liberate the prifoner and only recommend to him, to be more civi* to ftrangers in future.
This change in our fituation, rendered Mokha much lefs unpleafant to us than it had been at fir it. But difeafe began now to fall feverely upon us; I had been attacked, foon after our arrival here, with a violent dyfentery, from which,' however, I recovered, after fifteen days ill-ncfs. Mr Von Haven, who had been ill at Beit el Fakih, became much worfe here. After walking out in the cool of the evening, he was tolerably well through the night; but the heats of the day he" was quite unable to bear. At laft, he ventured to ly for feveral nights fucceffively, upon the roof of the houfe, in the open air, and with his face uncovered. On the night of the 24th of May, he caught cold, and was fo ill in thc morning, that it was neceffary for two fer-vants to carry him down into his apartment. His fever was become doubly violent, and he was delirious by the evening. He then funk into a deep lethargy, and expired in thc night.
He had paid more attention than any other of us, to oriental literature. The public have loft, by his death, fome very interefting difcoveries,
and
and fome curious collections of this fort, which he had made.
The cuftom of interring the dead in a coffin, is unknown in Arabia. We had one made, however, for our deceafed friend, in order to preferve his Temains from any accident. The Captain of an Englifh fhip lent us fix of his failors to bear the body to the European burying place. All the Englifh in Mokha attended at the funeral; and the obfequies were performed with more decency, and with lefs interruption, than thofe of a Conful at Cairo, which were difturbed by the crowding of the people to witnefs the folemni-ty, and by the robbery of the audacious Bedouins. On this occafion, the Arabs of Yemen fhewed themfelves reafonable and humane.
Chap. V.
Wt leave Mokha.
After the death of Mr Von Haven, we began
to think fcrioully of leaving Mokha, and making
a tour into the interior parts of Yemen. We
were divided in opinion, with regard to the plan
upon
upon which we ought to regulate our fubicquent proceedings ; fome being difpofed to remain a-nother year in Arabia, while the reft were defirous of returning immediately to Europe. But we all agreed to fet out without farther delay, upon our journey to Sana.
Mr Forikal and I had made feveral excursions in a very fimple guile, and almoft without attendants. But as our whole party were now to travel all together, we could not well go without a certain train to accompany us. We could not however, travel in this ftyle without permiflion from the Dola, which would not be eafily obtained ; as it could not be thought, that he would willingly fuller his phyfician to leave him before his wound were healed. We, neverthelefs, ventured to make the requeft : but the Dola refufed us upon a fair pretext. He told us, that he muft firft write to Sana, to know whether the Imam would receive us, and that we could not leave Mokha till the Imam had returned an anfwer.
When thus refufed permifflon to proceed to Sana, we begged that we might, at leaft, be allowed to remove to 'Faces, in the mean time, for the fake of our health. Even this was refufed us. We then propofed to the Dola, to leave our phyfician behind. But the Arabs feared, that the pain of feparation from his friends, might fecret-
]y diitrefs Mr Cramer, fo as to render him more negligent of his patient's cure.
When we complained of thefe reftraints to the principal men of the city, they ohferved, that it was hard to conceive what rendered us fo impatient to depart"; for that by going to the Highlands, we fhould only endanger our health more, as thofe who went thither from the burning funds of Tehama, were commonly attacked with a violent fever, immediately Upon their arrival.
At. length, when we were much at a lofs how to proceed, a furgical empiric luckily came in, to free us from our perplexity. He promifed to cure thc Dola's wound within eight days ; and our phyfician was immediately difmiifed. We, at the lame time, obtained permiilion to fet out for Taces, and were favoured with a letter of recommendation to the Dola of that city. Mr Cramer received for his fee, a mule with a fad-die and bridle, and India ftuff for a fuit of clothes in the Arab faihion. As an additional proof of his friendlhip, the Dola fent one of his fervants to attend us. We fnould have been well pleaf-ed to excufe this inllance of his attention j for his fervant was only a fpy, under a more honourable name, to watch over our conduct, and hinder us from going farther than Taces.
Not wifhing to run any riik of loting our ready money, we put it all into the hands of the
Vol. I. T t Englilh
Englifh interpreter, who gave us bills upon his countrymen, the Banians at Taoes and Sana. This was the firft time we could get bills of exchange in the Eaft.
SECTION
SECTION XII.
journey from mokha to* taoes.
Chap. I.
Our Progrefs io ¥a&s.
Leaving Mokha with pleafure, as our ftay in it had been not a little difagreeable, we proceeded, on the 9th of June, through a dry and defart country, and, after advancing four miles, reached Mi/fa, a village fituate juft upon the confines of the Highlands. This village is known to the Europeans, who fometimes come hither in parties for pleafure. But the buildings are wretched, and the heat is as opprelhve here as at Mokha. The water,, is, however, good, and the richer inhabitants of Mokha fend hither for it; as that in the wells immediately around the city is very bad.
T t 2 Nexc
Next day we travelled along the channel of a large river, which, in the rainy ieaion, difem-hogues itfelf into the lea, near Mokha ; but is commonly loft, at no great diftance from its head, in the hinds of Tehama. We paffed through feveral villages ; and near the laft of thefe, remarked a fmall houfe, at whieh duties are paid for all goods fent to the independent country of Jnfa \ goods palling into the ftates of the Imam pay no fuch duties.
I fhaU hereafter have occaiion to fpeak of Schiech Schaddi, the famous faint of Mokha. We happened to meet with one of his defcend-ents, a good-natured ideot. Some young perfons in our party addrclfed him, and bandied jokes a id raillery with him. They did not, indeed, abufe him, but as little did they fhew him re-fpeci. They called him Schiech, in regard to his birth, but paid him no other honour. In this inftance, the Arabs difcover more good fenfe than the Turks, and cfpecially than the Egyptians, who treat all ideots as Schiechs, honour them through life, and regard them as faints after their death.
In the hilly country, the roads are too bad for travelling by night. We faw, as we proceeded^ a large village, and near it, the fertile hills of Hammara, which belong to Schiech Ibn Aklan ; but thc inhabitants of the village are not fubjeel
to
tlf ARABIA, $J 233
to his authority. They had lately flain two men, aud when the Schiech fent troops to chaftife them, they retreated to the fummits of the hills. We happened, fortunately, to enter one of the large inns called by the Arabians, Mattrach ; for, early in. thc afternoon, a violent ilorm arofe, and fuch a quantity of rain fell, that all the highways were flooded, and it became imnoflible for us to continue our journey.
On the 12th of June, after pafling through feveral villages, and crofling fome fertile fields, we arrived at Dor chat, a town ten miles diftant from Mokha. It is the capital of the territories of Schiech Ibn Aklan, who refutes here. Its fttu-ation on the fummit of a hill, renders it naturally ftrong. At the foot of the hill Hands a town, the public prifon in which is faid to be the molt difmal in Yemen. Before the door of the prifon in Dorebat, we faw perfons who had been guilty only of very trivial faults, confined, a number of them together, by one chain, in the open air. Near them Hood a guard of foldiers of thc Imam's, whom the Schiech is obliged to maintain.
Continuing our journey from Dorebat, we found on our way, a number of fine villages, and many coifec huts, and Madsjils, or refervoirs for water, iua columnar form. A violent ftorm again compelled us to halt.   Next day we faw from a hill,
the
the caftle of Taces, ftill at a diftance. Early off the 13th we reached the city.
Immediately after our arrival, we fent our letter from the Dola at Mokha, to the Dola of Taces, who ftraightway required us to wait upon him at his houfe. He feemcd to be in a very good bum our, and made us an oiler of Kifiheft pipes, and Kami, (the buds of a certain tree which the Arabs chew, as the Indians do Betel;) but we did not reliih this drug. He related to us, how that a report had been fpread at Taces, of our having brought feveral chefts full of ferpents to Mokha. He made us be conducted into a houfe the proprietor of which he had lately imprifon-cd ; and fent us, in a prefent, two lambs, with a fmall quantity of meal. We, in our turn, offered him a piece of India ftulf.
Next day, we delivered our other letters of recommendation from our friends at Mokha : of thofe, one wTas addrefted to Ba/lateb, the firft fc-cretary ; another to the ft e ward of the houfe hold, Achmcd ; ti third to one Sfjid, a man of diftinc* tion ; and a fourth to a Banian. We were well received, every where. The Dola of Mokha" s fervant had the prcfumption to attend us on all 6ut viiftS, and impofed his company upon us, in like manner, when we received the viiits of others.    Wt could not'imagine whether this
were
were done out of vanity, or in order to keep a Uriel eye on all our motions.
We found the temperature of this country to agree entirely with our constitutions, Inftead of the oppreflive heats under which we had fainted at Mokha, we had here, almoft every even-Jng, refreshing rains,
Chap. II.
Of the City cf Taors.
■i his city ftands at the foot of the fertile hill of'Sabber. It is encompafled with a wall, between lixteen and thirty feet thick, and Hanked with feveral towers. The fortrefs of Kahhrc ftands in the circuit of the wall : its walls are faced with burnt bricks, but, within, confift of bricks, which, inftead of being burnt, have been only dried in the fun.
This city has only two gates ; and each of thefe is after the Arabic falhion, fbrtified with three towers. Only two of them are in a condition to bear cannons. The garrifon confifted at this time of fix hundred men. Thefe works ly fo under the command of the neighbouring ^eights, that they would afford no defence againft
an/
any but an army of Arabs who are ftrangers in a manner, to the ufe of artillery.
The faint who has been aifumed as the patron of the city of Taces, is the famous Ifmael Mulk* who, according to tradition, was once king of this country. His remains are buried in a mofque which bears his name. But none have been permitted to approach his tomb, fince once that the faint thought proper to perform a miracle which gave diflatisfaetion to the rulers. This marvellous event was related to us with the following circumltances: Two beggars had afked charity from the Dola of Taoes; but only one of thefe had tailed of his bounty. The other went, upon this, to thc tomb of Ifmael Mulk, to implore his aid. Ifmael, who, when alive, had been very charitable, flretched his hand out of the tomb, and gave the beggar a letter, containing an order on the Dola to pay the beggar an hundred crowns. Upon examining this order, with thc greatelt care, it was found that Ifmael Mulk had written it with his own hand, and fealed it with his feal. The governor could not refufe payment; but, to avoid all fubfequent trouble from fuch bills of exchange, he had a wall built, inclofing the tomb.
Near the mofque of Ifmael Mulk is a garden, which was polfeffed by Ifchia his fon. In it there was fhewn to me a large bafon, and a hydraulic
machine*
inachine, which in its time muft have been an ornament of no fmall confequence ; but all is now in a ftate of decay, and almoft ruinous.
In the fame city, and in its neighbourhood* are many deferted and ruinous mofques j one of them, in a ftyle of architecture unufual in this country, fliould feem to have been built by fome Turkifh Pacha. The devout founders of thefe mofques, if they intended thereby to tranfmit their memory to pofterity, have failed of their purpofe. Their names have been forgotten, as the mofques have funk into ruins.
The laft Lords of Taces have made a more judicious choice of buildings to diftinguifh them* felves by. They have erected noble palaces for themfelves and their pofterity, and were content with a fmall Kubbct for their oratory and burial-place : Thus have they fpared the lands which muft otherwife have been appropriated to the maintenance of the clergy of an ufelefs mofque; Their palaces are ftill Handing, and are the ornaments of the city, which indeed does not poffefs many other fine buildings. Since the laft war, many of the houfes have remained ruinous, and fome of the fquares have even been converted into fields and meadows.
The ruins of two ancient cities, are ftill to be feen in the neighbourhood of Taces. One of them is Thpbad, which is fituate near Mount
Vol. I. U, u Sabber
Sabber. Some parts of its walls, with a large mofque belonging to it, are ftill Handing. The other is Oddena, which ftands at no great diftance from Thobad, upon the fummit of Mount Sabber, over againft Kahhre. The latter was the place of the residence of the kings of this country ; its only remains are the ruins of fome mofques. Ifmael Mulk, having built his tomb at the foot of the rock of Kahhre, fome of his devout fubjects chofe to live near their faint; others following their example, Oddena was thus abandoned, and Taces built. So, this city, like Loheia, Beit el Fakih, and Mokha, owes its rife to a faint.
Chap. III.
Late Revolutions of Taces*
So modern a city cannot make a great figure in the hiftory of Yemen. However, in thefe late years, fome revolutions have taken place, which deferve to be briefly mentioned, as they may ferve to give an idea of the power of the Imam, and of the manner in which the Arabians go to war.
