Proceedings of the International Summer School of Bilingualism and Multilingualism (ISSBM2022) Editors Greta Mazzaggio and Paolo Lorusso University of Nova Gorica Press 2023 Title: Proceedings of the International Summer School of Bilingualism and Multilingualism (ISSBM2022) Edited by: Greta Mazzaggio and Paolo Lorusso Authors: Abdulkadir Abdulrahim, Azzam Alobaid, Federica Longo, Giordano Stocchi, Greta Mazzaggio, Maria Ducoli, Metodi Efremov, Mohamad Tamam, Muhammed Sagir Abdul ahi, Paolo Lorusso, Oana Maria Puiu (Niţă), Paweł Andrejczuk, and Siqing Mu Reviewed Artur Stepanov, Alessandra Zappoli, Federica Longo, by: Greta Mazzaggio, Paolo Lorusso, Penka Stateva, Sara Andreetta Cover design by: Greta Mazzaggio Published University of Nova Gorica Press, Vipavska 13, Rožna by: Dolina, Nova Gorica Publication year: 2023 ISBN 978-961-7025-30-9 (PDF) Published in PDF: http://www.ung.si/sl/zalozba/ http://www.ung.si/en/publisher/ 24 April 2023 Free e-publication. Greta Mazzaggio grateful y acknowledges the financial support of the Slovenian Research Agency within the project J6-2580 Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani COBISS.SI-ID 149883907 ISBN 978-961-7025-30-9 (PDF) This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) International License. Proceedings of the International Summer School of Bilingualism and Multilingualism (ISSBM2022) PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SUMMER SCHOOL OF BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM (ISSBM2022) Greta Mazzaggio (Editor); Paolo Lorusso (Editor); Abdulkadir Abdulrahim; Azzam Alobaid; Federica Longo; Giordano Stocchi; Maria Ducoli; Metodi Efremov; Tamam Mohamad; Muhammed Sagir Abdullahi; Oana Maria Puiu (Niţă); Paweł Andrejczuk; and Siqing Mu Proceedings of the International Summer School of Bilingualism and Multilingualism (ISSBM2022) by Greta Mazzaggio (Editor); Paolo Lorusso (Editor); Abdulkadir Abdulrahim; Azzam Alobaid; Federica Longo; Giordano Stocchi; Maria Ducoli; Metodi Efremov; Tamam Mohamad; Muhammed Sagir Abdullahi; Oana Maria Puiu (Niţă); Paweł Andrejczuk; and Siqing Mu is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Contents Foreword Across vii Ariane Korn Introduction 1 Greta Mazzaggio and Paolo Lorusso Assessing metalinguistic awareness in 5 multilingual classes The ISSBM2022 Case Study Greta Mazzaggio and Paolo Lorusso PART I. PROCEEDINGS 1. Corpus in Focus: A Guide to Use Corpus in 37 EFL/ESL Classroom Abdulkadir Abdulrahim 2. Analysing ESL learners’ complexity 62 development: linguistic corpus insights on L2 chunks acquired in online multimedia learning contexts. Azzam Alobaid 3. A corpus-based analysis of contemporary 93 Russian netspeak: can corpora help us predict the future of a language? Federica Longo 4. Japanese interactional particles: designing 131 contents for teaching. Giordano Stocchi 5. Bilingualism and (developmental) language 161 disorders. An overview. Maria Ducoli 6. Macedonian Heritage Speakers' Strategies of 196 Interpreting Specificity and Genericity Metodi Efremov 7. The gendered aspect of sociolinguistic 229 variation: Insights from the Qaf in Tartus, Syria Tamam Mohamad 8. Code-switching usage in English language 273 class at tertiary institutions in Kano Muhammed Sagir Abdullahi 9. Person deixis in English and Romanian 294 Oana Maria Puiu (Niţă) 10. Telecollaboration: A 21st Century Teaching 329 Approach? Paweł Andrejczuk 11. Translanguaging in Corrective Feedback 354 Provision as a Flexible Approach to Communicative Foreign Language Teaching and Learning: a semi-systematic literature review Siqing Mu Thank you. 389 Foreword Across Ariane Korn Foreword Across 200 million citizens-30% of the Europe's population-live, work, and study in Europe's border regions. Their existence is enriched by linguistic cand cultural diversity, by labour market -and educational opportunities.Thousands of companies benefit from their location in the border regions serving nearby export markets. Citizens and companies also experience cross-border challenges, caused by legal and practical obstacles e.g., difference in social security systems, diploma recognition issues, or lack of direct railway connections. Innovation gain is substantially less in border regions due to these cross-border challenges. Overcoming barriers requires subject-specific knowledge and a deep understanding of the specificities of cross-border regions. 10 universities in 4 cross-border regions have therefore decided to set up an alliance of universities and pool their knowledge and experience to help improve chances for students, staff, and regional stakeholders including the businesses, local authorities, and the European citizen: Across – The European University for Cross-Border Knowledge sharing has been born. EDS: GRETA MAZZAGGIO & PAOLO LORUSSO | VII The International Summer Schools are a matter close to the heart of Across. They represent central concerns of our university alliance: They strengthen the international exchange between teachers and students across the borders of physical space and new formats of knowledge transfer, joint learning and networking can be experienced. Across has been supporting the Seasonal Schools since summer 2021 by awarding scholarships to students from Across partner countries and by providing logistical preparation, implementation and follow-up for the events. This activity is only possible thanks to the support of the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF). As Across, we experiment, learn and grow together with our partners and look forward to future cooperation and constructive exchange.We would like to take this opportunity to thank Dr Greta Mazzagio (University of Nova Gorica) and Dr. Paolo Lorusso (University of Udine) for their excellent cooperation in the realization of the international summer school on bilingualism and multilingualism and the publication of the proceedings. Further thanks go to the Technical University of Chemnitz (Germany) for the logistical support and the generous provision of their resources. Ariane Korn has been coordinating the DAAD project Across since May 2021. Prior to this position, she worked at a research centre for biodiversity research in Leipzig (Germany). She holds a Master’s degree in Spanish literature and intercultural communication, as well as an MBA from the Leipzig Graduate School of Management with a focus on organizational development. VIII | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Introduction Greta Mazzaggio and Paolo Lorusso The European University for Cross-Border Knowledge Sharing (ACROSS), and specifically the University of Nova Gorica (Slovenia) and the University of Udine (Italy), organized the “International Summer School on Bilingualism and Multilingualism” (ISSBM 2022), which took place at the Chemnitz University of Technology (Germany), from the 12th to the 16th of September 2022. The international summer school has been organized for all those students interested in the field of Linguistics with a focus on bilingualism, multilingualism and second language acquisition. This summer school offered an immersive and interdisciplinary learning experience on ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 1 multiple aspects related to multilingualism, facilitated by access to international networks. The summer school has been financed by ACROSS – The European University for Cross-Border Knowledge Sharing and the German Academic Exchange Service / Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD). This is a book of proceedings written by several students who participated to the summer school. Scientific Organizers: Greta Mazzaggio (University of Nova Gorica, Slovenia; University of Florence, Italy) & Paolo Lorusso (University of Udine, Italy) Speakers: Dr. Paolo Lorusso (University of Udine, Italy) Prof. Sanita Martena (Rezekne Academy of Technologies, Latvia) Dr. Greta Mazzaggio (University of Nova Gorica, Slovenia; University of Florence, Italy) Prof. Penka Stateva (University of Nova Gorica, Slovenia) Prof. Artur Stepanov (University of Nova Gorica, Slovenia) Dr. Angelo Variano (University of Udine, Italy) Dr. Alessandra Zappoli (University of Nova Gorica, Slovenia; University of Florence, Italy) Website of the summer school: https://sites.google.com/ view/issbm2022-across/home Website of ACROSS: http://across-university.org/ Organized by: 2 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Sponsored by: ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 3 4 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Assessing metalinguistic awareness in multilingual classes The ISSBM2022 Case Study Greta Mazzaggio and Paolo Lorusso University of Nova Gorica, Slovenia/University of Florence, Italy, greta.mazzaggio@unifi.it University of Udine, Italy, paolo.lorusso@uniud.it This paper explores the potential of multilingual practices in a multilingual classroom to facilitate the learning of linguistic theoretical tools and the development of metalinguistic thought. To teach linguistics to graduate students from diverse backgrounds, it is essential to provide a solid foundation of basic concepts, such as phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, to establish common ground (Caffarel & Martin, 2010). The class thus becomes a laboratory for a positive feedback loop, in which linguistic examples from different languages become social knowledge and identity recognition for each member of the class. Translanguaging, ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 5 a technique for teaching a second language (Benes 2015), is a useful tool for metalinguistic assessment. In the present work, the role of multilingualism is described in how it was developed within the “International Summer School on Bilingualism and Multilingualism” (ISSBM 2022) which we organized in 2022 and that gave as a result the contributions collected in this book. Multilingualism played a crucial role in strengthening students’ ability to refer to metalinguistic concepts and to deal with them in a scientifically valuable way. Keywords: translanguaging, education, second language, language acquisition, bilingualism 1. Introduction: Metalinguistic awareness and where to find it. Metalinguistic awareness refers to the ability to reflect upon and manipulate language as an entity to study and it is an essential concept in the study of linguistics. Precisely, it refers to the ability to reflect on and analyze language as an object of study, separate from its use in communication. In other words, it is the ability to think about language, talk about language, and understand language as a system of rules and structures (Tunmer & Herriman, 1984). In multilingual classrooms, students are often exposed to multiple languages and may be required to use them to varying degrees. Such immersion presents an opportunity for students to develop their metalinguistic awareness, as they must navigate the differences and similarities between languages (for deeper insights see, a.o., Roehr- Brackin, 2018). Despite the similarity in meanings between 6 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS metalinguistic awareness and metalanguage, it is crucial to differentiate between the two. M etalanguage pertains to the language used for describing language, incorporating terms such as phoneme, word, or phrase. Metalinguistic awareness refers to an awareness of the usage of these terms rather than a mere acquaintance with the terms themselves. Consequently, to be metalinguistically aware “is to know how to approach and solve certain types of problems which themselves demand certain cognitive and linguistic skills” (Malakoff, 1992: 518). In this respect, it is fundamental to define and differentiate between four concepts that are relevant as linked with metalinguistic awareness: tacit knowledge, linguistic competence, linguistic intuitions, and explicit formulation (Tunmer & Herriman, 1984). With tacit knowledge, we refer to the kind of knowledge that is not easily expressible in words or shared with others. In the context of metalinguistic awareness, tacit knowledge pertains to a person’s intuitive understanding of language, which may not necessarily be expressed or explained explicitly. Linguistic competence refers to a person’s ability to use language effectively and appropriately in diverse situations. This ability encompasses knowledge of various aspects of language, including grammar, syntax, vocabulary, and more. In other words, linguistic competence relates to a person’s knowledge of the rules and principles of language, which they use naturally and spontaneously. Linguistic intuitions denote a person’s innate sense of what is linguistically appropriate or inappropriate. This intuitive sense allows individuals to differentiate between different grammatical structures and identify ambiguous or ungrammatical sentences. Linguistic intuitions may be used to recognize instances where ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 7 language use violates intuitively known rules. Finally, explicit formulation pertains to the ability to express and articulate language knowledge explicitly. In the context of metalinguistic awareness, explicit formulation relates to a person’s ability to describe and explain the rules and principles of language, which they use intuitively. It also encompasses a person’s ability to analyze their own language use more reflectively and analytically. In summary, while these concepts are all related to metalinguistic awareness, they refer to distinct aspects of language knowledge and use, including intuitive understanding, competency, intuitive sense, and explicit articulation. There are several ways in which students can develop metalinguistic awareness. One example is by comparing and contrasting different languages. For example, students may notice that certain words in one language have no direct translation in another language. Moreover, students can evaluate the patterns of language usage across diverse situations and acquire insight into how language influences and is formed by social relationships and power dynamics by evaluating how language is employed in various settings, such as academic or social scenarios. Another way in which students can develop metalinguistic awareness is by analyzing the structure and grammar of different languages. For instance, students may learn that certain grammatical rules that apply in one language do not apply in another language. This can help students understand the rules and patterns of language and can improve their overall proficiency in each language they are learning. Additionally, the study of linguistic variety, such as regional dialects, sociolects, and registers, can led to the analysis of social and cultural elements that impact 8 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS language usage and develop a deeper understanding for the diversity of human communication by analyzing how language use differs across different social and cultural groups. Ultimately, developing metalinguistic awareness entails not only comparing and contrasting different languages, but also assessing language usage across contexts, investigating it in various kinds of media, such as literature, cinema, and social media. In this way, students may obtain a greater grasp of how language is used to create and shape social reality by exploring how language is utilized to transmit meaning and shape viewpoints in these various mediums. As an ultimate end, metalinguistic awareness can help students become more flexible and adaptable in their language use and this will cascade onto other cognitive and linguistic skills, as demonstrated by several experimental works (a.o., Bialystok, 1988; Bloor, 1986; de Haro et al., 2012; El Euch, & Huot, 2015; MacGregor & Price, 1999; Wenling et al., 2002). Students who are aware of the differences and similarities between languages can more easily switch between them and may be able to use their knowledge of one language to aid in their comprehension and use of another language (a.o., Koda, K., 2005; Talalakina, 2015; Woll, 2018). By fostering metalinguistic awareness, educators can help students develop a greater appreciation for the diverse ways in which humans communicate and can prepare them to be successful and adaptable language users in a globalized world. In the field of linguistics, metalinguistic awareness is critical because it allows researchers and scholars to study language systematically and objectively. It enables them to identify patterns and structures within language, ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 9 understand how language functions in different contexts, and develop theories about how language is acquired and used. This paper is meant to describe some general issues on metalinguistic didactics starting with some key notions of linguistic didactics. To achieve this goal, in section 2 we introduce some basic concepts on the didactics of language through the description of the didactic triangle, and in section 3 we will stress the role of interactivity in linguistic class. In section 4, we will introduce the role of translanguaging in teaching foreign languages in a multilingual environment and how it is meant to be useful also in the teaching of linguistics. Section 5 is then devoted to describing the linguistic classes as a laboratory for the acquisition of advanced metalinguistic skills. In sections 6 and 7 we will describe the characteristic of the “International Summer School on Bilingualism and Multilingualism” held in Chemnitz as a case study and we will propose some concluding remarks on the role of multilingualism in linguistic teaching. 2. The didactic triangle The didactic triangle is a widely used model in language education that depicts the interdependent relationship among the didactics’ three pillars: the teacher, the learner, and the content Figure 1). The success of language education relies on the effective interaction among these three elements (Künzli, 2000). A communication interaction exists between the teacher and the student. The teacher-subject relationship includes the teacher’s method of delivering the topic. The subject-student connection involves how and in what manner the student assimilates the knowledge, or which teaching approaches are given or 10 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS suit the scenario (Augustsson & Boström, 2016: 3-4). It is quite clear how the teacher plays a crucial role in creating a conducive learning environment, facilitating learning, and guiding learners toward their language goals. Thus, the teacher needs to possess a strong comprehension of the language, the learners’ needs, and the most suitable teaching methods and materials to employ in the classroom. Figure 1. The didactic triangle, Smith 2012 Let us examine the three pillars of the didactic triangle in greater detail. The role of the teacher in the didactic triangle is critical. The teacher must possess a comprehensive understanding of the language and the cultural context in which it is used. Additionally, the teacher should be well-informed about the learners’ needs and abilities and should be knowledgeable about the ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 11 appropriate teaching methods and materials to use. The teacher must strive to create a supportive and stimulating learning environment that encourages the learners to be autonomous and engaged. In language teaching, the learners are the primary focus, and their needs and abilities should be taken into account when planning and delivering instruction. The learners must be actively involved in the learning process and motivated to take responsibility for their own learning. The teacher should provide ample opportunities for learners to practice using the language in authentic situations and provide constructive feedback and support as needed. The content of language teaching is the language itself and the cultural context in which it is used. The content must be relevant, meaningful, and engaging to the learners. The teacher should present the content in a way that is accessible and interesting, utilizing various teaching materials and techniques to enhance learners’ understanding and acquisition of the language (Augustsson & Boström, 2012; 2016; Richards & Rodgers, 2014). The didactic triangle emphasizes the importance of a dynamic and interactive learning environment (see section 3). It encourages teachers to focus on learners’ needs and abilities and to design instruction that is relevant, meaningful, and interesting. It also highlights the importance of the cultural context in which the language is used and encourages teachers to incorporate cultural elements into their teaching. Overall, the didactic triangle is an essential model for language teachers, and it provides a useful framework for designing effective language instruction. By focusing on the interaction among the teacher, the learners, and the content, teachers can create a supportive and stimulating learning environment that 12 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS promotes language acquisition and fosters learner autonomy and engagement. The next section is devoted to describing the role of interactivity in teaching linguistics. 3. Interactivity Interactivity is an essential aspect of teaching language and linguistics because it allows students to engage with the subject matter in a more meaningful way (Gass, 2017; Long, 1996; McDonough, 2004; Richard-Amato, 1988). Interactive teaching methods can help students better understand complex linguistic concepts, develop critical thinking skills, and apply what they learn in real-world situations (a.o., Omar et al., 2020; Pradono et al., 2013). The major ways to incorporate interactivity are the following: • One way to incorporate interactivity in teaching linguistics is through classroom discussions. By encouraging students to share their thoughts and ideas, also in their first language (Tran, 2018; Turnbull, 2015), teachers can create a collaborative learning environment that fosters critical thinking and problem-solving. Classroom discussions can also help students develop communication skills and learn to express their ideas clearly and effectively. • Another way to incorporate interactivity in teaching linguistics is through group activities and projects (Dobao, 2012; McDonough, 2004). By working together in teams, students can develop teamwork and collaboration skills while also applying what they have learned in a practical context. For example, students might conduct research on a particular language or dialect, create language-learning ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 13 resources for the classroom, or analyze a corpus of written or spoken language. • Interactive technology tools can also be useful in teaching linguistics (González-Lloret, 2019). For example, language learning software and apps can help students practice and reinforce their language skills in a fun and engaging way. Other technology tools, such as online language resources and interactive whiteboards, can help teachers present linguistic concepts in a dynamic and interactive way. Recently, also gamification has been considered to be one of the most enjoyable and effective methods (Dehghanzadeh et al., 2021). • Finally, role-playing activities – also in their digital version – can be an effective way to teach language pragmatics and sociolinguistics (Cornillie et al., 2012; Livingstone, 1983). By simulating real-world communication scenarios, students can develop their understanding of how language is used in social contexts and learn to communicate effectively in different situations. The interactivity model of language learning can have significant benefits for students, as it provides opportunities for students to engage with the material in a more active and participatory way. By engaging with the material through interactive activities, students can develop a deeper understanding of the language and its structure, which can improve their overall proficiency. When language learning is based on interactive activities, it can offer several cognitive benefits. For one, interactive activities can increase engagement and 14 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS motivation in language learners (Omar et al., 2020); this is because interactive activities allow learners to use their language skills in relevant and meaningful contexts, which can make learning more interesting and engaging. Interactive activities can also enhance memory retention (Lai et al., 2021; Li et al., 2022), as learners are required to actively engage with the material and apply their knowledge in new contexts. By using their language skills in practical ways, learners are more likely to remember the material they have learned. Another benefit of interactive language learning is the potential for improved critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Liang & Fung, 2021). Indeed, interactive activities often require learners to analyze and synthesize information to complete tasks and solve problems. Finally, interactive language learning can also enhance language processing and production abilities (Omar et al., 2020). This is because interactive activities require learners to process and understand language in real-time interactions. Through practice and exposure, learners can improve their ability to understand and become more confident in their use of the language. Overall, the interactivity model of language learning can have significant cognitive benefits for students and can help to improve their overall proficiency and confidence in the language. In conclusion, interactivity is an essential aspect of teaching linguistics. By incorporating interactive teaching methods, teachers can create a more engaging and effective learning experience for their students, help them better understand complex linguistic concepts, develop critical thinking skills, and apply what they learn in real-world situations. A part of interactivity, another aspect seems to have become crucial in language teaching which we think to be crucial also for the learning of linguistics: ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 15 translanguaging. The next section is devoted to describing the main implication of translanguaging in language and linguistic teaching. 4. Introducing multilingualism: Translanguaging Translanguaging is a term used in sociolinguistics and language education to describe the phenomenon of multilingual individuals using their full linguistic repertoire to communicate and make meaning (García & Lin, 2017). Rather than seeing languages as separate and distinct entities, translanguaging emphasizes the fluidity and interconnectedness of languages and encourages individuals to draw on their entire linguistic repertoire, regardless of the language or context (Blackledge & Creese, 2010; Cenoz & Gorter, 2015, 2020; García & Li Wei, 2014). The term ‘translanguaging’ was originally coined in Wales (Backer, 2001; Beres, 2015) to describe a kind of bilingual education in which students receive information in one language, for example, English, and produce an output of their learning in their second language, for example, Welsh. Since then, scholars across the globe have developed this concept and it is now argued it is the best way to educate bilingual children in the 21st century. Fisher et al. (2018) describe the role of translanguaging in bilingual classes. In the 20th century, bilingual classrooms typically had strict language arrangements, dictating when and who should speak which language to whom. This practice was based on diglossic arrangements and models of bilingualism, which viewed languages as separate and distinct entities. However, in the 21st century, a heteroglossic conceptualization of bilingualism has become necessary, one that acknowledges the complex 16 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS discursive practices of multilingual students, now more numerous, including their translanguaging abilities. Translanguaging refers to the process of using multiple languages in the service of meaning-making, recognizing that languages are not separate and distinct, but rather interconnected and fluid. In a plurilingual classroom, students draw on their linguistic resources to construct meaning and negotiate communication and translanguaging allows students to use their entire linguistic repertoire to communicate and learn, rather than being restricted to one language or the other. Importantly, this is not only something that bilingual people do when they feel like they don’t have the words or phrases they need to communicate in a monolingual setting. The trans- prefix conveys how multilingual individuals’ language practices “go beyond” the usage of officially recognized designated language systems (García & Li Wei, 2014: 42; Vogel & García, 2017). Translanguaging in education represents a shift away from the traditional model of bilingual education, which separates languages and restricts their use. Instead, it recognizes that students’ linguistic repertoires are complex and dynamic and that effective communication and learning require the use of all available resources. Translanguaging can be a powerful tool for promoting language learning in linguistics classes, especially for students from diverse linguistic backgrounds (Vogel & García, 2017). To achieve this, teachers should embrace and leverage their students’ multilingualism, encouraging them to use their full linguistic repertoire to engage with course material. This can involve using translanguaging strategies such as code-switching, translation, and interlingual mediation to model multilingual ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 17 communication. Teachers can also enrich the linguistic examples used in class by drawing from a range of languages, helping students to see how linguistic concepts manifest in different linguistic contexts and encouraging them to draw on their own linguistic knowledge. Finally, creating a collaborative learning environment that emphasizes the importance of peer learning can foster inclusivity and engagement for all students. The practice of translanguaging has been recognized both in classrooms that cater to immigrant and refugee students and in traditional language classrooms that offer instruction to students seeking to learn additional languages (Vogel & García, 2017). The case of the International High School s (IHS), a network of public schools in the United States for newcomer immigrants, illustrates how translanguaging can be used to support dynamic plurilingual practices in instruction. The IHS network was founded in 1985 by the Internationals Network for Public Schools, a non-profit organization based in New York City. Students at IHS come from a variety of linguistic and cultural backgrounds and may speak different languages, including Spanish, Arabic, Mandarin, and many others. The schools are built on seven principles that promote: heterogeneity, collaboration, learner-centeredness, language and content integration, language use from students up, experiential learning, and local autonomy and responsibility. By using these principles, the schools create a learning environment that values and supports students’ plurilingual abilities (García & Sylvan, 2011). Rather than restricting students to a single language, teachers and students collaborate to use all available linguistic resources to construct meaning and communicate effectively. “The IHS “mantra” is that “every teacher is a teacher 18 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS of language and content.” Language means both the additional language they are acquiring (English, as all students are emergent bilinguals who are learning English), as well as their home language (which students use to support the learning of both academic content as well as English)” (García & Sylvan, 2011: 396). For example, teachers may use students’ native languages to supplement their learning of English and academic subjects, using multilingual resources (e.g., bilingual dictionaries) or having students work collaboratively in mixed-language groups (see García & Sylvan, 2011 for more detailed examples). Moreover, students’ linguistic backgrounds are recognized as an important part of their identity and are used to investigate academic subjects from various angles. In a social studies class, for example, a teacher might encourage students to share their knowledge and perspectives on a historical event in their home countries, resulting in a more rich and diverse understanding of the topic. As a result, students become more knowledgeable and academically successful, as well as more confident users of academic English and more proficient in translanguaging. In conclusion, the strict language arrangements commonly used in bilingual classrooms are no longer adequate for the complex and dynamic multilingual classrooms of the 21st century. Translanguaging offers a more inclusive and effective approach, one that values and supports students’ plurilingual abilities. By using translanguaging practices in instruction, educators can help students become more knowledgeable and academically successful, as well as more confident and proficient in using multiple languages in the service of meaning-making. As for metalinguistic meaning, ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 19 translanguaging seems the perfect tool to be introduced in a multilingual linguistic class. The next section is devoted to focusing on the role of the multilingual class as a laboratory of linguistic acquisition. 5. The multilingual class as a ‘laboratory’. Overall, the laboratory of the class can be a valuable tool in teaching linguistics. A laboratory can be used to reinforce theoretical concepts and provide students with a hands-on experience that deepens their understanding of linguistics. Students can engage in various activities that facilitate their learning of language. For example, students can analyze language samples, conduct and see the results of experiments, and especially engage in problem-solving activities. These activities can help students better understand the principles of language and develop practical skills for analyzing and using language. One benefit of using a linguistic class as a laboratory is that it can provide a more interactive and engaging learning experience. Rather than just reading about linguistic concepts, students can actively participate in activities that help them see how these concepts work in practice. This can make learning more fun and help students retain the information better. Another benefit of using a linguistic laboratory is that it can provide a space for students to practice and refine their language skills together with the metalinguistic skills required to analyze it. For example, students can practice speaking, writing, and listening in the target second language they are learning. Nonetheless, their practice in a second language will also be the source of their metalinguistic reasoning. 20 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS The multilingual background of the student has a central role in this laboratory. A multilingual class can indeed serve as a laboratory of skill and linguistic competence. When students from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds come together in a classroom, they have the opportunity to learn from each other and develop their language skills in a collaborative and supportive environment. The social effectiveness of the multilingual laboratory relies on English (or any other language chosen as lingua franca) as the ‘metalinguistic language,’ and on the other languages which are either the object of the study or the identity competence of each student. A positive loop is created: 1) students will be given a social/scientific role within the class as speaker/data owner; 2) have an effect of a ‘virtuous circle’ since the examples of any language become both the shared knowledge and a field for the application of the theoretical part. The main phases of the virtuous loop are: 1) Exposure to different language data: students in a multilingual class have the opportunity to be exposed to different languages and cultures. They can learn new vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation from their peers, which can help them develop their language skills and improve their metalinguistic abilities. 2) Practice speaking: a multilingual class can provide a safe and supportive environment for students to practice speaking in a new language (although for metalinguistic purposes). They can practice their pronunciation, intonation, and grammar with their classmates, which can help them build confidence and improve their speaking skills ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 21 3) Peer teaching: students in a multilingual class can also learn from each other through peer teaching. When a student teaches their classmates a new word or phrase in their native language, they not only help their peers learn, but they also reinforce their own knowledge and understanding of the language. 4) Increased cultural awareness: a multilingual class can help students develop an appreciation and understanding of different cultures. They can learn about different traditions, beliefs, and customs from their classmates, which can broaden their horizons and help them become more culturally competent. To conclude, to improve linguistic and metalinguistic skills multilingualism and translanguaging strengthen the role of class as a social and scientific laboratory. In the next section, we describe the successful experience of the ISSBM 2022 in which we gave a central role to multilingualism and translanguaging. 6. The “International Summer School on Bilingualism and Multilingualism” (ISSBM 2022) as a case study The International Summer School on Bilingualism and Multilingualism (ISSBM) 2022 is a summer school that took place in Chemnitz, Germany, from September 12th to 16th, 2022.[1] The summer school was made possible through a grant that the authors of this paper received after applying for a call promoted by The European Cross-Border University (ACROSS) and the German Academic Exchange Service / Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst 22 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS (DAAD). ACROSS is a consortium of ten universities from nine countries that represent the diversity of Europe. The universities that are part of ACROSS are located in four cross-border regions, including the two European Capitals of Culture 2025 (i.e., Chemnitz and Gorizia/Nova Gorica). This distinctive combination of expertise has enabled them to devise effective solutions to address the difficulties that arise in cross-border situations, thereby generating a powerful synergy that benefits higher education, the business community, and society as a whole. Two universities from this consortium, the University of Nova Gorica, Slovenia, and the University of Udine, Italy, through two of their members (i.e., the authors of this contribution), participated in the call and obtained funding for the organization of this summer school. During the summer school, a member of a third university in the consortium (Rezekne Academy of Technologies, Latvia) also participated as a lecturer. 6.1 Some data ISSBM 2022 received a significant number of applications. Thanks to the financing, 15 students were awarded scholarships, providing them with the opportunity to attend the school, visit Chemnitz, and meet colleagues and professors from different backgrounds. The school had a total of 36 students from 23 countries (Germany, Italy, India, UK, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Alger, Bulgaria, Croatia, Turkey, USA, Tunisia, China, Finland, Iran, Poland, Brazil, Nepal, Switzerland, Slovenia, Spain, Ukraine and Romania), of which 16 attended in-person, and 7 instructors. All students actively participated in the school, asking questions and interacting with professors inside and outside of classes. The program included classes on various linguistic subfields, such as semantics, ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 23 pragmatics, syntax, sociolinguistics, and prosody. The in- person students also had the opportunity to attend a guided tour of Chemnitz on the first day of the school to get to know each other. Online students were also offered an interactive guided tour in the form of an online game with final prizes. During a research session, some students presented their research and received useful feedback from their colleagues. At the end of the school, students asked for their classmates’ names and contacts so that they could stay in touch and collaborate. The organizers agreed to create a folder in which they could exchange materials and communications. At the end of the experience, we asked students for feedback. In-person students expressed their positive evaluation of the school, highlighting the opportunity to meet experts in their respective fields and to engage in productive discussions with colleagues who share the same interests. They also appreciated the sense of community that was fostered. Online students also enjoyed the school, commenting on the high quality of the seminars and the opportunity to connect with other researchers from around the world. They also appreciated the inclusive approach of the organizers towards online participants. 6.2 The present volume Following the summer school experience, students had the opportunity to collaborate with a paper to an Open Access book of proceedings, edited by the organizers of the event. The present paper is an introduction to the book. The book contains a preface from Ariane Korn, the DAAD project coordinator, and eleven chapters written by students. The chapters covered a variety of topics linked to sociolinguistics, bilingualism, multilingualism and 24 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS languages in contact. Let’s have a brief panoramic of what has been produced by students: 1. Muhammed Sagir Abdullahi, from Nigeria, writes about code-switching in English language classes in tertiary institutions in Kano. Ethnography and Discourse Analysis are used as the methodology and theoretical framework, respectively. The findings show that teachers’ code-switching serves instructional and social functions, and the types of code-switching used were inter-sentential, intra- sentential, and tag-switching at different linguistic levels. 2. Abdukkadir Abdulrahim, from Turkey, discusses the significance of corpus linguistics and corpus-based studies in foreign language teaching and learning. The lack of empirical studies exploring the actual impact of corpus methods on learning outcomes is highlighted, despite a significant number of publications on the topic. The study emphasizes the importance of adopting corpora in EFL (English as a Foreign Language) classrooms to enhance language learning environments and provide opportunities for teachers and students to become acquainted with the foreign language. 3. Paweł Andrejczuk, from Spain, explores telecollaboration (TC) as a language learning approach that has gained interest due to recent global events, such as emergency remote teaching. The study adopts a meta-analytical approach to provide a synthesis of 38 journal articles published between 2016 and 2021, related to English as a ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 25 lingua franca (ELF) TC projects. The results cover language, culture, and 21st-century skills, and determine whether TC can be an efficient FL learning approach that satisfies the 21st-century demands, contributing to the ongoing debate on the future of FL and L2 language education. 4. Federica Longo, from Nova Gorica, analyzes the features of contemporary Russian netspeak through linguistic corpora, using both paper and online dictionaries, traditional and Web corpora. It also investigates the diachronic evolution of Russian netspeak from 2011 to 2021, focusing on transliteration processes and derivational and inflectional morphemes. It shows the complexity of a new and constantly evolving language, with foreign loanwords struggling to adapt and integrate. 5. Tamam Mohamad, from Syria, focuses on the salient qaf variable, which is realized as [q] and [ʔ], in Tartus city, Syria, and examines the distribution and gendered evaluations of these variants. Results show gender is significant in the urban region, but not in the rural regions. Social actors and spaces play a role in the acquisition of sociolinguistic variation. 6. Giordano Stocchi, from Italy, explains how it is difficult for foreigners to acquire certain linguistic structures of Japanese language, such as the particles , ne, yo, and yone; broadly known as sentence-final particles. To improve JFL (Japanese as Foreign Language) learners’ Interactional 26 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Competence, he creates a project to develop class teaching materials using a corpus of spontaneous talk and translanguaging activities on sentence- final particles. 7. Siqing Mu, from China, aims to elucidate the role of translanguaging in feedback across various educational contexts and highlight the importance of combining translingual practices and corrective feedback in target language skills and learning autonomy. The author reviews 22 peer-reviewed studies published between 2017 and 2022. 8. Maria Ducoli, from Italy, provides an overview of the state of the art to support language policies that encourage bilingualism and multilingualism, focusing also on language disorders and clinical population. 9. Metodi Efremov, from Nova Gorica, proposes a design to test the effect of cross-linguistic influence on heritage Macedonian speakers’ metalinguistic ability to judge the grammaticality of generic plural nouns in their heritage language. He predicts that French-Macedonian speakers will judge generic bare plural NPs as grammatical, while English- Macedonian speakers will find definite ones as ungrammatical. If structural overlap decides the direction of transfer, French-Macedonian speakers will judge generic bare plural NPs as ungrammatical and English-Macedonian speakers will find the opposite effect. 10. Oana Puiu, from Romania, explores the translation ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 27 of person deixis from English to Romanian in the context of the World Health Organization’s discourse on the Coronavirus pandemic. It uses discourse analysis and documentary analysis to investigate the heavy use of pronominals “I”, “we” and “you” and their functions and grammatical encoding. 11. Azzam Alobaid, from India, investigates the claim that the greater number and range of L2 chunks that learners can accumulate over time can potentially contribute to the development of their L2 complexity. The three objectives are to build a linguistic corpus of previously collected data from Arabic-speaking ESL learners who were exposed to one ICT (Information and Communications Technology) multimedia learning tool (e.g., YouTube), and to examine their L2 development of lexical and grammatical complexity. The methodology for data analysis involves computer- based empirical analyses of language use. 7. Concluding remarks This paper explores the potential of multilingual practices in a multilingual classroom to facilitate the learning of linguistic theoretical tools and the development of metalinguistic thought. We propose that it is essential to provide a solid foundation of basic concepts, such as phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, to establish a common ground. Indeed, using concrete linguistic examples from everyday language to illustrate abstract theoretical concepts strengthens 28 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS students’ metalinguistic awareness and reinforces their acquisition of linguistics. Translanguaging, a technique for teaching a second language, is a useful tool for metalinguistic assessment. The concept of translanguaging is revolutionizing the study of language and society, and analyses of multilingualism are shifting from a focus on named languages to a focus on the actual linguistic practices of individuals, which is also known as “multilingualism from below” (Pennycook & Otsuji, 2015; Vogel & García, 2017). Language practices need to be studied in relation to socio- historical, political, and economic conditions that produce them, and challenging standard language ideologies. While translanguaging is becoming common in everyday communication, schools and other institutions still prioritize academic language, which can limit opportunities for bilingual students; however, translanguaging is obtaining benefits from multimodalities and human-technology interaction (Vogel & García, 2017). The role of multilingualism and the application of translanguaging are described in how they were developed within the “International Summer School on Bilingualism and Multilingualism” (ISSBM 2022), a linguistic summer school with students from 23 different countries. Multilingualism played a crucial role in strengthening students’ ability to refer to metalinguistic concepts and to deal with them in a scientifically valuable way. In this article, we have discussed how linguistics as a discipline can serve as a useful laboratory for translanguaging practices, particularly in academic contexts. Science and academia are inherently multilingual, and linguistics is the discipline that can and ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 29 should most readily embrace this union of languages and cultures. We have analyzed ISSBM 2022 in which hybrid mode has been implemented, demonstrating also how technologies, further developed following the COVID-19 pandemic, can help us bridge potentially distant languages and cultures. Indeed, the pandemic has forced many educational institutions and workplaces to adopt remote communication technologies, which has led to new opportunities for translanguaging practices. With participants and collaborators joining from different locations around the world, online meetings can naturally involve multiple languages and language varieties, and this can be a productive space for translanguaging. Participants can use different languages to express themselves, understand others, and negotiate meaning, which can lead to greater collaboration and understanding. Furthermore, online communication tools have features that can help facilitate translanguaging practices. For example, the chat function can be used for written communication in different languages, and participants can use the translation feature to understand messages in their own language. Additionally, breakout rooms can be used to allow smaller groups to work on tasks or discussions in different languages, which can be beneficial for language learners or for those who feel more comfortable speaking in a certain language. This publication represents a culmination of the activities described in the preceding chapters. During the summer school, students were provided with a platform to showcase their research, which in turn was evaluated by both their peers and instructors. Of particular note is the innovative research session which allowed all participants, whether anonymously or not, to provide constructive 30 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS criticism and feedback on aspects such as the style, clarity, and basic premises of each presentation. This open forum also provided an opportunity for individuals not presenting their own research to engage actively in the session. Following the feedback received during the aforementioned research session, students were given the opportunity to contribute to this book by composing a chapter on their studies. These submissions were then subject to further review by experts, who offered additional insights and guidance for improvement. To conclude, it is our pleasure to extend our warmest wishes to the readers of this product. We sincerely hope that you will enjoy this book of proceedings, which is the result of a unique and valuable experience in the context of a multilingual summer school. As you delve into the various chapters, we hope that you will find a wealth of insights and ideas that will inspire your own research and broaden your understanding of the topics covered. This book represents the culmination of the hard work and dedication of the organizers, presenters, and participants of the summer school, and we are honored to be able to share it with you. References Augustsson, G., & Boström, L. (2012). A theoretical framework about leadership perspectives and leadership styles in the didactic room. International Journal of Human Resource Studies, 2(4), 166-186. Augustsson, G., & Boström, L. (2016). Teachers’ leadership in the didactic room: A systematic literature review of international research. Acta Didactica Norge- tidsskrift for Fagdidaktisk Forsknings-og Utviklingsarbeid i Norge, 10(3). ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 31 Baker, C. (2001). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Bristol, U.K.: Multilingual Matters. Beres, A. M. (2015). 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As the definition suggests, a corpus refers to a collection of written materials or specific sections of written and spoken materials that can be used to carry out a broader linguistic analysis (Sinclair, 1991). According to Meunier “The last factor accounting for the lukewarm of corpora in the classroom is the lack of empirical studies exploring the actual impact of corpus methods on the learning outcomes” (Meunier, 2011: 463). The number of publications on corpus linguistics is rather significant, however, “despite the progress that has been made in the field of corpus linguistics and language ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 37 teaching, the practice of ELT has so far been largely unaffected by the advances of corpus research” (Römer, 2006: 121). Thus, adopting corpus in EFL classrooms will provide a chance for both teachers and students to become acquainted with the foreign language, and will aid in introducing this foreign language into the classroom, to enhance a more effective language learning environment, especially in those countries where English is not the national or official language.The use of linguistic corpora in foreign language classes and their impact on changing the perspectives of language teachers and learners are the main topics of this study. Keywords: Corpus (corpora), Language Classroom, EFL Learners, Language Teaching and Learning 1. Introduction A corpus refers to a set of language samples that are carefully chosen and arranged based on specific linguistic standards to serve as a representation of a language. A computer corpus, on the other hand, is a standardized collection of language pieces that are encoded in a consistent manner to allow for easy access and retrieval. Additionally, the sources and background of each language component are well-documented (Sinclair 1996). According to Granger (2002), corpus linguistics is a linguistic methodology, which employs electronic collections of naturally occurring texts. Despite the fact that corpus linguistics is not a new branch of linguistics, its authenticity makes it a particularly effective methodology 38 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS that provides innovative perspectives in language study. (Granger, 2002). Similarly, Leech (1991) defines corpus linguistics more like a methodology rather than a stand-alone scientific domain. According to him, the development of corpus linguistics has led to the emergence of sophisticated IT tools for searching and annotating electronic textual data, such as taggers, parsers and concordancers. (Leech, 1992). He also claims that “it is from these tools, as much as from the availability of abundant text data, that Corpus Linguistics has derived its special character and its unprecedented power to reveal the characteristics of real language use” (Leech, 1992, p. 158). For this reason, Corpus Linguistics could be considered a methodologically oriented branch of linguistics. Within the same line of reasoning, Leech (1992), McEnery & Wilson (1996), McEnery et al. (2006) refer to it as a methodology, whereas Hoey (1997: 6) talks about “the route into linguistics”. Biber et al. (1998) defined it as “an approach”, and Scott & Thompson (2001: 36) describe corpus linguistics as “a means for accessing resources”. 2. Learner corpora Nesselhauf (2004b: 40) defines learner corpora as “systematic computerized collections of texts produced by language learners”. Learner corpus research is a relatively recent, yet highly dynamic, branch of corpus linguistics, that emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Learner corpora, which can be roughly defined as electronic collections of texts produced by language learners, have been used to fulfill two distinct, though ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 39 related, functions: firstly, they can contribute to Second Language Acquisition theory by providing a better description of interlanguage communication ( e.g. transitional language produced by second or foreign language learners) and a better understanding of the factors that influence it. Secondly, they can be used to develop pedagogical tools and methods that better cater to the needs of language learners (Granger, 2008). According to Ludeling and Kytö (2008) corpus databases not only provide opportunities for linguistics research, but they are also useful sources for language teaching and learning research. Bernardini (2004) indicates that recent technological advancements, such as high-capacity hard drives, fast processors in computing technology, and the possibility to create, download, buy, and/or access online texts have resulted in corpora being widely available in a more convenient and feasible way. According to him “corpus has become less of a buzzword and more of a necessary, acknowledged reference source for students, linguists, language professionals (teachers, translators, technical writers, lexicographers, etc.)” (Bernardini, 2004: 21). Sinclair describes learner corpora as “electronic collections of authentic FL/SL textual data assembled according to explicit design criteria for a particular SLA/ FLT purpose. They are encoded in a standardized and homogeneous way and documented as to their origin and provenance” (Sinclair, 1991: 2). 