Imam El Manfor HoJJein. had committed the Government of Taces, to his brother Achmed,
who,
who,when afterwards recalled, refufed to obey. With a force of two thoufand men, whom he kept in pay, he flood out for twelve years, a-gainfl all that the Imam could fend, to reduce him to his duty. Achmed had money coined in his own name, levied taxes upon goods carried between Mokha and Sana, and conducted himfelf in all reipects, as if he had been fovereign of the country. Yet, he affnmed not the title of Imam, or King, but contented himfelf with that Sidi, which is common to all the princes of the blood-royal.
Sidi Achmed dying, left fix fons. The eld-eft of whom, Ahdulla, fucceeded him, and lived on fair terms with the Imam. Abdul la dying in 1759, left the. fucccifion to his only fon Abdul Kerim, a boy, thirteen years of age. Three of the young prince's uncles, Ali, jacbia, and Machfcr conlpired to dethrone him. One of the confpirators feixed the fortrefs of Kahhre, and each of the other two made himfelf mailer of a gate, with fome adjoining towers. But, as the revenues of thefe three prjn£es WSffe very fcanty, they could neither keep many foidiers on foot, nor even purchafe provilions. They were particularly in want of powder ; and whenever one of them could procure a few pounds of ammunition! he never ccafed tiring upon his U u 2 brothers,
brothers, till the whole was exhaufted. But they never came to a fair combat.
In thefe circumftances, young Abdul Kerim wrote to his uncle the reigning Imam, pegging his afliftance, and intreating him to fupport him in the poffeflion of his dominions. The Imam having long wTifhed to take part in the quarrel, fent an army to reduce the rebels. But the Nakib or General, El Mas, who commanded this army, having no artillery, fiad no other expedient, but to fire with mufquet-ihot, from a mofque without the wall, by which he could make no advancement in the ftege.
The Imam had for feveral years had a dan* gerous enemy in a Schiech named Ahdurrah% who had occupied the territory of Hodsjerie, During the blockade of Taces, this Schiech approached Mokha, and the Imam then found it neceffary to feek a reconciliation with his enemy. Peace was made, through the intermediation of the generals, on condition, that the Schiech fhould lend aftiftance to accomplilhthe conqueft of Taces. But his troops being deftitute of can* nous, were as little in a condition as thofe of the Imam, to ftorm the tower. Yet the fhrewd-nefs of Abdurrah fuggefted a ftratagem. He promifed a thoufand crowns to twelve of the befieged foldiers, who were polled in a tower, if they would permit his troops to enter. By
this
this means, the city was taken in the end of the year 1760, and facked.
After the conqueft of Taces, the Imam gave the family of Sidi Achmed, with Schiech Ab-durrah, a friendly invitation to vhit him at Sa-na. The latter was at firft unwilling to put himfelf in the power of his old enemy ; hut thc Imam impowered his generals to pledge his faith for the Schiech'1 fecurity ; and he was accordingly taken in the fnare. The Imam treated this hero with the blackeft perfidy, and put him to an ignominious death. He returned the fer-vices of his generals with bafe ingratitude, and refufed to reinftate Abdul Kerim in his father's principality. I law the young prince going to the mofque, at Sana ; having a parafol carried over him, like thc other princes of the blood royal. His two uncles, Sidi jachia, and Sidi Machfar, were eaft into confinement as rebels; The third, Sidi Ali, happening luckily to be father-in-law to the reigning Imam, preferved his liberty, and lives privately at Sana. After thefe events, the Imam fent a Dola to Taces ; and it is now under the fame government as the other cities in his dominions.
Chap.
Chap. IV.
Stay at Taoes.
The Dola who governed this city when we vifited it, had been an officer in the Imam's army, and had rifen rapidly to the rank of Nakib, without pwing his fortune to his birth, as moll of thefe governors do. His government was very extenfivc, comprehending both Mount Sabber and the territory of Hodsjerie in which are a number of Schiechs, whofe families have, for thefe feveral centuries, poifeffed fmall, and almoft independent Lordihips. They pay taxes to the Imam, hut value themfelves much on their nobility of defceut, and treat their governors with contempt. Our Dola had already had feveral differences with thofe haughty nobles, who refufed fubmiflion to his authority. He had put one of the mutinous Schiechs in prifon, and had detained" a female Have whom thc Arab was carrying away with him. An order from the Imam, however, obliged him to fet both at liberty ; but he remained in indignation againft. thofe Schiechs in general. He feized the firft occafion that offered, and fe»t out half a dozen foldiers among them, who, according to their mailer's orders, conducted themfelves with great infolencetowardsthofehighlanders. Thc fchiechs could not bear fuch jnfults ', but mado an infur-
rection,
rection, and maffacred them all. Since that period, nobody from Taces has ventured to vi-lit the highlands without eXpofing his life to extreme danger. Jt was even faid, that thc Schiechs would never be quiet till the Imam fhould recal the Dola.
Thc exuberant fertility of Mount Sabber affords, according to the accounts of the Arabs, plant! of every fpecies that is to be found any where elfe through the world. Mr Forikal had this mountain daily before his eyes; but, to his infinite mortification, could not obtain peimif-fion to botanize upon it. He propofed to bring a Schiech from the mountains at his own expence, under whofe protection he might go out upon his herborizing expeditions, without danger. Hut the Dola put a negative upon all his pro-pofals, and would only fuifer him.to take a fhort ramble over Mount Saurek. My friend fet out on the 20th of June, and returned ou the 22d, having found the villages in that diltrict deferted, in confequence of the intolerable exactions of thc Dola, which had forced the inhabitants to retire and fettle elfewhere. In fo wretched a country, Mr Forikal could neither find provi-lions*, nor travel about infafety.
We had occafion toobferve the negligence with which the Arabs obfefve the phafes of the moon, •i rather their ignorance of allronomy. When
the
344
NEIBUHR's TRAVELS
the pilgrims arrive on mount Haraphat, in the neighbourhood of Mecca, all the Modems celebrate a feftival, called Arafa or Korban, for which an immenfe quantity of camels, oxen* and iheep are killed. Every body believed that this feftival was to begin on the 22d of June ; and, as it lafts three days, during which no provifions are brought in from the country, all had provided fheep, fugar, and flour for their entertainment during that time. Mean while, a courier arrived from Sana, with information that the new moon had appeared a day fooner than fhe was expected, and that the feaft muft be celebrated on the 22d of June.
On the day appointed, the fignal was given, by firing a few fhots of a cannon. The Dola, with a numerous company, went in procefiion to a fquare without the city, where, upon fo-lemn occafions, prayers were ufually offered up in the open air. Returning thence, he went to the parade, where the principal inhabitants of the city were engaged in theexercife of the Dsjerid.
The Dola, driving to ihew his addrefs, was thrown from his horfe. However, all returned home, made good cheer, chewed Kaad. and burned fpices in their houfes.
In order to make the moft of our ftay at Taces, I wifhed to make fome excursions
through
through the interior country, but'durfl not attempt them, on account of the prevailing dif-turbanccs. I was at laft difpofed to content myfelf with copying an infcription in the for-trefs; and Mr Forikal refumed his intention of fending for a Schiech from mount Sabber. The Dola agreed to our willies; but at midnight, be fent to tell us, that he had received a letter from the Dola of Mokha, requiring us to return immediately to the latter city, We fufpccled this letter to be a pretence, and refufed to be gone. Ea~rly in the morning, however, camels were fent to carry us away, but we lent them back. With Turks we durft not have done fo much.
We could not comprehend what were the Do. la's views, unlets, perhaps, he mighty like the Dola of Mokha, intend to extort fome conlider-able prefent from us. Into thefe views we had no difpofition to enter, and therefore fought a private audience of him, in hopes or bringing him to rcafon. Our fervant was feveral time* fent back under diifercut pretext*. At laff, Mr Foifkal obtained aceefs to the Dola, and begged of him only to permit us to wait till we mould receive thc Imam's anJwer, without mentioning our little fchemes. Hut the governor cut him (holt, faying ; iince you would not credit my fervani s, I myfelf order you to be gone to Mokha to-morrow.
Vol. I. X x Chai*.
34<5
nieeuiir's travels
Chap. V.
Departure from Taoes to Sana,
Seeing no means to elude the Dola's orders, we had already packed up our goods, when a favourable change fuddenly took place upon our circumftances. A letter was brought us by exprefs from the Dola of Mokha, and in it were three others; one to the Imam, another to his vizier, and a third to the Dola of Taces. He informed us, that the Imam gave us permiftion to go to Sana, and wiftied us to carry our curioftties with us. He acquainted the Dola of Taces with their mailer's orders, and begged him to favour our departure to Sana. Mr Forikal went inftantly with this letter to the governor, but could not obtain accefs to him, and was obliged to give it to his fervant.
We now thought our affairs in a good train and would even have fet out without troubling the Dola farther, if we could have obtained camels without his interpotition on our behalf. Thofe who hire thefe cattle are united in a fort of corporation ; and travellers are obliged to apply to thc head of the company, who has recourfe upon the owners of the camels, and makes them funiiih, in turn, the number which may be wanted:
ed. Unluckily the Dola himfelf was at the head of this company, and was obliged to furnifh camels in his turn. We let him know that we were about to depart. He anfwered, that camels were ready to convey us back to Mokha, but that the orders reflecting our journey to Sana regarded only the Dola of Mokha.
In the perplexity to which we were reduced by this conduct of the Dola's, we knew not what to do. Several inftances of the equity and ge~ nerolity of the Cadi were in the mean time related to us, in which he had brought the Governor to reafon in cafes fimilar to ours. We made our complaints therefore to that judge, and fhewed him our letters from Mokha. He thought the Dola's conduct very unreafonable, and immediately wrote to him to beware of doing any thing in contradiction to the orders of the Imam* The Dola replied, that he did not hinder our journey to Sana, but, alked us to ilay one day, till he fhould write his letters to court upon the occaiion. We offered to flay two or three days. Notwithstanding this, the Dola's fervants came next morning, and ordered us in his name, to depart to Mokha. We had again recourfe to the Cadi, who being previouily informed of ail that had happened, had, in the morning, written to the Dola, that he fhould not act in a harfh or intqrefted manner with us; for we were ftrangers.
The
34»
nilbuhr's travels
The Bafkateb told us in the evening, that the Dola was lorry, that his fervants had come tous -with a menage in his name which he had given them no orders to deliver.   Bui upon this head we knew fiiiTiciently what to think.
The Dola of Mokha's fervant could not now be of farther ufe to us ; we difmiifed him therefore with a hand fome reward. But as we ft ill wanted a guide who knew the interior parts of Yemen, we.begged thc Cadi to direct us to fuch a one; and he politely fent us an Arab, who afterwards accompanied us to Mokha, and with whom we were perfectly fatisficd. The Dola fhe wed likewife a difpoiition to make amends by kind-nefs for the trouble he had given us, and ordered one of his fervants to accompany us on our journey. This man had the addrefs to ftipulate be lore-hand, in the prefence of feveral perfons of diflinclioii, lor the wages which we were to pay him.
The Cadi, unaiked, had the generolity to give ns a letter of recommendation to the Imam's vizier, in which he told him, that he fhould beware of believing any thing that might be related to him to the difadvantage of thefe Franks. We could have wifhed to make the judge a prefent of a v :ilch ; his probity and beneficence having infpir-ed us with the higheft veneration for his character, and the livelier!: giatitude for his favours.
But
But we were informed that he would accept no fuch thing, left he might appear to have inter-cftcd views in taking part with us.
We could not fee the Dola before our departure. He avoided receiving our viiit under pretence of illnefs. Our friends however affined us, that he was fallen ferioufly ill, in confequence of the uneafinefs which our obflinate refiltance to his will had given him. Our firmnefs was indeed faid to have made him contemptible in the eyes of the inhabitants of the city.
His conduct had occalioned us no lefs vexa~ tion, I even blame the uneafinefs with which Mr Forfkal was at that time agitated, as the firft occafion of the illnefs, which, foon after, hurried my friend to the grave.
SKCTION
SECTION XIII,
JOURNEY TO SANA.
Chap. I.
Rout from Taas to Jerim*
From Taocs we fet out on the 28th of June; and, for the two firft days, found no human habitations on our way, except fome paltry cotfee huts, a few villages, and a fmall town ; and 1110ft of the villages were falling into ruius. The country is uncultivated, and almoft defolate ; which Teems to be owing to the late wars for the fuccef-fion to the throne of Taces.
On the third day we reached Mharras, which I had formerly travelled over in one of my previous excurlions. A violent ftorm furprifed us, and gave us an opportunity of remarking how the torrents, ruffling upon fuch occafions from
thc
hills, produce the gullies, one of which we paired on an arch of folid (lone.