3. Corpus and ELT When we discuss the use of corpora in language teaching 40 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS and learning, we refer to both corpus tools, i.e. the current collections of texts and software packages, and corpus methodologies, i.e. the analytical approaches employed in the corpus analysis process. A relevant distinction may be established in the context of language teaching and learning between direct and indirect uses of learner corpus linguistics (Römer, 2008; Leech 1997). As Barlow notes, “the results of a corpus-based investigation can serve as a firm basis for both linguistic description and, on the applied side, as input for language learning” (1996: 32). As stated in Römer “Large general corpora have proven to be an invaluable resource in the design of language teaching syllabi which emphasize communicative competence (cf. Hymes 1972, 1992) and which give prominence to those items that learners are most likely to encounter in real-life communicative situations” (2008: 114). The contents of this new, corpus-driven “lexical syllabus” are “the commonest words and phrases in English and their meanings” (Willis, 1990:124). Another significant advantage for language teachers who employ corpora is the immediate accessibility of authoritative information about the language. According to a recent survey on teachers’ needs (Römer, forthcoming), teachers often seek native speakers’ advice on specific language issues. Computer corpora have been described as “tireless native-speaker informant[s], with rather greater potential knowledge of the language than the average native speaker” (Barnbrook, 1996: 140), as a result, they may be a useful tool to extract linguistic and language information. Learner corpora analysis aids in our understanding of the process of second language acquisition and ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 41 development. As suggested by O’Keeffe et al. (2007) this might transform the “long-held” notions of education and pedagogy, by bridging the gap between the cognitive science of language and other fields, such as sociolinguistics and translation. According to Aston (2000), student corpora studies have aided syllabus design by providing insights into “the demands of distinct student groups” (Meunier, 2002:125). The application of corpus studies to material development in teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) has revealed the insufficiency of traditional prescriptive grammar. Instead, corpus-based descriptive grammar approaches, such as the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (Biber et al., 1999), have been used to provide a corpus-informed perspective and information on frequencies. However, it should be noted that although corpus-based grammars have some potential for language skill development, they do not offer the same opportunities as corpora in terms of “identify – classify – generalize” learning based on language experience. This limitation can be overcome by implementing corpus-based teaching approaches, such as the emerging Data-driven Teaching techniques, which have great potential for enhancing learning outcomes, especially in non- institutional settings where autonomous learning is necessary. 4. Corpus-based Versus Corpus-driven studies It is not always straightforward to distinguish between corpus-based and corpus-driven studies. McEnery and Hardy (2012) proposed a subdivision in this regard: corpus- 42 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS based studies typically use corpus data in order to investigate a theory or a hypothesis, in order to validate, refute or refine it. Contrarily, the corpus-driven approach does not consider corpus linguistics as a method, claiming instead that the corpus itself should be the sole source of language-related hypotheses. Simply put, those who adopt the ‘corpus-based approach’ (McEnery et al., 2006) use corpus linguistics to test existing theories or frameworks based on the corpus evidence. Corpus linguistics serves as a remedy to language misuse (in terms of error analysis) and it provides the representation of authentic language usage; thus, corpus- based studies are studying that shade light as evidence of the language’s existence and how the language is being used by the members of the community or is being used by a language learner. Moreover, Corpus-based studies give some overviews of language progress, the future of a language, linguistic information about the languages, and the feature of the language used in the past such as diachronic and synchronic studies. As Widdowson observes that there has been a flourishing of “dictionaries and grammatical descriptions which are corpus-based, and which chart the patterns of the contemporary usage of English” (Widdowson, 2008: 357). Unlike corpus-based studies, the corpus-driven approach to language teaching studies uses corpus data as a tool and resource to shape the way, technique, or methods of language teaching. Johns (1991a, 1991b) notably used the corpus-driven approach to develop an effective language learning methodology: data-driven learning (DDL). In DDL, the language learner is also a linguistic researcher who uses corpora to explore and make sense of language usage patterns in order to better learn the language. To ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 43 sum up, while the corpus-based approach separates theory from data, and standardizes data to fit the theory, the corpus-driven approach uses corpora as a tool to formulate linguistic theories. 5. Error Analysis in ELT Error analysis (EA) has had a significant impact on research in Second Language Acquisition (SLA), with Corder’s model of error analysis (1967) gaining popularity over traditional Contrastive Analysis. Corder emphasizes the usefulness of error analysis, stating that errors are indicative of an L2 learner’s language performance, and identifying these errors can aid in developing effective learning strategies and techniques for students. Corder classifies errors into four categories. However, current EA practices differ from those of the 1970s. Today’s EA focuses on contextualized errors, considering the context of use and linguistic context (co-text). Linguistic items with errors can be presented along with correct examples in sentences, paragraphs, or entire texts. Interlanguage errors are a crucial part of EFL learning processes and differ from mistakes, as they are systematic and provide clues about learners’ learning strategies and processes. Detecting errors requires an arduous process of deciding whether the semantic content and linguistic form of learners’ communicative performances deviate from the norms. Learner corpora offer a more dependable option to examine naturally occurring learner errors, assisting researchers in pinpointing error typologies of learners from different native language backgrounds. A specialized corpus can be utilized to advise language teaching, 44 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS focusing on specific points, genres, and sub-genres. The two methodological approaches, Computer-aided Error Analysis, and Contrastive Interlanguage Analysis are generally involved in the linguistic exploitation of learner corpora. Computer-aided error analysis generates comprehensive lists of specific error types, counts and sorts them in various ways, and views them in context. Contrastive Interlanguage Analysis (CIA) is a contrastive method of analyzing quantitative and qualitative data between native and non-native varieties or between different non-native varieties. 6. Contrastive Interlanguage Analysis (CIA) Contrastive Interlanguage Analysis (CIA) compares language learner and native speakers’ data regarding the target language, or the learner’s L1. The first type of comparison attempts to evaluate the level of under- or overuse of linguistic features in language learners. The second type tries to reveal the L1 linguistic transfer or interference. According to Lorenz (1999), the NS/NNS comparisons aim to shed light on the characteristics of non-native speakers’ writing and speech, by comparing them with the linguistic data of native and non-native corpora. As already mentioned, CIA also compares NNS/NNS; in doing so, “researchers improve their knowledge of interlanguage” (Lorenz, 1999: 12). Moreover, comparing the data of learners from different L1 backgrounds, may reveal interlanguage universals, shared by various learner populations, that can be developmental and L1 dependent. For example, in their study on connectors, Granger and ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 45 Tyson determine that the overuse of sentence-initial connectors is an interlanguage and developmental characteristic of the three learner populations, namely French, Dutch, and Chinese. The individual connectors that have a wide variety of use among these learner groups provide evidence for interlingua characteristics (Granger & Tyson, 1996). According to the contrastive analysis (CA) hypothesis by Dagneaux et al., (1998), communication strategy-based errors may occur when the L2 learner seeks to convey a spontaneous speech with an inadequate grasp of the linguistic system of the target language. In fact, L2 learners tend to adopt “approximation” strategies, by using a near- equivalent L2 item they have previously learned, when they lack the demanded and correct form. In this regard, Dagneaux et al. (1998) provide a number of examples related to Chinese L2 language learners; in particular, they note the use of synonyms (“decide” instead of “determine”), superordinate words “flower” instead of “rose”). Although the fundamentals of EA are extremely important, this procedure has methodological flaws. Computer-Aided Error Analysis (CEA) provides comprehensive lists of specific error types, counting and sorting them in various ways, and tagging them in context along with their non-errors instances. Completing the gaps in traditional EA, CEA is a powerful technique that aids ELT teachers and syllabus designers in developing innovative and creative pedagogical tools. 7. Corpus-driven Activities 7.1 Speaking Skills 46 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Corpus-driven speaking activities could help EFL/ESL learners develop their oral communication skills, critical thinking skills, and digital literacy skills. Below are some examples of speaking activities that can be used in the EFL classroom: 1. Discussions: Students can use data and statistics to support their arguments in a debate. For example, students can debate topics such as climate change or social media usage, and use data to support their positions. This can help them to develop critical thinking skills and oral communication skills. 2. Interviews/Talks/Conversations: Students can use data to interview each other on a variety of topics, such as personal interests or career goals and hobbies and use data to find common interests. This can help them develop oral communication skills and digital literacy skills. 3. News Reports: Students can use data and statistics to create news reports on current events. For example, students can report on a natural disaster and use data to explain the impact on the local community. This can help them develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and oral communication skills. 4. Presentations: Students can use data and statistics to create presentations on a variety of topics, such as health, education, or technology. For example, students can analyze data on the use of technology in education and present their findings to the class. This can help them to develop research skills and oral communication skills. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 47 5. Role-plays/Drama: Students can use data and statistics to role-play different scenarios, such as job interviews or business meetings. For example, students can role-play a job interview and use data to explain why they are the best candidate for the position. This can help them develop oral communication skills and digital literacy skills. 7.2 Vocabulary Development Corpus-driven vocabulary activities are a great way to help EFL/ESL learners to expand their vocabulary in a meaningful and engaging way. These are some examples of vocabulary activities that can be used in the EFL classroom: 1. Word Clouds: Students can create word clouds using a tool like Wordle, Scrabble, Tagxedo, etc. to visualize and analyze the most common words in a text. This can help them to identify and learn new vocabulary related to a specific topic, such as technology or education. 2. Vocabulary Profiles: Students can use a corpus or authentic texts to create vocabulary profiles of keywords related to a specific topic and use it to learn new vocabulary and use it in context. 3. Bingo: Students can create their own bingo cards using vocabulary words related to a specific topic and use them to practice speaking and listening skills. 4. Word Match: Students can use a corpus or authentic texts to match vocabulary words with their meanings and use them to practice reading 48 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS and writing skills. 5. Quiz: Students can use online quiz tools like Kahoot, Bamboozle, or Quizlet to practice, review vocabulary words related to a specific topic, and use it to practice listening and reading skills. 7.3 Writing Skills Corpus-driven writing activities can help EFL/ESL learners to develop their writing skills and critical thinking skills. Here are some examples of activities that could be used in the EFL Writing classroom: 1. Argumentative Essays: Students can use data and statistics to support their arguments in an essay. This can help them to develop critical thinking skills and writing skills. 2. Opinion Writing: Students can use data and statistics to write opinion pieces on a variety of topics, such as politics or education. This can help them to develop research and writing skills. 3. Reports: Students can use data and statistics to write research reports on a variety of topics, such as health or technology. For example, students can write a research report on the effects of social media on mental health and use data to support their findings. This can help them develop research skills and writing skills. 4. Creative Writing: Students can use data and statistics to inspire their creative writing. For example, students can write a short story based on data about a specific culture or community. This ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 49 can help them develop their imagination and writing skills. 5. Speeches: Students can use data and statistics to prepare persuasive speeches on a variety of topics, such as the environment or social justice. This can help them develop public speaking skills and critical thinking skills. 7. 4 Reading Skills Corpus-driven reading activities can help EFL/ESL learners to improve their reading comprehension skills, critical thinking skills, and digital literacy skills. Examples of reading activities that could be used in the EFL classroom are reported belw: 1. Graphic Analysis: Students can analyze infographics to understand data and statistics related to a specific topic and to develop critical thinking skills. 2. News Article: Students can analyze news articles to understand current events and develop their reading comprehension skills. For example, students can read articles about the impact of technology on education and use them to answer comprehension questions and develop critical thinking skills. 3. Reading Comprehension: Students can practice reading comprehension skills by using data-driven reading comprehension exercises. This helps to develop critical thinking skills. 4. Summarizing: Students can practice summarizing 50 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS skills by reading articles and summarizing key points. 5. Online Questionnaires: Students can use web questionnaires to explore a topic in-depth and develop their reading and research skills. For example, students can complete a web quest on a specific culture and use data to answer comprehension questions and develop critical thinking skills. 7.5 Listening Skills Corpus-driven listening activities are activities that use data as a basis for listening practice. The goal of these activities is to encourage learners to develop their listening skills by using data as a starting point for listening comprehension and analysis. Below are some examples of listening activities: 1. Podcasts: Students may listen to podcasts on various topics, such as news, science, or history, and then discuss the content as a group. This can help them to develop their comprehension skills and encourage them to use new vocabulary and expressions. 2. TED Talks: TED Talks are informative and engaging presentations on a wide range of topics. Students may watch a TED Talk and then discuss the content and ideas presented in the talk. 3. News reports: Students may listen to news reports on various topics, such as politics, economics, or culture, and then discuss the main points and ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 51 themes of the report. 4. Songs/Poetry: Songs can be a great way to practice listening skills and learn new vocabulary and expressions. 5. Speeches/Talks: Students may listen to speeches given by famous figures, such as politicians, activists, or artists, and then analyze the content and style of the speech. 8. Implementation of Corpus in ELF Classroom: speaking procedure In this paragraph, I will introduce an English L2 lesson, supported by the use of corpora. After the language teacher has introduced the topic of the lesson, a brainstorming session follows, to assess the students’ background knowledge about the topic under discussion. Subsequently, the teacher presents the L2 language learners with a sample sentence or vocabulary extracted from native and non-native corpora, in order to give them some clues and ideas on how the language is authentically used, and invite the students to try to use these models to create examples of sentences. In this way, the students will be able to see the differences between the production of native and non- native speakers and, according to my predictions, this will help them to use the language effectively and fluently. When the aforementioned activities are completed, the teacher asks the students to practice conversation in groups or pairs, utilizing the corpus data they learned in 52 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS class, in order to increase their awareness and prepare them to communicate fluently in everyday situations, inside and outside the classroom. I think it is helpful to provide the corpus analysis data to the L2 learners so that they can determine which one is more appropriate between learner and native language corpora. In this way, the corpus data will guide the students toward success in learning a second language. In my opinion, when using data from different corpora, the dictionary is unnecessary, since students may be able to comprehend how grammatical structures and words are used in a different context. At the same time, Aijmer reports “Several informants pointed out that it took a too long time to look up words in dictionaries and that they often wanted to consult a native speaker. However, most teachers did not see the consultation of one of the major language corpora as an alternative or supplement to the dictionary or grammar.” (Aijmer, 2009: 4). So, the students have to be able to check and use grammar books and dictionaries in different ways and contexts, depending on the content of the assigned topic. 9. Some Sample Activities English as foreign/second language teachers and learners could benefit from the following activities in their language classroom. These activities are adopted from Cambridge Learner Corpora, Contemporary Corpus of American English (COCA), and British National Corpora (BNC) which serve to provide a sample of authentic language used by native and non-native users. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 53 9.1 Activity 1 – Fill in the Blank This activity provides teachers and learners with the opportunity to see how language is used and helps them to practice their knowledge of English determiners. 9.2 Activity 2 – Error Analysis In this activity, learners will be able to see the wrong usage of English determiners and they have the chance to learn them by correcting the errors found in the sentences. 54 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 9.3 Activity 3 – Vocabulary development After training students on how to use online corpora, you can ask them to search for the idiomatic expressions and analyze the concordance lines to see how these idioms are contextualized and used by native speakers. Following are some idiomatic expressions with the verb break. 9.4 Activity 4 This activity will teach the students how to use the modal verbs and their context of use. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 55 9.5 The use of SKELL Teachers and learners can benefit from using Sketch Engine for Language Learning (SKELL). It is a web tool that provides authentic samples of language use for language teachers and learners. It could be used to search for word usage, concordance, collocations, etc. For instance, “get” can be used in a different context. Figure 1 below shows one of the possible applications of SKELL. Figure 1. Source: https://skell.sketchengine.eu/#result?f=thesaurus&lang=e n&query=get. 56 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Figure 2. Source: https://skell.sketchengine.eu/#result?f=thesaurus&lang=e n&query=get. 10. Conclusion Language learning has advanced significantly over the past few years as a result of rapid technological advancement. In fact, corpus linguistics used in teaching and learning allows learners and teachers of L2 languages to quickly access language samples, spoken by native and non-native speakers. Several language learning resources, such as textbooks and dictionaries, may now be readily created and updated thanks to corpus linguistics. Moreover, the classroom environment becomes more engaging and interactive, and this improves language acquisition. It should not be noted that a corpus is more than just an online computer-based repository of accessible data; however, a common dictionary, an encyclopedia or a library book collection could also be considered a corpus of texts. Turkish EFL classroom activities might be implemented through the students’ manuals and books, and through essays written by teachers and researchers. In language classes, using corpus-based and corpus- ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 57 driven materials improves learning and promotes student autonomy. If the activity has proved useful and successful in terms of students’ language learning, it is up to the teachers and researchers to spread the use of corpus-based materials. The sample activities described in this paper show that corpus-related activities may be simply adopted in a language classroom, breaking the traditional monotony. References Aijmer, K. (2009). Corpus and Context. Investigating Pragmatic Functions in Spoken Discourse. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 14(3), 419–425. https://doi.org/ 10.1075/ijcl.14.3.06aij Aston, G. (2002). The Learner as Corpus Designer” In Teaching and Learning by Doing Corpus Analysis. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/ 9789004334236_004 Barlow, M. (1996). Corpora for Theory and Practice. In International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 1(1), 1-37. Barnbrook, G. (1996). Language and Computers. A Practical Introduction to the Computer Analysis of Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Bernardini, S. (2004). Corpus-aided language pedagogy for translator education (pp. 97–111). https://doi.org/10.1075/ btl.59.08ber Biber, D., Conrad, S., & Reppen, R. (1998). 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O’Keefe, A., McCarthy, M., & Carter, R. (2007). From Corpus to Classroom: Language Use and Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press. Römer, U. (2008). Corpora and language teaching. Corpus Linguistics, 1, 112–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.esp.2003.12.001 Scott, T. (2020). Higher Education’s Marketization Impact on EFL Instructor Moral Stress, Identity, and 60 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Agency. English Language Teaching, 14(1), 99. https://doi.org/ 10.5539/elt.v14n1p99 Sinclair, J. M. (1991a). Corpus, Concordance, Collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sinclair, J. M. (1991b). Shared knowledge. In J. E. Alatis (Ed.), Georgetown University Round Table on Language and Linguistics 1991 (pp. 489–500). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Sinclair, J. M. (1996). The search for units of meaning. Textus, 9(1), 75–106 Widdowson, H. G. (2008). Text, context, pretext: Critical issues in discourse analysis. John Wiley & Sons. Willis, D. (1990). The Lexical Syllabus. A New Approach to Language Teaching. London: Harper- Collins. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 61 2 Analysing ESL learners’ complexity development: linguistic corpus insights on L2 chunks acquired in online multimedia learning contexts. Azzam Alobaid Jawaharlal Nehru University, Centre for Linguistics, New Delhi, India azzam.obaid85@gmail.com This study investigates the relationship between the acquisition of L2 chunks and the development of L2 complexity among ESL learners. Previous research has shown that chunk learning is important for developing lexical and grammatical complexity in L2 speech and writing, particularly for bilingual learners. The study aims 62 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS to achieve three objectives 1) to build a linguistic corpus of previously collected data from Arabic-speaking ESL learners who were frequently exposed to one ICT multimedia learning tool (i.e., YouTube captioned videos). This exposure potentially allowed the learners to accumulate a substantial amount of L2 chunks during their five-month ESL learning process, which consequently resulted in improved fluency and accuracy in their L2 writing and speech performance; 2) to examine these learners’ L2 development of lexical and grammatical complexity in their L2 speech and writing from the perspective of the frequency and range of the acquired L2 chunks, depending on the linguistic corpus-driven insights; and 3) to explore the correlation between frequency and range of acquired L2 chunks by learners and their lexical and syntactic complexity development. Our methodology for data analysis involves computer-based empirical analyses (both quantitative and qualitative) of language use by employing collections of spoken and written texts in exchange for lab-based communicative tasks. Results indicate that the frequency and range of learners’ acquired L2 chunks increased notably after five months of exposure to YouTube captioned videos. Moreover, there was a weak-to-moderate, positive correlation between the frequency and range of L2 chunks and the development of L2 complexity, particularly in relation to L2 speech complexity. These findings suggest that the more learners acquire L2 chunks, the more complex their L2 lexical and grammatical skills become. 1. Motivation of Study ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 63 The acquisition of second language (L2) vocabulary is crucial for learners to achieve fluency and accuracy in their L2 writing and speaking (Saito & Hanzawa, 2018). The development of L2 vocabulary involves the acquisition of lexical items, such as words and phrases, as well as the ability to use these items in context (Nassaji, 2003). One approach to studying L2 vocabulary acquisition is to focus on the role of L2 chunks, which are words that always go together, such as fixed collocations, or that commonly do, such as certain grammatical structures that follow rules (Wray, 2008). Common examples of language chunks involve lexical phrases (i.e., sequences of words that collocate, often idiomatic, have a high-frequency of occurrence), set phrases (i.e., unvarying phrases having a specific meaning, such as ‘raining cats and dogs’, or being the only context in which a word appears, such as ‘amends’ in ‘make amends’), fixed phrases/ expressions (i.e., groups of words used together to express a particular idea or concept that is more specific than the individual words), collocations (i.e., predictable combination of words as in ‘heavy rain’, ‘do exercise’ – these can be made up of any kinds of words such as verbs, nouns, adverbs and adjectives), formulaic utterances (i.e., idioms, proverbs, pause fillers, counting, swearing, and other conventional and multiword units), sentence starters (i.e., words or phrases that introduce the rest of the sentence as in ‘due to’ ‘that’s why’ ‘this means that’), verb patterns (i.e., referring to what follows a verb – for example, some verbs can stand alone, (she smiled) while others have to be followed by an object (he smashed it)). (Lewis et al., 1997; McCarthy & Carter, 2004; Conklin & Schmitt, 2008). Previous studies have suggested that exposure to multimedia learning tools, such as YouTube captioned 64 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS videos, can help learners in the acquisition of L2 chunks which may in turn lead to the development of their L2 lexical and grammatical complexity (Alobaid, 2020, 2022a). Winke et al. (2010) reported that the use of captions induces deeper processing as they help learners to be more attentive to tasks, reinforce their acquisition of vocabulary through multiple modalities, and help them to figure out meaning through the unpacking of language chunks. From a cognitive perspective, Vanderplank (1988, 1990, as cited in Yang, 2020) found that the employment of non-typical input modes (i.e., video captioning) can facilitate processing language in chunks; this can be beneficial to overall L2 learning because the processing demands are reduced. Consequently, owing to the captioning effect which helps in chunk learning, “students can analyze and break down the aural input into meaningful constituent structures” (Winke et al., 2013). More specifically, in studies that investigated the role and impact of multimedia learning tools, such as YouTube captioned videos, it was reported that some improvement was observed in the learners’ L2 lexical and grammatical complexity in writing and speaking of English as the target learning language for Arabic-speaking ESL learners (Alobaid, 2020, 2022a). This development was attributed, based on correlational analyses, to learners’ development or acquisition of new L2 chunks post their frequent exposure to one ICT multimedia learning tool, namely YouTube captioned videos and thus potentially acquired a large number of L2 chunks during their ESL learning process. However, the previous studies (ibid) did not report the frequency and range[1] of these L2 chunks in details. Given the power of corpus linguistic analysis and tools (Hunston, 2010; Poole, 2018), the current study seeks to ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 65 examine these learners’ L2 chunks by employing a corpus that we build for this study using the data collected from previous studies (ibid). Upon building the corpus, we explore the nature of learners’ L2 chunks in terms of the frequency and range by using two of the most commonly corpus managers and text analysis software, namely AntConc and Sketch Engine. This research attempts to address and find answers to the following research questions. RQ1. What are the frequency and range of the acquired L2 chunks by learners who post their exposure to YouTube-captioned videos as an ICT multimedia learning tool? RQ2. What is the correlation between the frequency and range of the acquired L2 chunks and learners’ lexical and syntactic complexity development? Operationalising and Measurements of Lexical and Syntactic Complexity Bulté and Housen (2012) proposed that lexical complexity is manifested at the observational level in L2 performance in terms of density, diversity and sophistication of L2 lexical items and collocations. In this work, the Type/ Token Ratio (TTR) metric is used for the measurement of the lexical complexity development for both L2 writing and speaking. Syntactic (or grammatical) complexity is proposed to be manifested as sentential complexity, clausal complexity and phrasal complexity (Norris & Ortega, 2009). The Number of Analysis of Speech Unit (AS-Units)[2] metric is used for the measurement of the syntactic complexity development of speech. However, the Number of T-units[3] metric is used for the measurement of the syntactic complexity development of writing. 66 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Definition and Types of Chunks Used in the Analysis of this Study Language chunks are broadly divided into two types, lexical and grammatical. In this study, language chunks are defined as a semi-fixed lexico-grammatical frame that carried a specific grammatical function (Ellis, 2003). The tracked chunks which were used in the analysis of this study are units of grammatical nature but expressed lexically such as auxiliary verbs, negations, prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs as action and quality intensifiers, etc. (Makarova & Polyakov, 2018), besides linguistic units (referred to as “productive speech formula” or “slot-and frame patterns” (Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992) which include one or more open slots in which learners can place a variety of words such as ‘ I can + verb’, ‘ It + verb + that-clause’ (Taguchi, 2008). For examples of acquired chunks, see Table 9 and Figures 1 and 2 below. 2. Methods and Materials This is a corpus-based study that typically used corpus data in order to explore and validate the hypothesis that the greater number and range of L2 chunks that learners can accumulate over time can potentially contribute to the development of their L2 lexical and grammatical complexity (Pawley & Syder, 2000; Taguchi, 2008). The definition of corpus linguistics as a method underpins our approach to study. To answer the first research question in this study, we explore the nature of learners’ L2 chunks in terms of frequency and range by using two of the most common corpus managers and text analysis software, namely ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 67 AntConc and Sketch Engine. To answer the second research question, we employ Spearman’s correlation to help explain if there is any established correlation between the frequency and range of the acquired L2 chunks (as the independent variable) and learners’ lexical and syntactic complexity development (as the dependent variable) in this study. It is a non-parametric correlation coefficient test that was used in this study as the normality and randomness assumptions of data were not met (Bastick & Matalon, 2007). To examine the frequency and range of these L2 chunks in detail, we take advantage of AntConc and Sketch Engine software built-in features, namely Concordancer and Normalised Frequency Data. The concordancer allows us to look at words in context, i.e., these words are technically known as concordances ( see the qualitative analysis section 3.2 below). Both of the chosen software is used alternatively for the analysis part of this study. These tools are helpful for the task of the production of normalized frequency data (i.e., a word frequency list) which lists all words appearing in a corpus and specify how many times each one occurs in that corpus ( see the quantitative analysis part 3.1 below). Concordances and frequency data exemplify respectively the two forms of analysis, namely qualitative and quantitative, that are equally important to corpus linguistics studies. The frequency data analysis in this study is useful to quantify the frequency and range of L2 chunks, which serves the quantitative part of this study. However, the concordances analysis of data examines in more detail these frequencies and range of L2 chunks, which serves the purpose of the qualitative part of the current study. Also, we used other tools for the calculation of the lexical and grammatical complexity such as Type- 68 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Toke Ratio (TTR) Calculator for the analysis of lexical complexity and ‘Web-based L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer’ (Ai & Lu, 2010) to obtain the number of AS-units for the analysis of the grammatical complexity. For the statistical part, SPSS version 21.0 was mainly used for running the required statistical tests and analyses in this research work. We could build only a small linguistic corpus compared to existing corpora, but it is all new (number of unique words n =13,457 and number of tokens n = 15,551). The data in this corpus comprises students’ answers (which were elicited from written and oral samples) to a number of writing and speaking communicative tasks. The number of sentences produced by learners without any disfluency features (i.e., pauses, false starts, repetitions) was tallied and compared between the baseline and end-line data sets in the analyses of this study. 3. Results 3.1 Quantitative Analysis Analysis of Research Question 1: Frequency and Range of Acquired L2 Chunks The first research question addressed the frequency and range of the acquired L2 chunks in learners’ oral and written production. For the acquisition of the frequency values in this study, we use the normalised frequency (or relative frequency), which answers the question ‘ How often might we assume we will see the word (i.e., in this study L2 chunk) per x words of running text? ‘ Normalised frequencies are usually given per thousand words or per million words. Due to the limited amount of data in ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 69 this study, we checked this parameter per thousand words. However, the range values of the L2 chunks were obtained manually by carefully examining the available data. The following contingency Tables 1 and 2 demonstrate the frequency and range of correctly used L2 chunks in speech and writing samples after their exposure to YouTube captioned videos over five months. Table 1. Frequency and Range of Correctly Used Chunks in Learners’ L2 Speech. Significance Test: A chi-square test was used to check whether there was a significant difference in the frequency and the range of the chunks between the baseline and end line of learners’ L2 speech performance samples. The results (Table 1) revealed a significant change over time chi-square = 8.03, p <.05 for frequency, and chi-square = 2.85, p < .05 for range. Table 2. Frequency and Range of Correctly Used Chunks in Learners’ L2 Writing. 70 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Significance Test: A chi-square test was used to check whether there was a significant difference in the frequency and the range of the chunks between the baseline and end line of learners’ L2 writing. The results (Table 2) revealed a significant change over time chi-square = 1.31, p <.05 for frequency, and chi- square = 2.53, p < .05 for range. The answers to the first research question about the frequency and range of L2 chunks (which seem to have developed to some extent post the intervention as shown by the results above in Tables 1 & 2) were necessary to calculate the L2 complexity in relation to the acquired L2 chunks (Tables 3, 4, 5, 6). The following section displays this relation in more detail. Frequency and Range of Acquired L2 Chunks in Relation to the Development of Complexity This section addressed the development of grammatical and lexical complexity in both learners’ oral and writing production in relation to only the frequency of the acquired L2 chunks ( see Tables 3, 4, 5, 6) and in relation to both frequency and range of the acquired L2 chunks ( see Tables 7 & 8). ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 71 Grammatical Complexity Grammatical complexity of speech was obtained by dividing the total number of L2 chunks by the total number of AS-Units in each of the baseline and end line of speech data. The descriptive statistics of the grammatical complexity values are displayed in Table 3 below. The baseline data revealed a total of 42 AS-Units from 14 learners compared to end line data which revealed a total of 75.64. Also, there seems to be an obvious increase in the average number of chunks that appeared in individual AS- Units —52.32 chunks per AS-Unit in the baseline data ( SD = 75.16), and 77.24 chunks per AS-Unit in the end line data ( SD = 107). However, a matched-pair t-test was used to examine the gain between the baseline and end line of learners’ grammatical complexity values in L2 speech. This test unfolded that the difference was not statistically significant, t = 1, df = 13, p = 0.5. The effect size, Cohen’s d of 0.01, also shows a small effect, indicating that the grammatical complexity value of speech in relation to the frequency of acquired L2 chunks did not increase over time. Table 3. Grammatical Complexity of Learners’ L2 Speech. 72 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Grammatical complexity of writing was obtained by dividing the total number of chunks by the total number of T. units in each of the baseline and end line of writing data. The descriptive statistics of the grammatical complexity values are displayed in Table 4 below. The baseline data revealed a total of 27.71 T. units from 14 learners compared to end line data which revealed a total of 30.36. Also, there seems to be an obvious increase in the average number of chunks that appeared in individual T. units —29.16 chunks per T. unit in the baseline data ( SD = 39.26), and 36.04 chunks per T. unit in the end line data ( SD = 46). However, a matched-pair t-test demonstrated that the difference was not statistically significant, t = -1, df = 13, p = 0.5. The effect size, Cohen’s d of -0.005, also shows a small effect, indicating that the grammatical complexity value of writing in relation to the frequency of acquired L2 chunks did not increase over time. Table 4. Grammatical Complexity of Learners’ L2 writing. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 73 Lexical Complexity Previous studies used type/token ratio formula (number of types/number of tokens) * 100 to obtain the lexical complexity (also known as vocabulary variation) within a written text or a person’s speech (Verspoor et al., 2008). In this connection, to get an idea of what percentage the acquired chunks constitute of this variation in both speech and writing data, we divided the number of chunks by the type/token ratio of the learners’ L2 speech (Table 5) and writing (Tables 6). The descriptive statistics of the lexical complexity value of speech is displayed in Table 5 below. The baseline data revealed a total of 10 as the TTR value from 14 learners compared to end-line data which revealed a total of 9.5. However, there seems to be an obvious increase in the average number of chunks that appeared in individual AS- Units —52.32 chunks per AS-Unit in the baseline data ( SD = 75.16), and 77.24 chunks per AS-Unit in the end-line data ( SD = 107). Nonetheless, a matched-pair t-test unfolded that 74 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS the difference was not significant, t = -1, df = 13, p = 0.5. The effect size, Cohen’s d of -0.001, also shows a small effect, indicating that the lexical complexity of speech value in relation to the frequency of acquired L2 chunks did not increase over time. Table 5. Lexical Complexity of Learners’ L2 Speech. The descriptive statistics of the lexical complexity value of writing are displayed in Table 6 below. The baseline data revealed a total of 16 as the TTR value from 14 learners compared to end-line data which revealed a total of 14. However, there seems to be an obvious increase in the average number of chunks that appeared in individual T. units —29.16 chunks per T. unit in the baseline data ( SD = 39.26), and 36.04 chunks per T. unit in the end-line data ( SD = 46). Despite this, a matched-pair t-test unfolded that the difference was not statistically significant, t = -1, df = 13, p = 0.5. The effect size, Cohen’s d of -0.001, also shows a small effect, indicating that the lexical complexity of writing value in relation the frequency of acquired L2 chunks did not increase over time. Table 6. Lexical Complexity of Learners’ L2 Writing. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 75 Having determined both the grammatical and lexical complexity development values of learners’ writing and speech (which seem to have developed to some extent, though this development was not statistically significant, Tables 3, 4, 5, 6) in relation to the frequency and range values of L2 chunks (which seem to have developed, statistically speaking, Tables 1 & 2) post the five-month exposure period to the multimedia of YouTube captioned videos, we could further analyze the correlation between these values ( see the correlation analysis and results next). Analysis of Research Question 2: Correlation Results Spearman’s correlation is employed to help explain if there is any established correlation between the frequency and range of the acquired L2 chunks (as the independent variables) and the development of learners’ lexical and syntactic complexity post-intervention (as the dependent variables) in this study. Table 7. Correlation of Acquired Chunks and Complexity Development of Learners’ L2 Speech. 76 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Findings in Table 7 demonstrate some positive correlation between both the frequency and range of chunks and the complexity development of learners’ L2 speech. Although significant results (realized in the given p values) were obtained, the observed correlation coefficients range from weak to moderate-sized only. Table 8. Correlation of Acquired Chunks and Complexity Development of Learners’ L2 Writing. Similarly, findings in Table 8 demonstrate some positive correlation between the frequency of chunks and the complexity development of learners’ L2 writing. Although some significant results (realized in the given the p values) were obtained, the observed correlation coefficients are only weak-sized. Nevertheless, there is no correlation between the range of chunks and the complexity development of learners’ L2 writing. 3.2 Qualitative Analysis As mentioned above, this study explores what is known ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 77 as concordances since they are typically used to qualitatively analyze a body of sample language (i.e., corpus) to determine common usage. More specifically, we do concordance here to find out the common collocation of a word with other words (what basically constitutes a language chunk) as well as the frequency of collocation of two or more words. Table 9 displays some examples of the concordances in relation to L2 acquired chunks by learners, which were identified in the current corpus, followed by a discussion on this qualitative analysis of such concordances and some analytical examples from the corpus (figures 1 & 2) ( see discussion section 4 below for more information). Table 9. Lexico-Grammatical Chunks Identified and Analyzed in this Corpus-Based Study. 78 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Lexico-Grammatical Chunks Examples ‘To be’ verb + going to + v I’m going to travel to India… N + v + that clause I think/ believe that… The adv + adj The most important… Aux + adv + v …may just call at… V+ negation + adv + v Don’t even think that… If-clause and the main clause If you have time, do me this favour…. V clause + what /why/ how to + v Teach them how to eat/ talk politely… N+ aux + v + that clause I can tell you that it’s nice… Significance test When looking for a word’s collocations, we typically test ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 79 the significance of the co-occurrence frequency of that word and everything that appears near it once or more in the corpus (Dévière, 2009; Gries, 2021). Based on this corpus, we could see a number of different lexico-grammatical chunks of various structures seen in Table 9. The most frequent of these chunks ( n. 92) was the ‘N+ aux+v+that clause’ chunk type as in I can tell you that it’s nice. The second most frequent ( n. 36) is ‘If- clause and the main clause’ as in If you have time, do me this favour. The third most frequent chunks were the ‘N+ v +that clause’ ( n. 34) as in I think/ believe that. The fourth most frequent chunks were ‘The adv + adj’ chunks ( n. 28) as in the most important. The fifth most frequent chunks were ‘v+ negation + adv+ v’ chunks ( n. 7) as in don’t even think that. The sixth most frequent chunks were ‘aux + adv +v’ chunks ( n. 6) as in you may just call at this number. The seventh most frequent chunks were ‘to be+v+going to+ v’ chunks ( n. 5) as in I’m going to travel to India. The eight most frequent chunks were ‘V clause + how to +v’ chunks ( n. 4) as in teach them how to eat/ talk politely. In Figures 1 and 2 below, we can see examples of Key Word In Context (KWIC) highlighted. In these examples, the concordances of ‘that’ and ‘going’ along with surrounding words in context are identified. In particular, the words that most commonly appear near the target words (their ‘common collocates’) as used by learners are highlighted. For instance, the ‘that’ and ‘going’ chunks occur in many locations of the sentence with different syntactic functions/ roles ( see the discussion section below for more analysis on these two figures). The following Figures 1 and 2 show two examples of the chunks as used in different contexts taken from the corpus in this study. 80 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Figure 1. Concordance of “that” in Learners’ L2 Speech and Writing Task-Based Corpus. Figure 2. Concordance of “going” in Learners’ L2 Speech and Writing Task-Based Corpus. 4. Discussion This small-scale, corpus-based study explored two major issues. First, we examined learners’ L2 development of lexical and grammatical complexity in their L2 speech and writing from the perspective of the frequency and range of the acquired L2 chunks, depending on the linguistic ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 81 corpus-driven insights. These Arabic-speaking ESL learners were frequently exposed to one ICT multimedia learning tool, namely YouTube captioned videos over the time span of five months and thus potentially acquired a large number of L2 chunks during their ESL learning process. This resulted in some fluency and accuracy progress of their L2 writing and speech performance. Second, we explored the correlation between the frequency and range of acquired L2 chunks by learners and their lexical and syntactic complexity development. Upon building the corpus of the writing and speech samples collected both before and after the intervention over five months, the development of lexical and grammatical complexity in L2 writing and speaking was analyzed from the perspective of the acquired L2 chunks, basically in terms of the frequency and range of the acquired L2 chunks. Based on the findings (Tables 1 & 2) in this study, the learners seem to have gained and thus produced a fairly good amount of chunks over time in terms of both the number and range of chunks demonstrated in both writing and speaking, indicating the increase in their writing and oral productivity over a short period of time. This analytical corpus-based study of correctly used L2 chunks helped identify their frequency or number of occurrences and range in the learners’ L2 speech and writing communicative tasks (Tables 1 & 2). This finding indicated that a significant difference exists between the baseline and end-line data in this study. This suggested a notable gain in both the frequency and range of L2 chunks resulting from frequent exposure and engagement with online multimedia learning materials over time, in this case YouTube captioned videos. As seen in Tables 1 and 2, the frequency and range of L2 chunks produced per AS- 82 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Unit and T-unit obviously increased over a short time span. Moreover, the increasing level of grammatical and lexical complexity in learners’ individual utterances was evident in a variety of lexico-grammatical chunks that the learners used to construct utterances/ sentences in their L2 speech and writing. The notable increase in overall L2 oral and writing productivity may tell us that the learners accumulated a larger stock of grammatical chunks and phrase expressions, and used them to expand their utterances/ sentences in speech and writing. Learners frequently used a wide range of lexico- grammatical chunks which seem to have expanded their communicative oral and written responses in real, new communicative tasks given to them. Some of the acquired chucks which appeared in this corpus included as well as, I appreciate it, twice a day/ week, a day, there’s nothing to worry about, as well, even if, again and again, but that doesn’t mean, but anyway, to name but a few. Furthermore, among these language chunks were some of the cohesive devices like ’for example’, ’and’, ’but’, ’therefore’, ’first of all’, ’in conclusion’, ’however’, ’moreover’. It’s worth noting here that these learners used individual chunks creatively and purposefully, by adding them together and fitting (i.e., by way of embedding) them within larger clausal units. As suggested by Taguchi (2008), learners use a set of memorized, individual chunks effectively as a means to create meaning and sustain a conversation for a long period of time in a task situation that they had never practiced in class. A number of post hoc correlational analyses were conducted to gain some insights on the strength of association between the frequency and range of acquired L2 chunks (as the independent variable) (Tables 1 & 2) in ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 83 relation to the development of L2 complexity (as the dependent variable) (Tables 3, 4, 5, 6). Correlation coefficients indicated some weak-to-moderate, positive correlations between variables in this study (Tables 7 & 8), suggesting that as the frequency and range of L2 chunks increase so does (to some extent) the L2 lexical and grammatical complexity in learners’ L2 speech and writing. These correlations were statistically significant, mainly in the learners’ L2 speech. This can probably indicate that the greater number and range of the chunks that the learners accumulated over time seemed to have contributed to the development of L2 lexical and grammatical complexity of L2 speech and writing. The above results seem to support the qualitative analysis findings in this study. Qualitative analysis findings in this study revealed different patterns of complexity development in relation to L2 chunks. One clear example that can be discussed here is the ‘that’ chunk which appeared in a variety of formats, mostly in an affirmative sentence describing things and people these learners are familiar with, and other times in a negative sentence for contradiction or denial of something or some information. The right-hand context in Figure 1 above illustrates the frequent occurrence of “that clause = that (as subordinator) + subject + verb (+ rest of clause)” construction ( see line no. in 56 the Figure 1). Also, the left- hand context in Figure 1 shows a variety of structures that would frequently occur with “that construction” such as: the ‘to be’ verbs, where ‘that clause’ serves the function of a subject complement ( see line no. 47 in Figure 1); following a noun, where ‘that clause’ serves the function of a noun complement ( see line no. 53 in Figure 1); following a main 84 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS verb, where ‘that clause’ serves the function of a direct object ( see line no. 46 in Figure 1); so + that as a conjunction which serves to introduce clauses of reason and explanation ( see line no. 49 in Figure 1). Another chunk construction that followed a simple sentence structure and contained only a few additional constructions is “going”. The right-hand context in Figure 2 above illustrates the frequent occurrence of “going = going (v + ing) + to + verb/ destination + rest of clause” construction ( see line no. 1 in Figure 2). Also, the left-hand context in Figure 2 shows a variety of structures that would frequently occur with “going construction” such as: “to be” v.+ going ( see line no. 4 in Figure 2); aux + be + going ( see line no. 2 in Figure 2); preposition + going (gerund form) + rest of the clause, where “going” serves as the object of preposition ( see line no. 3 in Figure 2). These findings suggest a potential relationship between the frequency and range of L2 chunks and complexity in learners’ speech and writing production. As we could see that learners in this study could improve greatly in terms of chunk number or frequency, chunk size or range; this could have been “on the basis of consolidation of chunks and vocabulary upon which the chunks were built” (Taguchi, 2008). In many instances in this corpus-based study, we could see that learners used individual L2 chunks creatively and purposefully in both writing and speech, by adding them together and embedding them within larger clausal units. This suggests some interaction (or internal mechanism followed by L2 learners) between chunk learning and rule- based learning, wherein the learners analyze the chunks by constituents and use them in a productive manner by combining them with other patterns. To learners, this may ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 85 seem a faster and easier way, i.e., shortcut to express and produce both utterances/ sentences in task situations that they had never been before. It should be mentioned that these chunks were used frequently in these videos. Individual component chunks introduced in these videos were (in many cases) retained and used as extensions toward more complex, longer utterances/ sentences. In fact, learners were encouraged to identify and record chunks (e.g., lexical and grammatical) when they find them in these videos. Afterward, learners were constantly encouraged to try to make use of the new target language input (i.e., chunks) in the speaking/ writing tasks given to them (Alobaid, 2020; 2022). These findings confirm previous studies (Alobaid, 2020; 2022a) and also lend support to predominant claims (although not yet adequately attested) in the literature that learners’ linguistic systems develop by building up larger units from small modular components. Longer and more complex utterances are constructed by using modular elements as building blocks, and chunks are integrated into a larger discourse structure by juxtaposition and embedding (Ellis, 1996, 2003; Taguchi, 2008). 5. Limitations and Implications of Study The sample size of input data in our corpus is a limitation. Building larger corpora would have obviously yielded more informative and robust results. Therefore, the results of this research should be treated with some caution, although they seem to be, by and large, statistically significant. This corpus-based study is in favor of Sinclair’ (1991) 86 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS study who, based on his experience with concordances with the COBUILD project, emphasizes the role of formulaic expressions (multiword units), which he terms ‘idiom principle’, in communication and sees them as motivated by economy of effort. This motivation may probably make these chunks appealing for many L2 learners. This study clearly supports that bilingual learners of a language like English may still need intensified and attentive learning and awareness of chunks for more complex L2 lexis and grammar and ultimately more fluent and accurate usage of that language. The availability of simple and easy (especially for low- level learners) to grasp L2 chunks in the leaners’ target language learning environment is recommended, since this may help learners acquiring and integrating those chunks into their spontaneous L2 output. This work suggests that ICT-based language learning such as captioned videos can be one way to make learning such chunks more easily possible. References Ai, H., & Lu, X. (2010). A web-based system for automatic measurement of lexical complexity. In 27th Annual Symposium of the Computer-Assisted Language Consortium (CALICO-10). Amherst, MA. June (pp. 8-12). Alobaid, A. (2020). Smart multimedia learning of ICT: role and impact on language learners’ writing fluency— YouTube online English learning resources as an example. Smart Learn. Environ. 7, 24. Alobaid, A. (2021). ICT multimedia learning affordances: role and impact on ESL learners’ writing accuracy development. Heliyon, 7(7), e07517. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 87 Alobaid A. (2022a) ICT Virtual Multimedia Learning Tools/Affordances: The Case of Narrow Listening to YouTube Multimedia-Based Comprehensible Input for the Development of ESL Learners’ Oral Fluency. In: Hamdan A., Hassanien A.E., Mescon T., Alareeni B. (eds) Technologies, Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Learning Post-COVID-19. Studies in Computational Intelligence, vol 1019. Springer, Cham. Alobaid, A. (2022b). ICT Virtual Multimedia Learning Tools/Environments: Role and Impact on ESL Learners’ Development of Speech Accuracy—YouTube as an Example. In Digital Communication and Learning (pp. 143-182). Springer, Singapore. Anisimov, I., Makarova, E., & Polyakov, V. (2018). Chunking in Dependency Model and Spelling Correction in Russian and English. In Proceedings of SAI Intelligent Systems Conference (IntelliSys) 2016: Volume 1 (pp. 218-231). Springer International Publishing. Bastick, T., & Matalon, B. (2007). Research: New and practical approaches. Chalkboard Press. Business Education, 82(5), 282-29. Bulté, B., & Housen, A. (2012). Defining and operationalising L2 complexity. Dimensions of L2 Performance and Proficiency: Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency in SLA, 32, 21. Conklin, K., & Schmitt, N. (2008). Formulaic sequences: Are they processed more quickly than nonformulaic language by native and nonnative speakers?. Applied Linguistics, 29(1), 72-89. Dévière, E. (2009). Analyzing linguistic data: a practical introduction to statistics using R. Ellis, N. (1996). Sequencing in SLA: Phonological 88 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS memory, chunking, and points of order. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 91-126. Ellis, N. (2003). Constructions, Chunking, and Connectionism: The emergence of second language structure. In C. Doughty & M. Long (Eds.), Handbook of SLA (pp. 63-103). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Foster, P., Tonkyn, A., & Wigglesworth, G. (2000). Measuring spoken language: A unit for all reasons. Applied linguistics, 21(3), 354-375. Gries, S. T. (2021). Statistics for Linguistics with R. In Statistics for Linguistics with R. De Gruyter Mouton. Hunt, K. W. (1966). Recent measures in syntactic development. Elementary English, 43(7), 732-739. Hunston, S. (2010). How can a corpus be used to explore patterns?. In The Routledge handbook of corpus linguistics (pp. 140-154). Routledge. Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach (Vol. 1, p. 993). Hove: Language teaching publications. Lewis, M., Gough, C., Martínez, R., Powell, M., Marks, J., Woolard, G. C., & Ribisch, K. H. (1997). Implementing the lexical approach: Putting theory into practice (Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 223-232). Hove: Language Teaching Publications. Lintunen, P., & Mäkilä, M. (2014). Measuring syntactic complexity in spoken and written learner language: Comparing the incomparable?. Research in Language, 12(4), 377-399. McCarthy, M., & Carter, R. (2004). This that and the other: Multi-word clusters in spoken English as visible patterns of interaction. TEANGA, the Journal of the Irish Association for Applied Linguistics, 21, 30-52. Nassaji, H. (2003). L2 vocabulary learning from context: Strategies, knowledge sources, and their relationship with ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 89 success in L2 lexical inferencing. Tesol Quarterly, 37(4), 645-670. Nattinger, J., & DeCarrico, J. (1992). Lexical phrases and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2009). Towards an organic approach to investigating CAF in instructed SLA: The case of complexity. Applied linguistics, 30(4), 555-578. Pawley, A., & Syder, H. (2000). The one-clause-at-a-time hypothesis. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp. 163-199). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Poole, R. (2018). A guide to using corpora for English language learners. Edinburgh University Press. Saito, K., & Hanzawa, K. (2018). The role of input in second language oral ability development in foreign language classrooms: A longitudinal study. Language Teaching Research, 22(4), 398-417. Sinclair, J. (1991). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Taguchi, N. (2008). Building language blocks in L2 Japanese: Chunk learning and the development of complexity and fluency in spoken production. Foreign Language Annals, 41(1), 132-156. Vanderplank, R. (1988). The value of teletext sub-titles in language learning. ELT journal, 42(4), 272-281. Vanderplank, R. (1990). Paying attention to the words: Practical and theoretical problems in watching television programmes with uni-lingual (CEEFAX) sub- titles. System, 18(2), 221-234. Verspoor, M., Lowie, W., & Van Dijk, M. (2008). Variability in second language development from a 90 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS dynamic systems perspective. The Modern Language Journal, 92(2), 214-231. Winke, P., Gass, S., & Sydorenko, T. (2010). The effects of captioning videos used for foreign language listening activities. Michigan State University. Language Learning & Technology, 14(1), 65-86. Winke, P., Gass, S., & Sydorenko, T. (2013). Factors influencing the use of captions by foreign language learners: An eye‐tracking study. The Modern language journal, 97(1), 254-275. Wray, A. (2008). Formulaic language: Pushing the boundaries. Oxford University Press. Yang, P. (2020). The Cognitive and Psychological Effects of YouTube Video Captions and Subtitles on Higher-Level German Language Learners. In: Freiermuth M., Zarrinabadi N. (eds) Technology and the Psychology of Second Language Learners and Users. New Language Learning and Teaching Environments. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. [1] The frequency and range of chunks typically refer to the number and different types of chunks, respectively, produced by L2 learners in such studies. [2] AS-unit (Analysis of Speech Unit) is proposed for analysis of spoken texts. An AS-unit is modified version of a T-unit or a c-unit, which both had some ambiguity in their definitions (Foster et al., 2000). An AS-unit refers to “a single speaker’s utterance consisting of an independent clause, or sub-clausal unit, together with any subordinate clause(s) associated with either” (Foster et al., 2000). [3] Hunt (1966) defined T-units as “the shortest units into which a piece of discourse can be cut without leaving any sentence ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 91 fragments as residue”. Each T. unit contains one independent clause and its dependent clauses. The number of non-finite dependent clauses was included in the analysis, as earlier studies indicated that a high frequency of non-finite dependent clauses indicated more complex language (Lintunen & Mäkilä, 2014). 92 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 3 A corpus-based analysis of contemporary Russian netspeak: can corpora help us predict the future of a language? Federica Longo University of Nova Gorica, Center for Cognitive Science of Language, Nova Gorica, Slovenia federica.longo@ung.si The globalized use of the Internet has led to the birth of netspeak, the language used on the Internet and Social Media, which has unique characteristics, typical of both spoken and written language. This study analyzes the features of contemporary Russian netspeak through linguistic corpora. Both paper and online dictionaries, traditional and Web corpora were used for this survey; this has made it possible to carry out a comparative analysis ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 93 between these tools, to evaluate which is more suitable for analyzing the target language. Furthermore, the use of Web corpora, allowed us to investigate the diachronic evolution of Russian netspeak, from approximately 2011 to 2021. The analysis focused on the different transliteration processes involving more than 300 loanwords, as well as the investigation of different derivational and inflectional morphemes attached to English transliterated loanwords and roots. This research aimed to establish whether a diachronic corpus-based analysis of Russian netspeak can help us to forecast which standard form will be established over time, making predictions on future developments of the language. An incredibly articulated and multifaceted picture emerges, which shows all the complexity of a new and constantly evolving language, in which foreign loanwords struggle to adapt and integrate into the target language, giving rise to numerous variants of the same word. Keywords: Corpus Linguistics; Corpus-based analysis; Contemporary Russian netspeak; Loan words. 1. Introduction Computerization and the digital revolution have enabled significant advancements in all aspects of human life. With the advent of computers and digital software, corpus linguistics has flourished to the extent that some authors refer to a true “renaissance of work in Corpus Linguistics” (Volk, 2002: 255). In fact, it has undergone a complete transformation, both in terms of the amount of data that 94 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS can be processed and the times of interrogation of these data. The literature provides various definitions of corpus linguistics: Corpus linguistics is the investigation of linguistic research questions that have been framed in terms of the conditional distribution of linguistic phenomena in a linguistic corpus. (Stefanowitsch, 2020: 56) A Glossary of Corpus Linguistics states: According to McEnery and Wilson (1996: 1) it is the study of language based on examples of “real life” language use and a methodology rather than an aspect of language requiring explanation or description. (Baker et al., 2006: 50) In other words, corpus linguistics investigates language phenomena through quantitative and/or quantitative empirical analyses, using linguistic corpora, electronic text databases representative of natural language. Corpus analysis can provide insights into linguistic patterns and structures, and can be used to investigate a wide range of linguistic phenomena, such as syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and discourse. If computerization enabled the first corpus linguistics revolution, the development of the Internet and the Web “has sparked a second Corpus Revolution” (Rundell, 2008: 26). Kilgarriff and G. Grefenstette published an article ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 95 titled Introduction to the Special Issue on the Web as Corpus (Kilgarriff & Grefenstette, 2003) to demonstrate that the Web can be used as a linguistic corpus to conduct linguistic researches. The provocative formula “Web as Corpus” soon became widespread, appearing in the works of numerous authors including Volk (2002), Baroni and Bernardini (2006), Lüdeling et al. (2007), Ferraresi (2009), Lew (2009), and Gatto (2009, 2014). Kilgarriff and Grefenstette’s intuition led linguists to think about a new denomination for this branch of corpus linguistics, which began to take shape in the early 2000s: D. Crystal was the first who introduced the term “Internet Linguistics” (Crystal, 2004). In 2005, G. Bergh proposed the variant “Web Linguistics” (Bergh, 2005). Web Linguistics, or Internet Linguistics, is a subfield of corpus linguistics that makes use of the World Wide Web for linguistic researches. Among the most popular current trends, we mention the Corpus-based Language Teaching and Learning, which aims to identify common errors and language learners’ difficulties, in order to develop appropriate teaching materials and activities. The Russian Learner Corpus[1] ( RLC), the Corpus of Russian Student Texts[2] ( CoRST), and the RUssian LEarner Corpus of Academic Writing[3] ( RULEC) are just few examples. Furthermore, this issue has been addressed by numerous linguists, as Chahine and Uetova (2023), Callies and Götz (2015), Granger (2009), McEnery et al. (2019), and Tono (2003). Another major subfield is Multimodal Corpus Linguistics that focuses on the analysis of multimodal data, including text, images, videos, and audio, to study sign language, verbal and nonverbal communication, and emotions. We highlight Russian Sign Language Corpus[4] 96 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS ( RSL) and the works of Lyakso et al. (2015), Abuczki and Ghazaleh (2013), Blache et al. (2009). Finally, we mention Corpus-based Discourse Analysis, which uses corpus linguistics to study discourse patterns, including the structure, organization, and function of language in context. In this regard, we mention the works of Jaworska and Ryan (2018), and Al-Khawaldeh et al. (2017). The present study falls under one of the new trends of corpus linguistics, the Computed-Mediated Communication (CMC) Corpus Linguistics, which analyses large corpora containing digital communication texts, such as instant messaging, social media, email, and chatrooms, to identify the patterns and characteristics of the netspeak, and to investigate how these patterns change over time and across different contexts. For a detailed insight on this issue see Longo (2021). Particularly, the research focuses on the analysis of contemporary Russian netspeak. The netspeak, also known as weblish, globespeak, digispeak, chatspeak, and cyberspeak, is the language of the World Wide Web, which has unique characteristics, typical of both written and spoken language. Since the early 2000s, D. Crystal has addressed this question, noting that some academics had already described the Internet language as “written speech” and a mode to “write the way people talk” in the 1990s (Crystal, 2004: 25). According to Crystal, what distinguishes spoken language from netspeak is the lack of simultaneous feedback, which determines the absence of another characteristic typical of speech, the listener’s simultaneous reactions, such as head nods, interjections, and nonverbal language of approval or dissent. Furthermore, in speech, ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 97 the conversation can overlap or be interrupted, whereas in messages, the pace of the conversation is typically slower. Similar to written language, punctuation, capital letters, and emoticons compensate for the lack of intonation, tone of voice, and pauses. Moreover, one feature that makes the netspeak more akin to written language, is the possibility of thinking of a structured discourse, erasing, modifying and reviewing what has been written. Another distinguishing feature of netspeak is the use of emoticons, pictures, and gifs to express emotions, facial expressions, and gestures. Interestingly, these contents have changed the way in which other people’s messages are perceived or interpreted: without any type of emoticon, messages can be perceived as cold, detached, or even aggressive (Gunraj, 2016). Taking everything into account, various studies on netspeak have revealed that it has characteristics more akin to the written language than the spoken one (Crystal, 2004; Johannessen and Guevara, 2011). With regard to Russian netspeak, object of this investigation, different ways of transcribing English loanwords, the use of foreign loanwords as roots to create various forms of derived adjectives and verbs were observed. Our goal is to determine whether a diachronic corpus- based analysis of Russian netspeak can help to predict which standard form will be established over time and determine future linguistic developments. Furthermore, a comparative analysis among the various research tools used, such as paper and online dictionaries, traditional and web corpora, was carried out in order to determine which of these is the most appropriate and up-to-date to investigate the Russian language in its contemporaneity. 98 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 2. Methods 2.1 Materials The 4th edition of Zanichelli Italian-Russian dictionary Kovalev (2014) and two online dictionaries, Vikislovar’[5] and Academic.ru[6] were used as research tools for this analysis. As regards the corpora, we employed two sub-corpora of the Nacional’nyj Korpus Russkogo Jazyka ( NKRJa)[7], the Main Corpus and the Spoken Corpus, and two Web corpora, the ruTenTen11 and the ruTenTen17, both accessible through the online platform Sketch Engine. A third Sketch Engine Web corpus, the Timestamped JSI web corpus 2014-2021 Russian, was used when the analysis generated unclear results. The NKRJa is the primary corpus of the Russian language. It now contains 1.9 billion tokens, spread among 15 sub-corpora. The Main Corpus and the Spoken Corpus include 374 and 13.4 million tokens, respectively. The Russian Web Corpora, abbreviated ruTenTen11 and ruTenTen17, contain 14.5 and 9 billion tokens, respectively. Finally, there are approximately 5.5 billion tokens in the Timestamped JSI web corpus 2014-2021 Russian. 2.2 Procedure Firstly, to search for lemmas appropriate for our analysis, we entered the following query on Yandex, the Russian search engine: Sleng molodëži 2021, Molodëžnij sleng 2021, Molodëžnij žargon, Russkij žargon molodëži, Modnye slova 2021, Samye populjarnye slova 2021[8]. Based on the findings, we examined a variety of dictionaries and online resources, and we created a ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 99 preliminary list of lexemes to be analyzed, by cross- analyzing the data frequency. The data was further filtered, and some lexemes were removed, since they were deemed offensive or obscene. Over 300 lexical items are included in the final “List of analyzed lemmas”, which can be found in the Appendix. Subsequently, we created an analysis chart to report the following data: • Meaning and definition of the lemma or of the English loanword in Russian; • Gender/declension/conjugation of the lemma; • Compounds and/or derived lemmas; • Etymology of the lemma/loan; • Type of linguistic interference (loan, total or partial calque, etc.); • Autochthonous Russian lemmas and synonyms; • Frequency of the analyzed lemma on both print and online dictionaries; • Frequency of the analyzed lemma on the Main Corpus and Spoken Corpus of NKRJa; • Frequency of the analyzed lemma on ruTenTen11 and ruTenTen17; • Concordances; • Examples of usage and translation; • Personal notes and considerations. 3. Results and discussion 100 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS The findings from the data analyses will be examined in this section, organized into distinct sub-sections for clarity. 3.1 Different transcriptions of the English loanwords Various methods of transcribing borrowings from Latin characters of the English language to Cyrillic emerged during the analysis. The greatest variation has been identified at the level of phonetic and orthographic realization of English loanwords. These observations will be discussed in greater detail in the following sections. 3.1.1 Vowel alternation of Э (/ɛ /) and E (/je/ or /je/) The vowel [e] is represented by two different graphemes in Russian: “э” denotes a strong vowel that is pronounced open (/ɛ/), while “e” denotes a weak vowel that softens the consonant that comes before it (/je/ or /je/). The presence of these two vowels in the Russian language results in the coexistence of different transcriptions for the same loanword (see Table 1) and this is one of the most frequent phenomena. Table 1. Lexical items occurring with graphemes е and э. The frequency analysis revealed that 80% of the above lexical items are transcribed using the grapheme “e”: ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 101 specific mention is made of инфлюeнсeр (“influencer”), нетикет (“netiquette”), апгрейд (“upgrade”), гейм (“game”), as well as the nouns крейз (“craze”), мейнстрим (“mainstream”), селфи (“selfie”), фейспалм (“facepalm”), фейк (“fake”), флешмоб (“flash mob”), хейтер (“hater”) and their related derived verbs and adjectives. Instead, трэш (“trash”), хэштег (“hashtag”), and шэйм (“shame”) are typically spelled with the grapheme “э”. For sake of clarity, Table 2 below repots an example of the analysis of the frequency for the variants флешмоб and флэшмоб. Table 2. Data from the analysis of флешмоб and флэшмоб (“flash mob”). According to the data of the above table, the most frequent transcription of “flash mob” is the one with the grapheme “e”. If we consider the English phonetic transcription, /ˈflæʃ mɒb/, the front vowel /æ/ is realized in флешмоб with /e/, but the same does not hold with хэштег and тpэш, in which the original /æ/ is transliterated /э/. At the orthographic level, the Russian manual Rozental’ reports that the grapheme “e” is used in Russian after a consonant and the vowel “i” in the root of words, while э is used in the root of words after vowels, except “i” (Rozental’, 2010: 32). Again, хэштег and тpэш violate this rule. The initial hypothesis held that there was a relationship between the English phoneme, or phoneme sequences, and the realization of a particular grapheme in Russian 102 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS transcription. However, no correlation has been found to support or refute this theory. Although there is a definite preference for using the grapheme “e”, neither the original phoneme, the stress position, nor the number of syllables in the lemma have any bearing on the grapheme used in the transcription. Even Russian orthographic rules are not always strictly observed, reflecting the complex and multifaceted picture of loan transcriptions in Russian. 3.1.2 Consonant alternation of C (/s/) and З (/z/) In Russian the voiceless alveolar fricative (/s/) is represented by the grapheme “с”, while the voiced alveolar fricative (/z/) is represented by the grapheme “з”. These two consonants are thus in “voiceless-voiced” opposition. During the analysis, a double transcription of the English word dislike emerged: the variants дислайк and дизлайк. Since dislike in English is pronounced /dɪˈslaɪk/, with a voiceless alveolar fricative, we should expect the Russian transcription дислайк. Concurrently, according to Russian orthographic and phonological rules that govern the use of prefixes ending with -з and -c, the voiced fricative -з must be used before vowels and voiced consonants, as it is in this case (Rozental’, 2010: 51). In other words, each type of transcription had a 50% chance of occurring; to identify which one has been successfully established in modern Russian netspeak, we employed corpus analysis. Table 3. Data on the frequency of дислайк and дизлайк (“dislike”). ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 103 Despite the extremely low frequency of data, Table 3 shows that the transliteration дизлайк, with the voiced alveolar fricative, is favored in Russian transcription. This demonstrated that dislike has undergone a deep process of russification and adaptation, and is now written according to Russian phonological and orthographic rules, rather than the English original pronunciation. 3.1.3 Compound nouns that are hyphenated or written as a single lexical item As shown in Table 4, different ways of transcribing English compound words resulted from the investigation. Table 4. Different realizations of English compound words. 104 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Particularly intriguing are those compounds with “body” such as бодиарт (“bodyart”), and the variant боди-арт (“body-art”), бодипозитив (“bodypositive”) and боди- позитив (“body-positive”), and ultimately бодишейминг (“bodyshaming”) and боди-шейминг (“body-shaming”). Although they are composed of the same elements, these lexemes are transcribed differently: unlike in English, боди-арт is mainly written in Russian with a hyphen. In contrast, the nouns бодипозитив and бодишейминг are both transcribed as a single lexical item, while in English they are spelled body-positive and body-shaming, respectively. Similarly, оффтопик (“off-topic”), which is written in English separated by a space or a dash, is written in Russian as a single noun. Interestingly, the analysis revealed a preference for the word’s truncated version, оффтоп, which is nonexistent in English. Regarding the word child-free, it is worth noting that English compounds containing the adjective “-free” as the second element of the compound are typically written with the two elements of the word separated by a hyphen; examples include sugar-free, tax-free, fat-free, duty-free, etc. The word чайлдфри, written attached, has established itself in the Russian language, contrary to the English standard and our expectations. In a similar vein, the compound flash mob, typically spelled in English with spaces between words, has established itself in Russian as the single lexical itam флешмоб. An additional intriguing example is chill out, which in English can be either a noun, an adjective, or a phrasal verb. Depending on its function in a sentence, it is written differently: when it is a noun or an adjective, the word chill and the preposition out are separated by a hyphen, while ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 105 when it is a phrasal verb, they are separated by a space. In Russian, the noun is not only written as a single lexical item, but one of the two lateral liquid consonants “l” of chill is also omitted, resulting in чилаут. Апгрейд (upgrade), кибербуллинг (cyberbulling), and френдзона (friend zone) are among those words that retain their original English transcription and are written in Russian as a single lexical item. In summary, Russian loans differ significantly in spelling from the original English words in the majority of cases: the analyses revealed that only 30% of the time the spelling is completely respected. Furthermore, the transcription of оффтоп and чилаут differs significantly from the original English. The corpus analysis has allowed us to determine which transcription mode has been established in the modern Russian language. 3.2 Nouns: word formation processes, loans, and irregularities that emerged Nouns are the most frequent morphological category among the examined lexemes. The results of the corpora analysis will be illustrated in the following subparagraphs. 3.2.1 Transliterated loanwords The most common phenomena, found in forty-one cases, are the transliterated loans. They are typically luxury loans, i.e. nouns that already have a lexical equivalent in the target language, but they are used to add an exotic or prestigious nuance to speech, in technical languages, or by a small circle of people who share a specific linguistic code. These loans are subjected to significant inflectional and derivational affixation processes: not only they are regularly declined, whereas in the past most borrowings 106 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS were left unchanged, but they also give rise to new derivative adjectives and verbs. Loan usage tends to regularize over time: if some borrowings initially displayed two or more types of transcriptions, then they consolidated into one definitive form, as observed in the previous paragraph. The word селфи (selfie) is intriguing: according to the corpus analysis, it was initially a regular declinable noun, but over time it became firmly established in the Russian language as an invariant, non-declinable noun. Another interesting case is the noun трэш, which, according to Vikislovar’, has two declensions, with a different accent and only in the singular form, i.e. трэш would be part of the nomina singularia tantum category; however, corpus analysis revealed that this noun is declined even in the plural number. 3.2.2 Loanwords deriving from English nomina agentis and nomina actionis ending in -er The nomina agentis are nouns that refer to the entity that performs the action, whereas the nomina actionis are nouns that refer to the action itself. For their creation, each language has its own derivational morphemes: in English, a derivational model frequently used is “verb + -er/-or” (e.g. kill → killer, translate → translator), whereas in Russian the most common are “verb + -тель, -чик, -щик, -ич, -ок, -ник, etc.” (e.g. читать → читатель “read → reader”, переводить → переводчик “translate → translator”). During the investigation, twenty-two English nomina agentis and actionis ending ending in -er were found, transliterated into Russian as borrowings, most frequently as luxury loanwords. In other words, the foreign roots of these lexemes are not adapted to the target language by ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 107 using standard Russian derivational suffixes; nouns are simply transliterated and declined as strong masculine nouns ending in –ер (“-er”). The words абьюзер (“abuser”), апгрейдер (“upgrader”), блогер (“blogger”), кибербуллер (“cyberbuller” – note that this word does not exist in English), геймер (“gamer”), инфлюенсер (“influencer”), лайкер (“liker”), лайфхакер (“lifehacker”), лузер (“loser”), пранкер (“pranker”), спойлер (“spoiler”), стайлер (“styler”), стример (“streamer”), траблмейкер (“troublemaker”), фейкер (“faker”), фолловер (“follower”), хейтер (“hater”), and юзер (“user”) are just few examples. 3.2.3 Russified English loanwords with the suffix -ств(o), denoting abstract neuter nouns Numerous nouns in Russian have the derivational pattern “Adjective/noun root + suffix -ств(о) → Neuter abstract noun”. These neuter nouns ending in -ств(o) typically denote a union or a group of people, usually quite numerous (братство “brotherhood”, дворянство “nobility”), an institution or organization (агентство “agency”, посольство “embassy”), an abstract quality, typical of animate beings, (богатство “wealth”, изящество “elegance”), a person endowed with the characteristics expressed by the root of the noun (божество “divinity”, ничтожество “nullity”), and people’s working activities (акушерство “obstetrics”). During the analysis, six nouns ending in -ств(o) were discovered, the root of which is a transliterated English loanword. Specifically, these neuter nouns indicate an abstract category, such as блогерство (“a set of people belonging to the category of bloggers”), геймерство (“a set 108 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS of people belonging to the category of gamers”), лузерство (“a set of people belonging to the category of losers”), спойлерство (“a group of people who spoils”), хейтерство (“a set of people belonging to the category of haters”) e хипстерство (“a group of people belonging to the category of hipsters”), deriving from the nomina agentis blogger, gamer, loser, spoiler, hater, and hipster, respectively. Although they don’t appear frequently in the corpora under investigation, these Russified English loanwords provide an intriguing example of acclimation and integration into the Russian language. This derivational model is not particularly common, but it has a strong possibility of becoming more widespread over time. 3.2.4 Transliterated loanwords and partial calques having the same meaning During the research, some compound nouns with the same meaning but different word forms were found: селфи-стик and селфи-палка (“selfie stick”) and the compound nouns фейк-ньюс, фейкньюс, and фейк- новости (“fake news”). Селфи-стик and фейк-ньюс or фейкньюс are fully transliterated loanwords, whereas селфи-палка and фейк- новости are linguistic partial calques. These are examples of the so-called endocentric compounds, which have a semantic head that carries the compound word’s semantic meaning, and a modifier that restricts the meaning of the word. In the case of селфи-палка and фейк-новости, only the modifiers cелфи- (“selfie-”) and фейк- (“fake-”) are transliterated loanwords, whereas the semantic head -палка (“stick”) and -новоcти (“news”) are linguistic calques. It’s also worth noting that the word “news” is a pluralia ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 109 tantum noun in English, and the calque in Russian was kept plural as well. In the case of “selfie stick” the partial calque селфи- палка is more frequent than the transliterated loan селфи- стик. This trend is supported by data from ruTenTen1 7 and from the Timestamped JSI web corpus 2014-2021 Russian. On the contrary, the term “fake news” has spread widely in Russian as the transliterated loanword фейк-ньюс, rather than the partial calque фейк-новости. Data from ruTenTen17 and the Timestamped JSI web corpus 2014-2021 Russian confirm this trend. 3.3 Adjectives: derivational processes and different word forms with the same meaning Numerous derived adjectives were identified during the analysis; in the following subsection, we will examine the phenomena observed in relation to this morphological category. 3.3.1 Adjectives derived from transliterated English loanwords During the investigation, twenty-nine adjectives derived from transliterated English loanwords were discovered, as shown in Table 5. Table 5. The list of analyzed adjectives. 110 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Adjectives are formed using the Russian derivational suffix -oв-/ -ев- in 38% of cases, the suffix -н- in 34.5% of cases, the suffix -ск- and -oвск- in 20.7% and in 7% of cases, respectively. Additionally, ten of the analyzed adjectives derive from the previously mentioned English nomina agentis and actionis, whereas in two cases Russified adjectives derive from English nouns ending with the suffix -ing, namely стриминговый (стриминг + -ов- + ый), deriving from the noun “streaming”, and стайлинговый (стайлинг + -ов- + ый), deriving from the noun “styling”. English nouns ending in -ing generally indicate an action, an activity, or the act of doing something, and the ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 111 resulting Russified adjectives preserve this actionality in meaning. Furthermore, some Russian adjectives having different derivational suffixes, but the same English root, were found. This is the case of adjectives like апгрейдный and апгрейдовый, блогерный and блогерcкий, криповый and крипотный, лузерный and лузерcкий, мейнстримный, мейнстримовский and мейнстримовый, спойлерный and спойлерский, стримовский and стримовый, трэшевый and трэшовый, derived respectively from English nouns upgrade, blogger, loser, mainstream, spoiler, stream and trash. In general, each derivational suffix has a specific meaning: namely, the suffixes -ев-/-oв- indicate belonging, the property of an object, a material, or technical terminology; the suffix -cк- denotes the relationship with a certain category or the belonging to the category itself; finally, the suffix -н- indicate a property related to an object, a phenomenon, an action, a place, being subject to an action or the result of an action, denoted by the root of the adjective. Statistical analysis has helped to identify which adjective has become widely used in Russian; however, it must be kept in mind that this study focuses on Russian neologisms derived from English loanwords that are still evolving and integrating into the language. The integration of these new adjectives into the Russian language over time can be traced using corpus diachronic analyses. 3.4 Verbs: derivational and russification processes During the analysis, three major trends concerning verb derivational processes emerged: verbs having English 112 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS transliterated nouns, acronyms, or verbs as their root; different verb forms deriving from the same root, but belonging to different conjugations; finally, verbs derived from English loanwords and russified by adding the Russian suffix -cя to create the reflexive form of the verb. These phenomena will be discussed in detail in the following subparagraphs. 3.4.1 Verbs derived from transliterated English loanwords Several verbs deriving from English transliterated nouns, acronyms, or verbs were found during the analysis. Only one of the forty examined verbs derives from an acronym. In fact, the English acronym ROFL (Rolling On the Floor Laughing), usually transliterated into Russian as РОФЛ, gives rise to the verb рофлить, which means “rolling on the floor laughing” or “laughing out loud”. The major derivational suffixes used in verb formation are -a-, -и-, -ировa-, -ну-, and -ова-. The derivational suffix -и- appears in 62.5% of cases, followed by the derivational suffix -а-, used in 15% of cases. The suffix -ну- is less common, used in 10% of cases, as are the suffixes -ова- and -ирова-, which appear in 7.5% and 5% of cases, respectively. Derivational suffixes in Russian convey a specific meaning: the suffix -и- generally denotes the action denoted by the meaning of the verb’s root (рыбачить “to go fishing”, from рыба “fish”), the act of using an object or a tool, and atmospheric events (морозить “to frost”, from мороз “frost”), the manifestation of a quality denoted by the verb’s root (веселить “to amuse”, from веселье “amusement”), and many others. The suffix -a- forms denominal verbs, which typically denote a prolonged or ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 113 repeated action (завтракать “to have breakfast”, from завтрак “breakfast”). The verbs created by the -ну- suffix frequently refer to a single, instantaneous, and momentary action, whereas the suffix -oвa- forms imperfective verbs that denote the act of doing something, devoting oneself to an activity, or being in a specific state. The corpora analyzed revealed that these different nuances of meaning are preserved in these newborn verbs, but not always. 3.4.2 Verbs derived from the same root, but belonging to different conjugations During the analyses, different variants of verbs deriving from the same English root have been discovered: first of all, form the English noun “upgrade” derive five different verb forms; these are the verbs апгрейдировать, апгрейднуть, and апгрeйтить, the reflexive verb апгрейдиться, and апгрейдить, the most frequent of all. The English noun “game” also gave rise to two different Russian verbs, гамать and гeймить. Even though they may appear as verbs deriving from different foreign loanwords, the original word is, in fact, the same, i.e. “game”, transliterated in two different ways: гаме, as it is written in English, and гейм, as it is pronounced in English. Data analyses indicate that гамать is the most popular, but only further diachronic studies will be able to determine which of the two verbs will settle definitively in the Russian language. Two Russified variants of the English verb “to dislike” were found: дизлайкать and дизлайкнyть. Дизлайкать is slightly more frequent than дизлайкнyть however, the corpus occurrences are so rare that accurate predictions cannot be made. 114 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS The verbs свайпать, свайпить and свайпнyть derive from the English verb “to swipe”, which means moving one’s finger across a touchscreen. The meaning of a single and instantaneous action may explain why свайпнyть is the most widespread variant of the three. The verbs спoйлерить and спойлернуть derive from the verb “to spoiler”, which means to anticipate a part of a film, a TV series or a book, usually the ending. The most frequent variant is спойлерить, a trend confirmed by data from the Main Corpus, ruTenTen11 and ruTenTen17. The verbs трoллировать and троллить derive from the English verb “to troll”, which means to provoke, instigate or annoy someone on the Internet, in a chat, forum, or blog. Трoллировать is rarely used: forty-one occurrences in ruTenTen11 and only fourteen in ruTenTen17, so it may be doomed to disappear in favor of the most popular variant троллить. 3.4.3 Verbs derived from English loanwords, turned reflexive by the suffix -ся In Russian, reflexive verbs are formed through a process known as postfiksacija (“postfixation”), which differs from normal suffiksacia (“suffixation”) in that the reflexive particle -ся is added at the end of the verb, after the derivational suffixes that turn the root into a verb form. Six out of the forty analyzed verbs during the investigation were reflexive and derived from transliterated English borrowing. These verbs frequently have a non-reflexive variant: as in the cases of агрить “to make angry, to provoke”, and the reflexive агритьcя “to get angry, to get annoyed”, the verb апгрейдить (or its many variants апгрейдировать, апгрейднуть and апгрейтить) meaning “to upgrade”, and the reflexive verb апгрейдитьcя ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 115 “to upgrade yourself”, “to improve yourself”. The verb cелфить, which means “to take a selfie” has a reflexive variant селфиться, which means “to take a selfie of oneself”; the verb чилить, which means “to chill” has a reflexive but rarely used form, чилиться, which means “to chill oneself” (note that in English this verb is non-reflexive and intransitive). The reflexive verb сорриться, which literally means “to apologize oneself”, is derived from the English adjective “sorry” and has the postfix -ся to make it reflexive. It’s an interesting case because in English there is no verb “to sorry”, instead other forms are used (namely, “to be sorry”, “to feel sorry” or “to say sorry”); therefore this verb has undergone a deep process of russification, originating from an English loanword and adapting to the model of the Russian reflexive verb IMP PF извинятьcя –извиниться (“to say sorry” in the imperfective and perfective forms, respectively). 4. Conclusions The preceding paragraph illustrated the results and discussions on the analysis of contemporary Russian netspeak, conducted using a variety of research tools, including paper and online dictionaries, traditional corpora, and web corpora. It was thus possible to investigate the peculiarities of the contemporary Russian language and, at the same time, to conduct a comparative analysis of the research tools. As regards the various methods of transcribing loans, English loanwords are typically transcribed from Latin to Cyrillic characters as they are pronounced in English, 116 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS rather than as they are written, resulting in a kind of phonetic transcription. However, we cannot legitimately speak of “phonetic transcription” because the transcription is not based on the IPA alphabet (International Phonetic Alphabet) and is far from being a scientific transcription method. At the same time, if by “transliteration” we mean a transcription of a text according to an alphabetic system different from the original, we cannot even speak of it. Moreover, transliteration does not aim to give a phonetic interpretation, as it is in our case. Based on findings, I am inclined to propose a new term, “phonetic transliteration” capable of gathering and combining the characteristics of both terms. This definition, in my opinion, is the most appropriate for the Russian language, because the English loans are indeed transliterated, but on the basis of their pronunciation. Nouns are the most frequent loan; these are typically luxury loanwords that give rise to Russified derived and/or compound words. The presence of English nomina agentis and actionis ending in -er, transliterated and declined in Russian as masculine nouns ending in “-ер”, is an intriguing phenomenon: twenty-two of them were identified during the analysis. Less common, but equally interesting, is the Russification of English nomina agentis ending in -er by adding the derivational suffix “-cтв(о)”, resulting in neuter nouns with an abstract meaning, indicating a union or a group of people. During the analyses we found out 6 of them. Verbs are the second most productive morphological category: 40 different verb forms were identified during the analysis, most of which were derived from English ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 117 nouns. The research revealed that there are different verb forms derived from the same loan, but depending on the derivational suffix used (-а-, -и-, -ирова-, -ну-, -ова-), these verbs acquire a specific nuance of meaning. A fascinating phenomenon involves verbs derived from transliterated English loans, to which the suffix -cя is added, to make them reflexive; the most interesting case is the verb cорритьcя (from “sorry”), which has been adapted to the Russian reflexive model извинятьcя – извинитьcя (to apologise”), unlike the English language which uses formulas such as to be sorry, to feel sorry or to say sorry. In terms of a comparative analysis of the research tools used, the study suggests that the paper dictionary is insufficient for searching for neologisms and foreign loans, as no lexeme under investigation was found. On the contrary, online dictionaries are perfectly adequate and up- to-date resources for researching modern language and slang. They are, however, unsuitable for linguistic analysis. In terms of the two NKRJa sub-corpora, the Main Corpus is the most appropriate: in fact, it presented the occurrences of the searched word in 70% of the cases, whereas the Spoken Corpus only contained search results in 32.5% of the cases. Despite their undeniable utility, these two NKRJa sub-corpora cannot be compared to the web corpora used for the analyses in terms of data quantity and variety. RuTenTen11 and ruTenTen17 are the most effective tools for researching Russian neologisms and foreign borrowings: in 100% of cases, they contained occurrences of the searched word as well as several derived or compound lexemes. However, they are sometimes not very reliable and precise. The provocative title of this paper clearly states our goal: to see if corpus analysis can help us predict future 118 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS developments in Russian language. In general, a diachronic analysis of the linguistic corpus can be used to identify which standard form is consolidating in the target language, allowing predictions about the language’s future developments. Moreover, in the field of lexicography, this type of analysis can be extremely beneficial. In conclusion, the research objectives were met. At the same time, some questions for future research remain unanswered: the pattern analysis of those verbs derived from loans, to determine whether they are adapted to the Russian language, via structural calque, or remain the same as the original English model; and the concordances’ analyses relating to the loans examined, to determine whether or not they are adapted to the target language. These are just a few examples of how vast and complex the field of study is: this research is not the end, but only the beginning. Appendix List of analyzed lemmas 1. Абьюз, абъюз, абюз; абьюзер, абъюзер, абюзер; абьюзить, абъюзить, абюзить; абьюзный, абъюзный, абюзный. 2. Агрить, агриться. 3. Апгрейд, апгрэйд; апгрейд, ап-грейд; апгрейт, апгрэйт; апгрейдер, апгрэйдер; апгрейдинг, апгрэйдинг; апгрейдный, апгрэйдный; апгрейдовый, апгрэйдовый; апгрейденный, апгрэйденный. 4. Апгрейдить, апгрэйдить; апгрейдиться, ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 119 апгрэйдиться; апгрейднуть, апгрэйднуть; апгрейтить, апгрэйтить; апгрейдировать, апгрейдировать. 5. Ауф. 6. Байтить. 7. Баттхерт, баттхёрт, баттхёртить, баттхертить. 8. Блогер, блоггер; блогерский, блоггерский; блогерный, блоггерный; блогерство, блоггерство. 9. Бодиарт, боди-арт. 10. Бодипозитив, боди-позитив; бодипозитивный, боди-позитивный. 11. Бодишейминг, боди-шейминг; бодишеймер, боди- шеймер. 12. Буллинг, кибербуллинг, кибер-буллинг, кибербулинг, кибер-булинг; буллер, кибербуллер, кибер-буллер. 13. Вайб, вайбер. 14. Варик. 15. Вписка. 16. Гамать. 17. Гейм, гэйм; гейминг, гэйминг; гейминговой, гэйминговой; геймер, гэймер; геймерский, гэймерский; геймерство; геймить, гэймить; геймиться, гэймиться; геймплей, гэймплей; геймплэй, гэймплэй; геймплейный, гэймплейный; геймификация, гэймификация. 18. Дакфейс, дакфейсинг. 19. Дислайк, дизлайк, дизлайкнуть, дизлайкать. 120 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 20. Днюха. 21. Жиза. 22. Зашквар, зашквариться, зашкварить, зашкваренный, зашкваривания. 23. Зумер. 24. ИМХО. 25. Инфлюенсер, инфлюэнсер. 26. Краш. 27. Крейз, крэйз; крейзи, крэйзи; крейзер, крэйзер; крейзинг, крэйзинг; крейзанутый, крэйзанутый; крейзовый, крэйзовый. 28. Криндж, кринж; кринджовый, кринжовый. 29. Крипово, крипота, криповый, крипотный. 30. Кста. 31. Кэп. 32. Лайк, лайковый, лайкер. 33. Лайфхак, лайфхакер, лайфхакинг. 34. Лойс. 35. ЛОЛ. 36. Лузер, лузерство, лузерский, лузерный, лузерс. 37. Мейнстрим, мэйнстрим; мейнстримовый, мэйнстримовый; мейнстримный, мэйнстримный; мейнстримовский, мэйнстримовский; мейнстриминг, мэйнстриминг. 38. Муд. 39. Музон. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 121 40. Нетикет, нэтикет. 41. Офтоп, оф-топ; оффтоп, офф-топ; офтопик, оф- топик; оффтопик, офф-топик. 42. ПМСМ. 43. По фану. 44. Пранк , пранкер, пранковать. 45. РОФЛ, рофлить, рофлер. 46. Свайп, свайпнуть, свайпать, свайпить, свайпинг, свайпс. 47. Селфи, сэлфи; селфить, сэлфить; селфиться, сэлфиться; селфи-камера, сэлфи-камера; селфи- палка, сэлфи-палка; селфи-стик, сэлфи-стик. 48. Сетикет. 49. СЗОТ. 50. Сорри, сорриться. 51. Спойлер, спойлерство, спойлерить, спойлернуть, спойлерный. 52. Стайл, стайлс, стайлер, стайлинг, стайлинговый, стайлиш, стайловый. 53. Стрим, стример, стримерный, стриминг, стриминговый, стримить, стримовый, стримовский. 54. Стэнить. 55. Трабл, траблс, траблер, траблмейкер, траблшутинг, траблшутить. 56. Трип, трипп, трипер, триппер, триперный, трипперный, триповый, триповать, трип-хоп, 122 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS трип-хоповый трип-компьютер. 57. Тролинг, троллинг; тролинговый, троллинговый; тролить, троллить; тролинговать, троллинговать; тролировать, троллировать. 58. Треш, трэш; трешер, трэшер; трешевый, трэшевый; трешовый, трэшовый. 59. Фейк, фэйк; фейковый, фэйковый; фейк-новости, фэйк-новости; фейк-ньюс, фэйк-ньюс; фейкньюс, фэйкньюс. 60. Фейспалм, фэйспалм; фейспалмить, фэйспалмить. 61. Флексить. 62. Флуд, флудер, флудерский, флудинг, флудить. 63. Флешмоб, флэшмоб; флеш-моб, флэш-моб; флешмобер, флэшмобер; флешмоббер, флэшмоббер; флеш-мобер, флэш-мобер; флеш- мобер, флэш-моббер. 64. Фоловер, фолловер; фоловинг, фолловинг; фоловить, фолловить. 65. Френдзона, френд-зона, френд зона. 66. Хайп, хайповый, хайпануть, хайпер. 67. Хейтер, хэйтер; хейтерить, хэйтерить; хейтить, хейтерс; хейтерство, хэйтерство; хейтинг, хэйтинг; хейтерский, хэйтерский. 68. Хипстер, хипстерство, хипстерский. 69. Хэштег, хэштэг, хештег. 70. Чайлдфри, чайлд-фри, чайлд фри. 71. Чапалах. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 123 72. Чекать. 73. Челендж, челлендж; челенж, челленж; челенджер, челленджер, челенжер, челленжер. 74. Чилл-аут, чиллаут, чил-аут, чилаут, чиллер, чиллерный. 75. Чилить, чиллить; чилиться, чиллиться. 76. Шейм, шэим; шейминг, шэйминг. 77. Юзер, юзерский, юзать, юзаться. 78. Юзернейм. 79. Юзерпик. 80. 7Я. References Abuczki, Á., & Ghazaleh E. B. (2013). 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Using the web as corpus for linguistic research, in Tähendusepüüdja. Catcher of the Meaning. A Festschrift for Professor Haldur Õim, a cura di Pajusalu R., Hennoste T., University of Tartu, 355-369. Zakharov, V. (2013). Corpora of the Russian language. In Text, Speech, and Dialogue: 16th International Conference, TSD 2013, Pilsen, Czech Republic, September 1-5, 2013. Proceedings 16 (pp. 1-13). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. [1] The website of the RLC: http://web-corpora.net/RLC/. [2] The website of CoRST: http://web-corpora.net/ learner_corpus. [3] The website of RULEC: http://www.web-corpora.net/ RLC/rulec. [4] The website of the RSL: http://rsl.nstu.ru/site/index/ language/en. [5] Vikislovar’ is a multi-lingual dictionary and thesaurus, which was opened in 2004. Nowadays it contains 1.2 billion entries in over 600 languages. Link: https://ru.wiktionary.org/wiki. [6] Academic.ru is a website that collects encyclopedias and dictionaries related to specific fields, such as economics, technology, computer science, biology, sociology, etc. Link: https://academic.ru/. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 129 [7] The official website of NKRJa: https://ruscorpora.ru/. [8] “The slang of young people 2021”, “Youth slang 2021”, “Russian young jargon”, “Russian jargon of young people”, “Trendy words 2021”, “The most popular words of 2021”. 