Thc great inns which are fcattered over the country from the Tehama thus far, are called Mattrach. Thefe are private houfes, the mailers of which furnifh travellers with their meals, which are commonly very indifferent. Between Mharras and Sana, almoft at every half day's journey, itands a large Simfera of burnt bricks. Thefe edifices, like the caravanferas in Turkey have been built by wealthy perfons for the accommodation of travellers, and afford fafe lodging, but no other fort, of food than coffee, rice, bread and butter. The traveller mull bring his other provifions with him.
On the firft of July, having croffed Mount Mharres upon a paved road, we entered a more fertile country, and after paffing feveral villages and a number of Madsjils, arrived at Abb. This city itands on the height of a hill, is furrounded by a flrong wall, and contains 800 houfes, moft of which are in a good fafhion of building. Its ftreets are paved, and it has a good many fmall mofques. Betide one of thefe is a large refer-voir, which receives water by an aqueduct, and fupplies all the houfes in the city*
At a fmall diftance, between Abb and Dsjobia are two rivulets, one of which running weft-ward, is encreafed into the river Zebid • and the
other
other running fouthward, forms Meidam a river which difembogues itfelf into the fea near Aiden-The different courfes of thefe rivers, two of the moft confiderabie in the country, and the cir-cumfiance of their taking their rife here, feem to indicate this as the moft elevated fpot in the mountainous part of the Imam's dominions. The height of mount Sumara, which we palled on the day following, is another proof of this.
We travelled down mount Abb, along good, paved roads, and then drolled a country of a varied furface, having villages, inadyj;ls and houfes for the protection of travellers, icattered "over it. No remarkable place was to be feen except the city of Mucbbfcrl Handing on a hill, and the feat of a Dola. ■
After fpending the night in a Simfcra, we began to afcend mount Sumara, a hill much higher than Mharres, by ways which had been rendered accefhblc to camels by being paved, and carried in a winding direction round thole places, which were too fleep for direct accefs. Half way up the hill is the village of Menfil, in which is a fuperb Simfera built all of hewn ftojie. We obtained a convenient apartment upon the roof, of which Mr Forikal, who was now extremely weak, flood very much in need.
Here we remained during the next day, and would gladly have fluid till our friend had been
fome w ha11
ibmewhat better; but our camel-drivers could not here find food fitting for their cattle. They propofed to us to proceed to Jerim, a city at a fmall diftance, and promifed that our fick friend fhould be borne by men over the rugged roads of mount Sumara.
We were perfuaded, and fet forward on the 5th of July. I went before, to enjoy the frcfli air ; a piece of inexcufable imprudence in places of fo keen a temperature. I foon felt myfelf affected with a fevere rheum, vomitings, and ex-cetlive thirft, which I could not have quenched on that defart mountain, if I had not fortunately met with a peafant who permitted me to drink out of his pitcher of water. I faw nothing in this part of our journey, which feemed worthy of attention, except a ruinous cattle, the property of the family of Hanan, and ftanding on the very peak of Mount Sumara. In this neighbourhood-, are two tribes of wandering-Arabs, who are now fettled in villages. There are no more Bedouins in the Imam's dominions.
The Arabs could not be perfuaded to carry a Chriftian; and Mr Forikal was therefore placed in his bed upon a camel. Although we had proceeded flowly, he was in a deplorable condition, by the time we reached Jerim. We now found, that, although we had accuftomed
Vol. I. Y y ourfelves
35*
neib cur's travels
ourfelves to live like the inhabitants of the country, yet there were" certain conveniences which in cafe of illnefs we could not well want. ,
Chat. It.
Of the city of Jerim.
"We lodged in a public inn. But the crowd of fpectators whom curiofity brought together, to fee the Europeans, becoming extremely troublefome, we hired a more quiet apartment iii the city, where we might live undifturbed till our fellow traveller mould recover his health. It was impoffible to find perfons who would carry our lick friend. Our Mahometan fervant refufed to afiitt us in removing Mr Forikal from the one houfe to the other'; and we were oblig-to carry him ourfelves.
Jerim is but a fmall town, yet the feat of a Dola, who relides in a caflle fituate on a rock. The houfes are built of Hone, and of bricks which have been dried in the fun. I faw nothing farther remarkable about this town.
At two miles diftance from Jerim, according to the tradition of the Arabs, flood once a famous city Dbafar. very little of the ruins of
which
now remain. The firft magiftratc of jerim, however, told me, that a large none is ftill to be feen there, with an inicription, which neither Jews nor Mahometans can explain. This was probably the lituation of the city of Taphar. which ancient hiftorians mention as thc feat of the Hamjarines. If any Hamjarine infcription lhall ever be difeovered, it will probably be among thefe ruins. The Arabs maintain that JDhafer was the feat of Si\ad el-Kammel. a famous hero, king of all Arabia, who lived eighteen hundred years agoM
On the eaft fide of mount Sumara, we found the climate very different from what it was on the weft fide. It had rained almoft every day of our journey from Tacts to Menfil; and thc earth was covered with a charming verdure. At Je_ rim, on the contrary, no rain had fallen for three months, although diftant thunder had been heard almoft every day. In this want of rain, the locults had multiplied prodigioully, and had eaten up almoft. all the productions of the earth. The inhabitant? of jerim refolved to put up public prayers for rain, on the eighth of July ; and for that purpofe, repaired in procef-fton to a place without the city, where fuch ib-lemnities were ulually performed. The company, who walked in proccilion, confifted of a number ®f clergymen in a drefs cxprefllvc of humility.
Y y 2 The,
Two venerable Schechs walked at their head, bearing open caikets full of books. As they proceeded, all fang and repeated Ihort prayers. Hardly was this ceremony over, when, on the very fame evening, a ftorm arofe, with hail and a very heavy rain. The rains became afterwards more frequent. Between the tropics they fall at regular periods, on the different fides of the great ranges of hills.
In all the markets, locufts were fold at a low. price ; for fo prodigiouily numerous were they in a plain near Jerim, that they might be taken by handfuls. We faw a peafant having a faek full of them, which he was going to dry and lay up for winter provifions. Whenever it ceafed raining for an hour or two on the other fide of mount Sumara, legions of thefe infects ufed to come over to Jerim. We faw the peafants of Mcnlil purfui.ng them, in order to preferve their, fields from abfolute defolation,
In the* ftreets of Jerim, we faw a bridegroom proceeding to the bath in ceremony. Two boys went before, dancing to thc mulic of a timbrel ; a crowd followed, confiding of perfons of all ages, who fliot pittols in the air as they went on ; the bridegrooom with his friends clofed the proceflii ii. At night, a number of flambeaus were lighted up, and formed a pretty enough illumination.
We
We were one day entertained by two gladiators, who, for a few peiccs of fmall money, exhibited their addrefs in the ftreets. They wore mafks, the firft I had feen in the eaft, and were armed with a buckler and a poignard. They did not fight to wound one another : the perfection of their art conlifted in their leaping, and in feveral agile turns of the body.
Being ever unwilling to mingle witli crowds, I had not yet feen any of thc markets in Arabia, although thefe are refortcd to as places ofamufe-mentby the inhabitants of the country. To divert myfelf a little, I went to the market at Jerim. A great many people were met in it, who were chiefly peafants that had come to fell their different articles, I faw no fhops furnifhed with goods of any coniiderable value. Many taylors, fhoemakers, blackfmiths, and other artifans, fat along the ftreets, behind low walls, and wrought at their trades in the open air. I faw alfo fur-geons who drew blood with a common knife, and then dreffed the wound with pieces of hartf \\orn cut off a,t the root of the horn.
Chap.
Chap. III.
Death of Mr Forfhal.
On the firft days after our arrival at Jerim^ Mr Forfkal's illnefs feemed to decreafe. But it foon after returned with fuch violence that we defpaired of his recovery. Qn the evening of the tenth of July, he funk into a deep lethargy, in which ftate he continued till his death, the next morning.* We were deeply affected at his lofs. In confequence of his botanical excurfions, he had learned more than any of us, of the Arabic tongue, and its different, dialects. Fatigue, or the want of conveniences, never difcouraged him j he could accommodate himfelf to the manners of the people of the country ; without doing which, indeed, no one can hope to travel with advantage through Arabia. In fhort, he feemed formed by nature for fuch an expedition as that in which we were engaged.
It was neceflary for us to notify the death of our companion to government. To this end, we fent the Dola of Taces's fervant to the Dola and the Cadi of Jerim. The latter politely directed us to an Arab, who could fell us a place,
where
-in arabia, $jc. 35^
where we might inter our deceafed friend. The bargain which we ft ruck with this man did not take effect; for the place being near a canal intended for the watering of the meadows, the poffeftbrs of thefe had threatened our Arab with an action at law, if the water fhould fail on account of the Chriftian's body. We foon after obtained a different place for the fame price.
The Dola then expreffed a wifti to confer with fome one of our number. He informed me, that, in quality of governor, he had a right to the perfonal effects of all Jews and Banians who died within his dominions. I anfwered that the deceafed wras neither a Jew nor a Banian, but an European ; and that the Dola of Mokha had, laid no claim to the effects of one of my companions, who died in that city. The Dola's fon then explained to me his father's intention?, who expected to receive at leaft a confiderable prefent. I told him that Europeans were accuf-ftomed to pay nothing without receiving a written acquittance ; and that if he would give us in writing a ftatement of what he required, we fhould then fee what we could do. After this, the Dola Who knew that we were going to Sana, and probably feared that we might complain of him there, left us at peace*
Our
S^b neibuhVs travel^
Our greateft difficulty now was to find perfons to bear the body to the grave ; and this, even although we promifed to pay very liberally for the fervice. At lad we prevailed with fix men to convey it. to the burying-place at midnight. They performed the talk, but ran and hid themfelves, in the heft manner they could, all the way ; fo great is the averhon of thofe people, to touch a Chriftian.
We refolved to bury our deceafed friend in a coffin ) but we had done better to have followed the Arabian mode, and wrapped him limply in n fear-cloth. The coffin made the people fuf-pect that we Europeans buried riches with the bodies of our dead. At Sana, we learned that Mr Forfkal's body had been taken up by night, and that the grave-clothes had been matched away, after the coffin was opened. The Dola obliged the Jews to bury it again, and left them the coffin for their pains.
Chap. IV.
Route from Jerim to Sana.
After the burial of our friend, we had nothing to detain us from continuing our journey. On
the
the 13th of July, we left Jerim, and after proceeding for four miles along rugged roads, and through a barren country, arrived on the fame day at Damar. Through this tract of road, the people who fell Kifcher are in fo wretched a condition, that they live in poor huts, and ly on the ground.
As we had lived fo long at Jerim, the inhabitants of Damar had previous notice of our approach. Europeans feldom pafs this way ; and the people of this place being therefore very curious to fee us, came out and met us half a. league from the city. As we drew nearer, the crowd became more numerous ; and therefore to avoid being teized and diflurbed by them, we would not enter an inn, but hired an empty houfe. This precaution little availed us • fbr the crowd furrounded us in fuch a manner that "We could not enter our lodging. Mr Cramer being mounted on his mule, forced his way 5 but then they exclaimed againft the infolence of the infidels* and began to throw ftones in at our windows. We thought of aiking a guard from the Dola, but were told that he had only thirty foldiers in all, and was afraid of the mob himfelf. At laft, the firft magiftrate coming to confult our phyfician advifed us to take no notice of the petulance of the ftudents, who threw ftones that they might draw us to the win..
Vol. I. 'h z dow.?;
dows. The tumult foon ceafed, and the mob dif-perfed.
The city of Damar itands in a fertile plain. It is the capital of* a province, and is governed by a Dola, who refides in a large caflle. It has a famous uuiverfity, in which to the number of five hundred undents are commonly employed in their fludies. It is without walls; its buildings are good ; and it is very large, containing no fewer than five thoufand houfes. The Jews live in a detached village ; but the Banians are permitted to live in the town among the mufful-mans.
In no other city had our phyfician better practice. As he was unwilling to go out on account of the mob, the lick were brought to him in their beds; and an inhabitant of this town accompanied us to Sana, purely that he might have an opportunity of confulting our phyfician by the way, and in that city.
Near Damar is a mountain containing a mine of native fulphur. In another hill, fome what farther diflant, thofe fine carnelians are foundy which are fo much efteemed in Arabia.
Our European fervant falling ill, wc left him at Damar, to follow us by fhort journies. At his arrival, he complained that nobody would give him lodging by the way. The Arabs were afraid that he might die in their houfes, and that
they
! in arabia, i£c.
3<>3
might be obliged to take the expence and pains of burying him.
On the fourteenth of July we crofted a plain en-compalfed with bare and arid hills. Near the road, and within a mile of Damar, is the fmall town of Mauahbel, in which the Imam dwelled whom the Author of the voyage to Arabia Felix faw in the beginning of the prefent century. The road becomes very rugged ; and the country appears marfhy and ill-cultivated towards Suradge. From Su-r-adge to Sana, the villages are all furrounded with orchards and vineyards. We were here overtaken by a ftorm of hail, accompanied with peals of thunder-, but no Madgils were nigh, to iheltej.-the traveller.,
Next day we had ftill worfe roads to travel.; which feemed furprifing, fo near the capital. We faw Hodafa, which ftands on a fteep, inful-ated rock, and in which is faid to be a curious infcription, upon an old wall. This infcription was mentioned to me at Taces \ and I was informed by a Jew at Sana, that the*characters refemble neither the Arabic nor the Hebrew. I fufpect. them to be Hamjarene, and am lorry that I had it not in my power to examine them*.
After pafting through feveral paultry village?, we at length reached Seijan, a village, which, together with Suradge, belongs to the princes of the blood  we ohferved in it a good many ruin-
Z.z.2. «US.
ous houfes. As there falls npt enough of rain here, large refervoirs have been formed at the foot of the hills, and from thefe the water is dif-tributed through the country at confiderable ex-pence and trouble.
Hoping to enter Sana, on the 16th of July, we put on our Turkifh dreffes in the morning ; their appearance being fomevvhat better than that of the Arabic garb we had worn in the courfe of our journey. Along a flone bridge, we pajffed a fmall river, the water of which is, not far below,, loft among the fand; and we halted near the village of Hadde, where the Imam has an orchard, at a mile's diftance from Sana.
SECTION
SECTION XIV.
OUR STAY AT SANA, IN THE IMAM'S COURT.
Chap. L
Our arrival at Sam.
O n the morning of the 16th of July we had fent our fervant forward, with a letter, addrefTed to Fakih Achmed. the Imam's vizier, announcing to him our arrival. But that nobleman, having already heard of our near approach, had fent one of his principal fecretaries, to meet us, and bid us welcome. This deputy informed us, that we had been long expected at the court of Sana, and that the Imam had hired an elegant country-houfe for us, in the fuburb of Bir-el-Affab.
We learned that the Vizier had likcwife a villa there.   When we arrived near this place,
the fecretary aiked us to alight. We fuppofed upon this, that we were to be immediately introduced to the Vizier ; but we only faw our Secretary and our muffulman fervants proceed on their affes, while we were obliged to march on foot, a long way, before we reached our lodging. This humiliating ceremony was what we had not expected to be fubjected to among the Arabs, who value themfelves upon their politenefs.
In our villa we found very good rooms, but thofe perfectly naked and ujifurnifhed. We were here as ill accommodated as we had been, in Yemen, and more fo than we could have been in a caravanfera, where we would at leaft, have found food. IJere we were obliged t<* fait till we could have victuals brought from the city. Betide our houfe, was an orchard, in which the trees appeared to have grown of themfelves, without receiving any culture.
Next morning the Imam fent us a prefent, confilling of five fheep, with wood, rice, lights, and fpices. The bearer of this prefent had at* the fame time orders to let us know, that the Imam was forry that he could not fee us for thefe two days yet, he being at prefent employed in paying off his mercenary troops. This delay wTe would have regarded with indifference, had we not been at the fame time enjoined to keep within doors, till we fhould obtain our
firft
IN ARABtA, ^fc. 367
firft audience of his Highnefs. We could have wifhed to make the molt of our flay here.
They had however forgotten to warn us, that the etiquette of this Court likewife prohibited ftrangers from receiving vilits from the inhabitants of the country till they fhould firft appear there. We had an acquaintance at Sana, a Jew, who had made the voyage from CiViro to Loheya in our company. This Jew, although belonging to one of the richeft and moft refpect-able families of his nation, had entered into our fervice, for the courfe of that voyage, either that he might travel in the greater fecurity, or to fpare the expence. Accordingly, he no fooner heard of our arrival, than he came to pay us a vifit, and, next day brought one of the greateft aftrologers in his nation to fee us. While thefe men w ere in our company, the Secretary of Vizier Fakih Achmed happened to come in. The two Jews role before him, in teftimony of rcfpecl. But the fecretary, angry that they fhould have prefnmed to violate the etiquette, drove them out of the houfe, and ordered our fervants to admit no perfon to vilit us, till we fhould firft have waited on his raafter.
Chap.
Chap. II.
Out' audience of the Imam.
Ok the loth of July, the fecretary of the vizier Fakih Achmed, came to conduct us to an audience of the Imam, in his palace of Buflan el Metwokkel. We had expected that we fhould be introduced privately to an audience of this monarch/or at lfcaft in prefence only of a few of his principal courtiers. We were furprifed therefore to fee every thing prepared for an occafiori of great ceremony, The court of the palace was fo full of horfes, officers, and others, that we fhould fcarcely have made our way through the Crowd, if the Nakib Gbeir Alia, who had been a flave, but was now matter of the horfe, had not come, with a great flaff in bis hand, to open a paffage for us.
The hall of audience was a fpacious fquare chamber having an arched roof. In the middle was a large bafon, With fome jets d'eau, r'ifing fourteen feet in height. Behind the bafon, and near the throne, were two large benches, each a foot and an half high : upon the throne was a fpace covered with filken fluff, on which, as
well as 6n both fides of it, lay large cufhion*. The Imam fat between the culhions, with his legs crolfed in the eaflern falhion ; his gown was of a bright green colour, and had large ileeves. On each fide of his bread was a rich filleting of gold-lace, and on his head he wore a great white turban. His fons fat on his right hand, and his brothers on his left. Oppofite to them, upon the higheft of the two benches, fat the vizier ; and our place was on the lower bench. On the two fides of the hall, fat many of the principal men about court.
We were firlt led tip to the Imam, and- were permitted to kifs both the hack and the palm of liis hand, as well as the hem of his robe, It is an extraordinary favour, when the Mahometan prirfces permit any perfon to kifs the palm of the hand. There was a folemn filence through the whole hall. As each of us touched thc Imam's hand, a herald dill proclaimed ; '* God M preferve the Imam !" All who were prefent repeated thofe words aloud after him. 1 was thinking at the time, how I lliould pay my compliments in Arabic, and was not a little difturb-cd by this noify ceremony; but I had afterwards time to recollect myfelf.
As the language fpoken at the court of Sana; differs greatly from that of Tehama, the only dialect of the Arabic tongue with which we
Vol. I. A a a were
400 neieuiir's travels
were familiarly acquainted, or could fpeak tolerably, we had brought our fervant whom we had hired in Mokha, to be our interpreter. The vizier who had relided long in Tehama, did thc fame fervice for the Imam. Our conversation, confequently, could not be either very long, or very interciting. We did not think proper to mention the true reafons of our expedition through Arabia; but told thc Imam, that wifh-ing to travel by the fhorteit way to the Danifh colonies in the Eaft Indies, we had heard fo much of the plenty and fecurity which prevailed through the dominions of the Imam, that we had reiblved to fee them with our own eyes, that we might defcribe them to our countrymen. The Imam told us, we were welcome into his dominions, and might ftay as long as we pleaf-ed. After repeating the ceremony of kiffing the Imam's hands, and hearing the repeated acclamations of the fpectators, wc now retired in the fame order in which we had come in.
The Imam fent us, after our return home, to each a fmall purfe containing ninty nine Komalftsy two and thirty of which make a crown. This piece of civility might perhaps appear no compliment, to a traveller's delicacy. But, when it is qonfidcred that a It ranger, unacquainted with thc value of the money of the country, obliged to pay every day for his provifions, is in danger
ger of being impofed upon by the money-changers, this care of providing us with itnalf money will appear to have been fufticicntly obliging. We therefore accepted the prefent, although we had refolved not to be in any degree chargeable to the Arabs.
Chap. III.
Vlfit to Vizier Fakih Achmed.
In Turkey no perfon is admitted to an audience of the Sultan, till after he has vilitcd the vizier. The cuftom in Yemen is direclly contrary. After being honoured with an audience of the Imam in the morning, we were invited to wait, on Fakih Achmed in the afternoon, at his count try feat, near Bir-cl-Alfab. We were at the fame time dciired to bring with us thofe curi-ofities which we had fhewn to Emir. Farhan at I.ohcya, and to feveral Arabs of diftindtion in other cities. Thofe rarities were only microfcopes, telefcopes, profpect glades, thermometers, maps, and other fuch things. I did not chufe to produce my mathematical inflruments, left perhaps fome Schech might perfuade the vizier to alk them for bis. ufe.
A a a a Thc
The vizier received us with great politenefs, and expreffed himfelf highly pleafed with what we fhewed him. He put various queflions to us» from which he appeared to poffefs coufiderabk knowledge, and to have ftudied the fciences with a degree of care far from common among his countrymen. By means of Turkifh, Perfian, and Indian merchants, he had accjuired tolcrahly correct, notions of geography. The Arabians imagine that Europe lies fouth from them, becaufe the Franks whom they fee, come from India. But the Fakih knew very well the fituation of the different flates of Europe, with their refpective powers and forces, both by fea and land. Nor could more be expected from an Arabian who had never feen a map.
In the narratives of many voyages, we had read, that in the Eaft an inferior might not appear before a fuperior, without bringing a prefent in his hand. Befides, we were defirous of returning the marks of politenefs which had been fhewn us, and of exprefling our gratitude for the entertainment we had received.
For thefe reafons, we refolved to take this opportunity of offering our prefent to the Imam and the Fakih ; fent to the latter fome pieces of mechanifm, fuch as watches, and fome other inftruments little known among the Arabs. We foon after learned, that this was more than had
been
been expected at our hands, fince, not being merchants, we had no favour to afk. All had however been very gracioufly accepted. Thc Turks regard the prefents of the Europeans as a tribute ; but at the court of Sana they appear to be conlidered in a different light.
The Vizier's country-houfe was not large. It was even entirely open, upon one fide. A number of fruit-trees grew in the garden. In the midft of it was H jet (Veau, fimilar to that which we had feen in the Imam's hall of audience. The water was put in motion, by being raffed in a refervoir, by an afs and a man who led him. This jet d'eau was no ornament; bu£ it cooled the air \ a thing very agreeable in hot countries. We faw others of the fame fort, in the gardens of all the principal inhabitants of Sana.
Chap. IV.
Of the city of S<WJ> e.
The city of Sana, is fituate at the foot of mount Nikktm, on which are fti 11 to be feen the ruins of a cattle, which the Arabs fuppofe to have been built by Shcm. Near this mountain, ftands
the
4-4
NIEBUHR'S travels
tlie caflle ; a rivulet runs upon the other fide 5 and near it, is the Buftan d Metwokkel,' a fpa-eious garden, which was laid out by Imam Met-wokkel, and has been embellifbed with a fine garden, by the reigning Imam. Thc walls of the city, which are built of bricks, exclude this garden, which is cnclofed within a wall of its own. Thc city, properly fo called, is not very cxtenlivc : One may walk round it all in an hour.
I fhould have wifiied to make an accurate ground-plan of this city. But, wherever 1 went, the mob crowded after me fo, that a furvey was absolutely impoiliblc. The city-gates are feven. Here are a number of mofques, fome of which have been built by Turkifh Pachas. Sana has the appearance of being more populous than it actually is; for gardens occupy a part of the fpace within the walls. In Sana, are only twelve public baths: but many noble palaces, three of the moft fpendid of which have been built by the reigning Imam. The palace of the late Imam El Manzor, with fome others, belong to the royal family, who are very numerous.
The Arabian palaces are built in a ftyle op architecture different from ours. The materials are, however, burnt bricks, and fometimes even hewn ftones j but thc houfes of the common
people
people are of bricks which have been dried in the fun, I faw no glafs windows, except in one palace, near thc citadel. The reft of the houfes have, inftead of windows, merely fhutters, which are opened in fair weather, and ftiut when it is foul. In the laft cafe, the houfe is lighed by a round wicket, fitted with a piece of Mufcovy glafs; fome of the Arabians, ufe fmall panes of ftained glafs from Venice.
At Sana, and in the other cities of the Eaft, are great Simferas or caravanferas for merchants and travellers. Each different commodity is fold in a feparate market. In the market for bread, none but women are to be feen ; and their little ihops are portable. The feveral clalfes of mechanics work, in the fame manner, in particular quarters in the open ftreet. Writers go about with their delks, and make out brieves, copy-books, and inftruct fcholars in the art of writing, all at the fame time. There is one market, where old clothes arc taken in exchange for new.
Wood for the carpenter's purpofes is in general extremely dear through all Yemen ; and wood for the fire at Sana is no lefs fo. All the hills near the city are bleak and bare, and wood is therefore to be brought hither from the diftance of three days journey; and a camel's burthen commonly cofts two crowns. ThiB
fearcitv
fcarcity of wood is particularly fupplied by theufr of a little pit-coal. I have feen peats burnt here„ but thofe f© bad, that ftraw muft be intermixed to make them burn.