130 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 4 Japanese interactional particles: designing contents for teaching. Giordano Stocchi University of Naples ‘L’Orientale’, Department of Asian, African and Mediterranean Studies, Naples, Italy gstocchi@unior.it This paper seeks to provide a theoretical and methodological framework aiming at designing class content that enhances the Interactional Competence (Hall, 1999) of learners studying Japanese as a Foreign Language (JFL). It is worth noting that the present study is still in progress, and as such, the given account does not present complete data, analysis, or findings. The main objective of the research is to develop teaching materials using a corpus of spontaneous talk, the CEJC corpus (Corpus of Everyday Japanese Conversations) (Koiso et al., 2022), combined with Translanguaging (García & Wei, 2014) activities on the sentence-final particles ne, yo, and yone, important aspects ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 131 of Japanese pragmatics. Teaching pragmatics is an innovative goal, and it involves a shift away from traditional grammar and vocabulary-focused approaches, developing learners’ communicative competence using interactive and experimental teaching methods that make language learning more engaging and effective. Keywords: Japanese Language Teaching, Interactional Competence, Sentence-Final Particles, Translanguaging, Corpus of Spontaneous Talk. 1. State of the art During the past centuries, Japan has been a rather closed country, as contacts with the outside world were few and selected. However, the number of people studying Japanese and wishing to live in the country has grown exponentially in recent years. Consequently, intercultural situations between non-native speakers (NNS) and native speakers (NS) have become ordinary. Yet, the pragmatic focus in teaching the language is not common, and the communicative sphere is often undervalued. The Japanese language presents some features that are deeply rooted in the society in which it originated. Plus, it belongs to the isolated Japonic family which is not related to other neighboring languages, such as Chinese or Korean. For this reason, a foreigner could find it difficult to acquire some specific linguistic structures that are inborn with being native, such as the particles , ne, yo, and yone; broadly known as shūjoshi[1] (sentence-final particles) because of their position at the end of the sentence . 132 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 2.1 Sentence-final particles: ne, yo, and yone Ne, yo, and yone are among the most used particles in natural occurring interaction. As we can see in (cf. 1), in just fifteen seconds of conversation between two Japanese in an informal context, sentence-final particles appear predominantly (Morita, 2005). (1)[2] ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 133 One can find diastratic and diatopic variations of ne, yo, and yone: they change according to the geographic area and the different social groups in which they are used. They appear to be used conspicuously in informal talk, instead, they are limitedly utilized in formal and written language. 134 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Not all of the particles are strictly used at the end of the sentence; they can appear also between various parts of the discourse, in this case, these are called kantōjoshi (insertion particles). For this study, we analyze them when they occur in the final position, since ne, yo, and their combination yone are the most frequently used in that way. Ne is also used frequently as an insertion particle, but when it comes to yo and yone the use as an insertion particle is limited to the stylistic choices of the speaker. Maynard (1993a, 1993b), considering 3-minute segments of 20 casual conversations between NSs, states that the particles ne and yo occur in with a ratio of 3:1 (1 yo every 3 ne), finding 364 ne, and 128 yo in the considered data in both insertion and sentence- final positions. In recognition of their importance in interaction, the particles ne, yo, and yone were renamed as Interactional Particles (IPs) by Maynard (1993a) and later by Morita (2005). Despite their significant presence in speech, IPs have proven elusive in terms of functions and meanings in interaction. Moreover, ne, yo, and yone do not affect the utterances’ meaning, one can decide not to use them and there would not be any problem in communicating the message. However, it would change the way the message is performed and how the speaker relates to it and to the hearer, possibly making the statement odd. As a result, many scholars have investigated ne, yo, and yone from different perspectives in order to describe their usage and meanings. IPs’ meaning can be mainly described by analyzing the amount of information shared by the speaker and the listener. The informational gap between the two corresponds to a certain use of ne, yo, and yone (Kamio, 1994; ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 135 Maynard, 1993a; Ohso, 2005) . Hereafter are some examples taken from Ohso’s work. Ohso (2005), using the Nagoya University Conversation Corpus, tried to rethink the communicative functions of IPs. Ohso observed the data and tried to categorize standard cases in which the interactional particles are used by Japanese native speakers as it follows. Ne is defined as a particle showing firstly when the information is shared between the two speakers. For instance, ne is used when talking about the weather (cf. 2). (Annotated[3] and translated from Ohso 2005: 3) The weather can be usually considered as something shared since face-to-face communication happens under the same condition. Ne is used also as confirmation seeking. Ohso brings the example (cf. 3) of a dialogue between a waitress (W) and a customer (C) where ne is needed. (3) 136 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS (Annotated and translated from Ohso 2005: 3) The usage of ne, in this case, allows the speaker to receive consent about the owned information and confirm its correctness. Another usage (cf. 4) is strictly linked to a friendly conversational practice; it is used to assume that the wish or the doubt of the speaker is shared with his hearer. (4) (Data 65, Annotated and translated from Ohso 2005: 4) The last function of ne listed is the one that works as verification, to understand if what the speaker is saying has been followed by the listener. Usually, it is followed by an aizuchi[4] uttered by the hearer in response. As we can see in the following conversation (cf. 5), in which there are two persons talking about having a pet in the apartment. (5) ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 137 (Data 31; Annotated and translated from Ohso 2005: 5) The particle yo, instead, is used when it is necessary to show clearly to the hearer the information (opinion, judgment, will etc.) in possession of the speaker. There are two cases in which we can find yo. Firstly, when the hearer says something without having any valuable information about it, or when the speaker just wants to strongly refer to the knowledge that the hearer does not possess. Here is an example (cf. 6) taken from Ohso, in which the two speakers are talking about Belgium and the experience of living there. (6) (Data 65, Annotated and translated from Ohso 2005: 6) 138 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Secondly, when the speaker notices that the owned opinion differs from the hearer’s, and the speaker thinks it is important to show them with clarity the position, as we can see in the following example (cf. 7). (7) (Data 65, Annotated and translated from Ohso 2005: 7) Yone, instead, is the combination of the previous two particles and owns their functions combined. Three are the principal uses according to Ohso (2005). The first one is when the speaker previously acquired information, it shows that one already has the knowledge and asks for confirmation from the hearer. As we can see in the next example (cf. 8), the speaker looks for the confirmation of the already-known information. (8) ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 139 (Data 53, Annotated and translated from Ohso 2005: 8) Secondly, when the speaker imagines that the hearer possesses the same information (cf. 9). (9) 140 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS (Data 65, Annotated and translated from Ohso 2005: 9) Last, yone is also used when the speaker imagines that the hearer would have the same opinion about the given information, even if he does not explicitly know it yet. It has the same meaning as a simple yo but adding ne shows the speaker’s pursuit of mutual understanding and consent, maintaining a friendly atmosphere between the two (cf. 10). (10) ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 141 (Data 53, Annotated and translated from Ohso 2005: 10) Alternative theories account for Interactional Particles as tools able to manage: the conversational involvement (Lee D., 2007), the affective common ground among interlocutors (Cook, 1992), and the harmony of the entire interaction seen as the main goal of Japanese conversations (Onodera, 2004). Stating their importance in spoken utterances, Katagiri (2007) explains the particles in new terms. These can express the state of acceptance of the speaker on the information to the hearer, and accordingly, the hearer will decide if the information is acceptable or not. The scholar strongly believes that IPs are persuasion strategies, which is why they highly influence discourse in everyday interactions. Starting from Morita (2005) and Saigo (2011), IPs are considered entities more closely related to dialogue. Their research, based on a Conversation Analysis[5] (CA) 142 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS approach, sees the considered particles as resources for the co-construction of the current talk, having strong power in influencing the turn-taking structure and the position of all the speakers involved in the conversation. One of the aims of the in-development project is to rethink the particles’ functions taking into account the informational value (Kamio, 1994; Maynard, 1993a; Ohso, 2005), bridging it to the conversational nuances (Morita, 2005; Saigo, 2011). The revised descriptions will be elicited through the analysis of the corpus of spontaneous talk (CEJC) (cf. paragraph 3.2), the main source for the whole project. 1.1 Acquisition Japanese children can use IPs in different facets from a very young age (Clancy, 1985). Ne and yo, are the two showing earliest, appearing in children’s utterances between 1,6-2 years. […] it seems likely that at least some children can use sentence-final particles productively while the majority of their utterances still consist of a single word. It is particularly striking that these particles, which are extremely difficult for foreigners to master and use naturally, are acquired so early by Japanese children. (Clancy, 1985: 428) This can be explained by considering the particles’ pragmatic functions and emotional basis which make the children want to use them to connect with adults. The particles also appear to be a strong presence in babytalk[6]: notably, caregivers finish most of their sentences directed to children using ne or yo. This frequent amount of inputs ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 143 enables Japanese children to acquire IPs at an early age, while, on the contrary, they can be a tough topic for learners of Japanese as a second language. Japanese language learners struggle with the acquisition of sentence-final particles, even when introduced to IPs early on. In this section, we explore research on the use of ne, yo, and yone by learners. Plenty of qualitative studies show that learners tend to use IPs inaccurately resulting in discomfort for native speakers. Differences in the functions used can be observed, based on the learners’ proficiency level. Hajikano’s (1994) study analyzed the usage of sentence- final particles, focusing on the particle ne, among four beginner Japanese learners over the course of a year. The research showed that ne was the easiest particle to appear. The study identified individual differences in acquisition processes among the learners, with one subject showing gradual improvement in using ne correctly. However, the results cannot be generalized due to the small sample size. According to Hajikano learners tend to use ne incorrectly at an early stage and use other particles, such as yo and yone, less frequently. Intermediate-level Japanese learners tend to overuse interactional particles, which native speakers may perceive as rude, according to Kō (2008) and Koike (2000). In Koike’s study, roleplays between native-speaker of Japanese teachers and intermediate-to-upper- intermediate level non-native students have been recorded. Six university evaluators noted that the non-native speakers used the sentence-final particles ne and yo excessively. One of the evaluators commented that using about half as many would have been better, as excessive use can be considered inappropriate. 144 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS The uses in advanced speakers come closer to the native’s ones: mostly every particle appears to be used, but not always correctly (Lee S., 2001). The study by Lee S. (2001) compared the use of ne, yo, and yone between Japanese native speakers and Korean learners with an advanced level of Japanese. The research involved ten Japanese native speakers who were master’s students in their twenties and thirties, and ten Korean learners who had studied Japanese for more than five years, with only one student having studied for less than three years. During the study, participants engaged in roleplay conversations guided by general topics such as marriage, job hunting, and living abroad. Overall, the research suggests that after living in Japan for an extended period and having studied the Japanese language for long, advanced learners of Japanese can generally use ne, yo, and yone but still showing some room for improvement. Previous research shows how the IPs’ acquisition is a really long process in which strong is the influence of one’s individual characteristics and personal experience of living the language in Japan. The uses of IPs by learners of Japanese disclose problematic situations in intercultural communication. Misusing or not using ne, yo, and yone when needed can result in uncomfortable feelings on the side of native speakers (Koike, 2000). Nazikian (2005) gives an example (cf. 11) of a possible situation in which the use of the wrong particle could lead to communicative problems in an intercultural communication setting. She presents a situation in which a home-staying student in Japan is talking with their hosts. (11) ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 145 (Annotated, adapted, and translated from Nazikian, 2005: 168) Responding to a kindly uttered invite to feel free to eat more using yo makes the statement strong, stressing one’s position on something that the hearer must be aware of (in this case the fact that the student is vegetarian), consequently, possibly creating negative feelings on the Japanese speaker’s side. This example highlights the significance of Interactional Particles in Japanese communication. Acquiring these particles is crucial for expressing respect, building rapport, and ensuring smooth interactions. Without a solid understanding of these particles, NNSs may struggle to navigate social interactions and effectively communicate their intentions and emotions. As noted by Clancy (1985), however, it is impossible to replicate the ideal environment and input conditions necessary for Interactional Particles acquisition in a classroom setting. Perhaps these particles are so difficult for Westerners learning Japanese as a second language because their usage is so context-dependent that ordinary classroom instruction 146 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS cannot duplicate the appropriate conditions for acquisition. (Clancy, 1985: 435) Looking for more reasons concerning the failure encountered in acquiring IPs by NNSs, it can be stated that comments in Japanese language textbooks are scarce, and often do not effectively display their pragmatic functions (Hoshi, 2017; Kō, 2011). Furthermore, IPs when misused are usually not corrected in class (Nazikian, 2005), since the message conveyed in the utterance is not damaged. This inconsistency in teaching important communicative resources such as IPs stresses the lack of importance of the communicative sphere in Japanese language education. Different studies have shown that the acquisition of the IPs, can be facilitated by experiencing native input in the Japanese context (Masuda, 2011). However, one more recent research (Kizu et al., 2019) has shown how often not even an abundance of inputs in the native context is a decisive factor for the acquisition of these structures. It can be argued that the acquisition process is closely linked to the subjectivity of the learner. However, developing teaching materials with detailed explanations and exercises on Interactional Particles can enhance learners’ sensitivity to the topic, thereby facilitating the successful acquisition of their uses. A more suitable way of teaching ne, yo, and yone needs to be implemented (Kizu et al., 2013) and more attention has to be given to the oral and written production of the Japanese language (Hatasa & Watanabe, 2017). Little has been researched on how instructions in class can influence JFL learners’ acquisition of ne, yo, and yone. Kakegawa (2009) accounted for instructional effects on the ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 147 development of students’ uses of the particles, implementing activities on ne, yo, no, and yone through email correspondence with NSs. Moreover, Hoshi (2017) developed well-organized lessons on Interactional Particles’ pragmatic uses, demonstrating how instructions benefit the acquisition of Japanese IPs when opportunities for communication with NSs are presented as a component of the learning process. She also suggests that diverse instructional approaches need to be studied and implemented. Hoshi (2017) states that introducing authentic discourse data in class could help develop students’ pragmatic knowledge. Although, this is a procedure hardly applicable when students’ proficiency level is not high enough. 2. Project Given the existence of the gap in the literature concerning the teaching and acquisition of the IPs in NNSs, the current project aims to develop class contents using the CEJC (Corpus of Everyday Japanese Conversation) (Koiso et al., 2022) (cf. paragraph 3.1) combined with Translanguaging (cf. paragraph 3.2) activities in class. 2.1 CEJC – Corpus of Everyday Japanese Conversations The role the particles assume can be stressed using the CEJC corpus (Corpus of Everyday Japanese Conversations) (Koiso et al., 2022) to elaborate activities to teach the sociocultural norms of Japanese interaction. Developed by NINJAL (National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics), the CEJC corpus comprises 200 hours of spontaneous conversations in various formal and informal 148 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS settings for a total of 1675 conversants, including 862 different participants. It is available in audio, video, and transcript formats, upon request from the institution. The data were manually transcribed and linked to the video through ELAN[7] (ELAN, 2022) and/or Praat[8] (Boersma & Weenink, 2023). The programs were used to give more precise annotations of talk. Corpus of naturally occurring conversations has been widely recognized as beneficial to the Foreign Language Teaching field of study (Römer, 2011).This is planned through a CA-informed approach: naturally occurring speech facilitates the discovery of previously unknown regularities of human interaction (Sacks et al., 1974). The CEJC corpus is supposed to be used directly, as Bernardini (2002) suggests: learners will be linguistic researchers involved in the discovery of the class topics by analyzing the corpus itself. The use of a corpus as the basis of language lessons exposes learners to spontaneous talk input, facilitating the understanding of interactional resources in the contexts of use (Barraja-Rohan, 2011). 2.2 Translanguaging Translanguaging is planned to be employed as a facilitator of activities involving the corpus. The concept was born as a pedagogical resource used in the multilingual classroom, allowing the students to use their linguistic skills and experiences acquired in their L1 as well as other languages, to develop new knowledge in a new language. As argued by García & Wei (2014) these practices are naturally occurring when an emergent bilingual is learning a new language. Translanguaging is based on the recognition that individuals possess multiple linguistic abilities that coexist within a bilingual continuum. It ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 149 acknowledges that languages can influence each other as their boundaries become blurred. This practice not only allows the students to build new knowledge more easily but also helps them to strengthen the weaker language of their repertoire (Baker, 2001). It is only recently that Translanguaging has started to be considered applicable to Foreign Language Teaching. Research on the potential benefits of the use of the L1 or other languages that the students already mastered in-class activities is gaining momentum in the academic discourse. The idea of replacing common practices (Target language focused) with Translanguaging practices is also being considered particularly valid. Translanguaging teaching technique provides multiple benefits: students learn new concepts with ease through it, being able to adapt to it effortlessly. It also allows the creation of a relaxed learning atmosphere that could be beneficial to weaker students, making them gain the confidence they need to actively participate in the activities (Chukly-Bonato, 2016; Nagy, 2018) 2.3 Research questions The starting assumption is that Translanguaging could help suppress the emergence of the so-called affective filter[9] (Krashen, 1988). Moreover, since the particles ne, yo, and yone are invested with high social value, the combination of Translanguaging tools with the use of a corpus could ease the exchange of impressions, deriving both from the fruition of examples selected from the corpus and from any direct experiences previously encountered by students. Hence, the research questions set for the study are: 150 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 1. What are IPs’ functions found, considering previously given definitions, through the analysis of the corpus of spontaneous talk? 2. How can a teaching unit be structured on the Interactional Particles using the corpus of spontaneous talk and Translanguaging techniques? 3. What are the benefits of using the corpus of spontaneous talk and Translanguaging when aiming to improve JFL learners’ Interactional Competence? 4. What are the stances of students towards the use of the corpus and Translanguaging in class? 2.4 Research design The particles’ definitions and uses will be reconsidered through the analysis of the CEJC corpus. The study will analyze the functions considering the state of the art on the topic, but always referring to the spontaneous uses occurring in the corpus itself. From the analysis, representative extracts of videos linked to the functions elicited will be used to structure the teaching unit. The lessons including the spontaneous corpus will be developed and presented to a trial group of students. The upcoming is a possible class structure, outlined following the steps described by CEFR[10] (Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) to build a teaching module developed in different phases, combined with Translanguaging activities that will allow the mutual switch from L1 to the target language from phase to phase: ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 151 • pre-introductory – evaluation of the students’ pragmatic use of the particles • introductory – motivational phase, explaining the strong value of the particles in conversation and asking the students to share experiences and opinions on the particles, • initial – show the selected extracts of CEJC, then distribute transcriptions of the shown passages, • central – divide the students into groups, with the task of analyzing the uses and reporting orally to the class what was discovered, using then their production to explain and discuss the actual uses of the particles, • final – elaborate roleplays or activities that make the students use the particles to better understand and acquire them, • conclusive – evaluation of the lesson’s results and feedback from the students. Participating students will be gathered from Japanese classes (master’s degree level) of the University of Naples ‘L’Orientale’, considering their level of proficiency in Japanese between intermediate-to-advanced. The non- participating students, attending the ordinary curricular Japanese classes, will be employed as the control group as proof of the validity of the research. Students who have an elementary level of proficiency will be excluded from the study because they may not be able to comprehend some of the cultural subtleties associated with the uses of IPs. Furthermore, they may find the corpus of spontaneous conversations too complex even with the implementation of Translanguaging in class. 152 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Aiming at evaluating the benefits of the planned methodology, the study will assess the students’ output in a pre-introductory and a final phase to evaluate if their ability in the use of ne, yo, and yone improved through the lessons. It will also evaluate students from the control group, with the same assessment tasks on the IPs. This will be done to prove that students participating in the research are able to better grasp the meanings and functions of ne, yo, and yone. In order to investigate the stances of students towards the use of the corpus and Translanguaging in class, in the conclusive phase, they will be asked to fill out a written survey. Based on the answers given, follow-up interviews will be conducted with some of the students whose answers may result to be particularly relevant to the purpose of the research. To this end, the questionnaire will help with the understanding of the students’ feelings toward the teaching methodology. It will also help in collecting the opinions and feedback needed to appropriately evaluate the impact of the teaching method on their personal learning experience. 2.5 Relevance The present research aims to develop the students’ ability to better understand Japanese conversation practices, making them transculturally competent and able to distinguish the right strategy for the cultural context where the conversation is situated, especially when it comes to Japanese Interactional Particles’ uses. The objective is to give new importance to pragmatics in talk-in-interaction in Japanese pedagogy, developing new strategies based on recent findings in Foreign Language Teaching. Teaching pragmatics is of utmost importance ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 153 as it helps learners to effectively communicate and comprehend meaning beyond the literal level. Pragmatic knowledge is essential for learners who wish to interact effectively in real-life situations, especially when communicating with native speakers of the target language. When learners have a good grasp of the pragmatics of a language, they are more likely to be successful in achieving their communicative goals, making a good impression, and building rapport with native speakers. This is particularly important for individuals who intend to work or study in a foreign country, where the understanding and respect of the local culture is crucial for success. In Japanese, the interactional particles ne, yo, and yone are of great importance to be pragmatically and interactionally competent. Therefore, improving teaching- related activities in the Japanese as a Foreign Language classroom becomes salient, making the ongoing project relevant to Japanese pedagogy. References Baker, C. (2001). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (3rd ed.). Multilingual Matters. 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(2000). Nihongo bogowasha ga shitsurei to kanjirunowa gakushūshano donna hatsuwa ka: (irai) no bamen ni okeru bogowasha no hatsuwa to hikou to shite [What learner’s utterances do Japanese native speakers find rude: comparison with the native speaker’s utterance in the request scene]. Hokkaidō Daigaku Ryūgakusei Sentā Kiyou [Journal of International Student Center], 4, 58–80. Koiso, H., Amatani, H., Den, Y., Iseki, Y., Ishimoto, Y., Kashino, W., Kawabata, Y., Nishikawa, K., Tanaka, Y., Usuda, Y., & Watanabe, Y. (2022). Design and Evaluation of the Corpus of Everyday Japanese Conversation. Proceedings of the Thirteenth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference, 5587–5594. https://aclanthology.org/2022.lrec-1.599 Krashen, S. D. (1988). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Prentice-Hall International. Lee, D.-Y. (2007). Involvement and the Japanese interactive particles ne and yo. Journal of Pragmatics, 39(2), 363–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2006.06.004 Lee, S. (2001). Giron no ba ni mirarerùne’ `yo’ `yo ne’ ni tsuite: Nihongo bogo washa to kangokujin gakushū-sha to no sōi [Discussion on “Ne” “Yo” and “Yone”: differences between native Japanese speakers and Korean learners] . Nagoya Daigaku: Kiyō Ronbun [Nagoya University: Departmental Bulletin Paper], 14, 41–71. Masuda, K. (2011). Acquiring Interactional Competence in a Study Abroad Context: Japanese Language Learners’ Use of the Interactional Particle ne. The Modern Language Journal, 95(4), 519–540. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1540-4781.2011.01256.x Maynard, S. K. (1993a). Discourse Modality: Subjectivity, ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 157 Emotion, and Voice in the Japanese Language. John Benjamins Publishing Company. Maynard, S. K. (1993b). Kaiwa Bunseki [Conversation Analysis] (Kuroshio Shuppan). Morita, E. (2005). Negotiation of Contingent Talk: The Japanese Interactional Particles Ne and Sa. John Benjamin Publishing Company. Nagy, T. (2018). On Translanguaging and Its Role in Foreign Language Teaching. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica, 10(2), 41–53. https://doi.org/10.2478/ ausp-2018-0012 Nazikian, F. (2005). Shūjoshìyo’`ne’ to nihongo kyōiku [Sentence final particles “yo” “ne” and Japanese language education]. In Gengo kyōiku no shintenkai – Makino Seiichi – kyōjun Kōki kinen ronshū [New developments on language teaching – Professor Kōki Memorial Collection] (pp. 167–180). Ohso, M. (2005). Shūjoshi yo, ne, yone, saikō – zatudan kōpasu ni motoduku kōsai – [Reconsideration of final particles “yo” “ne” “yone” – Consideration based on a talk corpus]. In Gengo kyōiku no shintenkai – Makino Seiichi – kyōjun Kōki kinen ronshū [New developments on language teaching – Professor Kōki Memorial Collection] (pp. 3–15). Hituji shobō. Onodera, N. O. (2004). Japanese Discourse Markers. John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/ pbns.132 Römer, U. (2011). Corpus Research Applications in Second Language Teaching. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 31, 205–225. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0267190511000055 Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. A., & Jefferson, G. (1974). A Simplest Systematics for the Organization of Turn-Taking 158 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS for Conversation. Language, 50(4), 696. https://doi.org/ 10.2307/412243 Saigo, H. (2011). The Japanese Sentence-Final Particles in Talk-in-Interaction (Vol. 205). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.205 [1] When transcribing Japanese language in the Roman alphabet the Hepburn system is adopted. [2] In the transcription the Courier New font is used since it allows to better display the glossa and the characteristics of talk. The following is the glossa used in Morita (2005): DES-Desiderative; MOD-Modal auxiliary; N-Nominalizer; POT-Potential form; PRT-Interactional particle; QUO- Quotative; SUB-Subject; TE-Conjunctive form. [3] In the examples annotated by the author the Leipzig Glossing system is adopted (Comrie et al., 2008) [4] Aizuchi (backchannels) are the interjections frequently used during a conversation to show to the speaker we are listening to what is said and that we are involved in talk. [5] Approach used to study social interaction investigating the ongoing talk through the analysis of multimodal stances. The aim is to describe patterns of talk and the rules permeating social interactions. [6] Babytalk or motherese, is a simplified version of language adopted by adults to interact with children. This consists of simpler grammar, long pauses, and limited vocabulary. The terms used can be modified, or new playful terms can be coined. [7] ELAN allows the researcher to manually take notes on videos, making it possible to clearly outline overlaps, pauses, and different notes on the occurring utterances. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 159 [8] Praat is a software used in the analysis of speech in phonetics. [9] Self-defense mechanism that acts negatively, hindering learning, when the task or the object of the class is too complex for students. [10] https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european- framework-reference-languages/level-descriptions 160 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 5 Bilingualism and (developmental) language disorders. An overview. Maria Ducoli Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Department of Linguistics and Comparative Cultural Studies, Venice, Italy ducoli.maria2000@gmail.com During the last decade, linguistic research has started to investigate the cognitive advantages of bilingualism. Nowadays clinical linguists pay more and more attention to the bilingual population, arguing against the common misconceptions according to which bilingualism leads to confusion and linguistic delay in children. The same beliefs have led many teachers to discourage or even prohibit the usage of the L1 (in case of a heritage language) or the L2 especially in the case of learning difficulties or language impairment. Recent studies in the field of clinical linguistics (Kovelman et al., 2008; Marinis et al., 2017; Vender et al., 2018, Vender et al., 2019; Garraffa et al., 2020) ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 161 provide evidence of the advantages of bilingualism for children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) but also with other types of language impairments, such as Dyslexia, Autistic spectrum disorder (ASD), Down syndrome (DS), Hypoacusis and Aphasia. Even in the presence of atypical development, in fact, bilingualism brings cognitive advantages but also entails difficulties in diagnosing a language impairment in bilingual children. This contribution provides a brief overview of the state of the art with the aim of supporting language policies that encourage bilingualism and multilingualism also in presence of language disorders. Keywords: bilingualism; atypical language development; clinical linguistics; developmental language disorder; cognitive advantages; bilectalism; dyslexia; autism; Down syndrome; ADHD. 1. Introduction Nowadays, bilingualism is a matter of debate. Even if linguistic research has made great progress and there are fewer misconceptions about the negative influence of bilingualism on the process of language acquisition, sometimes some ancient and obsolete assumptions are still heard. Commonly held beliefs and myths about bilingualism can have a strong influence on assessment, intervention, and decision-making processes (Espinosa, 2008), therefore this contribution aims to shed light on research progress in this field. Even if in the last years the migratory waves resulted 162 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS in new linguistic combinations, we still tend to make a distinction between the languages mastered by the bilingual, considering some language combinations as élite bilingualism and others as folk bilingualism (Garraffa et al., 2020). In the first case, the involved languages are prestigious and widely spread, such as English, French, Spanish, and German, and the children will be considered as “lucky”. In the second one, bilingualism is governed by circumstances, and it is the result of migration. In this case, society has a totally different perception of the bilingual child whose bilingualism is often unrecognized if the mastered language is a minority and less prestigious one, not included in school curricula nor used by media and spoken in a Country with low social prestige. It is a purely cultural difference, as the brain does not make any distinction between languages. In fact, at the cognitive level, no matter if the child speaks English, Farsi, or Venetian dialect: the benefits are present in any case (Antoniou et al., 2016; Garraffa et al., 2020) In the last few years, clinical linguists started to focus more on the bilingual population, so as to contrast the common misconceptions which lead teachers to discourage or even prohibit the usage of the L1 or L2, especially in case of learning difficulties or language impairment. Not only is this a piece of advice not supported by any scientific evidence, but it may also be potentially damaging and counterproductive for the healthy psychophysical development of the child. Language, in fact, is more than a communicative system: it has an active role in the construction of identity, allowing the person to feel part of a social group and share with other members linguistic norms and habits. Prohibiting the child to use their L1 at home may have implications ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 163 for the whole family system. Moreover, we should be aware that one of the basic factors of bilingualism is the quality of the input. In this sense, it would be counterproductive to ask the immigrant family to abandon their L1 to facilitate the acquisition of the new language. Nowadays, clinical linguistics – defined by David Crystal as a branch of linguistics that apply linguistic theories and methods to the analysis and treatment of language disorders (Crystal, 1981) – joins the debate on bilingualism underlining the numerous benefits it has upon atypical population. The cognitive advantages seem to be cross- sectional to the different types of language impairments from Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) – which appears in children without any other cognitive or social impairments (Fleckstein et al., 2018; Tsimpli et al., 2016) – to dyslexia (Celentin & Daloiso, 2018; Vender et al. 2018) and hypoacusis (Bunta & Douglas, 2013). Moreover, the benefits appear also in cases of Autistic spectrum disorder (Hambly & Fombonne, 2012; Ohashi et al., 2012), Down syndrome (Bird et al., 2005, Burgoyne et al., 2016) and schizophrenia (Seeman, 2016). Cognitive advantages of bilingualism are also found in case of ADHD – one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood, characterized by attention deficits – but in this case further research is needed to better understand the issues (Bialystok et al., 2016; Köder et al., 2022; Shamra et al., 2022). The present article aims to present a general overview of the topic. It is articulated as follows: in the first section the cognitive advantages of bilingualism in both cases of typical and atypical development will be analysed, as well as the difficulties in diagnosing the language impairment in bilingual children. In the second one, different situations 164 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS of atypical development will be considered. In the last section it will provide a description of a phenomenon widely spread in Italy, that is bilectalism and its benefits in case of language disorders. 2. Bilingualism between advantages and difficulties: the two sides of the coin 2.1 Cognitive and social advantages Adopting a functional definition, bilingualism could be described as the usage of two (or more) languages on a regular basis, and bilingual children are those who use two (or more) languages in their everyday life (Armon-Lotem et al., 2015). Recent research (Bialystok et al., 2007; Costa et al., 2014; Branchini & Donati, 2016) tried to answer an important question: what happens in the bilingual brain while using one of the mastered languages? Are both languages still active or is the one not in use temporarily inhibited? There is a solid amount of evidence (Armon-Lotem, et al., 2015; Garraffa et al., 2020) showing that both languages are active, and bilinguals develop mechanisms of inhibition allowing them to keep the two languages separated, since they cannot use them simultaneously due to the constraints of the phono-articulatory apparatus, but also because they have to choose the language to use depending on the interlocutor. The direct consequence of such “exercise” results in advantages in executive-control tasks, such as the Simon Task (Simon & Rudell, 1967) which is a behavioural measure of interference and conflict resolution. Participants are asked to respond to visual stimuli by making a rightward response to one stimulus ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 165 (i.e., a circle) and a leftward response to another (i.e., a square). The stimuli are sometimes presented on the right side of the display and sometimes on the left. The location on which the stimuli appear on the display is irrelevant for the accuracy of the performance, but it influences participants’ patterns of responding by either matching (i.e., congruent trials) or not matching (i.e., incongruent trials) the side of the correct button press associated with the shape. The Simon Effect is indicated by a lower accuracy and/or longer reaction time for incongruent vs congruent trials. Bilingual children, who are used to constantly inhibiting the non-active language, are less subject to the Simon Effect. (Garraffa, Beveridge, Sorace, 2015). No advantages in executive-control functions have been found in bimodal bilinguals (Branchini & Donati, 2016), namely competent users of a sign and a vocal language which can be (and as a matter of fact often are) simultaneously produced during code-mixing exchanges, called code-blending (Emmorey et al., 2008). The simultaneous production of the two language strings is possible due to the physical independence of the linguistic channels involved in the two languages (the hands and the face for the sign language, the vocal tract for the spoken language). If in the past code-mixing was considered a signal of confusion of the two languages (Poplack, 1980; Cummins, 1981; Cheng & Butler, 1989; Harry, 1992), more recent studies (Poplack & Walker, 2003; Emmorey et al., 2008, Paradis, 2001) show that code-mixing and code-blending follow specific rules and are correlated with specific- interactional situations or linguistic properties (Sorace et al., 2009; Branchini & Donati, 2016). 166 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS A particularly interesting situation has been described by Donati & Branchini (2013) and Branchini & Donati (2016) analysing the code-blending production of CODAs (hearing Children Of Deaf Adults) native users of Italian and Italian Sign Language (LIS), typologically different languages as far as word order is concerned (Italian: SVO; LIS: SOV). Branchini and Donati found 4 different types of code-blending in the data: two simultaneous language strings following the grammar and word order of one of the two languages (Italian or LIS); two simultaneous language strings each one displaying the grammar and word order dictated by its language; and a single proposition composed of fragments provided by the two languages (i.e., the subject in one language, the object in the other language). The code-blending typologies were not produced by chance, rather, they were context-dependent: the child chooses them depending on the interlocutors present during the exchange. According to Branchini & Donati (2016), their use also depends on the set involving the presence of a cognitive and more demanding representation involved in the different types of code- blending. Type 1 involves the full activation of one language and one derivation, while both Type 2 and Type 3 involve the full activation of two languages and in Type 2 two parallel derivations. These differences lead bimodal bilingual children to prefer Type 1 since it is less cognitively demanding. The enriched cognitive control that comes along with the bilingual experience represents just one of the advantages that bilingual people display. They also show major cognitive flexibility, and they are more successful than their monolingual peers in adopting more successful lexical learning strategies (Garraffa et al., 2020). Moreover, ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 167 there is evidence in favor of the hypothesis of bilingualism effects on decision-making behavior: Costa et al. (2014) pointed out a reduction of heuristic biases in decision- making as well as a reduction of emotional resonance. Other advantages involved in bilingualism concern attention and ageing which are not exclusive to people who were raised bilingual, they are also noticed in people who learn a second language later in life (Linck et al., 2008). Bialystok et al. (2007) proved that the increasing cognitive reserve consequent to bilingualism confers protection against the onset of Alzheimer disease’s symptoms. Furthermore, beyond these cognitive and neurological advantages, there are also valuable social benefits that come from being bilingual, among them the ability to understand mental states, known as Theory of Mind (ToM). These abilities arise during development, but special conditions such as bilingualism may enhance ToM development or other capacities required by ToM tasks. Bilingual children seem to be able to understand others’ point of view around one year before their monolingual peers. The precocious success of bilinguals may be associated with their well-developed control functions formed during monitoring and selecting languages (Kovács, 2009). 2.2 The difficult diagnosis: Developmental Language Disorder in bilingual children If on one hand advantages related to bilingualism have been widely discussed in the previous section, it is now necessary to focus on the difficulty in diagnosing a developmental language disorder (DLD) in bilingual children. DLD is a primary deficit in linguistic ability and language development, unrelated to other types of deficits 168 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS (Bishop et al., 2000); Bishop, 2006). DLD population is very heterogeneous, with differing criteria and controversy about what linguistic aspects are affected and to what extent (Bishop et al., 2000; Armon-Lotem et al. (2015). The deficit can manifest at different levels but not all the skills are equally impaired (Friedmann & Novogrodsky, 2009). Syntax and morphology are the most established indicators of DLD and studies on Bi-DLD often show that DLD in sequential bilinguals share the same patterns as in monolinguals (Chondrogianni & Marinis, (2012). Studies on bilingualism (Vender 2018; Garraffa et al., 2020), show not only the advantages of mastering more than one language but also other implications. Bilingual children show a reduced vocabulary, and they may display morphosyntactic difficulties similar to those of children with DLD. These similarities may result in overdiagnosis of DLD in children who do not have a real language impairment or, on the contrary, underdiagnosis of DLD, reconducting the child’s difficulties to bilingualism. Moreover, the difficulties in diagnosing the language deficit are also due to the fact that tools assessing the language development even in monolingual children are available only for a limited number of languages and they are not comparable across languages or normed for bilingual children, who generally do not conform to monolingual norms (Armon-Lotem et al., 2015). Recently, the overlap among features of bilingual and impaired language, which causes methodological and clinical confusion, led also to the founding of the European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) Action IS0804 “Language Impairment in a Multilingual Society: Linguistic Patterns and the Road to Assessment” whose aim is to profile bilingual DLD by establishing a network to ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 169 coordinate research on the linguistic and cognitive abilities of bilingual children with DLD across different migrant communities. The diagnostic dilemma has led to the increase of research (Haman et al., 2015; Schulz, 2015; Peristeri et al., 2017; J. Paradis et al., 2017) which focuses on the study of bi-DLD, with the aim of disentangling the effects of bilingualism from those of the language impairment. 3. Bilingualism in atypical conditions Among the parameters to consider in case of language disorders, one of the most important is the onset which permits distinguishing between developmental and acquired impairments. Even if the causes of the formers are not clear, they seem to have a genetic component and they appear during childhood. The language deficit could, therefore, be a consequence of chromosomal diseases (i.e., Down syndrome) or neurodevelopmental disorders (i.e., dyspraxia). In all these cases, the language disorder is correlated to other deficits. The acquired language disorders, instead, appear later in the life of the person who shows a solid linguistic competence. They may be caused by permanent or transitional clinical conditions, such as neurological diseases (i.e., aphasia) and phono-articulatory dysfunctions, which consist in functional or organic alterations of larynx, as dysphonia (Gagliardi, 2021). In the present section it will be provided an overview of the cognitive advantages of bilingualism observed even in case of atypical development. The clinical situations considered will be the Developmental Language Disorder 170 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS (DLD), dyslexia, Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD), hypoacusis, Down Syndrome (DS) and aphasia. 3.1 Bilingualism and Developmental Language Disorder The term Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) [1] refers to a belated acquisition of language abilities in absence of any other cognitive or sensory deficit. In particular, the child with DLD has important difficulties both in the production and in the comprehension of complex morphosyntactic structures, but also in the phonological, morphological, and lexical competence (Leonard, 2014). Around 7% of the anglophone population show a language disorder, which leads to consider DLD as the neurodevelopmental disorder with the highest predominance in preschool age (Tomblin et al., 1997). The same results were found for italophone population by Clasta’s Consensus Conference (2019). Not all the belated speakers – namely, those children who in the first three years of life have difficulties in language acquisition – receive a diagnosis of DLD. Most of them manage to recover the delay with logopaedic treatment which allows them to reach the same level of competence as their peers. On the contrary, in case of persistence of difficulties the specialist may arrive to diagnose a DLD. The child with DLD shows difficulties with some specific structures, considered as clinical markers for diagnosing the linguistic deficit. In particular, in Italian, one of the most used clinical markers is the production of object clitic pronouns (e.g., lo, la, li, le). Nevertheless, according to Smith et al. (2022), clitic pronouns were found to be vulnerable in heritage speakers of Italian who produced approximately 35% of the target clitics against the 80% of adult ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 171 immigrants – who moved from Italy to an English- speaking country in adulthood – suggesting that clitic pronouns may not be reliable structures to test language competence in heritage Italian. Clitics are complex structures also for typically developed children, who manage to establish their use around 3-4 years old. Atypically developed children show an omission of clitics which persist also in school age. Generally, the production results show that clitics are compromised during the whole childhood and sometimes also during adolescence (Arosio, 2010). Even if various research tried to explain the difficulty of children with DLD in the production and comprehension of clitics, the most convincing is the explanation of Jakubowicz et al. (1998), who abandoned the Surface Hypothesis theorized by Leonard (1989) – who attributed the difficulty with clitics to their phonological properties, namely to the fact that they are monosyllabic, unstressed and they can never appear in isolation – and the one of Guilfoyle (1991), according to which children with DLD have problems with all functional categories, not only with clitics. Jakubowicz et al. (1998) showed that the difficulties with clitics are not in the comprehension as proposed by Leonard but in their syntactic and binding properties, which are confirmed by the major production of reflexives in comparison with accusatives. It demonstrates that, contrary to Guilfoyle’s hypothesis, the difficulties are not generalized to all functional categories. With respect to bilingualism and DLD, it was proved that there is no evidence of cross-linguistic influence on grammatical performances (Gutiérrez-Clellen et al., 2008) but, on the contrary, bilinguals have language-specific difficulties in the two mastered languages (Paradis, 2010). 172 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Therefore, there are reasons to believe that the displayed difficulties are attributable to DLD and not to bilingualism. Conversely, cognitive and social advantages resulting from bilingualism are present also in the case of atypical language acquisition (Marinis et al., 2017). Tsimpli et al. (2016) by using the Greek version of the Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives, demonstrated that bilingual children with DLD had better results than their monolingual peers with DLD in the production of referential pronouns. Even if results showed differences between typically developed children and children with DLD in microstructure, bilinguals with DLD outperform monolinguals with language impairment. Moreover, bilinguals present advantages in the usage of [+ToM] terms, namely the ones which refer to the Theory of Mind, a system of interference that allow the individual to understand and attribute mental states such as beliefs, desires and emotions to others. Even if these terms represent a challenge of memory, the habits of bilinguals to express them in different languages makes children more sensitive to their use, also in the case of DLD. Another clinical marker of DLD is the repetition of non- words, particularly difficult because it requires intact phonological memory and it addresses lexical processing, stress patterns and phonotactic rule (Bishop et al., 1996). Thordardottir & Brandeker’s (2013) study of non-word repetitions in monolingual and bilingual 5-year-olds acquiring French and English simultaneously but with varied levels of exposure to the two languages, revealed very little effect of language experience on bilinguals’ performance. Their study found good differentiation between TD monolinguals and monolinguals with DLD. In contrast, Engel de Abreu (2011) found that bilingual ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 173 children with different European languages as L1, performed less well than their monolingual peers on a Luxembourgish test of non-word repetition. Interestingly, the difference disappeared once vocabulary was controlled, suggesting that reduced language exposure was responsible for the difference in non-word repetition. 3.2 Bilingualism and Dyslexia Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental learning disorder characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities and it appears in children who do not have any other neurological deficit. Even if the main difficulty concerns reading skills, children with dyslexia often display other linguistic deficits related to phonological competence, lexical access as well as working memory and processing resources, implied in complex syntactic structures (Vender, 2017). Moreover, 63% of children with dyslexia also show a DLD (Celentin & Daloiso, 2018). Given the high percentage of comorbidity of dyslexia and DLD, it is easy to assume that benefits brought by bilingualism in case of DLD, could be extended to children with dyslexia. This hypothesis has been confirmed by recent research (Klein & Doctor, 2003; Kovelman et al., 2008; Cummins, 2012; Vender 2018, 2019). Even when using only one of their languages, bilinguals often have access to the linguistic and orthographic representations of their other language (Kroll & Bialystok, 2013). Such interaction between the two languages facilitates the bidirectional transfer of literacy knowledge gained in one language towards learning to read in the other (Cummins 2012). For examples, studies comparing 174 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS bilinguals learning English and a more phonologically transparent language (i.e., Italian or Spanish) have shown that these bilinguals outperform English monolinguals on phonological literacy tasks, such as nonword reading (Kovelman et al., 2008). Similar results were found by Vender (2018a), who demonstrated that bilinguals with and without dyslexia have better performances than their monolingual peers in the pluralization of non-words. The cognitive advantage of bilingualism, therefore, can be observed also in the case of dyslexia. The advantages occur also at the level of the executive function, such as the Simon Task (Vender, 2019). Moreover, some evidence in support of the role played by bilingualism was provided by studies of bilingual children learning to read in two alphabetic orthographies have shown that children with dyslexia have similar reading deficits in both languages (Klein & Doctor, 2003). The diagnosis of dyslexia in an L2 context is particularly difficult because poor performance in reading may be caused by poor language proficiency in the L2, limited schooling or poor reading ability per se. To disentangle difficulties related to bilingualism from reading deficits, Elbro et al., (2012) proposed a dynamic evaluation of decoding skill – fundamental for the diagnosis – which, differently from the traditional one, is not based on lists of words and pseudowords’ recognition but on the level of learning of non-existent orthographic patterns, compatibles with more than one languages. This measure provides results in accordance with the definition of dyslexia adopted by International Dyslexia Association (IDA), while significantly reducing the influence of second language vocabulary and amount of schooling. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 175 3.3 Bilingualism and Autistic Spectrum Disorders The DSM-5, namely the Diagnostical and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which is the principal authority for psychiatric diagnoses, include Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD), a syndrome which comprehends different disorders, such as autism, Asperger syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder and childhood disintegrative disorder. ASD is a neurodevelopmental disability characterized by difficulties in social communication, both verbal and nonverbal, deficit in social interaction, compromission of the theory of mind and restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior, interests or activities. Many children with ASD also show poor motor coordination and attention weaknesses (Hyman et al., 2020). As in the previously mentioned situations of atypical development, bilingualism does not represent a difficulty for children with ASD. Hambly & Fombonne (2012) stated that bilingually exposed children with ASD did not experience additional delays in language development. Vanegas (2019) investigated the impact of bilingual experience on the academic development of children with ASD and she found that monolinguals had higher scores on word reading skills if compared to bilinguals. However, in numerical operations, ASD children with bilingual experience outperform their monolingual peers, while no differences were found between groups on spelling skills. These results suggest that bilingual language experience may be related to early literacy and math skills in children with autistic spectrum disorders. The delay in word reading skills in bilinguals may be related to the development of two linguistics profiles while math skills may be enhanced in children with ASD through the 176 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS mediation of other cognitive skills, such as executive functioning. It is important evidence against the hypothesis that bilingualism negatively affects the development of academic skills in children with ASD. Also Ohashi et al. (2012) underlined that the exposition of two languages does not inhibit the social development of children with ASD, nor exacerbate their pragmatic competence. Also Gonzalez-Barrero & Nadig (2019) remarked that bilingualism can reduce the difficulties in executive functions tasks, as well as improve verbal abilities, as attested in the Dimensional Change Card Sort – DCCS (Zelazo, 2006). From the test, Zelazo noticed that mastering more than one language resulted also in the improvement of cognitive flexibility. Therefore, scientific evidence shows that depriving bilingual children with ASD of one of their languages may not only result in an impoverished linguistic input with the consequent absence of cognitive advantages which come along with bilingualism, but also in the exacerbation of the characteristic features of ASD, namely social isolation in both linguistic environment and familiar setting. 3.4 Bilingualism and hypoacusis The medical term hypoacusis refers to partial or total inability to hear due to a conductive or sensorineural problem. In the first case, it is an alteration of the external auditory canal and the eardrum. In the second case, it is a change in the inner ear that also affects the auditory nerve. One of the most common clinical treatments used to recover auditory functions is an auditory prosthesis, while in case of severe hearing impairment the most common treatment is the cochlear implant. The latter is a device ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 177 implanted to bypass the damaged area of the cochlea to directly stimulate the acoustic nerve. In these situations, clinicians may discourage the child’s exposure to two languages, with the incorrect belief that bilingualism divides the child’s linguistic resources with the consequent delay in language development, already aggravated by hypoacusis. Even if linguistic research in this field is still at the beginning, the majority of the studies underlined that bilingualism does not exacerbate language development and linguistic competence, but on the contrary, it can bring benefits. Thomas et al. (2008) showed that monolingual and bilingual children’s performances were very similar. This result was confirmed also by Bunta & Douglas (2013), who reported similar performances in children who spoke English and Spanish and monolingual English, aged 4 years old with cochlear implant or acoustic prosthesis. Moreover, bilinguals seemed to have a similar competence in the two mastered languages which may lead to hypothesize that the exposition to an L2 does not obstruct the acquisition of the other. Furthermore, Bunta et al. (2016) found better performances in bilinguals with cochlear implants or acoustic prostheses who had received treatment in both languages. 3.5 Bilingualism and Down Syndrome Down Syndrome (DS) is a genetic disorder caused when abnormal cell division results in an extra full or partial copy of chromosome 21. DS varies in severity among individuals, causing lifelong intellectual disability and developmental delays. Language-learning difficulties, especially 178 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS expressive language problems, are an important component of the phenotype of this population and often present a lack of morphosyntactic production. Even if research in this domain is still at an initial stage, several studies (Bird et al., 2005; Burgoyne et al., 2016; Ward & Sanoudaki, 2021) demonstrate that bilingualism does not prevent the linguistic development of children with DS. On the contrary, learning a second language later in life is possible also in the case of DS (Vallar & Papagno, 1993). Burgoyne et al. (2016) studied the development of reading skills, analyzing the case of a bilingual child with DS who knew Russian and English. The child had been monitored from 6 years old to 10. She presented in both languages the same linguistic difficulties of monolinguals with DS and, at the same time, she presented good reading skills both in the L1 and in the L2, similar to those of their typically developed peers. Given that it is a case study, it is difficult to generalize the results and it would be premature to talk about the advantages of bilingualism in reading skills in children with DS. However, it is undeniable that, as in other cases of atypical development, bilingualism brings positive effects also in people with DS. Bird et al. (2005) compared the language abilities of 8 children with DS being raised bilingually with those of 3 control groups and still in this case they notice a similar profile of language abilities in bilingual as well as monolingual children with DS. Moreover, the study did not result in any detrimental effect of bilingualism. That is, the bilingual children with DS scored at least as well on all English tests as their monolingual DS counterparts. Ward & Sanoudaki (2021) tested bilingual and monolingual children with and without DS on expressive ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 179 and receptive language abilities and phonological awareness. It resulted that language impairments were evident for both DS groups, particularly for expressive morphosyntax. Welsh receptive vocabulary scores of the bilinguals with DS were comparable to the TD bilinguals. Working memory, phonological awareness and chronological age were the strongest predictors of receptive language outcomes in both DS groups, explaining 90% of the variability. 3.6 Bilingualism and ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood. It is usually first diagnosed in childhood and often lasts into adulthood. Children with ADHD may present trouble paying attention, controlling impulsive behaviors, or being overly active and it is also common to present weaknesses in executive function. In this respect, there has been some research into how bilingualism affects cognitive skills and behavior in individuals with attention deficits, but the question is still very much open. Köder et al. (2022) proposed a general overview of the topic, considering nine different studies and showing both sides of the argument. In fact, it could be claimed that bilingual speakers with attention problems might experience a bilingual advantage in their ability to control functions and other cognitive domains and exhibit less severe symptoms linked to ADHD than their monolingual peers. This hypothesis is based on the idea that bilinguals’ constant need to inhibit one language trains executive function skills (Bialystok, 2008). Adopting this view, it may be concluded that being bilingual might offset some ADHD-related symptoms. 180 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Opposed to that, bilingualism could be an additional burden for children with attention deficits, as it may affect both executive functions and inattention symptoms. This could be due to their need to allocate parts of their already limited cognitive resources to inhibiting interference from their other language, making them slower in executive function abilities and more error-prone in cognitive tasks. Moreover, another hypothesis claims that bilinguals and monolinguals with ADHD do not differ in cognitive or behavioral aspects. It is based on the small or null effects reported in several meta-analyses (Lethonen et al., 2018; Paap, 2019), which failed to replicate findings of a bilingual advantage. In this case, it could be expected to find an association between ADHD and executive function deficits, but no effect with bilingualism. Köder et al. (2022) concluded that the studies they considered do not provide evidence that bilingualism alleviates or intensifies attention difficulties in individuals with ADHD, therefore, they should not be concerned that learning another language has a negative impact on cognitive performance. On the contrary, Shamra et al. (2022) in their analysis of parent reports for 394 primary school-age children on background and language experience, ADHD-related behavior, and structural language skill in English, concluded that bilingualism may be associated with lower levels of ADHD-related behavior. While the effect was small, that does not necessarily argue against this conclusion. Similar yet different results were also found in Bialystok (2016) in which young bilingual adults with ADHD scored lower – which means better – than monolinguals with ADHD on two ADHD rating scales used, significantly on one of them. All the considered studies suggest that further research ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 181 is needed to deeply understand the possible correlation between attention deficits and bilingualism, and, in particular, the benefits of mastering more than one language may have on reducing ADHD-related behavior. 4. Bilectalism and language disorders Usually, the term bilingualism leads people to think about traditional combinations of prestigious languages such as French and German, Italian and English, Spanish and Russian. It is more demanding to think about other combinations, resulting from migrations, and a much more demanding effort would be to think about bilingualism in the sense of the coexistence of a standard language and a dialect. This situation could be described by the term bilectalism (Rowe & Grohmann, 2013). It refers to a situation in which the speaker has a high level of competence in very similar two languages with a different sociolinguistic statuses. This condition perfectly represents Italy, a country rich in linguistic variation. Antoniou et al. (2016) conducted a study on bilectal children who grow up with Cypriot Greek and Standard Modern Greek, as well as multilingual children who grew up with the two dialects and Russian/English/Romanian/ Arabic with DLD characterized by anomie, namely the difficulty in naming concrete entities and actions due to a deficit in lexical retrieval. From the study, it resulted that multiDLD as well as bilDLD had no significant difference in the performance in comparison to multiTLD. Also, multiDLD group scored considerably lower than the bilTLD, but the difference failed to reach the adjusted level of significance. It appears that mastering more languages 182 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS results in better performances, no matter if some of the languages spoken by the child are dialects. Multilingual children with DLD, like their monolingual and bilectal language-impaired peers, perform analogously to language-matched children on naming accuracy for verbs and nouns on a picture-based naming task. Antoniou et al. (2014), underlined the effects bilectalism had on the child’s cognitive and linguistic performance, which are very similar to those of bilingualism. In Italy there is only one study that investigates the cognitive advantages of bilectalism in case of dyslexia. De Gaudio, Cardinaletti & Volpato (2021) studied the narrative skills of three bilectal pre-adolescents with dyslexia using the LITMUS-MAIN tests (Gagarina et al., 2019), in both the mastered languages, namely Italian and Calabrian dialect. From the study, it resulted that the errors produced by the experimental group – namely the repetition of NP/PP, omissions and errors in gender agreement – were caused by negative transfer between the two languages. It provided evidence in support of a dialectological approach to clinical practice, considering the pervasiveness of dialect in the linguistic repertoire and, in particular, its influence on the acquisition of the pronominal system in Italian. 5. Conclusions In conclusion, this brief overview of language disorders and bilingualism shows that the two features are not too separated. On the contrary, scientific evidence underlines the relationship between the two. Mastering more than one language is an added value for the speaker from both a cognitive and social point of view, and the advantages can ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 183 be found also in case of atypical development. This evidence contrasts the general belief according to bilingualism would increase the difficulties for the child with language disorders and recent studies showed that, on the contrary, bilingualism often reduces linguistic difficulties. Naturally, further research is still needed. If there are many studies on DLD in different languages, many others should be conducted on language deficits as a consequence of other disorders, such as ASD or Down syndrome. Furthermore, it is important to study learning disorders in contexts of L2 or multilingualism, in which the dividing line between the deficit and the difficulties related to low proficiency is not clear. Finally, further research is needed on atypical populations in situations of bilectalism, very common in Italy due to its rich diatopic variation. In fact, the Italian context can be described as a linguistic system in which standard Italian and dialects coexist in relation to endogenous bilingualism. Recent statistical surveys revealed that the exclusive usage of dialect or its alternation with Italian in a familiar context is still very common (32%), with a high percentage in some specific regions such as Campania (75,5%) and Veneto (62%) (ISTAT 2017). It is clear that, in all these situations, having a diagnostic battery of tests that permits to the evaluation of the linguistic profile of the child also in dialect would have a fundamental importance, also for the treatment. 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Language profiles of 194 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Welsh-English bilingual children with Down syndrome. Journal of Communication Disorders, 93, 106126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2021.106126 Zelazo, P. D. (2006). The Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS): A method of assessing executive function in children. Nature Protocols, 1(1), 297–301. https://doi.org/ 10.1038/nprot.2006.46 [1] The DLD is described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-5, in the category of communication disorders. It is worth mentioning that the more recent version of the manual has canceled the adjective specific, which in the past was used to describe the linguistic deficit, called Specific Language Impairment (SLI). This modification led to the latest research demonstrating that linguistic deficits often appear in presence of slight weaknesses in other areas, such as working memory, coordination, and, more generally, the cognitive and non-linguistic processing (Dispaldro, 2014). In view of these results, nowadays when referring to linguistic deficits which are not related to any other pathology, the term Developmental Language Disorder is adopted. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 195 6 Macedonian Heritage Speakers' Strategies of Interpreting Specificity and Genericity Metodi Efremov Univerza v Novi Gorici, Center for Cognitive Science of Language, Nova Gorica, Slovenia metodi.efremov@student.ung.si This study proposes a design to test how heritage speakers of Macedonian interpret generic plural nouns in their heritage language due to the influence of the majority language in this domain. Macedonian has the peculiar property of allowing both bare and definite plural NPs to refer to kinds (Tomic, 2012), contrary to the predictions made by Chierchia’s Nominal Mapping Parameter (NMP) (1998). For example, English only allows the bare plural option, whereas French only the definite one, as predicted by the NMP. We put forward a grammaticality judgment 196 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS experiment to test this in Canadian French-Macedonian and Australian English-Macedonian heritage speakers, using monolingual speakers of Macedonian as controls. We have a two-tailed prediction concerning the possible effect the majority language has on the heritage one. If abstract economy conditions in line with Chierchia (1998) determine cross-linguistic influence, as Serratrice et al. (2009) suggest, we predict French-Macedonian speakers to retain generic bare plural NPs in Macedonian despite the effect of French, while English-Macedonian speakers will judge definite plural ones as unacceptable. If semantic overlap decides the nature of cross-linguistic influence (Kupisch, 2012), we predict French-Macedonian speakers to interpret definite plural NPs as generic, judging them as acceptable but not bare plural ones due to the effect of French. We expect to find the opposite pattern in English- Macedonian speakers; speakers will interpret bare plural NPs as generic, judging them as acceptable but not definite plural ones due to the effect of English. 1. Introduction In this study, we propose an experiment to investigate how Australian English-Macedonian and Canadian French- Macedonian heritage speakers comprehend and judge in their heritage and dominant language bare plural subject NPs and definite plural subject NPs, with regards to specificity and genericity. Regarding genericity, Macedonian is an interesting case as it allows a generic reference with definite and bare plural subject NPs (Minova-Gjurkova, 1994; Tomic, 2012). ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 197 1. Kucinja sakaat da si igraat. [generic V, specific *] Dogs.Pl. like.3Pl.Pres.Imper Subj.CL Dat.Refl.CL play3Pl.Pres.Imper 2. Kucinjata sakaat da si igraat. [generic V, specific V] Dogs+the.Pl. like.3Pl.Pres.Imper Subj.CL Dat.Refl.CL play3Pl.Pres.Imper Both examples allow the generic reading about dogs as a species, with sentence two also allowing a specific interpretation about a salient set of dogs in the discourse. This behavior is atypical as it is contrary to the predictions made by Chierchia’s Nominal Mapping Parameter (NMP) (1998), by which, typologically, languages with articles differ in whether or not plural nouns can make a generic reference with the definite article. On the other hand, English and French fall into the typological classifications defined in the NMP. 3. Dogs like to play. [generic V, specific *] 4. Les chiens aiment jouer. [generic V, specific V] The.Pl dogs.M.Pl like.3Pl.Pres to play French allows definite plural subject NPs to have a generic and a specific reference, with bare arguments being ungrammatical without exception, while English only allows bare plural subject NPs to have a generic reference. English and French are, therefore, in a subset-superset relationship with Macedonian, not in terms of available syntactic structure, but possible semantic interpretation regarding generic reference and the question is how the 198 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS majority language will affect the minority language in this aspect. Due to this, Macedonian and its heritage speakers present a novel field of research as previous works on specificity and genericity in heritage populations (Serratrice et al., 2009; Montrul and Ionin, 2010, 2012; Kupisch and Pierantozzi, 2010; Kupisch, 2012) have only focused on languages where only one option for generic reference is available. Furthermore, it allows us to test two hypotheses about cross-linguistic influence: semantic overlap and abstract economy conditions in a new way. This study aims to provide a theoretical account of genericity, overview existing experimental literature on this topic, give a brief survey of how Macedonian expresses genericity morphosyntactically and how it compares to English and French, to put forward an experiment and make predictions about what we expect based on previous findings, and to present the limitations of our proposal. 2. Semantic Framework For our proposal, we adopt Chierchia’s NMP (1998) to account for the pattern found in English and French but not for Macedonian, and we will explain why in section four. By the NMP, the typological cross-linguistic differences found amongst languages in the use or absence of articles with singular, plural count and mass nouns is a result of the language-specific setting of the two semantic features [+/-argument] and [+/-predicate]. The motivation for these settings is that nouns can play a double role as they can be of type e (e is the type of individuals/entities) and an argument when they refer to a kind (as “the ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 199 professor” in “the professor was late to class”) or of type ( is the type of functions from individuals to truth values) and a predicate (as “a professor” in “Lazar is a professor”), and how these two options are actualized differently across languages. Additionally, depending on the specification of these two semantic features, languages differ in how they make generic reference. Depending on their specification, we have four possible typological combinations: [-arg, -pred], [+arg, -pred], [-arg, +pred], and [+arg, +pred]. Of these four, only [-arg, -pred] is not attested as it is an impossible combination – nouns would then refer to nothing. Of the other three, we will not explain type 1 languages ([+arg, -pred]), like Chinese or Japanese, as they are irrelevant to our experiment. The other two types that remain, type 2 ([-arg, +pred]) and type 3 ([+arg, +pred]), correspond to French and English respectively. As in type 2 languages ([-arg, +pred]), all nouns are predicates and cannot be an argument without a determiner, they necessitate an overt determiner to be an argument and to refer to a kind, thereby having generic reference. We exemplify this with the following pair of examples. 5. Les médecins aiment The.Pl doctors.M.Pl like.3Pl.Pres les voitures chères. [generic V, specific V] the.Pl cars.F.Pl. expensive.F.Pl 6. *Médecins aiment les voitures chères. doctors.M.Pl like.3Pl.Pres the.Pl expensive.F.Pl cars.F.Pl 200 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS In these sentences, the definite article is a lexicalized iota i operator, which can be intensionalized and correspond to the type-shifting operator ∩. The iota i operator is interpreted as such that it picks out the greatest element from the predicate’s extension. If the iota operator i applies to a set of pluralities (for example, birds), it will refer to the largest possible one. In this case, with birds, to the one that consists of all birds. On the other hand, in type 3 languages ([+arg, +pred]), nouns can freely function as both arguments and predicates, shifting back and forth with the available type- shifting operators. Nouns of type e [(+arg]) will be mass and be able to occur as bare arguments in any position, while nouns of type ([+pred]) will be predicates and require a determiner to be grammatical, which we see with singular nouns. We illustrate this contrast with the following examples. 7. Water is dripping on the floor. 8. I see water in the distance. 9. The singer was ready for the concert. 10. *Singer was ready for the concert Yet bare plural count nouns are allowed in any syntactic position, and we see this in generic sentences with individual-level predicates. This behavior is possible due to applying the type shifter ∩ to the plural noun, which yields a kind. If applied to singular nouns, it will be undefined. We show this with examples 11 to 16. 11. Cats like to eat mice. [Generic V, specific *] 12. *Cat likes to eat mice. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 201 13. I find cats to be lovely. [Generic V, specific *] 14. *I find cat to be lovely. 15. Santa Claus gifts presents to kids. [Generic V, specific *] 16. *Santa Claus gifts presents to kid. However, one problem arises from what we have adopted so far. English also has a definite article, so it should be possible for “the” to function as an iota i operator and to intensionalize the type-shifter ∩. Chierchia remedies this by resorting to principles fundamental to the architecture of grammar, such as the elsewhere condition, the blocking principle, and avoiding structure. By the elsewhere condition, “language-particular choices win over universal tendencies” (Chierchia, 1998, p. 360), and “don’t do covertly what you can do overtly” (Chierchia, 1998, p. 360). From these two principles, we arrive at the blocking principle, which states that if a language has a particular morpheme which is the intensionalized equivalent of one of the type-shifting operators, then that morpheme should be preferred to the covert type-shifting operator. Romance languages follow this. English follows the avoid structure principle. It has a covert type-shifting operator that transforms bare nouns into kinds in generic sentences, which can apply as early as the NP level – thus is preferable in terms of economy conditions as we do not have to project an overt determiner and additional syntactic structure to get the interpretation we need. 3. Cross-Linguistic Influence and Previous Research on Genericity and Specificity in Heritage Speakers 202 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS A dominant topic in the study of heritage speakers nowadays is cross-linguistic influence and the effect that the majority language has on the heritage one, as research has shown that the language skills of heritage speakers significantly differ in some areas from monolinguals resulting from the imbalance between their minority language and majority language, as well as the amount of input received in both (Benmamoun et al., 2013; Polinsky, 2006). One such domain that has received significant attention in the literature is the interpretation of specificity and genericity. These two categories can have a great degree of cross-linguistic variability, and languages can differ in their distribution of how they express these categories – hence giving a rich ground to research how one language can affect another. This research has shown that while cross-linguistic influence is possible, it is not random or unrestrained, and several hypotheses have been proposed to account for the patterns found. One such hypothesis is the structural overlap one, which states that cross-linguistic influence is possible only if the construction affected is at the interface between two modules of grammar (syntax and semantics or pragmatics), and the two languages must structurally overlap (subset-superset relationship) (Hulk and Müller, 2000; Müller and Hulk, 2001). Structural overlap is: if language A has construction X1-X2 and construction X2-X1, but they are used in different contexts, while language B only has X2-X1 for both contexts, speakers of both languages will overextend the use of X2-X1 in language A, even in inappropriate contexts for its use. Another similar hypothesis is the semantic overlap one ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 203 proposed by Kupisch (2012). The foundation of this hypothesis is that the interpretation of the structures and their appropriate semantics within a context determines cross-linguistic influence, not the surface structure of the structural representations. For example, in French, the semantic interpretation still has to be applied to the nominal (which can only be a DP as we saw in section 2), whether generic or specific. Semantic overlap is: if language A has construction X1-X2 which has both meanings Y and Z, while language B only has meaning Y assigned to X1-X2, speakers of both languages will overextend meaning Y of X1-X2 in language A, even in inappropriate contexts. One alternative hypothesis, which does not concentrate on overlap, in the literature researching how heritage speakers interpret specificity and genericity is that abstract economy conditions, such as the avoid structure principle in section 2, decide how cross-linguistic influence occurs in the domain of genericity and specificity. Serratrice et al. (2009) were the first to propose this alternative, and their results suggest that this hypothesis might be correct. Serratrice et al.’s participants were younger and older simultaneous bilingual English-Italian children (one group living in England, another living in Italy), Spanish-Italian children (living in Spain) and, as control groups, monolingual Italian and English children. As additional control groups, they had adult English and Italian monolinguals. They predicted that if structural overlap drives the directionality of cross-linguistic influence, then Italian will affect English as it allows definite plural NPs, and English allows both definite and bare plurals NPs. In that case, the simultaneous bilingual English-Italian children will judge 204 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS definite plural NPs with a generic reading in English as more acceptable than the English monolinguals. However, if abstract economy conditions determine the direction of influence, they predicted the opposite. English will affect Italian as English has the more economical alternative as it can have kind-referring bare plural NPs with covert type- shifting operators instead of projecting additional syntactic structure like Italian. In this scenario, there will be a larger acceptance rate of bare plural NPs in generic contexts by English-Italian bilinguals opposed to Italian monolinguals. Serratrice et al. used a scalar grammaticality judgment task where participants judged six pairs of test sentences and three pairs of filler sentences by their acceptability. The pairs were one specific and one generic sentence, and all had a subject plural noun. Participants saw a prototypical picture or object for the animals introduced in the sentences. Before each sentence, they used an introductory phrase: for the specific ones, it was “Here”/”Qui”, whereas for the generic ones, it was “In general”/”In genere”. In Italian, the cue for grammaticality was the absence or presence of a definite article. In English, the cue for grammaticality was the adjunct as it determines the semantic context. For English, the results showed that monolingual and bilingual children accepted bare and definite plurals in both generic and specific constructions respectively. Although, they also judged the bare plurals in specific contexts and the definite plurals in generic contexts as acceptable. Serratrice et al. reason that this might be the case due to the strength of the contextual cue, as the adjunct did not unambiguously determine the semantic context of the sentence. Further proof for this reasoning ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 205 is that the adult group did not successfully recognize the semantic context by the adjunct 100% of the time. For Italian, the results showed that the monolingual adult and children Italians performed at ceiling in both conditions. The English-Italian bilingual children accepted bare plural subject NPs in sentences with a generic reading, in contrast to the monolingual Italian children. They also found that exposure to the language plays a role, as the group living in the UK performed worse than the one living in Italy. Based on these results, the authors conclude that abstract economy conditions play a role in cross-linguistic influence, not structural overlap, as Italian did not affect English, but English did affect Italian. Other experiments on heritage speakers have come to similar conclusions. In cases where English is the subset and Spanish is the superset, Montrul and Ionin (2010, 2012) tested Spanish heritage speakers whose dominant language was English. They included Spanish L2 learners as a comparison group and Spanish native speakers as a control group. All their participants were adults. They tested their participants using a grammaticality judgment task to check their knowledge of articles and a truth-value judgment task testing how participants interpret said articles. Their results showed a transfer effect from English to Spanish in the L2 learners and the heritage speakers. Unlike the native Spanish speakers, the other two groups judged bare plural NPs as acceptable in a generic context, and they preferred the specific interpretation of definite plurals over the generic one. So far, we have only overviewed works that have tested the structural overlap and the abstract economy conditions hypotheses but not the semantic overlap hypothesis. To the 206 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS best of our knowledge, only one work has tested it, and that is Kupisch (2012) which tested the use and interpretation of specific and generic subject NPs in the Italian of both simultaneous bilingual German-Italian adults and second language learners. The German-Italian simultaneous bilinguals were divided into two groups. One group had Italian as their dominant language, while the other had German, but they all grew up in one parent – one language homes and regularly used both languages until school age. Kupisch tested four distinct hypotheses about cross- linguistic influence: abstract economy conditions, structural overlap, semantic overlap, and dominance. The abstract economy conditions hypothesis predicts that German will influence Italian and speakers will overuse and overaccept bare NPs in Italian, especially in generic contexts. The structural overlap hypothesis predicts no influence to occur whatsoever. The semantic overlap hypothesis predicts that German will influence Italian and speakers will overinterpret definite plural and mass DPs in Italian as specific, as this interpretation is possible in Italian and German. The dominance hypothesis predicts that Italian will only be affected when German is the dominant language. Kupisch used an acceptability judgment task and a truth value judgment task. In the first one, participants had to judge forty-two items with a specific or a generic subject context, with article usage being the cue for grammaticality. Of these items, thirty-four had a generic interpretation, while eight had a specific one. The generic interpretation items were split in two, with seventeen containing grammatical definite subject NPs, while the other half contained ungrammatical bare subject NPs or inappropriate indefinite-marked subject NPs. The specific ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 207 interpretation items tested whether or not speakers accept a definite NP if the preceding context was biased towards a specific interpretation. In the truth value judgment task, they presented participants with twelve coloured pictures where every picture showed three objects or characters of one kind, with two anomalies in each one. Participants then had to judge thirty-six sentences, all of which were grammatical if they were true or false. Half of these sentences were true in connection with the picture but not the facts, and vice versa. Their goal with this was to test how the participants will interpret the definite subject NP in relation to the picture. In the case of canonical properties, if a participant judged a sentence as true, then they interpreted the definite subject generically. If they interpreted it as false, they interpreted it specifically. Conversely, in the case of atypical properties, as shown in the pictures, if the participants judged the sentence as true, they interpreted it generically. If they judged it as false, they interpreted it specifically. As a control, they included sentences with demonstratives and singular determiners. Regarding genericity, their results in the acceptability judgment task showed that German-Italian bilinguals with Italian as the dominant language performed at ceiling for all conditions, as opposed to those with German as the dominant language which had problems with the generic bare subject NPs. The truth value judgment task also showed a difference between the two groups, even though it was not statistically significant. The German-Italian bilinguals with Italian as the stronger language had a stronger tendency to judge definite DPs as generic, unlike those with German as their dominant language. These results suggest that the abstract economy conditions hypothesis determines cross-linguistic influence, as well as 208 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS dominance. As to specificity, their results showed that definite subject NPs were more readily interpreted as specific in Italian by the bilingual group whose dominant language was German but not in the group whose dominant language was Italian, suggesting that the semantic overlap hypothesis determines cross-linguistic influence. It is unclear why what determines cross-linguistic influence is different between the two categories, but we only mention this in passing as it is outside of the scope of our work. 4. Macedonian and its Strategies of Expressing Genericity As mentioned in the introduction, Macedonian does not fit into the typological criteria of the NMP, as it allows both bare and definite plural NPs to have a generic reference. We will not attempt to develop or argue for an analysis of Macedonian in the NMP or pursue an alternative framework such as Dayal’s (2004), which builds on Chierchia’s. Neither will we attempt to see how Macedonian behaves according to Carlson’s (1977) diagnostics. We leave that for future work. To be explicit, Macedonian is not the only language to behave in this regard. Brazilian Portuguese also does this. For a theoretical overview of Brazilian Portuguese and how it expresses genericity, readers can refer to Schmitt and Munn (1999, 2002) and Munn and Schmitt (2001, 2005). For an experimental investigation into how Brazilian Portuguese speakers interpret such constructions, readers can refer to Ionin et al. (2011). German is another language ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 209 that allows the article option for generic reference, despite belonging to the Germanic language family. Although, this possibility is not universally acceptable across the whole language but more so in some dialects and is a result of other factors (Kupisch and Barton, 2013). We will not look into how Macedonian differs from them and why but only wish to mention that this pattern exists across languages, although it is rare. Our focus is to tackle the conditions under which bare and definite plural subject nouns refer to kinds if they are the external argument in transitive sentences, intending to eliminate all possible confounds for our experiment. We will also explain how generic reference occurs with kind-referring subjects in copular constructions, intending to show that we do not fully understand their capacity for generic reference and why we will not use them in our experiment despite being commonly used in most of the literature. Furthermore, we will specify if singular bare, indefinite or definite nouns can refer to kinds in any of the constructions discussed in Macedonian but not French or English. As mentioned in the introduction, we propose an experiment to test the semantic overlap hypothesis but not the structural overlap one. We will see that Macedonian patterns English syntactically, as the latter allows both bare and definite plural nouns like the former in these constructions. The difference between them is the semantic interpretation they can assign to the structure at hand. English bare plurals can have a generic reference, and definite plurals only have the specific one. Macedonian bare and definite plurals can have a generic reference, but only one option is available in English or French. Therefore, when we determine whether English and French are in a 210 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS subset-superset relationship with Macedonian, we do so concerning the generic reading and with which option they actualize it, not syntactic structure. In determining the subset-superset relationship, we will only consider bare and definite plural nouns, not singular ones. We will refer to the conclusions of this section again in the materials section. We acknowledge that our forthcoming conclusions are tentative, as a precise overview of more data is necessary. For the judgments given here, we consulted with speakers informally. 4.1 Transitive Constructions In transitive constructions with animate external arguments, Macedonian allows generic interpretations with bare singular and plural, indefinite singular (with the indefinite article “eden”, which also functions as a numeral), and definite singular and plural nouns, but only if they are inflected with a definite article with the root t (Tomic, 2012). To explain what we mean by a definite article with the root t, Macedonian has a tripartite definite article system with three distinct roots. Articles with the root t are for anaphoric reference, articles with the root v refer to entities proximate to the speaker, and those with the root n refer to entities distant from the speaker and the addressee (Tomic, 2012). In line with that, we would like to clarify something. Every time we have referred to a noun or an NP as definite or with a definite article throughout this paper, we only meant those with the root t, as the others do not bring out a generic reading. We will continue doing so throughout the rest of our proposal. We refer to her (2012, pp. 162-164) examples: 17. Lekar ne postapuva taka. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 211 [Generic V, Specific *] Physician not behave.3Sg.Pres.Imper so 18. Lekarot ne postapuva taka. [Generic V, Specific V] Physican+the.M.Sg not behave.3Sg.Pres.Imper so 19. Lekari ne postapuvaat taka. [Generic V, Specific *] Physicians.Pl not behave.3Pl.Pres.Imper so 20. Lekarite ne postapuvaat taka. [Generic V, Specific ü] Physicians+the.Pl not behave.3Pl.Pres.Imper so 21. Eden lekar ne postapuva taka. [Generic V, Specific ü] A.M.Sg physician not behave.3Sg.Pres.Imper so Of course, the examples with the indefinite singular, definite singular and plural NPs also have a specific reading. With inanimate nouns, we disagree with Tomic (2012), who states that inanimate ones with the indefinite article cannot be kind-referring. However, the issue is with her data, as she uses proverbs (Tomic, 2012, p. 162). 22. Grom ne udira vo kopriva. [Generic V, Specific V] Thunder.M.Sg not hit.3Sg.Pres.Imper in nettle.F.Sg 23. Gromot ne udira vo kopriva. [Generic V, Specific V] Thunder+the.M.Sg not hit.3Sg.Pres.Imper in nettle.F.Sg 212 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 24. Gromovi ne udiraat vo kopriva. [Generic V, Specific V] Thunder.Pl not hit.3Pl.Pres.Imper in nettle.F.Sg 25. Gromovite ne udiraat vo kopriva. [Generic V, Specific V] Thunder+the.Pl not hit.3Pl.Pres.Imper in nettle.F.Sg 26. *Eden grom ne udira vo kopriva. A.M.Sg thunder.M.Sg not hit.3Sg.Pres.Imper in nettle.F.Sg But if we take examples that are not proverbs, we find that inanimate nouns behave the same way as animate ones. Speakers we have consulted informally agreed with our judgments. 27. Nepodmackana vrata ispusta Unlubricated.F.Sg door.F.Sg produce.3Sg.Pres.Imper zvuk. [Generic V, Specific V] sound.M.Sg 28. Nepodmackanata vrata ispusta Unlubricated+the.F.Sg door.F.Sg produce.3Sg.Pres.Imper zvuk. [Generic V, Specific V] sound.M.Sg 29. Nepodmackani vrati ispustaat Unlubricated.Pl door.Pl. produce.3Pl.Pres.Imper zvuk [Generic V, Specific V] sound.M.Sg 30. Nepodmackanite vrati ispustaat ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 213 Unlubricated+the.Pl door.Pl produce.3Pl.Pres.Imper zvuk. [Generic V, Specific V] sound.M.Sg 31. Edna nepodmackana vrata ispusta A.F.Sg unlubricated.F.Sg door.F.Sg. produce.3Sg.Pres.Imper zvuk. [Generic V, Specific V] sound.M.Sg In these constructions, English only allows bare plurals and French only definite plurals to have a generic reference. 32. Gym-goers eat a lot of meat. [Generic V, Specific *] 33. The gym-goers eat a lot of meat. [Generic *, Specific V] 34. *Sportifs. mangent beaucoup de viande. Athletes.M.Pl eat.3Pl.Pres a lot of meat.F.Sg 35. Les sportifs mangent beaucoup de viande. [Generic V, Specific V] TheM.Pl athletesM.Pl eat.3Pl.Pres a lot of meat.F.Sg Subsequently, English and French are in a subset-superset relationship with Macedonian in these conditions. Focusing on possible confounds for our experiment in distinguishing generic from non-generic contexts, while the use or absence of a definite article is a reliable cue cross- linguistically, there are other cues on which speakers can rely. Gelman and Raman (2003) have looked into which ones English-speaking children use. They identified morphosyntactic (tense, aspect and definiteness), 214 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS pragmatic, and world-knowledge cues. Because the definite article is not as reliable in Macedonian, as speakers can make and infer generic reference with or without it, it is vital to ensure that the other cues do not act as confounds in our experiment. With that in mind, we will only use the 3rd person plural present imperfective forms of the verbs in our materials, as those forms never inhibit a generic reading. Due to brevity, we will not go into this in greater detail. We do not focus on pragmatic and world-knowledge cues as they are irrelevant to our experiment. 4.2 Genericity in Copular Constructions Copular constructions are significantly more problematic as speakers’ intuition differ from standard accounts. According to Tomic (2012), subjects in these structures can only be kind-referring if they are definite singular or plural, and any other type of subject NP is not kind-referring. We illustrate this with the following pair of examples. 35. Mravkata e insekt. [Generic V, Specific V] Ant+the.N.Sg be.3Sg.Pres insect.M.Sg 36. Mravkite se insekti. [Generic V, Specific V] Ant+the.F.Pl be.3Pl.Pres insect.M.Pl About copular constructions with either predicative adjectives or nominals, speakers we have consulted informally judged definite singular and plural NPs to be kind-referring. Contra Tomic (2012), the same speakers found bare singular and plural NPs to have a generic reference. Copular sentences with predicative adjectives ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 215 and definite singular subject NPs received mixed judgments. Some speakers found them to be strictly specific, while others also allowed them to have a generic reference (hence two sets of brackets with example 40). All speakers interpreted copular sentences with predicative nominals and a definite singular subject NP as having a generic reference alongside the specific reading. They never interpreted copular constructions with an indefinite singular subject NP as generic, no matter the predicate type. We first give the examples with predicative adjectives and then those with nominals. 39. Pajak e ubav. [Generic V, Specific *] Spider.M.Sg be.3Sg pretty.M.S 40. Pajakot e ubav. [Generic V, Specific V], [Generic *, Specific V] Spider+the.M.Sg be.3Sg pretty.M.Sg 41. Pajaci se ubavi. [Generic V, Specific *] Spider.Pl be.3Pl pretty.Pl 42. Pajacite se ubavi. [Generic V, Specific V] Spider+the.Pl be.3Pl pretty.Pl 43. Eden pajak e ubav. [Generic *, Specific V] A.M.Sg Spider.M.Sg be.3Sg pretty.M.Sg 44. Kuce e cicac. [Generic V, Specific V] Dog.N.Sg be.3Sg mammal.M.Sg 45. Kuceto e cicac. [Generic V, Specific V] Dog+the.N.Sg be.3Sg mammal.M.Sg 46. Kucinja se cicaci. [Generic V, Specific V] Dogs.Pl are.3Pl mammals.Pl 216 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 47. Kucinjata se cicaci. [Generic V, Specific V] Dogs+the.Pl are.3Pl mammals.Pl 48. Edno kuce e cicac. [Generic *, Specific V] A.N.Sg dog.N.Sg be.3Sg mammal.M.Sg In copular constructions with complex predicative nominals (of the type adjective plus noun), speakers we consulted found both bare and definite singular and plural nouns to refer generically. With indefinite singular nouns, speakers’ judgments differ. Some found them to have only specific reference, while others judged them as having both generic and specific reference (we use two sets of brackets to indicate this with example 53) as opposed to the copular sentences with predicative adjectives and nominals which were judged as strictly specific. 49. Slon e golemo zivotno. [Generic V, Specific V] Elephant.M.Sg be3Sg big.N.Sg animal.N.Sg 50. Slonot e golemo zivotno. [Generic V, Specific V] Elephant+the.M.Sg be.3Sg big.N.Sg animal.N.Sg 51. Slonovi se golemi zivotni. [Generic V, Specific V] Elephants.Pl be.3Pl big.Pl animals.Pl 52. Slonovite se golemi zivotni. [Generic V, Specific V] Elephants+the.Pl be.3Pl big.Pl animals.Pl 53. Eden slon e A.M.Sg elephant.M.Sg be.3Pl golemo zivotno. [Generic V, Specific V], [Generic ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 217 *, Specific V] big.N.Sg animal.N.Sg In these structures, with plurals, English only allows bare NPs to be kind-referring, whereas French only definite NPs. 54. Dogs are mammals. [Generic V, Specific *] 55. Les chiens sont des mammifères. [Generic V, Specific V] The.M.Pl dogs.M.Pl be.3Pl.Pres of+the.M.Pl mammals.M.Pl Due to the divided judgments we received from speakers about these sentences, we refrain from exactly concluding how the subset-superset relationship is as more data and precise discernment are necessary. 5. Experiment 5.1 Participants By the 2021 Australian census (“Macedonian Australians”, 2023) there are 111,352 Australians with Macedonian ancestry, 41,786 of whom are Macedonian- born. By the 2021 Canadian census (“Macedonian Canadians”, 2023), there are 39,435 Canadian with full or partial Macedonian ancestry. We will screen our participants by doing a standardized questionnaire and proficiency tests. We adopt Dunn and Fox Tree’s (2009) bilingual dominance scale questionnaire for the first screening test. To test speakers’ proficiency in their dominant language, we propose using cloze tests, a lexical decision task, and a task 218 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS to test mean length of utterance (MLU). To test speakers’ proficiency in their heritage language is much more difficult as these tests do not exist for Macedonian, to the best of our knowledge. As such, we would have to make our tests to assess their knowledge, which is extremely difficult. Moreover, these tests must be standardized, and the results divided into quotient groups to offer a precise and unbiased assessment. Another option is to use the Centre for Testing and Certifying Macedonian as a Foreign/Second Language tests. These tests check the following four language skills: listening comprehension, reading comprehension, writing, and speaking. However, we cannot access these tests as they are not available to the public, so we cannot review them and see how they test these skills or if the results will be accurate and statistically usable. We will only include participants who are intermediate or above speakers based on the proficiency tests. Ideally, we would have 20-30 participants per group for statistical power, but we need to gather and screen them to see if this is possible. We do not know how many generations of Macedonians live in these two countries or their age group. If possible, we would include multiple cross-generational groups to see the trajectory of divergent interpretations across time. As control groups, preferably, we would have both homeland and baseline speakers. We will include only monolinguals in the homeland control group, and it would be an easy task to find them. The second group would be more problematic, but it is manageable to find enough speakers as Macedonians still routinely move to Australia and Canada. 5.2 Materials ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 219 We adopt Serratrice et al.’s (2009) design for our experiment. About the number of items, we propose to have ten pairs of target sentences and five pairs of filler sentences, thus having twenty target pairs per language, of which twenty will have a specific context and twenty a generic one. In the Macedonian task, all target items will be grammatical. The use or absence of the definite article decides the grammaticality of the sentences in the French task, and in doing so, we will have ten grammatical and ten ungrammatical in both contexts. In the English task, the items for the generic context will be either grammatical or ungrammatical based on article usage, while all target items in the specific context will be grammatical. Before each sentence, we will present participants with a picture or object prototypical of the noun with a generic reference in the item. We will have for every picture a pair of sentences: one with a generic context and another with a specific context. Same as in Serratrice et al.’s experiment, we will manipulate the presence or the absence of the definite article for English. In the Macedonian and French material, we will use the adjunct as a contextual cue that determines the semantic context of the sentence. However, we will strengthen the contextual cue for specific and generic contexts. As we saw in Serratrice et al’s experiment, despite the adjunct for the generic context being a clear indicator of the semantic context, the participants themselves did not integrate it with the semantic meaning of the definite article. Due to this, we will include one more introductory phrase in all sentences to strengthen the semantic context of the sentence. For the generic condition, we will also include “Kako rod/As a species/En tant qu’espèce” alongside the introductory phrase “Generalno/In general/En général”. We will modify the 220 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS second introductory phrase based on the properties of the kind-referring entity, whether it is an animal, human, insect, or a group of some sort. For the specific condition, alongside the introductory phrase “Tuka/Here/Ici”, we will include a second phrase based on the temporal or spatial properties of the activity expressed in the sentence, something like “Momentalno/In this moment/À ce moment”. We differ from Serratrice et al.’s (2009) experiment in one more way. We will not use copular constructions as we do not understand their capacity for generic reference well enough in Macedonian and whether French and English are in a subset-superset relationship with Macedonian regarding them, as we explained in section 4. 2. We will strictly use transitive sentences with a kind-referring plural subject. To exemplify our materials: Generic context: 70a. Generalno, kako grupa, advokati sakaat skapi koli. (Grammatical) Generally as group.F lawyer.Pl like.3Pl.Pres.Imper expensive.Pl cars.Pl 70b. Generalno, kako grupa, advokatite Generally as group.F lawyer+the.Pl sakaat skapi koli. (Grammatical) like.3Pl.Pres.Imper expensive.Pl cars.Pl 71a. Generally, as a group, lawyers like expensive cars. (Grammatical) 71b. *Generally, as a group, the lawyers like expensive cars. (Ungrammatical) 72a. *Généralement, en tant que groupe, avocats Generally as a group.M. lawyer.M.Pl aiment les voitures chères. (Ungrammatical) ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 221 like.3Pl.Pres.Imper the.M.Pl expensive.F.Pl cars.F.Pl 72b. Généralement, en tant que groupe, Generally as a group,M.Pl less avocats aiment less voitures chères. (Grammatical) the.M.Pl lawyer.M.Pl like.3Pl.Pres.Imper the.F.Pl. expensive.F.Pl cars.F.Pl Specific context: 73a. Tuka, vo ovaa fabrika, inzeneri Here, in this factory.F.Sg engineers.Pl izmisluvaat novi dizajni. (Grammatical) invent.3Pl.Pres.Imper new.Pl designs.Pl. 74a. Tuka, vo ovaa fabrika, inzenerite Here, in this factory.F.Sg engineers+the.Pl izmisluvaat novi dizajni. (Grammatical) invent.3Pl.Pres.Imper new.Pl designs.Pl. 75a. Here, in this factory, engineers invent new designs. (Grammatical) 75b. Here, in this factory, the engineers invent new designs. (Grammatical) 76a. *Ici, dans cette usine, ingénieurs Here, in this factory.F.Sg engineers.M.Pl inventent de nouveaux designs. (Ungrammatical) invent.3Pl.Pres.Imper of new.M.Pl designs.M.Pl. 76b. Ici, dans cette usine, les ingénieurs Here, in this factory.F.Sg the.M.Pl engineers.M.Pl inventent de nouveaux designs. (Grammatical) invent.3Pl.Pres.Imper of new.M.Pl designs.M.Pl The participants task will be to judge whether or not the sentences are acceptable in their respective languages on a Likert scale of 1-7. 