Fruits are, however, very plenteous at Sana. Here are more than twenty different fpecies of grapes, which, as they do not all ripen at the the fame time, continue to afford a delicious refrefhment for feveral months. The Arabs likewife preferve grapes, by hanging them up in their cellars, and eat them almoft through the whole year. Thc Jews make a little wine, and might make more, if the Arabs were not fuch enemies to flrong liquors. A Jew convicted of conveying wine into an Arab's houfe is fevere-ly puniflied ; nay, the Jews muft even ufe great, caution, in buying and felling it among themfelves. Great quantities of grapes are dried here ; and the exportation of railins from Sana is con-ftderable. One fort of thefe grapes are without llones, and contains only a foft grain, the prefence of which is not perceptible in eating the raifin.
In the caflle, which ftands on a hill, are tw° palaces. I faw about it fome ruins of old buildings, but, notwithftanding the antiquity of thc place, no remarkable infcriptions. There is the mint, and a range of prifons for perfons of different ranks.   The reigning Imam refides in the
city 5
city ; but feveral princes of the blood-royal live in the caftle. I was conducted to a battery, as the moft elevated place about thefe buildings ; and there i met with what i had no expectation of, a German mortar, with this infcription, Jorg Selos Gofmick, 1513. i faw alfo, upon the fame battery, feven iron cannons, partly buried in the fand, and partly fet upon broken Carriages. Thefe feven fmall cannons, with fix others, near the gates, which are fired to announce the return of the different feftivals, are ail the artillery of the capital of Yemen.
Chap. V.
Of the country around Sana.
The fuburb of Bir el AJfab is nearly adjoining to the city upon the eaft fide. The houfes of this village are fcattered through the gardens, along the bank of a fmall river. Two league* northward from Sana is a plain, named Rodda. which is overfprcad with gardens, and watered by a number of rivulets. This place bears a great refemblance to the neighbourhood of Da-mafcfU, But Sana, which fome ancient authors compa.e to Damafcis, ftands on a riling ground, with nothing like florid vegetation about it. Vol. I. B b h After
After long rains, indeed, a fmall rivulet runs thrr h the city ; but all the ground is dry, th ,^gh the reft of the year. However, by aqueducts from mount Nikkum, the town and caftle of Sana arc, at all times, fupplied with abundance of excellent frcfh water.
Jews are not permitted to live in the city, of Sana. They live by themfelves in a village, named Kaa el Ihud. fituate near Bir el Ajfab. Their number amounts to two thoufand. Hut, in Yemen, they are treated even more contempt-uoufly than in Turkey. . Yet, the beft artilKus in Arabia are Jews; efpecially potters and goldfmiths, who come to the city, to work in their little ihops by day, and in the evening retire to their village.
Thofe Jews carry on a confiderable trade. One of the moft eminent merchants among them, named Orceki, gained the favour of two fuccci-ftve Imam's, and was for thirteen years, in the reign of El Manfor, and for fifteen years under the prefent Imam, comptroller of the cuftoms and of the royal buildings and gardens; one of the moft honourable offices at the court of Sana. Two years before our arrival here, he had fallen into difgrace, and was not only imprifoned, Imt obliged to pay a fine of 50,000 crowns. Fifteen days before we arrived at Sana, the Imam had Jet him at liberty.   He was a venerable r M
man.
IN arabia,
man, of great knowledge : and although he had received the Imam's permiffion, had never chofen to aifume any other drefs than that commonly worn among his countrymen. The young Jew, who had been our fervant, was one of his relations, and had mentioned us fo favourably to him, tl he conceived a defire to fee us. But we durft not hold frequent inter-courfe with a man fo newly rcleafed out of prifon.
The difgrace of Orceki had drawn a degree of perfecution upon the reft of the Jews. At that period,   the  government ordered fourteen fynagogues, which the Jews had at Sana, to be demoliflied.   In their village are as hand-fome houfes as the beft in Sana. Of thofe houfes likewife all,above the height or fourteen fathoms was demolifticd, and the Jews were forbidden to raife any of their buildings above this height in future.   All the ftone pitchers in which the inhabitants of the village had ufed to keep their wines were broken.   In fhort, the poor jews fuffered mortifications of all forts.
The Banians, in Sana, are reckoned to be K-bout 125. They pay 300 crowns a-month for pe, million to live in the city : Whereas the populous village of Kaa el lhud pays only 125 crowns a-month. The heirs of a deceafed Banian are obliged to pay from 40 to 50 crowns:
B b b 2 And
And, if the defunct leaves no near relations in Yemen, his whole property devolves to the I-mam. The Banians told us, that two men of their nation had been dragged to prifon two months before, and, before they could obtain their liberty, were forced to yield up 1500' crowns of an inheritance which had fallen to them in India, and of which they had touched no part in Arabia.
Chap. VI.
The Pomp of the Imam's Return from the Mofque.
It is well known, that the Turkifh Sultan goes every Friday to the mofque. The Imam ob-ferves the fame pious cuftom with the fame cx-actnefs, and goes and comes upon the oceahon in a very pompous manner. We faw him only returning from the mofque, when his train is faid to be fwelled by all thofe who have performed their devotions at other riofques. The better to difplay his magnificence, he makes a long circuitous progrefs at his return.
The Imam, upon the occafiou when we faw him, came out of the principal mofque, and palfed out.by one gate of the city, that he might come in by another, with fome hundreds of fiddlers,
diers, marching in proceffion before him._
Over him, and the princes of his numerous family, Medullas, or large parafols, were borne; a diftinction peculiarly appropriated to the fovereign and the princes of the blood-royal. We were told, that in other parts of Yemen,* all the independent nobility, fuch as the fheriffe of Abu Arifch, the Schiechs of Jafa, and of Hafchid-u-Bekil, conftantly difplay this mark of their independence.
Befide the princes of the blood, there were in this proceflion at leaft fix hundred noblemen, eeclefiailics and officers, civil and military, all fwperbly mounted upon horfes ; and a vaffc crowd of people followed on foot. On each fide of the Imam was borne a Itandard, having upon it a fmall filver box filled with amulets, whofe efficacy was imagined to render him invincible. This proceflion was, in fhort, magnificent, but diforderly. The riders paced or galloped, at pleafure, and all went on in confulion.
Near a gate were flationed fome pairs of camels bearing carriages, in which fome of the Imam's wives often ride upon fuch occafions: But the carriages were at this time empty, and ferved only to fill up the proceflion. Behind the camels, which bore thefe, were twelve others, bearing nothing but fome fmall flags, fixed, by way of ornament, to their faddles.
The
The foldiers fired a few rounds without the gate, but not lefs awkwardly than in the other cities of Yemen. In their evolutions before the palace, they Ihewed no greater dexterity than the provincial troops which we had feen perform their exercifes under the Dolas. The city gates were fliut during divine fervice.
Chap. VII.
Our Audience of taking Leave.
.The favourable reception we had met with at Sana, which was above our expectations, might have tempted us to ftay longer. Many of the principal men about the Imam's court urged us to fpend another year in Yemen. But we had loft two of our companions, who could have availed themfelves more than we of a continued ftay in Arabia. Some inftances, too, of the Imam's avarice, which had come to our knowledge, added to what we had experienced in thofe cafes in which we had been embroiled with the Dolas, imprcfled us with a degree of diftruft, and made us fear that our prefent good treatment might end in a very different manner. We had, be-fides, found the climate hurtful to our conftitu-tions, and our health was much injured by the
changing
oi Jon :
(it v^n
oj ?.u b^iqrrt3jl : node mm IfiqiD
ni btwiamqxi) buf 5ri/
inn to 33Ttg3o s iuiw au^sito'i >tj boo^ jnataiq iuo JBjIt 7j;* .larififirn jn^aftib v/rov c nt
J fuljuirf ajcmib arfj bnuol' ts fount 3i?7/ rfjisoii auo bnc; >
,;\t;"h-:I:i iilir'sTrnv i11:v•
changing temperature of the atmofphere. Wc therefore began to think ferioufly of failing for India with the Englifh, that we might fave our lives and papers.
We had permiffion to leave Sana whenever we mould think proper; but it was required that we fhould take a formal leave of the Imam, and jdiew him the curiofities which the Vizier had feen ; a cireumftance which obliged us to defer our journey for fome days.
We were fent for to Court on the 23d of July, and conducted into the fame hall in which thc Imam had received us at our former audience. Upon this fecond occafion, every thing patted very quietly.    The Imam fat on the lowefl bench befidc the throne, upon a chair wrought, of reeds.   We kiffed the hem of his robe, and both fides of his hand. Nobody was prefent but the Vizier, the fecretary,- by whom we had been conducted into the prefence, and fix or-feven flaves or fervants.   None of our fervants were permitted to accompany us;  as  the Vizier thought us qualified to exprefs ourfelves in the language of the country.   All that we flicwed the Imam feemed to pleafe him highly ; and both he and his minifler put many queftions to us concerning the manners, trade, and learning of thc Europeans.   A fmall cheft of medicines, which the Imam had received from an. Engliftu
man,
414 NIEBL'HR's TRAVELS
man, wa? then brought in. Mr Cramer was afic-ed to explain the virtues of thofe dru^s und the Imam caufed what he faid, concernirg their nature, to be taken down in writing.
I had been indifpofed when I came out to wait on the Imam j and, in confequence of Handing fo long, I felt myfelf fo weak, that I was obliged to afk permiflion to retire. Before the door I found fome of the firft officers in th« court, fitting on piles of ftones along the wall.
The Great Chamberlain, Gheir Allah, with whom I had often had occalion to fpeak, immediately made me an offer of his feat, and gathered ftones to make himfelf another. In this company I was again addreffed with a number of queftions concerning the manners and cuftoms of Europe. Thofe Arabs ftrongiy difapproved of our practice of drinking ipiritous liquors. But when I affured them that the Chriftians were forbidden to indulge in drunkennefs, and that no feniible European drank more wine than was good for his health, they allowed the cuf torn to be rational. They even acknowledged that it was abfurd to abftain entirely from the ufe of a liquor of which they had fuch abundance, and which, on many occafions, might prove falutary as a remedy.
I returned into the hall; and, after Mr*Cra-mer had fmifhed liis account of the drug% and
we
v e had "anfwered various other queftidns, we Took our leave with the lame ceremonies which we had ohferved at entering. In the afternoon, we went to take leave of Vizier Fakih Achmed, and fome other perfons of dillinction.
. 'Chap. VlIIj Our Departure from Sana,
We had, indeed, good rcafons to induce us t6 return to Mokha, by the fame way by which We had come. It is better frequented ; and upon it I fhould have had an opportunity of copying the infcriptions of Which the Arabs had fpo-ken t'6 me : But I had been fo often deceived already by ftorics of pretended antiquities, that to the uncertain hopes which thofe infcriptions held out td me, I preferred the certain advantage of furvcying another jjart of Yemen, and of feeing the Tehama in the rainy feafon. We acquainted thc Vizier, therefore, that wc wilhed to travel, by Mofhak to Beit el Fakih. Ife not only approved of our intention, but told us, that the Imatn would ftfnply us with camels and affes for our journey.
On the 25th of July, the Imam' fent each of us n complete fuit of clothes, with a letter to the C c c Dola
416 NIEBUIl'llS TRAX^EtS
Dola of Mokha to pay us two hundred crowns, as a farewell prefent. We were at firft afraid that this prince might fuppofe us to have come, like the Turks, to draw money from him, or that we had made our prefents with interefted views. But, after reflecting that we had been obliged to ranfom ourfelves, in a manner, at Mokha, we refolved to accept that letter of credit. When we afterwards prefented it to the Dola, he fent us to receive the money from "his Sarqf, or banker, who paid us by inftal-rnentSj but never without an air of diffatisfac-tion.
We could hardly think the Vizier ferious in his offer, when he told us that thc Imam would iurnifh us with beads of burthen. We were even afraid that this might be an arrangement to delay our journey, and would rather have hired camels at our own expence. We thereupon came to an explanation with thc fecretary, whofe anfwers led us to fufpect an interefted underftanding between him, and the Arabian camel-hirer,  or poft-mailer.
We therefore ventured to addrefs the Vizier again. He fhewed furprifc at our perplexity; becaufe he had delivered to the fecretary a written order, figned by the Imam's own hand, in which he was directed to furnifh us with camels
and
and affes for our whole journey, and with a Iheep for our provifions. The fecretary, on account of our impatience to depart, had not had time to bargain for a iliare of the profits with the camel-drivers, and was obliged to deliver up the written order, with fonts pieces of fluff which the Imam had fent us for clothes to our fervants. He gave us alio notice, that fome 0" ther prefents were intended us, which could not be ready till after a certain number of hours. We fet out without them, and the fecretary pm-bably kept them to himfelf.