222 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 5.3 Procedure We will divide participants into two groups to minimize the possibility of a carryover effect. One group will do the majority language version of the experiment, while the other only the heritage language one. Before doing the experiment, every participant will do Dunn and Fox Tree’s (2009) bilingual dominance scale questionnaire and the proficiency test for their respective languages. To minimize the yes-bias (Polinsky, 2018), we recommend that a corresponding heritage speaker should test the participants and only speak to them in the language of the corresponding test or experiment. Before the experiment, the participants will receive instructions on what they have to do. They will do several practice tests to get accustomed and to see if they understood the instructions. 5.4 Predictions We have a two-tailed prediction regarding how the majority language (English or French) will affect the heritage one (Macedonian). If abstract economy conditions determine cross-linguistic influence, we predict French-Macedonian speakers to retain generic bare plural NPs in Macedonian regardless of the effect of French. Despite Macedonian being the minority language, which means less input for speakers, it still can have bare plural NPs with a generic reference due to the available type-shifter, which is more economical than projecting an overt determiner. Regarding English- Macedonian speakers, we predict that they will judge definite plural generic NPs as unacceptable due to both abstract economy conditions and the input of English, ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 223 which only has the more economical bare plural generic. If semantic overlap decides the nature of cross-linguistic influence, we predict French-Macedonian speakers to interpret definite plural NPs as generic, thereby judging them as acceptable but not bare plural ones due to the effect of French. We also predict finding the opposite pattern in English-Macedonian speakers; speakers will interpret bare plural NPs as generic, judging them as acceptable but not definite plural ones due to the effect of English. We expect proficiency to play a role, with advanced speakers performing similarly to the homeland and baseline speakers. We also presume frequency of use, frequency of input, and knowledge of other languages to have an effect. We predict a cross-generational effect, with the majority language more strongly affecting the judgments of each group following the first-generation one. Lastly, we predict the extent of formal teaching in Macedonian to play a role. 5.5 Limitations The greatest limitation of our proposal is that we do not have a formal analysis of genericity in Macedonian in the scope of Chierchia’s NMP (1998) or a precise descriptive survey of what plays a role in various constructions whether nouns are kind-referring. Another issue is how speakers more easily interpret bare singular and plural NPs as generic, while the specific reading is much more dominant with the indefinite singular and definite plurals. We also do not understand how available bare arguments are in specific contexts. As noted in the materials section, 73a is also acceptable for the speakers we consulted. If other homeland speakers find them acceptable, it would be interesting to see how the heritage speakers behave 224 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS because of the effect of the majority language, specifically French where this is ungrammatical. Due to this, there might be possible confounds in our experiment’s design that we cannot foresee. We also did not focus on generic reference with “have” constructions and kind-referring objects due to conciseness, but as we have mentioned throughout section 4, speakers’ intuitions diverge from standard accounts, and it is most likely that this holds for these cases as well. Another limitation is the non-existence of assessment tests for Macedonian. As far as we know, these tests have never been used for Macedonian whatsoever, even in monolingual populations. Moreover, from what we know, there has been no linguistic analysis of the language of Macedonian heritage speakers, neither in Canada nor Australia. After all, the minority language of heritage speakers goes through either divergent acquisition or language attrition (Polinsky, 2008). It could be the case that we would include a particular form or morpheme that has gone through significant change in the Macedonian of Australian or Canadian Macedonians. If that is so, the reason for them judging a sentence as unacceptable is not due to the interpretation they have but another unforeseen factor. 6. Conclusion As we showed in this proposal, despite its limitations and difficulties, Macedonian and its heritage speakers provide novel ground as it allows us to test the hypotheses for cross- linguistic influence in a new way. It is also essential to have a formal analysis of genericity in Macedonian and a ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 225 better understanding of the heritage Macedonian of both the Australian English-Macedonian and Canadian French- Macedonian populations. If this is accomplished, it could help us answer whether abstract economy conditions, semantic overlap, or another third factor decide cross- linguistic influence. References Benmamoun, E., Montrul, S. & Polinsky, M. (2013). Heritage languages and their speakers: Opportunities and challenges for linguistics. Theoretical Linguistics, 39(3-4), 129-181. Carlson, G. N. (1977). A unified analysis of the English bare plural. Linguistics and Philosophy, 1(3), 413–457. Chierchia, G. (1998). Reference to Kinds Across Languages. Natural Language Semantics 6, 339-405. Dayal, V. (2004). Number Marking and (in)Definiteness in Kind Terms. Linguistics and Philosophy, 27(4), 393–450. Dunn, A. & Fox-Tree, J. 2009). A quick, gradient Bilingual Dominance Scale. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 12(3), 273-289. Hulk, A., & Müller, N. (2000). Bilingual first language acquisition at the interface between syntax and pragmatics. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 3(3), 227 – 244. Ionin, Tania, Silvina Montrul, and Helade Santos. “An experimental investigation of the expression of genericity in English, Spanish and Brazilian Portuguese.” Lingua, vol. 121, 2011, 963-985. Kupisch, T., & Pierantozzi, C. (2010). Interpreting Definite Plural Subjects: A Comparison of German and Italian Monolingual and Bilingual Children. Boston 226 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS University Conference of Language Development, 2009, 245-254. Kupisch, T. (2012). Generic subjects in the Italian of early German-Italian bilinguals and German learners of Italian as a second language. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 736-756. Kupisch, T., & Barton, D. (2013). Generic Reference in Adult German Bilinguals: How Bilinguals Deal with Variation: Studia Linguistica 67(1), 1-27. Minova-Gjurkova, Lj. (1994). Sintaksa na Makedonskiot Standarden Jazik. Rading. Montrul, S., & Ionin, T. (2010). Transfer effects in the interpretation of definite articles by Spanish heritage speakers. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13(4), 449-473. Montrul, S., & Ionin, T. (2012). Dominant Language Transfer in Spanish Heritage Speakers and Second Language Learners in the Interpretation of Definite Articles. The Modern Language Journal, 96(1), 70–94. Müller, N., & Hulk, A. (2001). Crosslinguistic influence in bilingual language acquisition: Italian and French as recipient languages. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 4(1), 1-21. Munn, A. L., & Schmitt, C. (2002). Bare nouns and the morphosyntax of number. Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, 225–239. Munn, A. L., & Schmitt, C. (2005). Number and indefinites. Lingua, 115(6), 821–855. Polinsky, M. (2006). Incomplete Acquisition: American Russian. Journal of Slavic Linguistics, 14(2), 191–262. Polinsky, M. (2018). Heritage Languages and Their Speakers. Cambridge University Press. Serratrice, L., Sorace, A., Filiaci, F., & Baldo, M. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 227 (2009). Bilingual children’s sensitivity to specificity and genericity: Evidence from metalinguistic awareness. Bilingualism, 12(2), 239 – 257. Schmitt, C., & Munn, A. L. (1999). Against the Nominal Mapping Parameter: Bare nouns in Brazilian Portuguese. North East Linguistics Society, 29(1), 339 – 355 Schmitt, C., & Munn, A. L. (2002). The syntax and semantics of bare arguments in Brazilian Portuguese. Linguistic Variation Yearbook, 2, 185–216. Tomić, O. M. (2012). A grammar of Macedonian. Slavica. Canadian Australians. (2023, February 19). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Australians Macedonian Australians. (2023, March 19). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonian_Australians 228 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 7 The gendered aspect of sociolinguistic variation: Insights from the Qaf in Tartus, Syria Tamam Mohamad Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India tamamxmohamad@gmail.com The current work is part of a larger research project investigating language variation and change within the framework of variationist sociolinguistics. The study focuses on the salient Qaf variable, realized as [q] and [ʔ] in Tartus City, Syria. The distribution and gendered evaluations of these variants are gleaned from interactions with 122 participants who belong to different gender, age, and religious/sectarian groups in the urban and rural regions of the city. The results of the logistic regression test reveal the significance of gender in the urban region, with a tendency among females to use the [ʔ] variant. In rural areas, ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 229 however, gender emerged as statistically insignificant. The comments’ analysis further highlights the gendered associations of both variants and the ability of speakers to draw on them to forward specific identities. They further highlight the role of social actors and spaces in the acquisition of sociolinguistic variation and the spread of gendered evaluations among speakers since the early stages. Keywords: language variation, Sociolinguistics, Sociophonetics, gender, Syrian Arabic, Tartus. 1. Introduction The relationship between gender and linguistic variation and change has been established since the early days of variationist studies (Cheshire & Gardner-Chloros, 1998; Labov, 1966; Trudgill, 1974, among others). The statistical significance of gender as a social variable in such studies highlights its role in “determining the structure of variation” and the “trajectory of language change” (Al-Wer et al., 2022: 55). The tendency among females to adopt prestigious and supra-local forms and their leading role in adopting new and innovative forms are two general principles formulated by Labov (1994), which were common findings in research related to gender and language variation and change in the non-Arabic world. 1.1 The Arabic context Similar findings have been reported in the Arabic context, where women led the change and showed a 230 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS tendency towards using supra-local variants (Abdel-Jawad, 1981; Al-Wer, 2007; Al-Wer & Herin, 2011; Cotter, 2016; Haeri, 1997, among others). In Amman, the capital of Jordan, for example, Al-Wer & Herin (2011) investigate the variable usage of Qaf[1], which is realized as a voiceless glottal stop [ʔ] and a voiced velar plosive [g]. The study shows the various gendered patterns across the three generations examined, with the third generation representing the youngest age group. As for the first generation, men and women showed higher tendencies towards maintaining their original variants, exemplifying a direct correlation between their regional and ethnic usage of the (q) variants. However, Palestinian men and Jordanian women in this group showed some instances of [g] and [ʔ], respectively. In the second generation, the divergence between Palestinian men towards [g] and Jordanian women towards [ʔ] considerably increased, which led to a conflict or dilemma mainly among Palestinian men and Jordanian women in connection with their ethnic background and their gendered-linguistic behavior. In other words, for both Palestinian men and Jordanian women, ethnicity points in one direction (which is [ʔ] for the former and [g] for the latter), but gender directs in the opposite direction (which is [g] for the former and [ʔ] for the latter). As for third- generation speakers, things get complicated as females, regardless of their ethnic or regional background, started to use the [ʔ] variant consistently. However, for males of both origins, the linguistic usage varied significantly from their female counterparts as their interactions were more complex and involved ethnic background, gender, and context. These males tend to use their heritage or original variants in contexts of in-group interactions. They show ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 231 the tendency to use the [g] variant in interactions involving ethnically mixed speakers. However, they would use the [ʔ] variant while speaking with girls individually or in groups. Similar gendered patterns are reported among the younger generation of people of the Ghamdi tribe who started to migrate from Al-Baha city of Al-Hejaz region in Saudi Arabia to Mecca some hundred years ago and whose migration increased in the 70s of the last century. Such movement brought them into contact with the Meccan people, and they currently form “an essential part of the Meccan social fabric”(Al-Ghamdi, 2019: 211). The variation was analyzed in relation to the diphthongs of [ai] and [au] in the rural Ghamdi dialect, which are realized as monophthongs (i.e., [ɛː] and [ɔː]) in the urban Meccan dialect. The age groups analyzed were (14-29), (30-45), (46-61), and (62+). The gendered-generational differences in the community of the Ghamdis in Mecca emerged from the various experiences that the different groups underwent. As for the 62+ group, men moved without their families; their extended stays in Mecca and infrequent visits to their hometown resulted in adopting the Meccan variants more than females of the same generation. As for the 46-61 group, their relocation to Mecca with families resulted in different linguistic experiences; they developed a positive attitude towards the new city, culture, and the host community’s local dialect; this resulted in an increased higher level of usage of the Meccan variants. Women, however, showed lesser usage rates of these variants, which has been attributed to the socialization pattern. While men extended their networks with the members of the host community, women stayed at home and showed a tendency towards socializing with people of the original community and other migrant groups, especially those 232 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS from Yemen. In the younger age group (30-45 & 14-29), women showed a higher rate of the urban variants, and men showed a decrease of 17% percent. This behavior on the part of the younger generation, especially men, has been attributed to the positive attitude and pride they showed toward their heritage dialect, reflecting a more secure position in the host community compared to the older generation group. Thus, the females’ lead in using the Meccan variants is not different from other communities in the Arab world and other languages as well. In a study of the variable /ʤ/ and its two variants [ʤ] and [ʒ] in Medina, Abeer Hussain (2017, cited in Al-Wer et al., 2022: 56–57) shows women’s linguistic behavior was characterized by convergence towards the incoming supralocal and prestigious [ʒ] form, that is characteristic of the dialect of Jeddah. Moreover, though she reports higher usage of the [ʒ] variant among middle and old-aged male groups, the younger female groups used the [ʒ] at higher rates than their age group counterparts. Abu Ain’s (2016) study in the Jordanian village of Saḥam reports gender and age as statistically significant, as well. The two features investigated are the traditional features of [u] and [ɫ], which alternate with the supralocal features of [i] and [l], respectively. The village is characterized by its proximity to the urban center of Irbid. The increasing connectivity with the city of Irbid through a new road and public transport has transformed the village’s linguistic situation. It increased the access of the younger generation, who regularly commute for work and studies. The results reveal age and gender as statistically significant, where the younger generation and mainly females show a higher tendency towards the supralocal variants. The two variants showed different abandonment ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 233 rates, with the [ɫ] variant being more abandoned than the [u] one due to its high stigmatization outside the region, which is not uncommon in the context of variation and change. This can be led by linguistic or social factors. In this context, for example, the young females’ divergence from the traditional dialect can be regarded “as symbolic of their aspirations for social change” (Al-Wer et al., 2022: 61). These dynamics are context-specific, and the various gender roles, practices, and expectations in a society can determine the leaders of such change. In the city of Sūf, in Jordan, Al-Hawamdeh’s (2016) study reveals an ongoing change led by men from the localized [iʧ], [ʧ], and [ɫ] to the supralocal [ik], [k], and l], respectively. Unlike men, women’s speech is characterized by “a stronger Hōrāni ‘flavor’” (Al-Hawamdeh, 2016: 172). She explains this by highlighting the gender roles of men and women. On the one hand, “many of the men are daily commuters to nearby cities” of Irbid and Amman (Al-Hawamdeh, 2016: 172). This allows them to establish broader and richer social networks than their counterparts. Women, on the other hand, are locally employed, and their social contacts are locally oriented. They are expected to maintain the local culture, and one of the ways is by preserving the local linguistic features. They “spend most of their time in the town, interacting with local people and caring for the family” (Al- Hawamdeh, 2016: 172). It is well established in the literature that the usage of certain features interacts with the social indices that such features acquire in regional or national contexts. The indices or evaluations of these variants that may develop can act as competing factors and complicate speakers’ linguistic choices in various contexts. The diverse and sometimes contradictory associations or indices that 234 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS dialects or features of dialects acquire can intensify the sociolinguistic dilemma for their speakers. In this respect, an urban dialect, or the [ʔ] variant, can be associated with “modernity” but be seen as inappropriate for males. A rural dialect, or [q], on the other hand, can be “stigmatized” but be associated with “local culture,” “masculinity,” “strongness,” “toughness,” and “power” (Habib, 2016). Furthermore, such evaluations may vary among the groups present in the larger society. A prestigious variant on the national level can be downplayed in different rural settings where other variants would be more socially meaningful and hold positive associations. 1.1.1 Gendered associations The gendered associations are such ones that are ideological and primarily based on the context and the nature of the groups involved. In Jordan, Al-Wer & Herin (2011) highlight this ideological construction and connect such associations to the increased usage of one variant by one group of speakers, which would gradually be associated with them. They contend that “[a]s women increasingly adopted the glottal stop pronunciation of Qaf, this sound became associated with women’s speech. It is not that the sound is intrinsically ‘softer’ or ‘feminine,’ as one often reads in the literature regarding this variant of Qaf, but the fact that it is used more frequently by women is what gave rise to this association” (Al-Wer & Herin, 2011: 70-72). These associations, positive or negative, can eventually influence the long-term and short-term linguistic choices of speakers. The degree of stigmatization of certain variants in specific contexts, for example, can affect the speed of abandoning certain stigmatized linguistic variants and the adoption of their supralocal counterparts, ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 235 especially by those who wish to be associated with different dialectal backgrounds. The younger generations, especially females, can lead such aspirations. In Jordan, Abu Ain’s (2016, cited in Al-Wer et al., 2022: 60–61) analysis shows that the [ɫ] variant was more stigmatized out of the rural region thus, was more readily subject to abandonment. However, Abu Ain’s results reveal a high tendency towards embracing the [l] variant by both genders, with women showing higher rates, which she explains by their will for social change. 1.2 Previous studies in the Syrian context Research conducted in a few Arabic cities has revealed the presence of such gendered tendencies and evaluations, which set the [q] and [ʔ] in contrast (Daher, 1998; Habib, 2005, 2010, 2016). In Habib (2010), for example, the results of the quantitative analysis showed the tendency among women towards the [ʔ] variant compared to men who tended to use the rural variant [q]. Daher (1998) examined the Qaf variable in Damascus by focusing on the colloquial [ʔ] and the Standard [q]. The study was conducted on a balanced sample of twenty-three men and an equal number of women, classified into three age groups, namely (15-24), (25-39), and (40-70). The level of formal education was a main factor and the sample was classified into elementary, high school, and degree level. Daher argues that the [q] variant in Damascus has been mainly reintroduced through education. He also contends that the [q] is the norm for a minority of speakers, and he probably speaks of migrants of rural origins, who still maintain their original dialectal features. He found gendered-based differentiation between men and women in relation to the usage and associations of the variants. On the one hand, 236 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS women, even the professional and educated ones, showed a tendency towards using the [ʔ] that is associated with urbanization and modernity. On the other hand, men tended to use the [q] variant which is associated with men norms and rurality. This differentiation is mainly due to the different norms that men and women approach. For him, the [q] was introduced to the dialect through education. Furthermore, the tendency of men towards the [q] is due to its association with education which was “traditionally the domain of a small male elite” (Daher, 1998: 203). 1.3 The aim of the research In line with what has been discussed, this study aims to examine the distribution of the [q] and [ʔ] variants among males and females in the urban and rural regions of Tartus City, Syria. It also intends to examine the emergence and development of gendered indices or associations of these variants and speakers’ ability to employ them in real-life situations. Moreover, the study further aims to highlight the role of various social factors and spaces in the acquisition of such gendered evaluations. 2. Data collection Data for this research was collected during the fieldwork period at Tartus City, which lasted from July 2019 until September of the same year. The investigation focuses on the realization of the (q) variable in the context of Tartus. It makes use of interactions with 122 participants from various backgrounds in the urban and rural regions of Tartus. For this study, comments have been further analyzed as a tool for explanation. Participants ranged between the urban and rural ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 237 regions. While 93 were from the urban areas, 29 were from the rural ones ( Table 1). Table 1. Distribution of Participants Across Urban and Rural Regions. Gender No. of participants Percentage Urban 93 76.2% Rural 29 23.8% Total 122 100.0 % The sample has been divided into five age groups: (19 and below), (between 20-29), (between 30-39), (between 40-49), and (50 and above). The number of participants in each age group is 21, 32, 28, 14, and 27, respectively ( Table 2). Table 2. Distribution of Participants Across Age Groups. Age group No. of participants Percentage 19 and below 21 17.2 % Between 20-29 32 36.2 % Between 30-39 28 23.0 % Between 40-49 14 11.5 % 50 and above 27 22.1 % Total 122 100.0 % Classifying people into their biological gender was not an issue for all participants in the study. The sample included 73 males and 49 females ( Table 3). Table 3. Distribution of Participants Across Gender Groups. 238 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Gender No. of respondents Percentage Males 73 59.8% Female 49 40.8% Total 122 100.0 % Speakers’ religious/sectarian affiliation is a sensitive issue in the Syrian context, especially in public contexts. However, all the participants agreed to say their religious background and those who did not were not included or recorded. The sample included 94 Muslim Alawites, 15 Christians, and 13 Muslim Sunnis ( Table 4). Table 4. Distribution of Participants Across Religious/ Sectarian Groups. Religious/Sectarian groups No. of participants Muslim Alawites 94 Christians 15 Muslim Sunnis 13 Total 122 2.1 The target variable The variable for this study is the Qaf which is a salient feature in Arabic dialects (Al-Wer & Herin, 2011, p. 50) and has been in focus in dozens of studies in the Arabic context (Abdel-Jawad 1981; Al-Khatib 1988; Daher 1998; Suleiman 2004; Habib 2005, 2010, 2011, 2016). The main reflexes of the Qaf in the context of Tartus City are the [q] and [ʔ] or the [qaf] and [ʔaf], respectively. While the first is a voiceless uvular plosive, also used in Standard Arabic (Al-Khatib 1988, p. 80), the second is a voiceless glottal stop. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 239 Previous studies in the Arabic context (Abdel-Jawad, 1981; Al-Khatib, 1988; Al-Wer, 2007; Al-Wer & Herin, 2011; Daher, 1998; Habib, 2005, 2010, 2016, among others) have shown that the (q) variable is externally and not internally motivated. In other words, the phonological context (be it initial, internal, or final) of the variable does not determine its realization as [q] or [ʔ]. Words like /[ʔ]ələm/ “pen”, /bə[ʔ]lawa/ “sweets”, and /sibӕ:[ʔ]/ “race” can be realized as /[q]ələm/, /bə[q]lawa/, and /sibӕ:[q]/, respectively by an [ʔ] speaker. 3. Data analysis 3.1 Quantitative analysis of interactions As the analysis requires the categorization of participants into [q] and [ʔ] speakers, this was done based on the actual occurrences of [q] and [ʔ] in both the urban and rural regions. While Table 5 shows the number and percentages of [q] and [ʔ] speakers in the whole sample, Charts 1 and 2 show the tabulation of speakers according to their [q] and [ʔ] in the urban and rural regions. Table 5. Distribution of [q] and [ʔ] in the Whole Sample. (q) No. of respondents Percentage [ʔ] 68 55.7% [q] 54 44.3 % Total 122 4.0 % Chart 1. (q) * Gender Crosstabulation: Whole Sample – Urban Region. 240 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Chart 2. (q) * Gender Crosstabulation: Whole Sample – Rural Region. This research was analyzed through the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, 26.0). Following previous research (Speelman, 2014, p. 487; Tagliamonte, 2016, pp. 113-114), the Binomial Logistic Regression Test was used for analyzing the existing variation as the variable is a binary one. 3.1.1 Quantitative analysis and results ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 241 In this section, we checked the role of gender in the realization of Qaf’s variants. As noted earlier, this is part of a larger research that includes other variables. We are focusing here on gender but referring to other variables and their results in their context. The hypotheses are as follows: Null hypotheses: There is no statistically significant correlation between the factor of gender and the realization of (q) in the urban and rural regions. Alternative hypotheses: There is a statistically significant correlation between the factor of gender and the realization of (q) in the urban and rural regions. The results (see Table 6) show that the factor gender is statistically significant and, specifically, the category coded as 1 (i.e., F) where the sig. value is 0.009, which is less than 0.05, with B (-1.826) and Exp(B) as (.161). This makes us reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative one that says, “there is a statistically significant correlation between gender and the realization of (q) in the urban region.” Table 6. The Urban Sample: Variables in the Equation. 242 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS B S.E. Wald df Sig Exp(B) Age 12.223 4 .016 Age(1) -2.637 1.019 6.697 1 .010 .072 Age(2) -2.461 .937 6.899 1 .009 .085 Age(3) -.989 .961 1.059 1 .303 .372 Age(4) -.242 1.415 .029 1 .864 .785 Gender(1) -1.826 .699 6.824 1 .009 .161 Religion/ Sect .000 2 1.000 Religion/ Sect(1) .073 15668.113 .000 1 1.000 1.076 Religion/ Sect(2) -20.277 10328.888 .000 1 .998 5467066280.415 Constant -20.277 10328.888 .000 1 .998 .000 a Variable(s) entered on step 1: Age, Gender, Religion/Sect However, in the rural regions, gender emerged as insignificant, with a sig. value higher than 0.05. This makes us accept the null hypothesis that says “there is no statistically significant effect of the factor of gender on the realization of (q) in the rural region.” Table 7. The Rural Sample: Variables in the Equation. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 243 B S.E. Wald df Sig Exp(B) Age .000 4 1.000 Age(1) -.184- 26116.681 .000 1 1.000 .832 Age(2) -20.761- 12802.494 .000 1 .999 .000 Age(3) .308 20704.375 .000 1 1.000 1.360 Age(4) 19.118 20046.775 .000 1 .999 200936588.473 Gender(1) 1.099 1.826 .362 1 .547 3.000 Religion/ Sect .000 2 1.000 Religion/ Sect(1) 1.391 44914.888 .000 1 1.000 4.020 Religion/ Sect(2) 41.964 42182.671 .000 1 .999 1676955638519 Constant -21.203- 40192.959 .000 1 1.000 .000 a Variable(s) entered on step 1: Age, Gender, Religion/Sect 3.1 Qualitative analysis of the comments in the interactions Following previous research in the Arabic context, which partially or wholly adopted the qualitative analysis of variation and change, we provide a qualitative analysis to highlight the patterns of speakers’ choices between [q] and [ʔ] variants in specific contexts and to uncover the social meanings and attitudes that these variants carry for participants, the possible groups they are part of, and the society at large. For this, the current research relies on comments or “talks about language” (Bassiouney, 2017a, p. 7) that emerged from participants’ comments regarding the usage and preferences of one variant rather than another. These comments have been used by previous research in the 244 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Arabic context (Bassiouney, 2017a, 2017b, 2018; Habib, 2016; Hachimi, 2007) as they play a role in highlighting the psychological motivations for the linguistic differences and linguistic choices that speakers make (Llamas, 2007: 581). They have largely been shown to support and complement the statistical analysis. These comments further highlighted the actual reasons for why, how, and when speakers employ linguistic variation regarding [q] and [ʔ] and the various as well as different indices associated with them in forging identities. Such analysis highlights how speakers’ identities can change at certain stages of their lives. It should be noted that I include only those comments pertinent to the themes and questions raised in this research. Moreover, those comments about the same linguistic issues were not included. As the interest in these comments was mainly in the content rather than the style, these excerpts were only translated, and the transcribed versions were not included. For this, turns, repetitive elements, laughter, etc., which I considered irrelevant to the discussion, have been omitted. These deleted items are substituted with three dots. Details about the participants and respondents were presented at the top of the excerpt, including the demographic information available. Whenever needed, the flow of the details was included, along with the possible questions or notes I was making during the interactions. The comments that emerged from the questionnaire were one-sided and directed at me. Any needed explanations or gaps between phrases, sentences, or paragraphs that speakers may have assumed to be understood and not said have been inserted within square brackets to clarify what is needed if assumed unclear by me. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 245 4. Discussion The current research findings lend support to previous research in the non-Arabic and Arabic contexts. The data examined shows gender as statistically significant in the urban region but not in the rural ones. Female speakers in the urban regions show higher tendencies toward the [ʔ] variant compared to their male counterparts who tend to use the [q]. These tendencies highly reflect the gendered ideologies that are dominant in such regions, where it becomes “more appropriate” for females to use the urban forms (i.e., [ʔ]) and for males to use the local forms (i.e., [q]) (Habib, 2016). Unlike males who show a tendency to identify with local linguistic norms and practices and, in this case, the [q] variant, females “are more sensitive to social norms and thus linguistic norms in their environment” (Labov, 1972: 303, cited in Habib, 2010: 86). The urban and rural disparity regarding the gendered distribution and evaluation of the Qaf variants in the population examined is, to some degree, influenced by the sociopolitical and religious dynamics in this context. Until the mid-1950s, less contact was established between the urban and rural populations of the city, where Alawites constituted the majority in the rural regions compared to the urban ones, which Sunni and Christian people dominated. The social and political changes in the Syrian context – which started in the early 20th century – brought waves of rural migrants (mainly Alawites) into the urban regions. This eventually altered the religious-sectarian distribution in the urban center marking Alawites as the majority in urban and rural areas (Balanche 2015: 88, 2018: 6; Khaddour 2015). These waves of migration did bring the 246 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS population together geographically but not socially. New localities emerged but were dominated by the rural population. Furthermore, people of rural origins showed a tendency to maintain their rural links within the city and between the urban and rural regions, with many of the rural population commuting daily to the city for government jobs. Consequently, less contact marked the earlier and, to some degree, the later stages of migration. The following decades brought changes to these dynamics with the emergence of more mixed spaces for interaction between the various components. Thus, the [q], which is dominant among the rural population (which is largely Alawites) in Tartus, migrated to the city and got closer to the [ʔ] of the urban center. However, the lack of contact for decades contributed to the relative maintenance of religious/sect-based linguistic distribution, where the [q] remains dominant among Alawites, and [ʔ] being dominant among Sunni, Christians, and relatively increasing among Alawites (Mohamad, 2023). Despite this maintenance, there has been a slow change in progress among the population examined, with the younger age groups (39 and below) showing a tendency towards using the [ʔ] variant, compared to the older ones (Mohamad, 2022). On the evaluation side, it was not uncommon in the urban region to describe males of rural backgrounds who speak with [ʔ] as feminine, mainly by people of the same background who are [q] speakers. The [q] has been largely associated with masculinity, and the [ʔ] with femininity in the context of Tartus City. The gendered-linguistic distribution reflects the socially constructed nature of masculine and feminine associations concerning the [q] and [ʔ], which are still in action among ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 247 speakers of rural origins, despite the said ongoing pace of change. Such gendered differentiation largely aligns with previous studies in the Arabic and Syrian contexts (Abdel- Jawad, 1981, 1987; Al-Khatib, 1988; Al-Wer, 2007; Al-Wer & Herin, 2011; Daher, 1998; Habib, 2005, 2010, 2016). The gendered associations that dialects or features of dialects may develop act as competing factors and add to the sociolinguistic dilemma that such speakers face in various contexts. All these gendered associations are ideological and are primarily based on context and the nature of the groups involved. As discussed before (Al-Wer & Herin, 2011, pp. 70-72), the claimed association of the [ʔ] in Jordan with “softness” and “femininity” could have resulted from it being increasingly and widely adopted by women. The gendered construction of such associations is evident in other contexts. In Algeria, for example, Dendane (2013) shows how the [ʔ] is being stigmatized in the city of Tlemcen, which is gradually leading native speakers, especially young males, to avoid using it under the pressure of the [q] and [g] variants, which are more common in other cities in Algeria. However, he shows that females still retain the [ʔ] variant. Thus, an association between the [ʔ] and feminine speech can emerge as women continue to maintain and use it compared to their male counterparts. Examining the views of sub-groups may reveal various patterns within the sample. Christians, for example, are dominantly [ʔ] speakers, and in this respect, the masculinity-femininity distinction related to the (q) variable is likely to be absent from them. Moreover, such gendered differentiation is less likely to be dominant in rural regions where males and females are mainly [q] speakers. We believe that these gendered evaluations are more common among migrant groups who are originally 248 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS [q] speakers and who got in contact with [ʔ] speakers. For such groups, it is not uncommon for men and women to avoid gendered linguistic features associated with the other gender to confirm their distinct gendered identity. For Coates (2003: 69), “[o]ne significant way in which hegemonic masculinity is created and maintained is through the denial of femininity. The denial of the feminine is central to masculine gender identity,” which “means that men in conversation avoid ways of talking that might be associated with femininity and also actively construct women and gay men as the despised other. Hegemonic masculine discourses are both misogynistic and homophobic.” In Morocco, for example, Hachimi (2012) reports that men in Casablanca avoided the usage of the Fessi approximant [ɹ] as it is likely to show them as “effeminate.” Non-Fessi women reportedly used the same features to project and exaggerate their femininity. In the Syrian context, Habib (2016) found that male adolescents in the village of Al-Oyoun tended to avoid the [ʔ] as it is likely to project them as “effeminate,” “soft,” etc. Similarly, females were resorting to embracing such features as using [q] is associated with being “tough,” “masculine,” etc. Habib showed that gendered ideologies are common among boys, girls, and parents. 4.1 The gendered associations in Tartus These gendered ideologies have been reported among speakers of rural origins in the city of Tartus, who still maintain and forward such gendered differentiation regarding the appropriateness of [ʔ] for females and the [q] for males, which largely affect their linguistic behavior. In Excerpt (1), the female speaker, who is a Muslim Alawite from the city, contends that the [ʔ] is more ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 249 admirable for females and the [q] is nicer among males, and that is why she encourages her brother to speak with [q] because it is not nice for a male to speak with [ʔ]. Excerpt 1. Speaker 46: 17, Muslim Alawite, Female, Urban, [ʔ]. Interviewer: Do you generally speak with ʔaf or qaf? Participant: With ʔaf. Interviewer: And dad? Participant: My dad speaks with qaf. Interviewer: And mom? Participant: qaf. Interviewer: Why do you speak with ʔaf then? Participant: They taught us to speak with ʔaf, especially mom. Sometimes, we use the qaf when we are with a group of qaf speakers. Interviewer: If you go village, what do you use? Participant: It depends! Interviewer: What about your brothers? Participant: My youngest brother is in the 7th grade now. Interviewer: He speaks with ʔaf also, right? Participant: No, with qaf. He is a guy. I tell him it is not nice for a guy to speak with ʔaf, which makes him speak with qaf. Interviewer: Why? Participant: I don’t know! Interviewer: Your mom does not tell him to speak with ʔaf? Participant: No, because it is nicer for a girl to speak with ʔaf, but not for guys. Since childhood, these gendered-differentiated ideologies, attitudes, and practices are widely spread and commented on. The role of both parents (largely mothers) on this gendered differentiation and the linguistic practice of their children, with moms usually pushing towards [ʔ] and fathers being inattentive or otherwise pushing towards [q]. As we saw in Excerpt 1 above, both parents are [q] speakers, but the mother encourages the daughter to speak with [ʔ]. In Excerpt 2, the speaker is a male Muslim Alawite of rural origins residing in the city. He highlights his desire 250 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS to make his young son speak with [q] and not with [ʔ]. He says that his son is still a child, and it may be difficult for him to speak with [q], so he does not put high pressure on him. During data collection, I interviewed his son, who was six years old (participant 15), with other speakers of his age group before we interviewed his father. In this study, the father is categorized as a [q] speaker and the son as a [ʔ] speaker (see Table 8). It should be noted that we have encountered many incidents where children below age seven are addressed with [ʔ] even when the speakers themselves are [q] speakers. Excerpt 2. Speaker 16: 38, Muslim Alawite, Male, Urban, [q]. Interviewer: Your son speaks with qaf or ʔaf? Participant: No, he speaks with ʔaf. Interviewer: What do you think about that? Participant: I am not happy about this, honestly speaking. […] Participant: He should speak with qaf. But now, he is a kid, and it is probably easier for him, as qaf needs more force to be used. But in general, the qaf surrounds him from all directions. Table 8. Father and Son: [q] and [ʔ] Distribution. Total No. % No. % No. [q] Speaker Age Gender Religion/ of Sect Region of of of of or [q] [q] [ [q] ʔ] [ʔ] and [ʔ] [ʔ] 15 (Son) 6 M MA U 3 17 15 83 18 ʔ 16 (Father) 38 M MA U 21 91 2 9 23 q ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 251 4.1.1 The role of family and school in shaping gendered- linguistic behavior While families are the first sites where speakers may encounter such variants and variation, schools have been regarded among the early public spheres where speakers, especially [q]-speaking females, are exposed to such ideologies, which may pressure them to change their linguistic behavior. Such attitudes and pressure are largely gendered, pushing females towards [ʔ]. In Excerpt (3), the speaker describes the encounter she experienced with her sister with [ʔ]-speaking schoolmates as early as 6th grade when they shifted to the city after being brought up in a village to [q]-speaking parents. As they moved to the new school in the 12th grade, the speaker says their school friends started to mock their [q] usage. They, however, began to defend themselves, alluding to the originality of [q] and its Qur’anic associations. This defensive mechanism did not work, and they felt more pressure. After telling their mother about their experience, she asked them to begin speaking with [ʔ]. The speaker said she is an [ʔ]-speaking person, which matched our analysis. She says her brother usually speaks with [ʔ], but he tries to talk with [q] with a group of elderly male speakers. Excerpt 3. Speaker 12: 27, Muslim Alawite, Female, Urban, [ʔ]. 252 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Participant: At that time, our friends at school started to mock us … We started saying that the basis of Arabic is this and that this represents our Arabness and identity and is the language of the Qur’an, and such arguments … Gradually, we started to feel that we were wrong. At that point, our mom started telling us that we should speak with ʔaf. […] Participant: My brother speaks according to who he is sitting with. Sometimes, he sits with my father’s friends, and he starts using qaf, a heavy qaf, I mean. I feel it is heavy as I am not used to hearing him using it, and he is not used to speaking like that. Interviewer: Doesn’t he make mistakes? Participant: Yes, yes, he makes mistakes; he speaks with [q] and [ʔ]. 4.1.2 The role of other spaces in shaping gendered-linguistic behavior Such gendered ideologies have affected many participants, whether males or females. In Excerpt 4, the male participant, whose family migrated from the rural regions of Tartus to Damascus, describes his daunting experience after an accident where a ruler came through his mouth and prevented him from pronouncing many sounds at an earlier stage after the surgery is done to him. With experts’ supervision and medical attention, he could retrieve all sounds except the [q], where he could pronounce it only as [ʔ], even when reading an Arabic text in class. Not being able to pronounce the [q] caused him many issues at school but not within society at large. Later, shifting back to the village, he suffered more. This suffering decreased as he moved to the urban center of Tartus. However, this escalated when he went to do military service, where he had to introduce his rank, which is “first sergeant,” which translates into /rə[q]i:b/ but can be said with an [ʔ] as part of colloquial Arabic (i.e., /rə[ʔ]i:b/). This made him avoid introducing his rank and worry about the commentary of the officer-in-charge. Later, when he was ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 253 told that he should present his rank and name, he introduced that as /rə[ʔ]i:b/, where the officer said: “We do not have /rə[ʔ]i:b/ in the army.” Due to various sources of pressure, he decided at a point in time to download a YouTube video of how to pronounce [q] and eventually managed to pronounce it. Excerpt 4. Speaker 11: 30, Muslim Alawite, Male, Urban, [q]. Speaking about his stay in Damascus: Participant: I suffered during my study days a lot. I did not even participate in classes [because of the [q]]. […] Participant: They did not understand that I could not produce the [q]. [In village] Participant: Later, I came to the village … I suffered a lot … How can you pronounce the qaf as ʔaf? You are a man! […] [In Tartus] Participant: I suffered here also, but the society here in Tartus City showed more acceptance of this. The pressure towards [ʔ] is not directed to females alone, as other males in the urban regions have been undergoing such pressure, but with lesser reported cases in our observation. In such situations, the urban factor and indices seem to compete with and override the gender- specific categorization dominant in society. Such sociolinguistic pressure largely falls in line with the patterns of intra-speaker variation found among males who appear to accommodate the various identities they want to forward according to different contexts. In Excerpt 5, the speaker was the only one who described himself as a [q] and an [ʔ] speaker, though he assured that he is 254 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS considered an [ʔ] speaker. He highlighted the identity struggle between the two variants and their associations. The first is toward the urban [ʔ] that his mom and other urbanites speak with. The second is the [q] that his dad and other ruralites use. He is a relative of speaker 16, who also commented that the child’s mother tends to direct her children to speak with [ʔ]. Excerpt 5. Speaker 58: 11, Muslim Alawite, Male, Urban, [ʔ]. Interviewer: Do you say /[q]alʕa/ or /[ʔ]alʕa/ (= castle)? Participant: I say /[ʔ]alʕa/. My mom wants me to get used to this. I used to say /[q]alʕa]/, like my dad. Interviewer: All of your mom’s speech is ʔaf? Participant: [ʔ, ʔ, ʔ, ʔ, ʔ, ʔ, ʔ …] Interviewer: And your dad? Participant: [q, q, q, q, q, q, q, q …] and I am [q, ʔ, q, ʔ, q, ʔ, q, ʔ…]. Interviewer: Do you have a sister? Participant: Yes, [ʔ, ʔ, ʔ, ʔ, ʔ, ʔ, ʔ]. Interviewer: Why do you speak like this then? Participant: The boy wants to be like his father, and the girl wants to be like a girl. I used to pronounce it as qaf …I did not know because, in my village, they pronounce the (q) as [q]. It has become a habit for me that I cannot get rid of. […] Participant: At school, I like to speak with [ʔ] so that people do not think I am [from the village] […] Interviewer: What do you use with your father? Participant: [q, q, q, q, q, q] but if my mom is present, [ʔ, ʔ, ʔ, ʔ, ʔ]. Table 9. Speaker 58: [q] and [ʔ] Distribution. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 255 Total No. % No. % No. [q] Speaker Age Gender Religion/ of Sect Region of of of of or [q] [q] [ [q] ʔ] [ʔ] and [ʔ] [ʔ] 58 11 M MA U 10 48 11 52 21 ʔ The linguistic practices of participant 58 and the intra- variation he reported , which we noticed throughout our interaction ( Table 9), fall within the dilemma that speakers of rural origins in both the rural and urban regions undergo in situations of in-migration and dialectal contact. Such pressure emerges from various social reasons and partially from speakers of the same rural origins who are themselves early migrants who have already adopted the urban style of life. Despite his young age, the young boy’s linguistic behavior and comments reveal a high level of awareness of the social embeddedness of the variants in question and his ability to employ that in his speech. On the one hand, he prefers to use the [q] with his [q]-speaking dad, who became his model. It is more likely that this can lead to an association between his usage of [q] and masculinity. He is simultaneously forced to use the [ʔ] with his [ʔ]-speaking mom. His sister, he believes, should speak like girls, which means [ʔ], and this is yet a reflection of the gendered differentiation present in society. Interestingly, he preferred to use the [ʔ] in school to forward an urban identity, as using [q] may show his rural background. Clearly, a state of complication and part of the dilemma that speakers have, as young as 11 in our case, involve the variants’ choices and the ability or the will to convey 256 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS different identities, including the gendered one, through the selection of one variant rather than another. 4.1.3 Identity construction We can assure that the young boy’s usage of [q] and [ʔ] is quite smooth, as he is very adaptable to both variants. We further believe that this case is an excellent example of how speakers can exploit the existing variation between variants (Eckert, 2005) and use the various social indices to forward one or more identities rather than others. Such linguistic practices are largely contextual and align with the stance, role, social position, or identity he wants to associate with. In other words, it is clear that his linguistic practice is not solely dependent on the macro-level categories that he is born into. Rather, he seems to continuously employ the acquired or taught variation to forward various identities at various times, reflecting any level of identity or social group he wants to associate with or is obliged to. Such identities can vary between (1) macro- level demographic identities, (2) micro-local identities, or (3) interactional ones (Bucholtz & Hall, 2005: 592). In this respect, his usage of the [q] with his dad or with other speakers can be indicative of the gendered-masculine identity, which sets him as part of the gendered-masculine and spatial community of practice where the [q] is more appropriate for male speakers of rural origins (Habib, 2016). Though using the [ʔ] largely happens due to his mother’s influence, he willingly uses it at school to forward the urban identity. Such an “urban” index seems to override and differ from the “feminine” index in such situations. Throughout his interactions, he seems to be able to manipulate the various linguistic resources to show ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 257 various stances, roles, and identities that can serve his purposes (Wolfram & Schilling, 2016: 39). Such linguistic behavior is not uncommon among migrant speakers or speakers of rural origins whose dialects or features of dialects acquired various and, in some cases, contradictory social indices that can increase dilemmas for their speakers between “social approval,” thus fitting in their new community or talking properly according to “group solidarity.” It is not uncommon in such contexts for patterns to vary between speakers who maintain either of the variants and those who show a balanced act and flexibility between balancing the various social considerations (Wolfram & Schilling, 2016: 39). Thus, we can say that speakers employ such existing variation to forward one identity rather than another. 4.1.3.1 Short- and long-term identity construction While in most cases, such switches represent interactional identities (temporary) that speakers may want to forward; some speakers reported significant changes across their life stages, mainly toward the urban dialects and the [ʔ] feature. At the same time, many speakers do not make such switches and show higher tendencies towards maintaining their original identity, which can signify group solidarity. Speaker 29 is a 38 years old Muslim Alawite female who resides in Al-Ghadeer locality. After the interaction (see Excerpt 6) that happened in the presence of my mom, her daughter, and a friend of hers, I asked her about her usage of [q] as she categorically used it (see Table 10). She immediately spoke about a recent incident that happened to her during a visit to Damascus, where her cousin asked her to “soften the [q] that is as big as the sofa.” She stated that she refused to do so and said 258 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS that she does not feel that she belongs to the other side (i.e., [ʔ]-speaking side); she expressed her pride in the dialect and the [q] that she uses. Excerpt 6. Speaker 29: 38, Muslim Alawite, Female, Urban, [q]. I am going to tell you about my workplace; the percentage that I see, people who speak this, three-quarters of them speak with the [⯑]. […] I could not take this side [= I could not speak with [⯑]]. I maintained what I am and not what I am exposed to; I am like this. My reality is this. This is the reality that represents me. I did not feel … I went to Damascus, where I visited Al-Hamidiyeh, and my cousin told me: ‘Please, soften the [q] that is as big as the sofa …enough, do not speak.’ Why would I do this, my brother? [said even to someone who is a cousin]: This is my dialect, and I am proud of it. […] We do not have the culture of being what you are. Table 10. Speaker 29: [q] and [ʔ] Distribution. Total No. % No. % No. [q] Speaker Age Gender Religion/ of Sect Region of of of of or [q] [q] [ [q] ʔ] [ʔ] and [ʔ] [ʔ] 29 38 F MA U 16 100 0 0 16 q Through such linguistic practices and the exploitation of the available associations, many speakers, especially in the urban regions, show higher adaptability towards varying their linguistic practices between the [q] and [ʔ]. Such switching indicates a large level of intentionality that individuals decide to go for depending on their context and the appropriate situation they find themselves in. Such ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 259 linguistic practices and other similar ones that involve switching between the variants largely resemble the “innovative” and “complex” linguistic behavior of third- generation females and males of Jordanian and Palestinian backgrounds reported in Jordan (Al-Wer & Herin, 2011: 69). On the one hand, females seem to be largely consistent in their [ʔ]-usage with less switching, thus maintaining the “urban” image they developed. However, males show “innovative” and “complex” patterns of linguistic usage. They resort to interactional switches between their heritage background, gender, and context or interlocutor. Boys tend to use the [ʔ] variant when speaking with females and are more likely to use their heritage variant with speakers of the same ethnicity and during in-group interactions. The usage of [ʔ] by male speakers when speaking with females has been reported among boys in the village of Al-Oyoun (Habib, 2010). Such use is interactional, and in such situations, we cannot say that such male speakers are forwarding “the feminine” identity. Rather, it is an association with an urban identity that they are likely to forward. 