The drefs which I received from the Imam was exactly like that worn by the Arabs of dif-tinclion through Yemen. They wear the fhirt over wide drawers of cotton-cloth. Thc Jam-bva, a fort of crooked cutlafs, hang1; by a broad girdle; and a veil with ftrait fleeves k covered by a flowing gown. The Arabs a*e fl rangers to the ufe of jftockings. The only thing they wear on their feet is a fort of half boots, or flippers.
Thc Turks appear to abufc the generous hof-pitality with which th.e Imam treats Grangers travelling through his dominions. Poor pilgrims of that nation often come from Jidda, are entertained for'months at Sana., and then afk money to defray the expenecs of their journey home. The Imam even orders a fum of money to be paid them in fome of his fea-port towns, Ccc 1 that
nI EE \JItR?s travels
that tflcy may return no more to be farther chargeable to fo hafpitable a people.
Within a fhort time after our arrival, a Turk, who had attended his matter, an Egyptian nobleman, to Mecca, came by thc way of Jidda and Hodeida to Sana, in hopes of obtaining inltant-ly one of the firft polls in the Imam's army : for the Turks have fo high an idea of their own military talents, that they fuppofe it would be too great a happinefs to. the Arabs to be able to engage a Turkifh officer in their fervice. But the Imam, after entertaining this man. fome time at Sana, fent him to Hodeida, and. ordered him a fum of money fuflicient to carry him to Bafra. On my return from India, I met with this fame Turk, who had performed the voyage in a veft fel belonging to Mallear., and had found it not more dangerous than thc paffage between Jidda and Hodeida.
'■ (.'TIO^
SECTION XV,
our return from sana to mokha.
-—i----,---_A
Chap. T.
Route from Sana to Beit el Fakih.
On the 26th of July, the day of our departure from Sana, we made a /hurt ilage along- a bad road among hare hills, with few village* inter-fperfed over them. Next day, the road was ftill worfe, lying over rocky mountains. This wis the moft rugged road I faw in all Yemen. The hills were bleak and wild, and the deep vallies among them contained only a few wretched hamlets.
On the 28th of July, we proceeded down fteep declivities. But the hills began now to difplay a fmall fharc of verdure : And we here met with feveral camels, loaded with very bad wood, for 'Sana. Thc towns were poor and thinly flattered.
cd. In thc evening, we were attacked by legions of locufts; but thefe were foon driven away by a violent ftorm of wind, accompanied by heavy rain.
We travelled, this day, onward to Mofhak, a fmall town fituate on tiie fummit of a precipitous hill. The houfes in which travellers lodge ft and at the foot of the hill. We prefented the Imam's written order to the Dola of this city, who accordingly furnilhed us with camels, provender, a go >d meal for our fcrvants, a fheep for our own fup per, and even paid for our lodging. The revenue of Mofhak, and the territory Annexed to it, is enjoyed by one of thc Imam's fons.
Our next day's journey was upon a 11 ill more difagrccable road, Nothing can be worfe, indeed, than the roads between Mofhak and Se~ ban. Upon thc hill we found fix large refcr-voirs, in which rain-water is collected. It becomes putrid, after Handing for fome time, and is then very difagrccable. In this country the Arabs believe they have moll to fear from the worm in the nerves. If it be fo, the caufe inuft ly in their drinking that putrid water.
Leaving Sehan on the 30th of July, we continued our journey upon fome what better roads which winded round the hills. Upon Hurras one of thofe hills, we came to a defile fo narrow
that
• hat a fingle camel could hardly pafs. On either fide are fleep rocks j and rain, which had fallen on the preceding day, had broken a gap eight feet deep, precifcly in the narrowefl part of this road, and made it abfolutely impaffablc. There was no other paffage ; and all our Arabs were of opinion that we fhould return ftraight to Sana, and take the road by Taces: But we we were unwilling to turn fo far about, and therefore refolvcd to fill up the gap with flones. Our Arabs laughed to hear us propofe an undertaking which they fuppofed would give us work for feveral days. But we began to gather ftones, and by promifes prevailed with them toaffiit ih. Three houss of hard work completed our caufe-way, and we paffed fafe over. The Arabs maintained, that, in fuch a cafe, the firft Dola of Yemen would rather have returned to Sana, than have undertaken what we had accomplifh-ed. This gave no favourable impreffion of the fpirit or induftry of the nation.
On our way, we met with a wandering family, the firft of this character that I faw in Yemen. They had no tents, but lived under trees with their affes, fheep, dogs, and fowls. I forgot to afk the name of this horde. But their mode of life is perfectly like that of our Euro pean gyplics. They arc confined to no place, but go about the villages begging and Healing ;
and
Kirtt'IIR^S TRAVELS
nnd the poor, peafants often give them fomcUiimj voluntarily, to remove them from their neighbourhood. A young girl of this company came to afk alms from us: Her face was uncovered;
(ff)
At a fmall diftance from thc dangerous pafs -Above mentioned, we faw the firft plantation o^ toffee-trees. We had fcen none of thefe fincc our cxcurlioiis in the month of May ; but this production does not appear to enrich thofe by whom it is here cultivated. The villages in the collee-country arc declining into a ftate of wretched poverty : Thc houfes confift of dry walls, covered with reeds, and refemble thofe of the hills about Beit el Fakih and Dfobla. The river Sehan was fo fwoln that we had difficulty in paffing it with our affes.
We fpent the night at Satnfur, a poor village where I loft my compafs. In thc morning, we found ourfelves obliged to pafs, more than a dozen of times in the fpace of a mile, over the river Sehan, which runs with a meandering courfe, among rocks, and with a very rapid current. This country being very poor, the roads are not exceedingly fafe, and we were therefore obliged to travel flowly, without going before our baggage. We faw here many flirubs of the fpecies which affords the ballam of Mecca ; but
the
the inhabitants of the country know not their value, and therefore neglect to cultivate them.
In thc coffee-houfe of Til we met with feveral pilgrims returning from Mecca ; among others an Arab from Doan, a city fivc-and-twenty days journey eaft from Sana, and twelve days journey from Kcrchin ; confequently, in a country entirely unknown to Europeans: I was vexed at the fhort time of our interview ; and the great difference between the dialect which he fpoke, and that of Tehama, which difqualified me from obtaining from him more particular information concerning his country.
From this inn the country improves. It is covered with verdure. In the valley area number of rivulets which difcharge themfelves into the river "Sehan ; and a great many villages are fcattered over the hills.
We faw a rivulet which lofes itfclf under ground, and appears again at a conliderable diftance. After leaving the hills, it difappears entirety, and its waters are difperfed over the plains of the Tehama. The arable grounds among tin hills are fown only with durra, a fort of coarfe millet, of which the poorer people make their bread. The peafants cut out feats in the trees and fit in thefe to watch their fields.
The rocks on the confines of the Tehama are bafaltic, like thofe of the coffee-country near Vol. II. T> d d Bict
Beit el Fakih. We came yet to another rivulet, which lofcs itfelf in the fands of the Tehama. At laft we reached the plain, and arrived at Bcif el Fakih in the evening of the ift of Auguft,
Chap. IT.
Route from Beit el Fakih tv Mokb&*
The greater part of this city having been burnt down in the month of April laft, we had ex-peeled to find it defotate. We were, therefore, greatly furprifed to fee all the houfes, or rather huts, rebuilt. Several edifices of ftone, fitter to refill the force of fire, had like wife been raifed.
We fent notice to the Dola of our arrival, and defired him to have camels in readinefs, on which we might continue our journey. Our Arabian fervants would have demanded provifions from him, that they might make merry, and fhew the people in what an honourable manner they were received.
I fhall now only mention fome changes produced by the rains upon this part of the country. Indeed, as we had already feen the face of the country, we preferred travelling by night at this time, to avoid fullering from the torrid heats of the day.
Having
Having fet out from Beit el Fakih on the evening of the 2d of Auguft, we met with two men, on our way to 7-ebid, who were leading afles loaded chiefly with filver, which had been received by the merchants from Egypt, for coffee, and which they were fending to Mokha, to purchafe India goods. This mode of carrying money about, was a proof to us, that in this province there were no fears from robT bers.
On the 3d of Auguft, thc Dola of Zebid was obliged to furnilh us with provifions and camels. We had expected to find the river 'Aebid conliderably fwoln ; but, near the city, its channel was entirely dry; the waters having been turned, olf, to overflow a great extent of the adjacent fields which were Unrounded by dykes. It fhould feem that the waters are not fullered to run in the channel of the river, till idler they have been plentifully diftributed over the country. The peafants conn met their dykes in a very fimplc manner. After plowing up a field, they yoke a plank of wood to two oxen, lead thefe over the field, till the plank is loaded with earth, empty it upon the line where the dyke is to be drawn, and repeat this till it is formed. We flopped to reft for a few hours at Maufchid. and on the morning of thc 5th of Auguft arrived at Mokha.
D d d 2 W*
Wc had been extremely earned: to return to this city, left the Englifh fhip in which wc intended to fail for India, might be gone before our arrival. But, feveral circumftances happened to detain that veftcl fome time longer at Mokha: And we foon felt that we had travelled too haftily in that fultry climate.   I fell ill on the 8th of Auguft: Mr Baurenfeind was confined to his bed, within a few days after: and in a fhcrt time, Mr Cramer like wife, and all our European fervants.   We fortunately found our friend Mr Scott ftill here, who kindly fupplied us with European refrefhrnents, which did us more fervicc than we could have received from the ufe of the beft medicines.   But all his friendly cares could not remove the lurking diftemper which foon afterwards broke out with renewed violence, and deprived me of all my remaining fellow-travellers j as I ftiall relate in the propel place.
Chap. ill.
Of the city of Mokha.
This city ftands in a very dry and barren fitu-ation. Its fortifications are the walls which fur-round it, fome towers on the way to Mufti,
which
which arc dignified with the name of caftlcs, and two other caftles of the fume fort, upon the two arms of the harbour. The greater! of thefe two caftles is called Kalla Tejar, and the fmall-eft, Kalla Abdurrab, from the names of two faints, buried in thefe two places* They are provided with fome few pecies of cannon.
The houfes in the city are built of Hone ; and fome are handfome, in the ftyle of thofe of the fuburb of Sana. However, there are others both within and without the walls, no better than the huts common through all the Tehama., In the environs of this city are abundance of date-trees and many agreeable gardens.
Mokha is not an ancient city. It was built a-bout four centuries lince. It, like many other cities in the Tehama, owes its origin to a faint, the celebrated Schech Schcedeli. This Schech acquired at that period fo great a reputation, that perfons eagerly refortcd from the moft dif-tant countries to receive his inftrudions. Some of his devout difciplcs built huts round his hermitage, which ftood on the fea-fide. A fmall village arofe on this fpot, and was by degrees enlarged into a city. Hitherto its hiftory re-fembles that of the other cities in the Tehama. But, the rife of Mokha was attended with many peculiar circumftances, which deferve to be mentioned, as they are related by the Arabs;
whofe
428
niebuh'r.s travels
whofe accounts feems to be founded in truth although dallied with a little of the marvellous, in thc ufual taftc of the Arabian nation.
A fhip bound from India to Jidda, calf anchor, one day, about four hundred years iince, in thefe latitudes. The crew obferving a hut in the defert, had the curiofity to go and fee it. The Schech gave thofe flrangers a kind recep^ lion, and regaled them with coffee, of which he was very fond himfelf, and to which he afcrib-ed great virtues. The Indians who were unacquainted with the ufe of coffee, thought that this hot liquid, might cure the mailer of their fhip, who was ill. Schiedeli affured them, that, not only mould he be cured by the efficacy of his prayers, and of the coffee, but that if they would land their cargo there, they might difpofe of it to considerable advantage. Affuming at the fame time the air and tone of a prophet, he told them that a city fhould one day, be built upon that fpot, which was to become an eminent mart of the Indian trade.
The merchant to whom the veffel belonged, being llruck with this lingular language, went on fhore, to fee and converfe with this extraordinary man. He drank the coffee prefcribed by the prophet, and found himfelf better. On the fame day a great number of Arabs came to hear the preacher in his hermitage.   Among them
were
jn arabia, 42fi
were feveral merchants, who purchafed the whole cargo. The Indian returned home well pleafed, and fpread the fame of the holy Schsede-li, fo that the place was foon frequented by many of his countrymen.
An elegant mofque was raifed upon the tomb of Schech Sclnedeli, which ftands without the walls of the prefent city. The well from which the common people draw water for drinking* and one of the city gates, bear his name. His dependents are held in honour, and enjoy the title of Schech. The people fwear by him* The name of Slnedeli will be remembered as lone as Mokha ftands.