5. Conclusion In this paper, the quantitative analysis revealed the gendered distribution of the [q] and [ʔ] variants in the urban region, with females showing a higher tendency towards using the [ʔ] variant compared to their male counterparts. In the rural regions, however, gender was not statistically significant, with males and females showing a higher tendency towards the [q] variant. Moreover, the analysis of comments has revealed the considerable presence of gendered associations in the urban region, with [q] being more suitable for males and 260 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS [ʔ] being more appropriate for females. These associations have little space in rural areas, with males and females being largely [q] speakers. The analysis further showed how such associations are socially constructed, exemplified in the relative absence of such gendered indices among males and females in rural regions. It shows that the dominance of one variant among a group, which is females here, can influence its associations, affecting its usage and distribution. It should be noted that gendered-evaluations still exist, but have been decreasing relatively in the past few years within the urban population of different origins, as mixing increased and as members of the same family of rural origins started to vary between the [q] and [ʔ]. The study showed that the awareness of variation could start early in life, especially with salient variables (Chevrot et al., 2000: 296; Smith & Durham, 2019: 7–8) such as the Qaf (Habib, 2016, 2017). The family can trigger these associations and sociolinguistic competence, and the members become the first agents of such influence. This emergence is not straightforward as it may take a gendered orientation, with females being encouraged towards the [ʔ] and males towards the [q] by their mothers and fathers, respectively. Later, or simultaneously, comes the role of caregivers (Smith & Durham, 2019) and school, friends, and other social spaces, especially as speakers shift or migrate from one locality to another and from rural to urban regions. The study underscored speakers’ agency and ability to employ the various indices in certain contexts to forward specific identities. The comments of speaker 58 and the reverse from speaking mainly with [ʔ] to speaking with ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 261 [q] and [ʔ] is an example of such emergence and later development. It has become clear that variation regarding the Qaf variants and their acquisition and development is not straightforward. Many factors – social, political, local, and supra-local factors- can shape their distribution, usage, and associations. 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Appendix Table 11 Distribution of Speakers Across Social and Linguistic Categories 266 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Total No. % No. No. [q] Speaker Age Gender Religion Region of of of % of of or [q] [q] [ [ʔ] [q] ʔ] and [ʔ] [ʔ] 1 64 Ma CHc Uf 0 0 9 100 9 ʔ 2 77 M CH Rg 0 0 7 100 7 ʔ 3 55 Fb MAd U 19 63 11 37 30 q 4 22 M MA U 5 36 9 64 14 ʔ 5 38 M MA R 22 100 0 0 22 q 6 49 M MA U 4 10 37 90 41 ʔ 7 43 M MSe U 0 0 26 100 26 ʔ 8 43 M MS U 2 13 13 87 15 ʔ 9 25 F CH R 2 14 12 86 14 ʔ 10 30 M MA U 13 100 0 0 13 q 11 62 M MS U 3 14 19 86 22 ʔ 12 27 F MA U 2 12 15 88 17 ʔ 13 37 M MA U 13 100 0 0 13 q 14 22 F MA U 3 19 13 81 16 ʔ 15 6 M MA U 3 17 15 83 18 ʔ 16 38 M MA U 21 91 2 9 23 q 17 24 F MA U 5 24 16 76 21 ʔ 18 54 F MA U 20 100 0 0 20 q 19 56 F MA U 18 100 0 0 18 q 20 60 F MA U 16 84 3 16 19 q 21 55 M MA R 13 100 0 0 13 q 22 44 M MA R 10 100 0 0 10 q ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 267 23 32 M MA U 10 43 13 57 23 ʔ 24 50 M MS U 9 12 31 78 40 ʔ 25 53 F MA U 2 33 4 67 6 ʔ 26 45 F MA U 13 100 0 0 13 q 27 53 F MA U 4 27 11 73 15 ʔ 28 25 F MA U 0 0 14 100 14 ʔ 29 38 F MA U 16 100 0 0 16 q 30 38 M MA R 22 100 0 0 22 q 31 80 F MA U 14 100 0 0 14 q 32 65 M MS R 8 19 35 81 43 ʔ 33 11 M MA U 8 100 0 0 8 q 34 11 M MA U 10 100 0 0 10 q 35 21 F MA U 3 21 11 79 14 ʔ 36 16 F MA U 5 28 8 62 13 ʔ 37 20 F MA R 9 100 0 0 9 q 38 17 F MA U 0 0 6 100 6 ʔ 39 20 F MA U 4 23 8 67 12 ʔ 40 10 M MA U 0 0 8 100 8 ʔ 41 9 M MA U 1 10 9 90 10 ʔ 42 13 M MA U 4 24 13 76 17 ʔ 43 17 F MA U 2 14 12 86 14 ʔ 44 32 F MA U 6 22 21 78 27 ʔ 45 47 M MA U 22 100 0 0 22 q 46 10 M MA R 9 100 0 0 9 q 47 14 M MA U 10 100 0 0 10 q 48 66 F MA U 12 100 0 0 12 q 268 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 49 70 F MA U 5 36 9 64 14 ʔ 50 35 M MA U 5 29 12 71 17 ʔ 51 36 F MA U 8 35 15 65 23 ʔ 52 29 M MA U 11 100 0 0 11 q 53 21 M MA R 13 100 0 0 13 q 54 24 F MA U 10 30 23 70 33 ʔ 55 22 F MA U 8 25 24 75 32 ʔ 56 19 M MA U 7 25 21 75 28 ʔ 57 14 F MA U 12 71 5 29 17 q 58 11 M MA U 10 48 11 52 21 ʔ 59 13 M MA U 16 100 0 0 16 q 60 20 M MA U 15 100 0 0 15 q 61 31 M MA R 23 100 0 0 23 q 62 67 M MA R 9 100 0 0 9 q 63 17 F MA R 21 100 0 0 21 q 64 27 F MA R 14 100 0 0 14 q 65 29 M MA U 8 100 0 0 8 q 66 20 F MA R 3 19 13 81 16 ʔ 67 30 F MA R 12 100 0 0 12 q 68 52 M MA R 11 100 0 0 11 q 69 19 F MA R 5 66 4 44 9 q 70 22 F MA R 9 100 0 0 9 q 71 36 M MA R 26 100 0 0 26 q 72 39 M MA R 21 100 0 0 21 q 73 63 M MA R 12 100 0 0 12 q 74 55 F MA R 15 100 0 0 15 q ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 269 75 30 M MA U 19 100 0 0 19 q 76 35 M MA U 11 100 0 0 11 q 77 34 M MA U 13 100 0 0 13 q 78 32 M MA U 15 100 0 0 15 q 79 40 M MA U 16 100 0 0 16 q 80 30 M CH U 0 0 12 100 12 ʔ 81 30 M MA U 16 100 0 0 16 q 82 35 M MA U 17 100 0 0 17 q 83 67 M MA R 12 100 0 0 12 q 84 53 M MA U 9 22 19 68 28 ʔ 85 40 M CH R 0 0 12 100 12 ʔ 86 41 M MA U 13 100 0 0 13 q 87 43 M CH U 0 0 10 100 10 ʔ 88 27 F MA U 1 9 10 91 11 ʔ 89 36 M CH U 0 0 13 100 13 ʔ 90 35 F MA U 0 0 13 100 13 ʔ 91 33 M MA U 11 33 22 67 33 ʔ 92 28 F MA U 6 24 19 76 25 ʔ 93 23 M MA U 13 41 19 59 32 ʔ 94 29 M MA R 4 24 13 76 17 ʔ 95 24 F MA U 6 25 18 75 24 ʔ 96 36 M MA U 13 100 0 0 13 q 97 37 M MA U 22 100 0 0 22 q 98 24 F MA U 1 3 29 97 30 ʔ 99 15 F MA U 3 12 23 88 26 ʔ 100 26 M MA U 15 100 0 0 15 q 270 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 101 19 M MA U 2 15 11 85 13 ʔ 102 10 M MA U 0 0 11 100 11 ʔ 103 28 F MA U 4 17 19 83 23 ʔ 104 56 M MA U 14 100 0 0 14 q 105 28 F CH U 3 13 20 87 23 ʔ 106 27 F MA U 5 21 19 79 24 ʔ 107 28 F MS U 0 0 14 100 14 ʔ 108 60 F CH U 1 6 17 94 18 ʔ 109 65 M CH U 2 12 15 88 17 ʔ 110 40 F CH U 0 0 19 100 19 ʔ 111 27 M CH U 2 9 20 91 22 ʔ 112 31 M CH U 2 11 17 89 19 ʔ 113 26 F MS U 2 11 16 89 18 ʔ 114 49 M CH R 0 0 18 100 18 ʔ 115 52 F MS U 3 14 18 86 21 ʔ 116 14 M MS U 2 9 21 91 23 ʔ 117 22 F MS U 3 12 22 88 25 ʔ 118 59 M MS U 3 12 22 88 25 ʔ 119 43 M MS U 1 2 40 98 41 ʔ 120 39 M MS U 1 3 33 97 34 ʔ 121 68 M MA R 35 100 0 0 35 q 122 42 M CH R 8 62 5 38 13 q Total 47% 1157 53% 2192 a F = Female. b M = Male. c MA = Muslim Alawite. d U = Urban. e R = Rural. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 271 [1] The (q) or Qaf in this text refer to the variable under study. The variants can be called [q] and [ʔ], or [qaf] and [ʔaf], respectively. 272 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 8 Code-switching usage in English language class at tertiary institutions in Kano Muhammed Sagir Abdullahi National Institute for Hospitality and Tourism, Bagauda, Kano, Nigeria. sagirabdullahi2012@gmail.com This paper explores the practice of code-switching in English language classes at tertiary institutions in Kano. The research focuses on the reasons for teachers’ code- switching, functions, and linguistic features in the types of code-switching used in English classes. Ethnography was adopted as the methodology and Discourse Analysis approach (D.A) as its theoretical framework. Observation and audio recording were employed during the data collection. Data were analyzed based on 10 functions of code-switching by Hoffmann (1991) and Poplack (1980) classification types of code-switching model. The findings reveal that teachers’ code-switching serves two different ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 273 functions in English language classes: instructional functions and social functions. Instructional functions include confirmation and evaluation, clarification, explanation, and word equivalence in terms of translation in order to facilitate comprehension. While the social functions include emotion and humor for establishing social rapport with students and dealing with classroom discipline. All the code-switched utterances employed by teachers and students were either inter-sentential, intra- sentential, or tag-switching at word, clause, phrase, and sentential levels. Keywords: Code-switching, English Language Classes, Inter-sentential, Intra-sentential and Tag switching 1. Introduction In the Nigerian educational system, the English language is the medium of instruction in all educational institutions and also in industrial and business training centers. It is an important subject in the school curriculum at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of education in Nigeria. The National Policy of Education (NPE), formulated in 1977 and revised in 1981, 1998 and 2004 assigns to English the role of serving as the language of instruction from the fourth year of a six-year primary course to the tertiary level. According to Oyetunde (1984), English language is a passport to educational advancement and as a subject, especially at the higher level of education in Nigeria, it could be viewed from two academic contexts. First, it functions as a subject matter for obtaining a certificate or degree after passing through the necessary higher education program and secondly, occupies an 274 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS important position in the preparation of school curriculum and other educational activities that make it indispensable in the whole system. However, in a multilingual or bilingual classroom setting, language is central to the construction of meaning for students from different linguistic backgrounds. When two or more languages co- exist, the possibility to code-switch among interlocutors with similar or shared linguistic background often takes place (Jacobson, 2004). Cook (2001) refers to code- switching in the classroom as a natural response in a bilingual situation and considers the ability to switch from one language to another as highly desirable among learners. Moreover, in eliciting teachers’ reflections on their classroom teachings, Ali and Agbedo (2013) notice that the most notable strategy that teachers used was code- switching to achieve a number of communicative and metalinguistic ends. According to Richards and Rogers (2001), the use of learners’ native languages is a powerful means for learners to explore their ideas. They argue further that without code-switching, some students’ alternate conceptions would remain unexposed. The recognition to switch codes goes beyond switching between languages; it also recognizes the value of using the vernacular, which allows students to draw on useful sense- making resources (Amin, 2009). Researchers considered using code-switching in the classroom as a “legitimate strategy” (Cook, 2001: 105) and no matter how disruptive it might be during a conversation, it still provides an opportunity for language development (Skiba et al, 1997). Despite English as the medium of instruction in Nigerian tertiary institutions, yet, code-switching dominates classroom interaction. The practice of Code-switching has become a prevalent phenomenon in the English classroom ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 275 context in which teachers and students are fully engaged. A clear understanding of what necessitates teachers’ code- switching as well as students was not ascertained at tertiary institutions in Kano. Therefore, the focus of this paper is to critically explore the reason that causes its occurrence in the classroom situation and in some other social interactions. 2. Methodology Ethnography was adopted as the methodology of this study and the Discourse Analysis approach (D.A) as its theoretical framework. For the data collection, two methods were employed: Classroom observations and audio recordings. The use of observations is to ascertain what is happening in the classroom and to establish a connection between reality and theoretical assumptions. Alongside the observations, audio recordings were also used to uncover the exact nature of the verbal behavior of the teachers. The data collected were mostly teachers’ utterances during English language lecture sessions in some selected tertiary institutions in Kano i.e Federal College of Education, Aminu Kano School of Islamic Legal Studies and Sa’adatu Rimi College of Education. The researcher used a digital recorder to record teachers’ lectures while in sessions. Recorded speeches from the teachers’ lectures for about 45 to 60 minutes were transcribed and speeches containing code-switching were also identified, extracted, and annotated for further analysis. 3. Data presentation and analysis 276 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS The data were analyzed based on 10 functions[1] of code- switching of Hoffman (1991) and Poplack (1980) classification types of code-switching (inter-sentential, intra-sentential, and tag switching). Inter-sentential switching involves a switch at a clausal or sentential boundary where the clause or sentence might have been in L1 before changing to L2. While intra-sentential switching occurs when words or phrases from another language are inserted into a sentence of the first language and tag- switching is the insertion of words that can be put anywhere within the boundary of a sentence or speech without violating the grammatical rules of that sentence. The data were first identified, selected, edited, and transcribed using the mode from Miles and Huberman (1994) through data reduction, data description, and classification. Teachers’ code-switching was for the following purposes: confirmation and evaluation, clarification, explanation, emotion, humor, discipline, and equivalence. 3.1 Confirmation and Evaluation As observed in English classes, teachers employed code- switching involving Hausa fillers and tags for statement confirmation and to evaluate students’ performance. This is depicted in the following excerpts from the recorded teachers’ utterances in the classes: Excerpt 1 Now, scopes of communication (spelling the word) S C O P E. Ko? (Now, scopes of communication (spelling the word) S C O P E. Rright?) ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 277 Excerpt 2 What is the meaning of verbal, using your mouth ….ko? Very good (What is the meaning of verbal, using your mouth….right? Very good) Excerpt 3 I said body movement ko? (I said body movement right?) Excerpt 4 For example, teacher and student ko? …… Doctor and Patient ko? (For example, teacher and student, right? …… Doctor and Patient, right?) Excerpt 5 This is all about communication. We define various ways of communication. We made mention types of communication. We made mention of channels of communication ko? (This is all about communication. We defined various ways of communication. We made mention types of communication. We made mention of channels of Communication, right?) Excerpt 6 Drama is a powerful model of learning. Ko? (Drama is a powerful model of learning. Right?). Excerpt 7 278 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Robert John defines communication as an exchange between people of knowledge, information, ideas, opinions and feelings, toh! This is how he defines communication you get it. Toh! (Robert John defines communication as an exchange between people of knowledge, information, ideas, opinions and feelings, Okey! This is how he defines communication you get it. Okey! ). Excerpt 8 Omodiogbe, may be he is a Yoruba man. Is there any Yoruba here? Omodiogbe, toh! 2002. (Omodiogbe, may be he is a Yoruba man. Is there any Yoruba here? Omodiogbe, okey! 2002). Excerpt 9 ……….(noise) that one will not but it could be , but this time around, toh! (……….(noise) that one will not but it could be , but this time around, okey!). It was evident from the above excerpts that “fillers” have featured at the end of the code-switching utterances in these sentences. The employment of Hausa fillers, “ko” (right) which appears in excerpts 1, 2,3,4,5, and 6 in the form of tag switching done by teachers was to make confirmation. Teachers evaluate their students on the previous lessons to confirm whether they understand the discussed subject or not. Also, according to excerpts 7, 8, and 9 teachers checked the concept of communication, scopes of communication, and various types of communication for confirmation purposes. The employment of fillers like “toh!” (okey) and “ko” (right) in ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 279 the teacher’s utterances were for a rhetorical question that does not require constructive or analytical answers. The use of Hausa fillers was similar to what Poplack (1980) calls tag-switching which is basically defined as the switching of a tag phrase or word from one language to another. In the above excerpts, teachers’ code-switching served confirmation and evaluation functions in order to test the students understanding of the discussed topic. The utterance of ‘toh!’ and ‘ko’ by the teachers in English classes was basically habitual and it happens as a result of mother tongue influence in order to confirm statements. 3.2 Clarification Teachers used code-switching in English classes to give more additional information, elaboration, and expansion on some vague concepts and ambiguous terms. The alternations by teachers serve clarification functions on subject matters in order to keep a smooth flow of teacher- student interactions. In the following excerpts, the teacher makes adequate explanations in order to clarify the conceptual terms by inserting Hausa clauses, phrases, and sentences. Excerpt 10 The speech of the sound, idan misalin yanzu kai magana ko kai kalma ai yanayin fitowar kalmar shi ne what we referred as phoneme. (The speech of the sound, for example, if you speak or uttered a word, the abstraction of the physical speech sound of that word is what we referred as phoneme). Excerpt 11 Ko wane yaareé na duniya da za ka je ka koya, indai za ka yi 280 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS speech work, dole organs of speech za a koya maka. Amma zai zama based on yaren da kaje koyo. I don’t know whether ko kun fahimci abinda nake nufi. (In learning any natural language, in as much as you will learn speech work, you must be taught organs of speech. However, it will be based on the governing rules of that language. I don’t know whether you understand what I mean). Excerpt 12 Teacher: Look at for example, here I came to this class, I said “hey guys, hi, what is the name, what’s up”. Za ka ji wasu na cewa wannan ta cika ƙ aaƙ ale. So it is because of the phoneme. Ka gane ko? Teacher: Look at for example, here I came to this class, I said “hey guys, hi, what is the name, what’s up”. You will hear others talking, this woman is so acting up. So it is because of the phoneme. Do you understand? Student: Ma, Kina nufin is that how you are pronouncing these words or talk? Student: Ma, do you mean is that how you are pronouncing these words or talk?. In all the excerpts quoted above, it buttresses that the teacher was trying to draw comparative examples to analyze the conceptual areas in a grammar lesson. In the same vein, the teacher explains how speech sounds are perceived as well as the pronunciation processes of words in formal language classes. She also expresses the language acquisition processes and the sound utterances phonologically. The teacher extensively clarified the habit of language speakers generally and how it differs from one ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 281 language to another. In excerpts 10, 11, and 12, the teacher used both single words, clauses, and complete sentences to add more and clarify her statements for example: the word “yaareé” (language), clause “Ko wane yaareé na duniya da za ka je ka koya” (any natural language that you will learn), phrase “ har a ka sami” (in as much you get), sentence “ wannan ta cika ƙ aaƙ ale” (this woman is so acting up). The language alternation at the word, clausal and phrasal level was synonymous with what Poplack (1980) calls intra-sentential code-switching. It is the situation where the switching takes place within the clause or sentence and is considered to be the most complex form of switching. Therefore, the teacher uses her linguistic skills and mastery of both the two languages i.e English and Hausa to express herself well in the form of code-switching which serves a clarification function. 3.3 Explanation Teacher’s code-switching functions as a means for providing a comprehensive and detailed explanation of some abstract terms and concepts on the subject matter in English language classes. The following excerpts show how the teacher was presenting her topic to the students in the class as follows: Excerpt 13 Why they said the aims and goals of the criticism because ai shi theory shi ya kawo Criticism. Shi ya buɗ e kofa har aka sami criticism, this is what I want you to understand. (Why they said the aims and goals of the criticism, because it is the theory that brought criticism. It is that paves the way for criticism, this what I want you to understand). 282 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Excerpt 14 Teacher: You are asking what is intrinsic and extrinsic, which proper school of thought is it to be applied for, Ko ba haka ka ke nufi ba? Teacher: You are asking what is intrinsic and extrinsic and which proper School of thought is it to be applied for, is it not what you mean? ). Student: Yes , haka nake nufi. (Yes, that what I mean). Teacher: In ka ɗ auki Marxists suna yin intrinsic and extrinsic, they use both of them. Amma in kaje structuralism, they don’t go for the two of the subjects. In kaje formalism they only take one ba sa using all but it is only marxists and sometime ina ga Formalism saboda sometime because they are language biased. Since they are language biased ba sa haɗ a wa gaba ɗ aya, wanda suka ɗ auka shi suke back-up. (Marxists used both intrinsic and extrinsic. Structuralism don’t go for the two. The same thing with formalists, they only take one not all. But it is only Marxists and I think sometimes formalists even though they are language biased. Since they are language biased, they don’t merge the two and only back-up the one chosen). Student: What is their differences ɗ in su gaba ɗ aya? What are their differences in all? Teacher: Toh! Ba ga shi differences na gaya maka ba. One allows criticism within the text and the other does not allow criticism in and outside the text, is it not the difference? Toh! Difference ɗ in me kuma ka ke so in gaya maka. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 283 Teacher: Ok! These are the differences, I have already told you about. One allows for criticism within the text and the other does not allow in and outside the text, is it not the difference? Ok! What kind of difference do you want me to tell you again? As observed in excerpts 13 and 14 the above, revealed that teachers use intra-sentential code-switching to explain abstract terms and respond to the students’ questions in the literature class. The function of the teacher’s code- switching in this respect was basically to ease comprehension in the explanation of some literary terms and concepts in a simpler way. The teacher was trying to compare all schools of thoughts together and see how each relates to one another. The concept of literary criticism was fully elaborated based on Marxism, Formalism, and Structuralism viewpoints. As usual, explanation occurs when the teacher sees the need to repeat and elaborate on what was previously said in another language in order to help students understand the subject of discussion. It tallies with Canagarajah’s (1995) research which opines that a teacher’s code-switched function is for the explanation which occurs at different places during the lessons. It normally happens when introducing a new topic, checking an exercise, and when posing argumentative exposition over a strange subject matter. This is supported by Cook (2001) and Lin (2003) that, teachers’ code-switching is an important tool for explanations whereas students find the classroom more natural and easy when code-switching was involved. It gives room for a wider explanation of some technical terms and the introduction of new concepts by teachers. According to Ahmad and Jusoff (2009), the function of teachers’ code-switching in the class gave 284 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS teachers an opportunity to communicate well and to explain new vocabulary, grammar, and new concepts. 3.4 Emotional School is said to be a social environment where people from different social backgrounds converge, interact and socialize themselves for common purposes. It is an environment that comprises teachers and students, especially in a classroom situation where communication takes place for so many reasons. As observed, teachers’ code-switching in English class serves some purposes which are for interpersonal communication, making complaints, and ultimately evoking emotion as obtained in the following excerpts: Excerpt 15 Teacher: Ah! Hajiya from where? (Ah! Hajiya from where?). Student: Wallahi Sir, gaisuwar mutuwa naje, daga qauye nake. (Certainly, Sir, I went for condolence visit, I am from village). The above excerpt revealed the use of intra-sentential and inter-sentential code-switching by both the teacher and student to sympathize with the student for a particular situation. It was an instance where a student came very late while lectures were about to rounded up and the teacher interrogated her lateness. She responds by employing her mother tongue to lodge her excuses. The emotional function of teachers’ code-switching serves as an appeal to show concern and express feelings over issues that affect students and their personal and private issues. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 285 3.5 Humor Teachers were observed to establish a connection with their students through social interaction in their classrooms in order to build rapport. Examples of their socializing activities were joking, using warm-up questions, telling students about their own personal issues, and encouraging or praising students. One way of maintaining students’ attention and interest in the teacher-guided classroom was the use of humor. This was specifically in cases where more than two-thirds of the speaking is done by the teacher while interacting with his students. The excerpt below provides a good illustration of teacher’s code-switching when cracking jokes with students. Excerpt 16 I don’t take attendance, it is already time, leave! Kaga matsoraci. (I don’t take attendance, it is already time, leave! See a coward.). Excerpt 17 This is what a lot of Kano people do. They use to kuuri (boasting ). (This is what a lot of Kano people do. They use to boast.). In excerpt 16, the teacher cracks jokes with his student. It is habitual for the students in institutions where they have adequate freedom to move in and around the lecture venue. Sometimes, students opted out of the class without even taking permission from the teacher while lectures were in progress. It was the students’ prerogative to either 286 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS stay till the end of the lectures or else quit the venue depending on the circumstances. In some other instances, teachers decided to take attendance and awarded marks to students and sometimes serve as part of their Continue Assessment. At this juncture, the teacher notices this kind of behavior from one student in his move to quit the class, and at the same time that student fears that the attendant could be taken. For the teacher to deprive the student from going out, he boldly shouted at the student that he was not taking attendance. The student was startled and the whole class burst into laughter, then the teacher crack a joke by saying that “it is already time, leave!” the student still felt a little ashamed and the class laughs again. The teacher also responded in Hausa by saying “Ka ga matsoraci” (See a coward). In the second episode of excerpt 17, the teacher happens to be from a neighboring town (Zaria) and wants to crack jokes for his Kano students. In normal circumstances, there are always satirical jokes between the Kano people and Zaria where they shared dialectical differences and joke over them. Here, this teacher alternate in Hausa single word to pool Kano people with the word “Kuuri” which signifies “boasting” as part of their habit during the conversation. Therefore, Teachers’ using code- switching as a joke appeared to work well and had a positive effect on the students. This effect could be the key factor to building up a good relationship between teachers and their students in the formalized context of the classroom. However, students found it more humorous not sarcastic, and was done by the teacher in order to create a funny moment for his students in order to laugh. The entire code-switching exhibited in the above excerpts are intra-sentential in nature which functions for humorous purposes. Therefore, humor can be said to be culture- ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 287 bound, so it is much safer to joke about it in the mother tongue. As according to Baker (2006), he considers humor a social function of teachers’ code-switching for marking changes in attitudes or relationships with students. 3.6 Discipline In Language classes, teachers accordingly used English as a medium of instruction throughout their lecture sessions as observed. The mother tongue alternation in these classes came into effect as a method of managing and controlling students’ behavior for discipline purposes. Teachers’ code-switching in this respect functions as means of observing discipline towards a negative attitude as in the following excerpt: Excerpt 18 Waɗ annan sune (these are the) evidences din (for that) test, ajiyewa ake (they are for safe keeping). Baa sakaci dasu (Don’t neglect them). In excerpt 18, intra-sentential code-switching was employed by the teacher in discussing with his students in respect of their negative attitude toward handling test scripts. The scripts were meant for them to check and ascertain the marks according to individual students and admonished its careful handling. This also creates an atmosphere that gave room for discussing personal issues between the teacher and his students within and outside the classroom. It corresponds with Canagarajah’s (1995) statement that teachers’ use of mother tongue functions to express their displeasure over students’ undesirable behavior in classroom management. 3.7 Equivalence 288 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Teachers in English class as observed employed code- switching to give the equivalent of some translated words, phrases, and clauses from English to Hausa and vice-versa. Hausa proverbs, idioms, and some other figurative terms are of utmost consideration in this respect. Find some examples from the following excerpts: Excerpt 20 Do you know the meaning of camouflage? Ungulu da kan Zabo. (Do you know the meaning of camouflage? The act of disguising). Excerpt 21 What is ‘Chaos’ ya kamata mu fara nuna muku ya ake pronouncing Kalmar ma tukuna kafin mu faɗ e ta. (What is Chaos? Firstly, You should learn how to pronounce the word before you said it). Excerpt 22 This is the nature of illiteracy, usually, thit is what Mallam Bahaushe is saying ‘karamin sani ququmi ne’. (This is the nature of illiteracy, usually, this is what a Hausa-man refer as ‘Inadequate knowledge is constraint’). Excerpt 23 This is what a lot of Kano people do. They are use to kuuri (boasting). (This is what a lot of Kano people do. They use to boast) Data from excerpts 20, 21, and 22 signifies intra- sentential code-switching and serves translation functions. The use of the Hausa proverbs as seen in these excerpts ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 289 shows that the teacher employs code-switching to give the possible equivalent of translated phrases and clauses. He also uses it to translate a word in excerpt 23 for self- expression and explanation of some difficult terminology. In normal circumstances, languages differ syntactically, morphologically, phonologically, or otherwise in terms of context in order to produce meaning. When speakers find it difficult to integrate the lexical item in a target language, they opted for code-switching. Sert (2005) considers equivalence as a “defensive mechanism” from the side of the language teacher. In the course of instruction in English classes, teachers inserted lexical items from students’ native language in order to fill the lexical gaps. This was in agreement with Cook (2001) who asserted that teachers use code-switching in conveying the meaning of words or sentences, explaining grammar, and for classroom organization. He further stressed that it could be used for translation purposes and drilling exercises during classroom activities. Duff and Poliof (1990) stated that teachers use code-switching for grammar instruction to offer a translation function when there is a lack of comprehension from the side of the students. 4. Conclusion Code-switching in English language classes at tertiary institutions served numerous functions in order to bridge lexical gaps in words, phrases, and sentences into the ongoing speech for instructional and social needs in the classroom context. Instructional functions include confirmation and evaluation, clarification, explanation, word equivalence in terms of translation of difficult and ambiguous words, idioms, and proverbs in order to facilitate comprehension. While the social functions of 290 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS teachers’ code-switching include: emotion, humor for establishing social rapport with students and dealing with classroom discipline. Teachers used code-switching as lexical chunks for more clarification, comprehension, and detailed explanation of some abstract terms and concepts on the subject matter. All the code-switched utterances explored in respect of code-switching types in this paper were either tag-switching, inter-sentential, or intra- sentential in nature. It symbolizes linguistic features at the word level i.e noun, verb, pronoun, and interjection as in excerpts 12 and 14, and at the clausal level i.e dependent and independent clauses as in excerpts 10,11,12, 13, and 14. And also at the phrasal level, i.e interjection and noun-phrase as in excerpts 14 and 20, and at the complete sentence level i.e idioms and proverbs as in excerpts 20 and 22. Normally, in language classes where English is used as a language of instruction for delivering the content of the lesson to the students, especially where both students and teachers shared the same local language in the learning environment, there are tendencies of switch coding. Teachers switch to students employing dominant language depending on the circumstance for managing the overall discipline in the classroom. Teachers were also observed to have chosen the local language when dealing with procedural problems during lessons and classroom management for easy control. References Ahmad, B. H., & Jusoff, K. (2009). Teacher’s Code- switching in Classroom Instructionsfor Low English Proficient Learners. English Language Teaching, 2(2), 49-55. Ali, A.K &, Agbedo, C. U (2013). The Implications of Code- switching for Teaching the English Language in Nigeria: ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 291 The Kogi State College of Education, Ankpa Perspective. Journal of Igbo Language & Linguistics (JILL), 6, 29-36. Amin, T. (2009). Language of Instruction and Science Education in the Arab World: Toward a Situated Research Agenda. The World of Science Education: Arab states, the Netherlands, Sense Publishers. Canagarajah, A. S. (1995). Functions of Code switching in ESL Classrooms: Socializing Bilingualism in Jaffna. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 16(3), 173-195. Cook, V. (2001). Using the First Language in the Classroom . Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(3): 403-423. Duff, P. A., & Polio, C. G. (1990). How Much Foreign Language Is There in the Foreign Language Classroom? The Modern Language Journal, 74(2), 154 – 166. http://www.jstor.org/stable/328119http: Hoffmann, C. (1991). An introduction to bilingualism. New York, NY: Longman. Jacobson, R. (2004). The Broadening Spectrum of a Malaysian Experience from Informal Codemixing to Formal Codeswitching. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur. Lin, A. M. Y. (2003). Code-switching in the Classroom: Research Paradigms and Approaches. Encyclopedia of language and education (pp. 3464-3477). http://springerlink.metapress.com/content . Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Source Book (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. N.E.P, National Education Policy (formulated in 1977 and revised in 1981, 1998 and 2004). Oyetunde, T. (1984). Towards Improving the Quality of English Teaching In Nigerian Schools, In Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies – CON., 11 (1) . 292 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Poplack, S. (1980). Sometimes I’ll start a Sentence in English Y Termino en espanol: toward a typology of code- switching. Linguistics, 18, 581-616. Richards, J. C. &, Rogers, T. S. (2001). A pproaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sert, O. (2005). The Functions of Code-switching in ELT Classrooms. Haccettepe University. The Internet TSL Journal, Retrieved November 5, 2007 http://iteslj.org/Articles/Sert- CodeSwitching.html. Skiba, R .J., Peterson, R.L. &, Williams, T. (1997). Office Referrals and Suspension: Disciplinary Intervention in Middle Schools. Education and Treatment of Children, 20, 295-315. [1] According to Hoffman (1991), there are 10 functions of code-switching: to talk about a particular topic, to quote somebody else, to provide emphasis about something (to express solidarity), to make an interjection (by inserting sentence fillers or sentence connectors), to repeat in order to clarify, to express group identity, to show the intention of clarifying speech content for the interlocutor, to soften or strengthen a request or command, to meet a real lexical need or to compensate for lack of an equal translation, to exclude others when a comment is intended for an exclusive audience. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 293 9 Person deixis in English and Romanian Oana Maria Puiu (Niţă) University of Craiova, Department of Communication and Foreign Languages, Craiova, Romania puiu.oana.e2d@student.ucv.ro Pragmatics is the field of linguistics that studies meaning in context. Deixis refers to the area of pragmatics that gives an interpretation of the meaning of an utterance based on its context. There are different categories of deixis, such as person deixis, place deixis, time deixis, discourse deixis, empathetic deixis and social deixis. This paper focuses on person deixis. While there are several approaches to be taken when investigating person deixis, depending on the perspective, this paper refers to a translation-oriented perspective and a corpus-based perspective. We explore the translation of person deixis from English to Romanian in the context of the discourse of the World Health Organization on the Coronavirus pandemic. We have selected 64 texts (from January 1st to 294 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS December 31st, 2021) from conferences with the media in which the globally challenging Covid-19 issue is addressed by the WHO Director-General. We shall use the scientific research methods of discourse analysis and documentary analysis, while taking into account the benefits and limitations of the methods, to investigate the heavy use of the pronouns “I”, “we” and “you”, the functions and the grammatical encoding that deictic pronoun have in both languages in order to offer an optimal translation of person deixis from English to Romanian. Keywords: person deixis, corpus analysis, translation studies, institutional discourse 1. Introduction The paper focuses on the analysis of the differences between English and Romanian with reference to person deixis, and on determining the best counterparts for the translation of deictic pronouns from English into Romanian. The corpus design and use involve a number of 64 texts pertaining to the institutional discourse of the World Health Organization in the context of the Coronavirus pandemic, thus meeting the criteria of representativeness and exemplarity. In order to determine what the differences and the best equivalents in translation are, we will first outline deixis – more particularly, person deixis; we will also make reference to the research methods we have employed in our analysis, namely, discourse analysis and documentary analysis. As stated above, our paper underpins a corpus- ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 295 based approach to translating person deixis in the institutional discourse of the World Health Organization (WHO), and to discuss the results of our analysis. 2. Translating person deixis 2.1. Outlining deixis and person deixis The word deixis stems from the Greek deiknynai, meaning to show, being recorded in English in the 1940s, according to Oxford English Dictionary (https://www.oed.com/). In this line of approach, any linguistic form used to accomplish “pointing via” language is considered to be a deictic expression. Lyons (1977), also taking an etymological look, highlights that: As employed by the Greek grammarians, the adjective deictic* (‘deiktikos’) had the sense of “demonstrative”, the Latin ‘demonstrativus’ being the term chosen by the Roman grammarians to translate ‘deiktikos’ in the works of the Stoics, of Dionysius Thrax and of Apollonius Dyscolus, which laid the foundations of traditional grammar in the Western world. It is worth noting that what we now call demonstrative pronouns were referred to as deictic articles in the earlier Greek tradition and that the Greek word ‘arthron’, from whose Latin translation, ‘articulus’, the technical term article derives, was no more than the ordinary word for a link or joint. (Lyons, 1977: 636) It was only in the later tradition that the Greek equivalent of ‘pronoun’ was used; and this fact is of some significance. The point is that in early Greek, no sharp distinction can be drawn between demonstrative pronouns, the definite 296 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS article and the relative pronoun, in terms of their forms or syntactic and semantic function: the term ‘article’ was at first an umbrella term, applied to them all, and it was chosen, presumably, because they were regarded as connectives of various kinds. (Lyons, 1977: 636) Convergently, Andersen and Keenan (1985: 259) consider “as deictic expressions (or deictics for short) those linguistic elements whose interpretation in simple sentences makes essential reference to properties of the extralinguistic context of the utterance in which they occur”. It is unclear, however, how one determines what counts as “essential reference”. They exemplify it by the sentence “John loves me”, where “we cannot tell who is being loved unless we know who is uttering the sentence” (Andersen & Keenan, 1985: 259). Levinson (1994: 853) also shows concern for context dependence in producing and/ or interpreting “certain linguistic expressions (‘deictics’ or ‘indexicals’)”. According to Mey (2001: 54), the linguistic devices used to convey an indexical relationship are referred to as “pointers”. These pointers serve to indicate the identity of the speaker, as well as the specific location and time being referred to, thereby establishing a set of coordinates. Sidnell (2009: 114-115) envisages deictics as “more or less closed functional categories of person, space, time, discourse and social deixis” based on “the formal properties (semantic, morphological and morphosyntactic) of particular languages”, and highlights the importance of recognizing cross-linguistic variations in the level of “closedness” exhibited by these categories”. Yule (2010: 130), quite interestingly, suggests that reference involves listener / reader – orientation, being “an act by which a speaker (or writer) uses language to enable a listener (or reader) to identify something.” ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 297 Picking up reference in the extra-linguistic world should be placed on a continuum, according to Levinson (2003), who draws attention to a spectrum of deicticity, thus rejecting the binary distinction between deictic and non- deictic items: Expressions whose reference or extension is systematically determined by aspects of the speech situation (words like I, you, now, this, and here) are called deictic or indexical terms. Sometimes they denote aspects of the speech situation itself (as with I), but sometimes what they denote is only partially determined by reference to the speech situation (as in local pub, long ago, next year, distant planet, the late president). (Levinson, 2003: 423) Hanks (2011: 317) reinforces this idea when claiming that there are no linguistic items which contain only deictic information: “actual deictic forms” “always combine sheer indexical functions with other kinds of information (indexical, iconic or symbolic)”. Admittedly, deixis ceases to be assimilated with pure indexicality. The above-mentioned definitions point to the fact that it is difficult to make a sharp distinction between what counts as deictic and what counts as not deictic, and that all linguistic items are at least slightly dependent on context for their interpretation. Regarding the typology of deixis, mainstream literature distinguishes between five main categories, namely, place deixis, social deixis, discourse or text deixis, time deixis and person deixis (notably, Levinson 1983; Yule 1996; Grundy 2000; Vîlceanu 2005; O’Keeffe et al. 2011; West 2014). Out of these five widely acknowledged categories, 298 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS person deixis will be our focal point of interest in what follows. According to Yule (1996: 10), person deixis “clearly operates on a basic three-part division” in close correlation with grammatical encoding as typified by the personal pronouns for first-person (‘I’), second-person (‘you’) and third-person (‘he’, ‘she’, or ‘it’); correspondingly, deictic reference is made to participants’ roles of referents, falling into “the speaker, the addressee, and referents which are neither speaker or addressee” (Yule, 1996: 10). Furthermore, we distinguish between the first-person plural deictic pronouns which include the addressee and the first-person plural deictic pronouns which exclude the addressee. The category of second-person deictic pronouns excludes the speaker and includes the addressee (Yule, 1996: 11-12). It is worth noting that the individuals being addressed by the speaker can be divided into two distinct categories. The first category is referred to as “auditors” and includes all members of the audience who are being addressed by the speaker. The second category is known as “addressees” and is limited to those individuals who are specifically known to the speaker and are being directly addressed by them. (Bell, 1984: 159). Yule (1996: 10) also mentions that there are languages, such as German and Spanish, in which we identify the addressee with reference to number and case, apart from being a participant in the conversation; we add that this is also the case of Romanian, where deictic reference to the person is also associated with the verb which concords with the pronoun, containing a special inflectional morpheme. 2.2. Research methods: discourse analysis and documentary analysis ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 299 Discourse analysis and documentary analysis are research methods we decided to use in analysing the 64 texts pertaining to the Director-General of the World Health Organization (Ghebreyesus Tedros Adhanom) and representing media briefings regarding the Coronavirus pandemic. Discourse analysis represents the study of language in a given context. It is the most frequently tool employed in scientific research in Philology. This is an approach in which philosophy, theory and method are combined. Discourse gives meaning to physical objects and events that exist unassisted by people’s thoughts and speech. When employing this method, a number of texts pertaining to the same type of discourse are collected and analysed according to a certain framework. In our specific case, the analysis is restricted to the institutional discourse of the World Health Organization (WHO) in the context of Covid-19, covering the values of person deixis. With respect to the benefits that this research method offers, we should mention that discourse analysis generates viable insights, being associated with an in- depth approach to texts as meaningful units sharing common properties and contexts of use. In this respect, it helps us in building a corpus – we have selected several texts representing the institutional discourse of WHO. Regarding the limitations that this method has, we should mention that it is rather time-consuming, because selecting appropriate texts and then proceeding to analyse the texts’ features could take a lot longer compared to other scientific research methods. It is also, to a certain extent, subjective, because it does not attend to the non-verbal aspects of interactions, which some researchers consider to be more trustworthy, because they are less controllable, 300 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS and thus more likely to disclose true meaning (and hidden agendas). Documentary analysis is another method we will use in our research. It consists of drawing conclusions regarding the social circumstances in which documents, such as letters, official reports, web pages, newspaper articles, etc., are produced and read by carefully examining them and their content, from a multisided perspective. We distinguish between different approaches to documentary analysis: content analysis, the interpretative approach and the critical approach. Content analysis is considered a quantitative technique. It is objective, systematic, focused on the surface meaning of the document. It examines who says what, to whom and with what effect; for example, we count the occurrences of the word ‘we’ within one or more documents pertaining to WHO. The interpretative approach to documentary data is concerned with the exploration of the meaning within the content – for example, we examine the meaning of deictic pronouns in the texts pertaining to WHO. The critical approach deals with aspects of social structure such as power, ideology, social control, etc. With reference to the benefits this method of research has to offer, we emphasise that, because of its eclectic nature, it can incorporate a variety of approaches to documentary sources. It can be used in conjunction with other research methods – for example, to widen the findings of interview data. With reference to the drawbacks of this method of research, we mention that one could be facing problems of validity if using this method. We can only use original, accurate, typical of their kind documents, in which the intention is clearly perceived. We could also be facing ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 301 problems of intertextuality (Bloor & Wood, 2006: 60), because documents are dependent on their relationship with other documents; for example, a text pertaining to WHO could be referring to previous texts, and if taken out of context, there is the risk of misinterpreting the intention of the document. In order to mitigate this risk in our analysis we will only consider original, accurate, and specific documents, in which the intention is carried across leaving no room for misinterpretation. 