Befides, Schaidcli is not only the patron of Mokha; but all the Mufulmans who drink coffee mention him every morning in their Pratba, or prayer^ and efteem him alfo as their patron. They invoke him not, but thank God for having taught mankind the ufe of coffee, through the mediation of Schaedeli, and implore the favour of heaven on the Schechs, his defcendent s A merchant of Mecca made an obfervatiou upon thofe faints, which I was furprifed to hear from a Mahometan.   The vulgar, faid he, muft always have a vilible object to fear and honour. Thus, at MeGca, oaths, inftead of being addref-fed to God, are pronounced in the name of Mahomet.    At Mokha, I would not trult a man
who
who mould take God to witnefs the truth of any thing he happened to affert: but I might much more fafely depend upon him who fhould fvvear by Schech Sdiaedeli, whofe mofque and tomb are before their eyes.
Mokha was the laft city in Yemen of which the Turks retained poffeflton. It is faid that the Arabs did not conquer, but buy it. Since the Turks were difpoffelfed, it has never had another matter than the Imam.
A Dola having enriched himfelf in his government, had fortified the city, and drawn a trench round it, which is now filled up. He was fuf-peeled of an intention to make himfelf independent ; but his views were fru ft rated, and himfelf cait into prifen. From that time, a Dola has never been continued above three years in this lucrative government. After thc monfoon fea-fon, the Dola of Mokha is every year obliged to give an account of his adminiftration, and is then either confirmed in his employment, or in-i'lantly recalled to Sana.
I know not whether thc Chriftians of the Eaft have ever fettled at Mokha. A good many Jews live here, in a feparate village, as in the other cities of Yemen. Here are nearly feven hundred Banians. Kajaputs, and other Indians, fome of whom are merchants, and others earn their livelihood by excrcifmg different mechanic arts.
When
IN ARAB [A,   bV. 431
When they have made a fmall fortune, they commonly return home to India: And on this account are always looked upon as ftran-'gers,
Chap. IV.
Bombardment of Mokha by the French.
I could learn nothing of the hiftory of this city, except one event, which happened five and twenty years fince. I relate the circumftances of this tranfactiori, as they were recounted to me by the Arabs; for they will ferve to give an idea of the power and policy of the Imam.
The Dola of Mokha often purchafes out of the fhips from India, goods, of which the value amounts to more than the fum due for cuftom-houfe duties and other taxes,   tie takes thofe goods upon the Imam's account, and always pro-mifes to deduct the debt out of thc duties which may become due next year.   But he continues, year after year, to take new goods to account, and the debt is thus increafed, and ftill remains unpaid.   By dealing for fome time in this manner, the French Eaft India Company at length
found thc Imam 82,000 crowns in their debt. Vol. I. E e e This
This Company became at laft anxious to obtain payment of fo confiderable a debt, without lofing, however, their trade with Mokha ; and therefore, in the year 1738, fent a man of war to efcort their merchant fhips. The captain, upon his arrival, acquainted the Dola, that they were come to fell their cargo, but would not land or fend their goods on fhore, till his debt to them ihould be difcharged. The Dola ftrove to amufe them with fine fpeeches, and to perfuade them to land their goods. But the French, to fhew what they could do, rendered the caftle unfit for defence, by a few difchargc* of their great guns, before the Arabs were aware that they intended real hoflilities.
After this exploit, the conferences were renewed. The Dola ftill excufed himfelf, and faid that he bad no money, and no orders from thc Imam to pay the debt, but afked fifteen days refpitc, till he fhould receive orders from Sana. Fifteen days expired, and no orders were received. The French then difcharged a bomb upon the Dola's houfe, by which an Arab was killed. But this producing no decilive effects, fome other bombs were thrown upon the mofque, upon a Friday, while the Dola was within, and by thefe were feveral perfons killed.
The citizens, of whom a good number had by this time loft their life for their fovereign's debt,
now
now loft patience, and obliged the governor to take meafurcs to fatisfy his creditors. A treaty was accordingly concluded; and the French landed their goods, and continued their trade as before. Of all their crew, they loft only one man, who had happened to Fall aflecp before thc door of his lodging in the town. An Ara" bian foldicr ftabbed him in revenge for the death of a relation of his, who had been killed by a bomb-fhot.
Thc Dola was unable to make farther refift> ance ; and had undoubtedly done all that was in his power to ferve his mailer. The Imam was,' however, diffatisfied, recalled him, ancj confifcatcd his palace at Sana. A merchant of Mokha, who had advanced a large fum to fatif-fy the demands of the French, had not received payment, even at the time when we were there
Several of the Arabs ftill recollect this little affair with pleafure, and remember, with a degree of gaiety, thofe pots of fire, as they called them to me, which purfued their Dola backwards and forwards, wherever lie went. Since that time the Arabs have entertained a high o-pinion of the military talents of the Europeans In any Turkifli city, no Chriftians, of whatever nation, could have been fafe from the fury of the populace during fuch hoftilities. But, at F e c 2 Mokha,
Mokha, the Englifh and Dutch remained in perfect fecurity during this war with the French, (GG)
Chap. V.
Of the Trade of Mokhc.
Several nations formerly traded to this porr, which now frequent it no more. The Portu-guefe, who were, two centuries ago, very powerful on the Arabic Gulph, have long lince ccafed to fend mips hither. Thc Duteh rarely appear here ; and the French never in time of war, although they ftill continue to rent ware-houfes here. The Englifli at prefent engrofs, almoft ex.clulively, the trade of this place. Their. Eaft India Company, indeed, fend only one veffel hither in two years, to take in a cargo of. coffee. But the trade is fo much the more advantageous to private merchants fettled in India. In this year there had come five Englifli fhips from different ports in India, not to mention three others which proceeded ftraight to Jidda,, Since the time when an Englifli merchant refi-dent at Mokha, was maltreated by the populace m the abfence of the fhips, thc Englifh have always returned with their veffels to India, and
left
left the management of their affairs, during their abfence, to a Banian.
Since the trade of Mokha is fo confiderables the cuftoms cannot but afford a large revenue to" the Imam. The Turks, Arabs, and Indians are obliged to carry their goods ftraight to the cuftom-houfe, to be there infpected, and to pay eight or ten per cent, upon their value, at the arbitrary eftimation of the cuftom'houfe officers. All Europeans enjoy the privilege oi having their goods infpected in their own warehoufes, and of paying only three per cent, upon their value* Since the Englifli have become fo powerful in Bengal, and have imported thofe goods which were formerly furnifhed by the Indians, they have been required to pay only three per cent. But the government continue to obferve their treaties, and yet to maintain their ancient rights* by making the merchants in Mokha pay likewife five per cent, on all Indian goods which they purchafe.
Befide the duties payable at the cuftomhoufe, fhips pay another duty under the name of anchorage, which amounts to fome hundreds of crowns, and is regulated, not by the tonnage of the veffel, but by the number of its malls. On the other hand, a merchant, who lades a large JEuropean fhip with coffee in this port, receives
from
from the Dola a premium of four hundred crowns.
According to the ohfervation of the Arabians, the monfoons are regular in thefe latitudes. The north wind blows for lix months, and the fouth wind for other lix mouths. It is not to be fup-pofed, however, that thefe are the only winds known here. During the month of Auguft, e-fpecially, the wind blows from all the points in the horizon. An Englifh fhip bound for Jidda was obliged to return to Mokha, and to wait there fome months for a favourable wind.
The Arabs have fcarcely any article for ex^ portation, except coffee, of which the Indians are not very fond, The Englifli fhips muft return empty to India, if they did not gain conti-dcrably by carrying money, with which the A-rabian merchants cntruft them. Thefe merchants had freighted one Englifli veffel from Jidda, with a million of crowns; and that on board which we failed, had 250,000 crowns of theirs in fpeeie.
Thefe fums are almoft always in European coins, Venetian ducats, or German coins. It may be fuppofed that other Englifli and Indian veffels carry alfo confulerable fums from Jidda and Mokha. The fhips which fail from Bafra to India, arc in the fame manner freighted with
It money
money which has paffed from Europe through Turkey. When to this we add the quantity of fpecie carried direclly to India and China by the nations of Europe, it appears that Europe mult have been long lince exhausted of gold and iil-ver, were it not for the treafurcs imported from America.
When a foreign veffel arrives in the road of Mokha, it muft not falute with guns, but only hoift a flag. The Dola then fends out a boat to examine it, and learn the purpofe of its approach. If any difficulties are raifed, the captain needs only fay, that he will proceed to Hodeida or Loheya. The Dola, unwilling to loie the prefents which he receives from every fhip, is foon brought by this means to hear reafon.
It would not be difficult for any other nation to obtain the fame privileges which the Englifh prefently enjoy at Mokha. But the trade on the coafts of the Red Sea can be advantageous to no nation who have not fettlements in India. The Arabians make no ufe of the productions of Europe. It would be neceffary, therefore, to fupply them with India goods, and to take coffee in return, which can be bought cheaper from fhips which take it in merely to avoid returning empty. There is, indeed, axgreat quantity of iron fold in Arabia, which the Englifli purchafe chiefly from the Danes. It is, therefore,
43" NliBUHR*S TRAVELS
lore, probable, that the latter nation might find their interefl in a direct trade with the goods of Denmark, and our colonies between Tranque-har and Mokha.
It will not be athifs to add one flight obferva-tion concerning the brokers of different nations, A ftranger cannot be too much on his guard a-gainft Mahometan brokers. He will find his at -count in addreffing himfelf rather to the Baniam', among whom are many connderable merchants* very hoheft men. Through all the countries in the Eafl, Mahometan merchants have the knavery to feek to irritate the Chriilians, when, after having duped them, they fear their refentment: And then, when any term of reproach is uttered by the flrangers in the heat ci" palfion, the raf-cally Mtiflulmans make a great noife, under pretence that their religion is abufed, and threaten to complain to the magiftrates. Several Europeans have been obliged to pay confiderable fums by thefe arts of knaves who had previoufly cheats ed them, (h h)
Notes
NOTES TO VOL. I.
note a. p. 12.
Phofphoric Light of the Sea.
Tl HE moft careful obfervers have remarked, that this light appears in various afpecls, owing, moft probably, to a diverfity of catlfes. Of thefe appearances, one fort feems to undulate round the fides of veffels failing in the ocean, and never fpreads to any great diftance : Another fpecies is ohferved to arife in the courfe of long calms, or immediately after them, and at the termination of a feries of hot weather ; it fpreads over the furfacc of the deep ; and feems even to be intermingled with the waters: A third diverfity of thefe lights often covers thc ocean to a ftill wider extent, and is fo modified in its filming, as if ic arbfe from thc bodies of different a-nimals.
vol. T. F f f Concerning
Concerning thc firft of thefe fea-lights, it has been fuggefted, that they are moft probably produced by the operation of the laws of electricity. The friction occafioned by the rapid motion of a fhip through the waves, the bituminous lubftan-ces upon the fides of veffels, the nads flicking in the bottom, and the conducting power of water, are circumftances from which the evolution of electrical matter, in this cafe, may be plauftbly inferred.
As to the fecond ; it is well known that many animal bodies putrify and are diflblved in the fea, and that almoft all animal matters, many mineral fubftances, and even the atmofphere itfelf, contain phofphoric acid.   Inflammable matter added to this acid, will produce the fubftance called phofphoric acid.   Large quantities of this fubftance may therefore be formed in the ocean by thc union of the phofphoric acid evolved from various bodies, with the oily and other inflammable  particles dilfufed  in great abundance through thc waters. Hence, probably, this light, which commonly fucceeds calms, and hot weather, and appears not to depend upon any cir-cumftance that can be readily referred to in the laws of electricity.
The third fort has every appearance of being occafioned by living animals. The genera of Sepia and Mcditfc, with fome fliell fifties, arc all
phofphorefcent.
phofphorcfccnt. Some fpecies, too, of the genus Scolopendra or Centipes, which fhine during the darknefs of the night, although land-infects, arc at times conveyed hy the winds into the fea. On the night of October 30th 1772, Dr. Fortter faw a very beautiful exhibition of this fort of fea-light, otf the Cape of Good Hope, at a few miles diftance from the more, and while a frefh gale blew. Upon examining, like Mr Forfkal and Mr Niebuhr, a bucket of the water on which Jt was difplayed, he was convinced that it proceeded from living animalcules. Dr Sparmann obferved, in the years 1772 and 1775, that the Molh/fca and Medufe. both phof-phorefcent animals, were diffufed in fuch maf-fes near the furface of the ocean, and moved with fuch a riling and falling motion, as feemed perfectly adequate to the production of the phcenomenon.
See what is faid oil this fubjecT: by Pere Bourzcs in the Lettres Edi-fiantes ; T^ine ix. Paris, 1730: Mr Canton in the Phil. Trans. Vol. X. P. 446 : Forihr's obfervations in a voyage round thc world. P. Lond. 1778: Sparmann's voyage to the Cape of Oood Hope, Vol, 1. p. 4, Engl. Trans. Lond. 1778.
note B, p. 3. Marfeilles.
Perhaps the reader may not be ill-pleafed to find here fome few particulars concerning this F f f 2 celebrated
celebrated city, extracted chiefly from a very amuiing late publication.
It is the moft ancient city in France. It was founded, by a colony of Aiiatic Greeks. It was long an independent commercial republic. At length, in the progrefs of the Roman conquefts in Gaul, Marfeilles was alfo fubdued by their arms. Under the gentle go vernment of the Romans, however, it ftill continued to flourilh in commerce, arts, and elegant literature, lis opulence and glory peri filed in the common ruin of the Roman Umpire. The advantages of its fituation caufed its trade to revive, even in the ages of Gothic barbarifm. Still, however, itonly languifhed under the government of the Counts of Provence.
Since its union with the other dominions of the King of France, Marfeilles has enjoyed a diftinct municipal government and jurifdiction, under magiftrates elected by the citizens. Thc ihbfuiies which it pays for the fupport of the French government are impofed by the King's edicts, and amount to nearly one-third of the whole revenue paid by Provence. Its inhabitants are eftimated at more than two hundred thoufand ; and the progrefs of population and buddings feems to be rapidly advancing. It Confifts of an Old and a New Town ; the Old inhabited chiefly by fifhermen, and other poor
people,
people, the New, one of the moft beautiful towns in the world, for clear, fpacious and ex-tenfive ftreets, elegant, commodious, and regularly built houfes, is occupied by rich families whofe only bufinefs is to enjoy their fortunes ; and by thrieving merchants, tradefmen, and manufacturers. The port exhibits a noble fpec-tacle of commercial induftry : a promifcuous and bufy multitude, confifting of people of almoft all nations and languages, crowd the quay; and more than two thoufand veifels are often to be feen in the harbour. The neigh_ bouring territorry is thick fet with villas belonging to the opulent inhabitants of Marfeilles; the Marfeillefe trade to almoft all the points of the compafs, and their manufactures are very various and extenfive.
I have extracted thefe particulars almoft entirely from Lord Gardenflone's travelling memorandums : A book which does honour to the author ; being written with fuch happy propriety of reflection and obfervation, together with' fo much love of humanity, and thefe fo plcafingly coloured with a portion of the fpirit of the elegant bon vivant. that, (not to fpeak of the ufcful and folid information which it contains,) I know not any book of travels, over which a few hours may be more agreeably whiled away.
note c. p. 16. Catacombs,
It would be a curious fubjecr. of enquiry, and would tend greatly to elucidate the phylical hif-tory of the earth, and no lefs the hiilory of fo-ciety ; if we could trace the various forts of fub-terraneous excavations, natural and artificial, which have been formed or difcovered in different ages of the world.
If we adopt the opinion of many modern philofophers, which indeed can hardly be controverted, that, at the period which is commonly eftcemed the aera of the creation of the world, our earth was not actually raifed out of nonexistence, but only moulded by the hand of the Almighty into a new form, after having previ-oufly undergone perhaps numberlefs fimilar revolutions ; we are then obliged to take up its phylical hiftory in the middle, and -to view it as a broken fyftem, the imperfect, part of which no efforts of human ingenuity can reftore.
Upon this idea, we muft give up the hope of being able to clafs the various phcenomena which it exhibits. Among other things we muft find it impoffible to account for the natural excavations which are in different places to be difcovered. Many of thefe may be the effects of earthquakes, fubterraneous ravages by water gr fire, and volcanic eruptions.
Some
Some may have been produced by extraordinary accidents which have happened on the earth's ill r face.
Thofe which have been formed by human art, have generally been intended as places of ordinary abode j as temporary receffes from danger ; or as catacombs for the fepulture of the dead. Of the latter fort many ftill remain in Egypt, in Alia, and through many places of the world. And it fhould feem, that, efpecially where allies or embalmed carcafes were to be depofitcd, catar combs, hewn out in proper places under ground, were a much more fuitablc contrivance, than fu-perb tombs, creeled above it, as fo many palaces of corruption, darknefs and iilence.
Another fort of artificial excavations have been formed by the extraction of rich materials for human ufe, from the bowels of the earth. *
note d. p. 28.
This account of the imperfect ftate of the Turkifh navigation is confirmed by Savary, particularly in his letters on Greece ; by De Tott; and by every traveller or voyager who has vifit-ed the Levant, or the Arabic Gulf. Thus are navigation and commerce in the moft languiih-ing condition in thofe regions where they had their origin, and where they firft civilized and enriched mankind.
koi e
note e. p. 31.
I cannot avoid taking this opportunity of recommending to the reader the obfervations of Mr Howard, and the valuable quarto in which Dr Ruifel has lately laid before the public the refult of his long and enlightened experience, on afub-jectof fuch curious and awful importance as the plague. May we not hope that this dreadful epidemical diftemper fhall be, one day, finally extirpated from the earth, or like the fmall-pox, difarmcd of its terrors ?
note e. p. 34.
I have forgotten to what book of travels I fhould refer for the ftory of an Englifh fhip-cap-tain, who, in confequence of a wager, flew a paper-kit? over it, and by this means raifed a ladder of ropes, by which he and his comrades afcended to the top of this celebrated pillar, where they drank a bowl of punch very merrily, to the great aftonifhment of all who faw them.
note f. p. 35.
Whoever, knows any thing of the turbulence an d fa n ta fl i c fu perfl i tion of the C h ri ft ia ns of Egy pt,
while
while it formed a part of the Greek Empire, will not very grievioufly lament, that triumphant Mahometifm has taught them moderation at lealt. if not good fenfefJ of which they were incapable, in profperity.
NOTE G. p. 37.
The reader of Dr Robertfon's enlightened and elegant difquifition concerning the knowledge which the inhabitants of Europe had of India before the difcovery of the Cape of Good Hope, will there find fatisfacr.ory information concerning the intercourfe of the Italians with Egypt, and the introduction of their coins and language into that country.
note h. p. 44,
The charm is not in the Mikkias, but in the population and cultivation of the country. Ravenous animals, whether of the fea, or the land, are foon deterred by the frequent afpect of man. Men, too, in their anxiety to rid themfelves of fuch enemies, gradually thin their numbers and at laft entirely exterminate them,
note 1. p. 56.
For. the hiflory of this race of Caliphs, the Vol. I. G g g reader
reader will do well to confult Marigney, Oclo ley, and the Univerial Hiftory.
note j. p. 57.
It fhould feem, that the difpofition of the inhabitants of cold climates to remain as much within their houfes as poflible, has induced them to rear thofe towering edifices which we fee in the North of Europe : while a contrary principle has made the people of mild, and of warm climates, content themfelves with low huts often.
note k. p. 65.
The curiofities of Geefh are more fully explained by Mr Bruce, and fome other late travellers.
note m. p. 75.
For the hiftory of Alt Bey. I muft refer the reader to the travels of Savary, Volney, Lufig-nan, and Bruce.
no'l e
note n. p. 80.
The hiftory of Ibrahim is to be fcen in Bruce.
note o, p. 8l.
The adventures of Ali Bey, and the confe-quences of his defeat, have been narrated at length by the travellers referred to in note M.
note p. p. 87.
The formation of the Delta has been a fub-jecl of fpeculation with every writer concerning Egypt, from Herodotus to Bruce.—The reader who is curious on this head, will do well to con-fult Herodotus, Maillet, Bruce, and Savary.
note 0^. p. 118.
Such a tcftimony as this, for the veracity of our fair country-woman, Lady Mary muft go farther in her favour, than the afperfions of twenty De Totts againft het.
G g g 2 NOTE
f
note r. p. I37.
These anecdotes of the ftate of eaftern mufic ferve to confirm the received ideas concerning the rudenefs of the Jewifh mufic, and the Simplicity of that of the ancient Greeks.
note s. p. 150.
In India, in the north of Alia, in ancient Tuf-cany, in Alfyria in Ireland, if we will truft Mr Ledwich, and, perhaps, in the South-Sea iflands, have been fuch nations as thofe here alluded to.
note u. p. 164.
Those who are curious to profecute inveftiga-tions refpecting the pyramids, would do well to confult Governor Povvnall's Effay on the Study of Antiquities; a work written in a very involved and perplexed ftyle indeed, yet with great farce of language, with extraordinary powers of penetration and invention, and with a very uncommon difplay of liberal, enlightened erudition.
note v. p. 195.
I shall here refer the reader, for farther information
NOTES, 4.$!
mation concerning thefe places, not only to Shaw and Pococke, but more efpecially to a fmall work intituled, A Journal from Grand Cairo to Mount Sinai and back again, translated from an Italia?i manufcript, by the Right Reverend Robert Lord Bifljop of Clogher: Printed at London, by the learned William Bowyer, in 1753.
note w. p. 198.
This circumftance is particularly worthy of notice, for its relation to the miracle by which a path was opened through the Red Sea, for thc efcape of the Ifraelites,—and the Egyptians drowned in attempting to purfue them. In my eye the miraculous nature of that event is not leffened by the fact here ftated.
note x. p. I99.
We have all ohferved how greatly objc&s are magnified, when feen through mill.
note y, p. 199
Concerning this canal, the reader may fee Herodotus, the late travellers in Egypt, and Robertfon's difquifition.
NOTE
notf z. p. 207.
It occurs to me, as the moft probable conjecture on this head, that this might have been the original burying-place of fome tribe or family, who were afterwards induced to advam-e nearer the fea-coalt, and cultivate the arts, but ftill retained the fame veneration for the fepul-chres of their fathers, which made Jacob and Joleph fo defirous that, their bones might he carried into the land of Canaan. Ic is truely difficult to judge of thc principles of conduct upon which thofe people acred, who could raife fuch piles of buildings as the pyramids for bury. jng places.
note aa. p. 233.
The reader of Mr Pennant's Britifh 7,oo]ogy will find, that fome equally ingenious expedients arc praclifed in England for taking feveral forts ..1 wild fowls.
note be. p. 239.
Farther and later information concerning Jidda and its trade will be found in Bruce's Travels.
vels. Thc reader may alfo confult Hamilton's account of the Eaft Indies,
NOTE cc. p. 286.
Where inns are maintained by charitable ho-fpitality, or at the public expence, or are imperfectly furnilhcd with articles for thc accommodation of travellers; in all thefe inftances, the country muft certainly he indifferently civilized, or thinly inhabited, and travelling not frequent-I know not if any fpeculations could exhibit fo-ciety in a more intcrclting light, than a Hiftory of Hofpitality.
NOTE EE. p. 289.
Not only in Arabia and Iceland, but in Ireland, in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, in the Hebiuke, in moft countries in Europe and in all parts of the world, are Bafaltic columns to be found. All rocks are either ftratified or columnar ; a diitinction which feems to befpeak a diverfity of origin. This mineralogifts have laboured to explain, whether fuccefsfully or not, I fliaU not pre fume to fay.
note ff. p. 315.
How late is it in the progrefs of focial life, before the wrathful paflions of the human heart are entirely fubjected to impartial, difinterefted law !
note ff. 2, p. 422.
I would here fugged to the reader, that, on the fubject. of the Gypfies, he may perufe with advantage and pleafure, a curious hiltorical ef* fay which has been tranllated from the German by Mr Raper.
note gg. p. 434
Some additional ftories of this call, relative to the dealings of European merchants with the Arabians in the ports of the Red Sea, are to be found in Hamilton's account of the Eaft Indies.
note hh. p. 438.
In Mr Brace's travels the reader will find fome valuable information concerning the commercial intercourfe of the Europeans from their oriental fettlements, with the Arabians and Egyptians, by the way of thc Red Sea.
finis.
ERRATA.—VOL. I.
X age 10th, line 8th from the bottom, for «wreadfifteen.
P. 18th, line 4th, from the bottom, for 2600 read 26,000.
P. 21 ft, line 15th, from the top, for Beut read Bent; ami alfo in line 16th.
P. 33d, line 6th, from the top, for Tripolis read Tripoli. Same page, line 6th, from the bottom, for clergyman read Catholic clergyman.
P. 69th, line 12th, from the top, for the inlands read their lands.
P. 76th, line 7th, from the bottom, for tho read the.
P. 114th, line 1 jth, from die top, for paved read faven, and line 15th, for it read them.
P. 152d, line lit, top, for mun read mi/f.
P. 163d, line 10th, from the top, for coffer read coffin.
P. 190th line 8th, from the bottom, for diftance where tur tents, read diftance from where our tents.
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