2.3. A corpus-based approach As mentioned before, the paper focuses on translating person deixis from English into Romanian in the context of the discourse of the World Health Organization (WHO) on the Coronavirus pandemic. We have selected 64 texts produced in the time frame January 1st – December 31st, 2021, delivered at conferences with the media in which the globally challenging Covid-19 issue is addressed by WHO Director-General, Ghebreyesus Tedros Adhanom. When translating the texts from English into Romanian, we shall take into account the supranational, prepotent identity of the WHO, as presented on the official website – WHO is responsible with health care strategies and policies globally: The Thirteenth General Programme of Work (GPW 13) defines WHO's strategy for the five-year period, 2019-2023. It focuses on triple billion targets to achieve measurable impacts on people's health at the country level. The triple billion targets are to ensure by 2023: one billion more people are benefiting from universal health coverage, one billion more people are better protected from health emergencies, one billion more 302 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS people are enjoying better health and well-being. Measurable impact is at the heart of WHO's mission to transform the future of public health. (World Health Organization 2019). Another important factor that we shall consider when translating the texts from English into Romanian, while focusing on the use of person deixis, is the fact that the Coronavirus pandemic has reached out globally, too: “WHO reported that over 1 million cases of COVID-19 had been confirmed worldwide, a more than tenfold increase in less than a month.” (WHO, 4 April 2020); “WHO shared survey findings, showing that seventy-three countries have warned that they are at risk of stock-outs of antiretroviral (ARV) medicines as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.” (WHO, 6 July 2020); “WHO shared survey findings showing that the COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted or halted critical mental health services in 93% of the 130 countries covered, while the demand for mental health is increasing.” (WHO, 5 October 2020) The corpus-based approach to translating person deixis from English into Romanian in the context of the institutional discourse of WHO on the Covid-19 pandemic focuses on first-person singular deictic pronouns, first- person plural deictic pronouns and second-person deictic pronouns, since there is a prevalence of the pronouns “I”, “we” and “you” in the selected texts: I congratulate the government, health workers, communities and all WHO staff who were involved in the response. (Ghebreyesus, 3 May 2021) (our emphasis) We have the tools to bring this pandemic under control in a matter of months, if we apply them consistently and equitably. (…) We are calling for the original manufacturers ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 303 of mRNA vaccines to contribute their technology and know-how to a central hub, and for manufacturers in low- and middle-income countries to express interest in receiving that technology. We have seen incredible innovation in science; now we need innovation to ensure as many people as possible benefit from that science. (Ghebreyesus, 19 April 2021) (our emphasis) It’s therefore my great pleasure to welcome His Excellency Jonas Gahr Støre, the Prime Minister of Norway. Prime Minister Støre also once worked for WHO, so Prime Minister, welcome back to WHO, and thank you for Norway’s support for the ACT Accelerator so far. Tusen takk, and you have the floor. [H.E. JONAS GAHR STØRE ADDRESSED THE MEDIA] Thank you so much, Your Excellency Prime Minister Støre, and thank you once again for Norway’s leadership and partnership. Margaret, back to you. (Ghebreyesus, 28 October 2021) (our emphasis) 3. Results 3.1. Distribution of the deictic pronouns The study examined 64 texts related to Ghebreyesus Tedros Adhanom, specifically media briefings where the WHO Director-General addressed the Coronavirus pandemic. The analysis revealed that the pronoun ‘we’ was extensively utilised throughout the texts. There are 820 occurrences of “we” out of the total of 1,620 occurrences of deictic pronouns, representing 50.61% of all the deictic pronouns which are used in the texts. The function of “we” is in some cases that of including the speaker and excluding the addressee (440 occurrences, representing 27.16% of all the deictic pronouns which are used in the 304 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS texts), as shown in (1); in other cases the deictic pronouns “we” includes the speaker and includes or excludes the addressee (ambiguous use) (32 occurrences, representing 1.98% of all the deictic pronouns which are used in the texts), as shown in (2); there are instances when the investigation shows that the first-person plural deictic pronoun “we” includes the speaker and it also includes the addressee (348 occurrences, representing 21.48% of all the deictic pronouns which are used in the texts), as shown in (3). (1) We hope this will be the first of many licenses shared through C-TAP. We continue to explore every avenue for expanding access to life-saving tools. With the WTO Ministerial Conference next week and with more countries now supporting a waiver on intellectual property rights under the TRIPS agreement, I hope that consensus can be found and that we move forward. At the same time, we are working to strengthen the capacity of our Member States to manufacture vaccines and other health products through technology transfer hubs. […] As we work to end this pandemic, we also continue our work to understand its beginnings. (Ghebreyesus, 25 November 2021) (our emphasis) (2) How quickly we end the pandemic, and how many sisters and brothers we lose along the way, depends on how quickly and how fairly we vaccinate a significant proportion of the global population. (Ghebreyesus, 10 May 2021) (our emphasis) (3) Globally, we are now seeing a plateauing in the number of COVID-19 cases and deaths, with declines in most regions including the Americas and Europe, the two worst-affected regions. […] Any decline is welcome, but we ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 305 have been here before. […] Globally, we are still in a perilous situation. (Ghebreyesus, 10 May 2021) (our emphasis) We encounter the first-person singular deictic pronoun “I” in 357 cases out of the total of 1,620 occurrences of deictic pronouns, representing 22.04% of all the deictic pronouns which are used in the selected texts. The function of “I” is exclusive of addressee and inclusive of speaker in all the utterances, as shown in (4). (4) I’m encouraged that there is now an emerging consensus on the need for such an instrument or agreement, although I recognize there is still much work to do to reach agreement on exactly what that instrument looks like. We will not achieve everything at the Special Session, but I hope it will serve as a launching pad for a new instrument, by establishing a leadership team to direct the rapid development of a zero draft for negotiations, which would begin immediately after next year’s World Health Assembly. I ask all Member States to approach the Special Session with a spirit of solidarity, a willingness to compromise and a commitment to making the world safer for future generations. (Ghebreyesus, 25 November 2021) (our emphasis) There are 443 occurrences of the second-person deictic pronoun “you”, representing 27.35% of all the deictic pronouns which are used in the texts. The function of “you” is exclusive of speaker, inclusive of the addressee and referring to the auditors in some cases (51 occurrences out of the total of 1,620 deictic pronouns, representing 3.15%), as shown in (5), while it is exclusive of the speaker, inclusive of the addressee and referring to the addressees in other cases (392 occurrences out of the total of 1,620 deictic pronouns, amounting to 24.20%), as shown in (6). (5) As you know, 56 countries who were effectively 306 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS excluded from the global vaccine marketplace were not able to reach the target of vaccinating 10% of their populations by the end of September – and most of them in Africa. (Ghebreyesus, 13 October 2021) (our emphasis) (6) Strive, thank you for joining us, and for everything you’re doing with AVAT to deliver vaccines to Africa’s people as soon as possible. Thank you for your leadership. You have the floor. [MR MASIYIWA ADDRESSES THE MEDIA] Thank you Strive, and thank you once again for your leadership. […] John, thank you for your leadership in fighting the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa, without the tools that so many other countries have access to . You have the floor. [DR NKENGASONG ADDRESSES THE MEDIA] Thank you, John, and thank you for your continued partnership, including through the mRNA technology transfer hub that we have established together in South Africa. (Ghebreyesus, 14 September 2021) (our emphasis) 3.2. Functions of the deictic pronouns in English and Romanian All deictic pronouns maintain the individual and collective functions in the translation into Romanian, as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 307 English Romanian Number pronoun pronoun Value of Percentage occurrences I eu (+S, -A) 357 22.04% we noi (+S, -A) 440 27.16% we noi (+S, +A) 348 21.47% we noi (+S, +/- A) 32 1.98% you dumneavoastră (-S, +A) auditors 51 3.15% you dumneavoastră (-S,+A) addressees 392 24.20% The first-person singular deictic pronoun “I” preserves the same function, namely, it is inclusive of speaker and exclusive of addressee, in both English and Romanian, as shown in (7). (7) Source text: And I would like to use this opportunity to thank Australia for donating vaccines to Papua New Guinea, and my thanks to the Foreign Minister of Australia, who has expressed full support for Papua New Guinea.” (Ghebreyesus, 16 April 2021) (our emphasis) Target text: Și aș dori, cu această ocazie, să mulțumesc Australiei pentru că a donat vaccinuri către Papua Noua Guinee, și mulțumirile mele se adresează Ministrului de Externe al Australiei, care a arătat că susține Papua Noua Guinee.” (our translation) It is important to note that reference to the first-person singular, the speaker, is encoded in the auxiliary verb ( aș) – Romanian is a pro-drop language, where personal pronouns are grammatically (and pragamatically) inferrable. The first-person plural deictic pronoun “we” is, in some 308 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS cases, inclusive of speaker and exclusive of addressee (referring to WHO representatives) and it maintains this function in translation, as shown in (8). (8) Source text: And we continue to call on all governments to implement a comprehensive and tailored approach of public health and social measures to prevent transmission and save lives.” (Ghebreyesus, 24 November 2021) (our emphasis) Target text: Și continuăm să cerem tuturor guvernelor să implementeze o abordare completă și personalizată asupra măsurilor de sănătate și sociale luate pentru a preveni transmiterea (virusului) și pentru a salva vieți.” (our translation) In Romanian, the inflectional morphemes attached to the verbs indicate the first-person plural in the absence of the subject / pronoun. In some cases, the first-person plural deictic pronoun “we” is inclusive of speaker and exclusive or inclusive of addressee (in some cases, it is ambiguous), and it maintains this function in translation, as shown in (9). (9) Source text: “How quickly we end the pandemic, and how many sisters and brothers we lose along the way, depends on how quickly and how fairly we vaccinate a significant proportion of the global population.” (Ghebreyesus, 10 May 2021) (our emphasis) Target text: “Cât de repede punem punct pandemiei, și cât de multe surori și câți frați pierdem între timp, depinde de cât de repede și cât de echitabil vaccinăm o proporție importantă a populației mondiale.” (our translation) As above, reference to the speaker can be retrieved from the inflectional morphemes attached to the verbs for the first-person plural. In other cases, the first-person plural deictic pronoun ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 309 “we” includes both the speaker and the addressee. In these cases, “we” refers to all the people that were influenced by the Coronavirus pandemic. The first-person deictic pronoun which includes the speaker and the addressee maintains this function in translation, as shown in (10) – see also the comments above concerning the retrieval of deictic pronouns in the Romanian renderings. (10) Source text: There will come a time when we can all take off our masks, when we no longer have to keep our distance from each other, when we can once again go safely to concerts, sporting events, rallies and restaurants. (Ghebreyesus, 10 May 2021) (our emphasis) Target text: Va veni o vreme când ne vom putea toți da jos măștile, când nu va mai trebui să păstrăm distanța unii față de alții, când vom putea merge din nou în siguranță la concerte, evenimente sportive, mitinguri și restaurante. (our translation) The second-person deictic pronoun “you” is in some cases formal, exclusive of speaker, inclusive of addressee, referring to the auditors (people reading the texts) in English and Romanian, as shown in (11). (11) Source text: We cannot say this clearly enough: even if you are vaccinated, continue to take precautions to prevent becoming infected yourself, and to infecting someone else who could die.” (Ghebreyesus, 24 November 2021) (our emphasis) Target text: Nu putem spune asta mai clar de atât: chiar daca sunteți vaccinați, continuați să luați măsuri de precauție pentru a preveni infectarea proprie și a altora care ar putea muri. (our translation) In other cases, the second-person deictic pronoun “you” is formal, exclusive of speaker, inclusive of addressee, referring to the addressees (people who directly interact 310 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS with WHO Director-General), and it maintains this function in translation, as shown in (12). (12) Source text: “Thank you, Dr Ngozi. You have been fighting this pandemic since the beginning in a variety of roles.” (Ghebreyesus, 1 June 2021) (our emphasis) Target text: “Vă mulțumesc, domnule Dr Ngozi. Ați luptat împotriva pandemiei încă de la început, având o multitudine de roluri. (our translation) Reference to the second-person deictic pronoun is detectable in Romanian in both the personal pronoun form “vă” and in the auxiliary verb “ați”. Another special mention here concerns the use of this pronoun form to express deference, therefore person deixis is doubled by social deixis. To lend generalizing force to our observations, we state that the examples above are not isolated since in Romanian the subject pronoun is grammatically encoded in the verb conjugation, the verb acquiring specific endings depending on the person and tense (see Vîlceanu 2005). Once again, the subject is, more often than not, omitted in Romanian, and preserving it would affect the level of naturalness in translation. Below (13) the same text is rendered into Romanian by omitting the subject (Target text 1) and by preserving it (Target text 2): (13) Source text: I joined leaders from the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization and the World Bank Group in publishing an op-ed in many newspapers around the world that calls for a new commitment with a 50 billion US dollars rapid investment to fund the equitable distribution of vaccines and other crucial health tools. We particularly welcome that in the proposal, the majority of the new funding would be made available quickly through grants, including to fill the ACT ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 311 Accelerator’s funding gap.” (Ghebreyesus, 1 June 2021) (our emphasis) Target text 1: M-am alăturat unor lideri ai Fondului Monetar Internațional, Organizației Mondiale a Comerțului și Grupului Băncii Mondiale în publicarea unui articol în multe ziare din întreaga lume care cere un nou angajament în ceea ce privește investirea rapidă a 50 de miliarde de dolari pentru a plasa bani în fonduri publice în vederea distribuirii echitabile a vaccinurilor și a altor echipamente vitale pentru sănătate. Salutăm în special faptul că în această propunere, majoritatea noilor fonduri ar fi deblocate rapid prin granturi, inclusiv pentru a completa golul în finanțarea Acceleratorului ACT. (our translation) Target text 2: Eu m-am alăturat unor lideri ai Fondului Monetar Internațional, Organizației Mondiale a Comerțului și Grupului Băncii Mondiale în publicarea unui articol în multe ziare din întreaga lume care cere un nou angajament în ceea ce privește investirea rapidă a 50 de miliarde de dolari pentru a plasa bani in fonduri publice în vederea distribuirii echitabile a vaccinurilor și a altor echipamente vitale pentru sănătate. Noi salutăm în special faptul că în această propunere, majoritatea noilor fonduri ar fi deblocate rapid prin granturi, inclusiv pentru a completa golul în finanțarea Acceleratorului ACT. (our translation) Target text 2 contains awkard renderings, which are not justified even if emphasis would be added. 4. Conclusion 312 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS In our endeavour of translating deictic pronouns from English to Romanian in the context of the 64 texts selected from the WHO Director-general’s media briefings on the Coronavirus pandemic, we conclude that both research methods that we have selected, namely discourse analysis and documentary analysis, are useful for building a corpus and reaching viable results. The investigation has established that there is a prevalence of the first-person plural deictic pronouns in the 64 texts we have analysed, namely, “we” represents 50.61% of all the deictic pronouns which are used in the texts (820 utterances of “we” out of 1620 total utterances representing the deictic pronouns). We also conclude that while the subject pronoun is present in the source texts, it should be omitted in the target texts because of the fact that in Romanian (a pro- drop language), reference to the speaker and/or the addressee is retrievable in the verb conjugation, and including the subject pronoun in translation would impair the authenticity of the texts. The investigation also shows that all deictic pronouns (first-person singular deictic pronouns, first-person plural deictic pronouns, second-person deictic pronouns) maintain the individual and collective functions in the translated texts in Romanian. Thus, the two languages show a high degree of symmetry in the conceptualisation of person deixis even if via different encodings – Romanian marks person deixis in the verb form, too. 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Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks- at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19—14-september-2021 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, September 22). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-remarks-at-the- global-covid-19-summit-ending-the-pandemic-and- building-back-better-to-prepare-for-the-next Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, September 23). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-remarks-at-the- member-state-information-session-on-covid-19 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, October 7). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks- at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19—7-october-2021 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, October 7). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks- ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 325 at-the-member-states-information-session-on- covid-19—7-october-2021 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, October 13). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks- at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19—13-october-2021 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, October 19). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/director-general-s-speech-on-building- health-systems-resilience-during-covid-19-and-beyond Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, October 21). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks- at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19—21-october-2021 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, October 21). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/director-general-s-opening-remarks-at- member-states-information-session-on- covid-19—21-october-2021 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, October 28). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks- at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19—28-october-2021 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, November 4). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks- at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19—4-november-2021 326 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, November 4). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/director-general-s-opening-remarks-at- member-states-information-session-on- covid-19—4-november-2021 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, November 4). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-remarks-at-the- opening-session-of-the-viii-global-baku-forum-entitled- the-world-after-covid-19-4-november-2021 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, November 10). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-remarks-at-the- covid-19-foreign-ministerial-hosted-by-the-united-states- of-america Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, November 12). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks- at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19—12-november-2021 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, November 24). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks- at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19—24-november-2021 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, November 25). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/director-general-s-opening-remarks-at- ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 327 member-states-information-session-on- covid-19—25-november-2021 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, November 30). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks- at-the-member-state-information-session-on-the- omicron-variant-of-sars-cov-2 Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2021, November 30). WHO Director- General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on Covid-19. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/director-general/ speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-panel-remarks- trends-for-a-changing-world-covid-19-the-importance-of- universal-health-coverage-and-primary-health-care World Health Organization. Thirteenth General Programme of Work 2019-2023. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/about/what-we-do/thirteenth- general-programme-of-work-2019—2023 World Health Organization. Timeline: WHO’s COVID-19 response. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/ emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/interactive- timeline#! 328 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 10 Telecollaboration: A 21st Century Teaching Approach? Paweł Andrejczuk University of Valencia, Department of English and German, Valencia, Spain pawel@alumni.uv.es The recent unprecedented global events, including emergency remote teaching, led to an exponential growth of interest in telecollaboration (TC) among practitioners and researchers, evidenced, among others, by the growing number of publications devoted to this topic (Barbosa & Ferreira-Lopes, 2021). This attention is drawn, in particular, by numerous promises associated with TC projects, such as cultural, linguistic, and social gains (Dooly, 2017; O’Dowd & Lewis, 2016). However, such complex and dynamic exchanges also have several limitations. Consequently, a significant number of TC practitioners might struggle to make sense of the vast body ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 329 of knowledge available on the topic and properly implement such undertakings. To address this issue, my study adopts a meta-analytical approach (Norris & Ortega, 2006) and provides a synthesis of the recently published research on TC. The reviewed sample comprises 38 journal articles devoted to English as a lingua franca (ELF) TC projects, published between 2016 and 2021. The results of these articles are presented in a coherent and comprehensible way, that permits all interested practitioners of TC to quickly and effectively examine the newest findings of the literature and apply them accordingly, in real-life conditions. This, in turn, facilitates the implementation of good practices of ELF TC projects on the basis of the findings from past ELF TCs, which are collected in this article, and, thus, the organization of future TC exchanges. The findings of this study cover multiple variables of TC projects, in particular, those related to language, culture, and the so-called 21st century skills. Empirical material pertaining to the growth of these skills among ELF TC participants is presented below following an evidence-based approach (Chong & Plonsky, 2021). On the basis of the collected evidence, the present work determines whether TC can constitute an efficient foreign language (FL) learning approach that satisfies the 21st century demands, making a significant contribution to the ongoing debate on the future of FL and L2 language education, which will shape future generations. Keywords: English as a lingua franca, foreign language learning, meta-analysis, research synthesis, telecollaboration, virtual exchange 330 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 1. Telecollaboration: A 21st Century Teaching Approach? The potential of using telecollaboration (TC) for language learning has been a subject of investigation for nearly 30 years now. Over time, the concept of TC was labelled with multiple terms, such as Online Intercultural Exchange (OIE), eTwinning, or, more recently, Virtual Exchange (VE). Despite these terminological nuances, the nature of all TC projects is comparable, and these terms are used interchangeably (O’Dowd, 2007); moreover, TC definitions comprise the definitions of other, synonymous terms (O’Dowd, 2007, 2021). Consequently, TC may be considered the core term in the literature and, as a result, its definitions will be used hereinafter. According to Belz, TC “involves the use of Internet communication tools by internationally dispersed students of language in institutionalized settings in order to promote the development of (a) foreign language (FL) linguistic competence and (b) intercultural competence” (Belz, 2003: 68). Guth and Helm define telecollaboration as an “intercultural exchange between people of different cultural/national backgrounds, set up in an institutional context with the aim of developing both language skills and intercultural communicative competence (as defined by Byram, 1997) through structured tasks” (Guth & Helm, 2010: 14). Accordingly, TC is mostly used to develop linguistic and cultural skills; however, it can also aid the growth of a myriad of other competencies, such as the so-called 21st century skills. According to Ananiadou and Claro (2009), 21st century skills include: cognitive skills (e.g., problem solving and critical thinking), intra- and interpersonal ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 331 skills (e.g., self-management, communication, and social skills, including collaboration, (inter)cultural sensitivity, and teamwork), as well as technical skills (e.g., research skills). According to Geisinger (2016) the qualities necessary for the 21st century are: collaborative, communication and digital skills, international perspective, as well as technological knowledge and capabilities. The benefits of TC for developing 21st century skills appear an understudied area. My study attempts to fill this gap by reviewing the recently published literature on TC, in order to determine whether or not TC can be used to boost not only the linguistic and cultural gains of FL learners, but also their 21st century skills. Especially in recent years, the validation of the affordances of TC, offered by individual studies, proved to be challenging and infrequent in terms of secondary research. This is primarily due to the constantly increasing volume of publications devoted to TC. According to the Scopus database, 1,150 publications on TC were published over a 20-year period (1995 – 2015), whereas 1,179 were published in the recent six-year period (2016 – 2021). These nearly equal numbers reflect the substantial contemporary growth of the field of TC, which has yet to be analyzed through secondary research. Moreover, the majority of the reviews concerning TC published to date include only the publications up to 2015 (Avgousti, 2018; Çiftçi, 2016; Çiftçi & Savaş, 2018; O’Dowd & Lewis, 2016). Just a few others relate to primary studies published before 2019 (Piri & Riahi, 2018; Shadiev & Sintawati, 2020). Notably, the latter are also frequently limited in their scope and dedicate to only one topic, such as intercultural learning (Barbosa & Ferreira-Lopes, 2021). 332 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Additionally, most of the TC publications are case- studies, which, by definition, do not allow for simple generalization of findings. Consequently, there is an urgent need to fill this research gap by conducting a meta- analysis or a research synthesis of those studies, devoted to TC and published after 2015, aiming to generalize and make their results applicable. This goal is further reinforced by the growing interest in TC among worldwide practitioners, such as teachers, university lecturers, as well as researchers. This trend has been particularly noticeable in recent years and, especially, during and after the COVID-19 pandemic which forced the switch to the emergency remote teaching and the adoption of new teaching approaches. Likewise, recent years’ improvement of TC exchanges significantly differ from how they were handled in the past, due to the ongoing advancement of technology. This is reflected, for instance, in the change of the main modality of TC from asynchronous to synchronous one, as well as the shift from text-based exchanges to video-based projects (O’Dowd, 2011), which affects how linguistic, cultural, and 21st century skills can be developed through TC. However, evidence of such trends is mostly scattered in individual studies and there are no systematic reviews devoted to 21st century skills. Hence, it is reasonable to combine primary studies through a research synthesis, in order to better understand this topic and make generalizations about it. Due to two major reasons, this study focuses solely on the findings drawn from the English as a lingua franca TC projects. Firstly, there has been a shift to the TC modality, i.e., the recent growing interest in lingua franca TC exchanges over tandem exchanges (O’Dowd, 2021), due to ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 333 the increased difficulty in finding suitable partner institutions for tandem exchanges (Dooly, 2008; O’Dowd, 2013, 2015), particularly if the L1 in the project is not a well- known or a commonly studied language. Secondly, because there is a need to comprehend and validate the multiple newly-discovered affordances of ELF TC exchanges, that stem from the most recently published studies, which have not yet been reviewed and/or synthesized in any way. According to the author, there is no secondary research of primary studies published on TC after 2019, moreover ELF TCs have never been a subject of such a review. The above conclusions validate a secondary research approach to the literature on TC, which answers the needs of both practitioners and researchers by offering an overview of the most recent findings and affordances of ELF TC projects in the field of FL learning. Consequently, the purpose of this study is to review the most recent literature devoted to ELF TC exchanges, to determine whether ELF TC projects can constitute an effective 21st century FL teaching approach in which the development of linguistic, cultural, and 21st century skills can be integrated. 2. Methodology To fulfil the goal mentioned above, this study follows the rigorous Qualitative Research Synthesis (QRS) scheme, commonly used in the medical domain, which has been applied to the field of language learning by Chong and Plonsky (2021). The methodology is divided into three main stages: identification, screening, and synthesis, whose details are outlined below. 2.1 Identification 334 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS To ensure the broad scope of the review and the high quality of the primary studies, the literature search was conducted in two widely acclaimed multidisciplinary academic databases: Scopus and Web of Science (Barbosa & Ferreira-Lopes, 2021; Rejeb et al., 2020; Skute, 2019). A total of 12 keywords, i.e., various synonyms of TC used in the literature, such as eTandem, OIE, or VE, were aggregated from several articles and reviews devoted to TC (Avgousti, 2018; Çiftçi & Savaş, 2018; Dooly & Vinagre, 2021; O’Dowd & Lewis, 2016; O’Dowd & Lewis, 2016). These keywords, appropriately truncated when necessary, were then entered into each of the databases mentioned above. Additional inclusion criteria were established; for example, the studies had to: • (1) be published between 2016 and 2021, both inclusive; • (2) be published in the form of a journal article; • (3) be of empirical nature; • (4) be published in English. Results of each of the searches, including the meta-data, abstracts, titles, and keywords of the articles, were saved as RIS files. Scopus database yield 229 potential studies while Web of Science returned 380 of them. Next, the RIS files were imported into the Mendeley reference manager. There, duplicates were removed, leaving 443 original studies for the screening stage. 2.2 Screening The screening process followed the PRISMA statement guidelines (Moher et al., 2009), and included a careful examination of the abstracts, titles, and keywords of 443 ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 335 studies. As a result of this procedure, 319 articles were recognized as irrelevant and removed from the corpus. Consequently, 124 studies were reviewed. Subsequently, a search-enhancement technique called “snowballing” was performed. It included a review of the references of all the studies, in search of other publications that may potentially be included in the corpus, if they fulfil all of the inclusion methodological criteria. As a result of this procedure, two additional publications were found and were included in the corpus, thus, increasing the total number of studies to 126. The following step involved the gathering of the full- texts of these 126 publications. Just 117 full-texts were collected and assessed for eligibility with the assumptions of the study. At this point, one more filtering procedure was done: those articles that were not ELF TC projects were removed. Following this procedure, 79 studies were excluded and 38 remained. Among them, two pairs of studies were written by the same authors and reported on the same ELF TC projects, consequently, to avoid double counting, each of these pairs of articles was merged and recognized as a single report. This resulted in the grand total of 36 studies under review. 2.3 Synthesis During this stage, the findings of the 36 publications were categorized, analyzed, and synthesized. The categories were generated inductively using the grounded theory, i.e., through the identification of new themes and their constant comparison to the already established ones which led to the creation of new categories, their merging, 336 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS or splitting. The results of this synthesis are presented in the following section. 3. Findings The findings are reported according to the evidence- based approach suggested by Chong and Plonsky (2021). Due to space constraints, only a limited portion of results will be addressed; particularly, those pertaining to language, culture, and 21st century skills. 3.1 Language Many study under examination (n = 27) show that students who took part in ELF TC projects grew linguistically (Grau & Turula, 2019; Scott-Monkhouse et al., 2021; Vahed & Soleimani, 2020). According to several studies, various language skills, such as listening, reading, speaking, and writing can be enhanced through TC (Freiermuth & Huang, 2021; Jung et al., 2019; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017). Students also showed other language improvements, such as increased proficiency in grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary lexicon (Demir & Kayaoglu, 2021; Dooly & Sadler, 2016; Jung et al., 2019). Many of the reports concluded also that TC facilitates FL acquisition (Hagley, 2020; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017; Smith & Keng, 2017). 3.2 Culture Up to 26 of the reviewed studies point to cultural gains of students, as a result of their involvement in ELF TC projects (Flowers et al., 2019; Ke, 2016; Porto, 2016, 2018). These advantages are evidenced by the presence of the following notions: departure from stereotypes, formation of close bonds and friendships, as well as increased interest and ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 337 openness towards other cultures (Alghasab & Alvarez- Ayure, 2021; Freiermuth & Huang, 2021; Vahed & Soleimani, 2020). Correspondingly, a few articles indicate that students’ intercultural sensitivity has risen as a result of participating in an ELF TC exchange (Alcaraz-Mármol, 2020; Gholami Pasand et al., 2021; Hagley, 2020). 3.3 Authenticity About half of the publications under review (n = 16) argue that TC is an authentic learning environment, comparable to real life (Chen & Yang, 2016; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017; Waldman et al., 2019). Dendenne (2021) highlights that ELF TCs allow students to face and solve situations that they might experience in real life, such as how to use a FL in certain circumstances. Similarly, several articles emphasize that the ability to participate in an authentic communication is beneficial for the FL learning process and desirable from the socio- constructivist perspective (Demir & Kayaoglu, 2021; Ke, 2016; Nguyen et al., 2020). Jung et al. (2019) stress that the participants of ELF TCs are more eager to use English in such contexts and, thus, are more likely to continue learning the language. According to a few studies, the ability to collaborate remotely with other learners of English, as in the case of ELF TCs, has a positive impact on students’ motivation towards learning the FL (Freiermuth & Huang, 2021; Jung et al., 2019; Kohn & Hoffstaedter, 2017). 3.4 Communication Skills Multiple articles (n = 16) reveal that participation in ELF TCs can improve students’ communication skills (Demir & Kayaoglu, 2021; Dooly & Davitova, 2018; Flowers et al., 338 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 2019). This is particularly important while learning and practicing the FL, since students are more likely to improve their FL skills if they receive an extensive opportunity to practice the TL, as in the case of ELF TC (Austin et al., 2017; Chen & Yang, 2016; Kohn & Hoffstaedter, 2017). However, a few studies point out that missed or failed communication is quite frequent in TC, and this might hinder the overall TC experience and learners’ growth (Bueno-Alastuey & Kleban, 2016; Gajek & Calderon- Quindos, 2018; Turula, 2017). Likewise, several articles highlight that various technical difficulties might negatively impact communication in TC and, thus, limit the growth of communication skills (Austin et al., 2017; Nguyen et al., 2020; Priego & Liaw, 2017a, 2017b). 3.5 Autonomy Nearly half of the reviewed articles (n = 15) reports that ELF TCs increase the learner’s autonomy (Dendenne, 2021; Nguyen et al., 2020; Scott-Monkhouse et al., 2021). According to Kohn and Hoffstaedter (2017) participation in TC projects enables students to control their learning pace, reducing their reliance on the teacher and, at the same time, to gradually become independent English users. Additionally, a few publications suggest that the very format of TC and the possibility to choose the tools for collaboration can positively influence participants’ growth of autonomy (Chen & Yang, 2016; Flowers et al., 2019; Vurdien & Puranen, 2016). However, Vurdien and Puranen (2016) caution that some students might not necessarily know how to effectively control their learning process, that is why the suggestion to instruct learners on this matter, prior to the project. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 339 3.6 Teamwork A significant number of studies (n = 13) suggest that participation in ELF TCs can boost students’ teamwork skills (Grau & Turula, 2019; O’Dowd et al., 2020; Smith & Keng, 2017). TC participants often noticed a teamwork skill development, ranking it among the most important benefits of TC projects (Scott-Monkhouse et al., 2021; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017). Moreover, a few articles highlighted that teamwork facilitates the advance of numerous other skills and qualities, such as compromising, negotiating, and open-mindedness (Scott-Monkhouse et al., 2021; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017; Vurdien & Puranen, 2016). Nevertheless, Gajek and Calderon-Quindos (2018) caution that learners might not be able to develop their teamwork skills extensively if the workload is not equally distributed among all project group members. 3.7 Innovativity Several publications under review (n = 11) claim that ELF TC projects are innovative. Pouromid (2019) as well as Kohn and Hoffstaedter (2017) argue that, thanks to their open and modern character, TC exchanges fit the 21st century FL classrooms. Flowers et al. (2019) add that, compared to traditional classroom settings, ELF TCs provide a more natural and comfortable setting for using the target language (TL). Likewise, Nguyen et al. (2020) as well as Sevilla-Pavón and Nicolaou (2017) provide evidence for the growth of learners’ innovative skills as a result of participating in ELF TC exchanges. Demir and Kayaoglu (2021) claim that the current English teaching methods and settings are no longer effective and stimulating for learners, indicating that ELF TCs might be a potential alternative. Likewise, Austin et 340 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS al. (2017) suggest that communication drills performed in traditional English classes are not representative of real- world situations and do not adequately prepare FL students for actual communication. Consequently, several studies, such as those by Austin et al. (2017), Kohn and Hoffstaedter (2017), and Waldman et al. (2019), hypothesize that ELF TC projects may represent more efficient opportunities for practicing FLs that can overcome the current limitations of FL classrooms. 3.8 Multimodality Eight of the reviewed publications address one of the core aspects of TC – multimodality. They argue that multimodal settings facilitate communication among students and, thus, contribute to their linguistic and cultural growth (Austin et al., 2017; Kohn & Hoffstaedter, 2017). According to Kohn and Hoffstaedter (2017) due to their enhanced communication capabilities, which are limited in unimodal settings, such settings can be particularly suitable for low proficiency learners. Further, Pouromid (2019) highlights that in multimodal settings lexical gaps can be much more easily overcome than in traditional settings, due to simplified ways of communicating with other learners. Similarly, Dooly and Davitova (2018) argue that multimodality can help TC participants to cope with potential communication problems. According to a few studies, such as Austin et al. (2017), Ke (2016), or Pouromid (2019), multimodal settings allow students to use a number of linguistic and non- linguistic communication strategies, which not only facilitate communication flow and mutual understanding among students, but also reduce the overall cognitive load of the conversation. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 341 Ke (2016) highlights that multimodal ELF TC environments are less stressful for students than traditional FL classrooms, because they place less emphasis on language accuracy. According to Austin et al. (2017), multimodality enhances students’ dialogues and improves teamwork. Lastly, Kohn and Hoffstaedter (2017) argue that multimodality favors translanguaging and promotes students’ abandonment of their native speaker identity. Further, Kohn and Hoffstaedter (2017) conclude that multimodality, in general, should be encouraged in FL teaching, and that this could be achieved through the implementation of multimodal ELF TCs. 3.9 Translingual Practices According to eight of the reviewed publications, and contrary to the initial belief that lingua franca exchanges feature communication only in the TL, ELF TCs frequently include instances of L1 and L3 use by their participants. Austin et al. (2017) claims that L1 is often used in opening and closing statements in ELF TC exchanges. Austin et al. (2017) suggest that this happens primarily to form bonds with TC partners, but also to mark ones’ cultural and linguistic identity and share it with the others. Pouromid (2019) states that the use of non-verbal and non-linguistic communication increases when students’ L1s are different. Kulavuz-Onal and Vásquez (2018) note also that the use of L1 in TCs provides a cultural translation or an explanation, although, as the authors suggest, it should be rather limited due to the potential lack of comprehension among the exchange partners. Similarly to L1, Kulavuz- Onal and Vásquez (2018) report that L3 is frequently used to address partner students during greetings and goodbyes. Ke (2016) highlights that L3 helps to create relationships 342 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS among TC participants, and has a positive impact on the project dynamics. Additional reasons for using L3, as enumerated by Kulavuz-Onal and Vásquez (2018), include: exchanging compliments, establishing solidarity among TC participants, as well as appreciating the multilingual and multinational nature of the TC project. Pouromid (2019) points out that translingual practices tend to occur when participants have difficulties in conveying the message in the TL, and attempt to fix it by translanguaging. Further, the author highlights that students might opt for translanguaging if they feel that their utterances were not fully understood or correct. Interestingly enough, Ke (2016) observed that in ELF TCs environment the use of the TL decreased, while the frequency of translingual practices increased over time. Lastly, Kulavuz-Onal and Vásquez (2018) found that translingual practices contribute positively towards the relations among TC participants. 3.10 Other Skills In addition to the aforementioned advantages and limitations, several journal articles reported that involvement in ELF TC projects improves the following skills, including the 21st century ones: • Creativity (Kohn & Hoffstaedter, 2017; Nguyen et al., 2020; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017); • Critical thinking (Chen & Yang, 2016; Nguyen et al., 2020; Porto, 2018); • ICT skills (Alcaraz-Mármol, 2020; Dooly & Davitova, 2018; Waldman et al., 2019); • Problem-solving skills (Gajek & Calderon-Quindos, ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 343 2018; Nguyen et al., 2020); • Research skills (Chen & Yang, 2016; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017; Smith & Keng, 2017). 4. Discussion and Conclusions The foregoing results, inferred from as many as 34 studies out of the 36 journal articles reviewed, allow to conclude with a high degree of certainty that ELF TC projects enable students who participate in such exchanges to develop their linguistic, cultural, and the so-called 21st century skills. This is due to the abundance of compelling data from several studies, that were published over the years and came to the same conclusions about the development of the aforementioned types of skills. Since the findings of the studies in this corpus cover multiple learning environments, that differ in terms of participants’ age, nationality, L1, and educational stage, they can be generalized to broader populations. It can be concluded that ELF TC approach to FL learning creates an authentic, innovative, and multimodal learning environment, which appeals to students, who appreciate and enjoy learning in it. Certainly, such setting may be described as one that addresses the needs of 21st century students, as well as the demands of the contemporary and likely also the future world. This is demonstrated by the fact that ELF TCs allow their participants to learn how to work individually and as a team in multinational and multilingual settings, both of which are important 21st century workplace competences. In addition, learning how to effectively interact in a FL in such environments is facilitated in ELF TC projects, and is rarely feasible in traditional FL classes. Correspondingly, ELF TCs include 344 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS a variety of translingual practices, whose occurrence contributes not only to the linguistic, but also to the cultural growth of TC participants. Undoubtedly, such beneficial linguistic events are unlikely to occur in monolithic FL classrooms, but are a frequent phenomenon during TC exchanges. Likewise, ELF TCs improve participants’ creativity, critical thinking, and problem- solving skills, all of which, yet again, are highly valuable on the 21st century job market and reflect the qualities that are expected from 21st century citizens and employees. Likewise, ELF TCs support the development of research and ICT skills, which are essential in contemporary world. The above findings allow to unanimously answer the question raised in the title of this article and conclude that ELF TCs exchanges can, in fact, be considered a valid and effective 21st century teaching approach, which helps to develop linguistic, cultural, and 21st century skills. References Alcaraz-Mármol, G. (2020). Developing intercultural communication in the EFL primary education classroom: Internationalization through virtual team collaboration with eTwinning. Tejuelo, 32, 147-170. https://doi.org/ 10.17398/1988-8430.32.147 Alghasab, M., & Alvarez-Ayure, C. P. (2021). 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European Journal of Language Policy, 11(2), 167-185. https://doi.org/10.3828/ ejlp.2019.11 ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 353 11 Translanguaging in Corrective Feedback Provision as a Flexible Approach to Communicative Foreign Language Teaching and Learning: a semi-systematic literature review Siqing Mu Macao Polytechnic University, Faculty of Languages and Translation, Macau SAR, China kelseymu@gmail.com In recent years, a rise in research has validated the practice 354 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS of translanguaging as a valuable and beneficial instructional approach. This pedagogy is considered practical as it supports the flexible and integrated use of linguistic and semiotic sources for meaning construction, fostering plurilingual competence, and aiding in foreign language teaching and learning. Translanguaging has been demonstrated to enhance student’s learning potential and engagement in bilingual and multilingual classrooms when feedback facilitates meaning exchange through negotiated involvement. Implementing translanguaging in feedback is increasingly recognized as a transformative pedagogy for efficient and responsive teaching and learning. By amalgamating the findings of recent studies, this study intends to elucidate the present situation of literature on the way in which translanguaging is approached in feedback across various educational contexts. A high-level scoping analysis was conducted using a semi-systematic approach, employing keywords, research objectives, study settings, and primary discoveries. Subsequently, a narrative review was compiled based on the inclusion criteria. Following the elimination of duplicates, the literature consisted of 22 peer-reviewed studies, published between 2017 and October 2022 and accessible in the two representative and sizable databases—— Scopus and Google Scholar. This review delineated the primary educational and research contexts where studies were undertaken, the research methodology employed in investigating pedagogic translanguaging in feedback practices, as well as the considerations and implications of translingual practices in corrective feedback that were highlighted as an enriched and encompassing communicative approach in foreign language classes. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 355 1. Introduction In the last twenty years, translanguaging has emerged as a complex and multilayered term in applied linguistics, particularly in multilingual settings, possessing several polysemic connotations (Leung & Valdes, 2019: 359). The term is defined and elucidated by Li Wei in a broader sense, Translanguaging is both going between different linguistic structures and systems, including different modalities (speaking, writing, signing, listening, reading, remembering) and going beyond them. It includes the full range of linguistic performances of multilingual language users for purposes that transcend the combination of structures, the alternation between systems, the transmission of information and the representation of values, identities and relationships. (2011: 1223) In the renewal of the theoretical conceptualization of languages, translanguaging posits speaker’s multilingual resources as an entirety of repertoire, from which they are unlimited to “take on board bits of any language available in strategically diverse ways in order to achieve a (localized) communicative function” (Spotti & Blommaert 2017: 172). From a social perspective, translanguaging is “the deployment of a speaker’s full linguistic repertoire without regard for watchful adherence to the socially and politically defined boundaries of named (and usually national and state) languages” (Otheguy et al., 2015:283). The theory directs attention to a dynamic process, in which multilingual speakers successfully negotiate meanings to meet social and cognitive demands through the application 356 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS of a broad range of languages (García, 2009; García & Li, 2014). While contextualized in pedagogical practices, translanguaging is viewed as a valuable language-as- resource orientation and treated as a new approach that allows learners to mobilize all their linguistic resources, lived experience, and language competence developed in L1 and other languages for meaning-making purposes (Nagy, 2018; Burton & Rajendram, 2019). It is worthwhile to differentiate the specificity of translanguaging from similar terms as “code-switching” (Li, 2018a), García and Li Wei point out the difference: Translanguaging differs from the notion of code- switching in that it refers not simply to a shift or a shuttle between two languages, but to the speakers’ construction and use of original and complex interrelated discursive practices that cannot be easily assigned to one or another traditional definition of a language, but that make up the speakers’ complete language repertoire. (2014:22) Hence, rather than simply an “alternation at the inter- clausal/sentential level” (Lin, 2013:195), translanguaging pedagogy goes in and beyond the original meanings of translanguaging itself, it leverages the complete language repertoire of the students and looks at the “different ways speakers learn and use their languages without comparing them with ideal native speaker of different languages” (Cenoz & Gorter, 2022:15). However, when considering translanguaging as a resource in L2 pedagogy, language alteration (i.e., combining two or more languages in learning) was understood as a type of translanguaging practices (Gort & Pontier, 2013). Accordingly, translanguaging can be implemented in a spontaneous/ unplanned way when it is multilingual-learner-centered, or ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 357 in a strategical/planned manner when a specific teaching methodology is designed or facilitated by the teacher (Cenoz, 2017). This pedagogic theory has sparked extensive research (e.g., Kahlin et al., 2021; Vattøy & Gamlem, 2020; Prada & Turnbull, 2018) that examines the theoretical and empirical aspects of translanguaging as a flexible language practice and a pedagogical strategy in diverse educational contexts. The application of translanguaging in language teaching seems pivotal in promoting the mainstream of bilingual or multilingual learning for several reasons: it encourages innovative and inclusive pedagogic approaches by capitalizing on learners’ language backgrounds; it seeks to improve their academic achievements; and it also strengthens learning outcomes through metalinguistic awareness sensibilization and communicative competence development. Translanguaging as a resource helps to understand how languages can be conceptualized and practiced in L2 classrooms. Cenoz and Gorter (2020), Lewis et al. (2012), and Talavera (2017) suggested that teachers could apply pedagogical translanguaging and constructed avenues for improving language aptitude and awareness in the process of feedback provision, where corrective feedback (CF) is a predominant interaction-based activity in communicative language teaching and learning (Leeman, 2007). CF, defined as the teacher’s or peers’ response to erroneous learners’ utterances, has received considerable research attention over the past two decades. It is an essential element of communicative language teaching and learning in various second language (L2) classroom settings and has been shown to be effective in developing L2 writing skills (Li, 2010; Nassaji, 2017; Nassaji & Kartchava, 2020; Ha & Murray; 2020). In line with Elbow (1999), CF instructions 358 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS should not be stuck to identifying “wrong language” (i.e., inadequate metalinguistic expressions or incorrect syntactic structures) and surface mistakes as crucial weaknesses in students’ writing, but rather, as Han (2002) and Bitchener & Ferris (2012) highlight, there is an increasing necessity of innovative pedagogical intervention involving CF to promote dynamic development in the target language, that can be practically designed at linguistic, syntactic, and lexical levels and practiced in L2 writing activities. In recent times, a growing number of studies have endeavored to explore the theoretical and empirical association between translanguaging and CF (e.g., tutor’s CF, peer CF, automated CF) in class or remote language practices. In the execution of translanguaging, L2 students are enabled to “use the stronger language to develop the weaker language, thus contributing towards what could potentially be a relatively balanced development of a child’s two languages” (Cenoz & Gorter, 2020: 5). For instance, studies of Sun & Zhang (2022), Kim & Chang (2022), and Wang & Li (2022) situated translanguaging as a resourceful approach that was implemented in corrective feedback provisions, they suggested that using students’ L1 in feedback may more effectively help L2 learners understand their erroneous utterances and improve their performances on content and textual organization in L2 writings. Furthermore, the flexible use of L1 and L2 to offer specific linguistic feedback also benefits bridging the gaps in vocabulary transfer and satisfying affective needs. As a result, the deployment of all possible linguistic repertoires leads to a better meaning negotiation and acknowledges learner-centered language pedagogy. Nevertheless, it remains inconclusive on the significance ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 359 of implementing translanguaging in different types and modalities of feedback across diverse educational contexts. This literature review aims to elucidate the ways in which translanguaging in FL pedagogy was utilized as feedback resources and practices, foregrounding our current understanding of the contributions of translingual practices in the field of communicative foreign language (FL) teaching and learning. To achieve this, a semi-systematic literature review (SSLR) was carried out. This paper first presents the methodology utilized in this literature review. Thereafter, relevant empirical studies published from 2017 to October 2022 are collected and then consolidated to scrutinize how “translanguaging” was deployed in hybrid dynamic discursive multimodal feedback across different educational contexts. Then, the facilitative roles of this interactive pattern are clarified, and the challenges are identified in association with unintended consequences of translanguaging on learners’ affective dimension and language learning in schooling. Finally, the study discusses the pedagogical implications of this emerging pattern for future communicative language education. 2. Methodology In this paper, a semi-systematic review approach is utilized to identify and comprehend the potential correlations between translanguaging implementation and interactive feedback in classroom contexts. The potential contribution of this review approach is highly valuable, as it assists in mapping novel theoretical perspectives and consolidating the existing knowledge about emerging topics, thereby 360 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS providing a framework for future research (Snyder, 2019). Consequently, the review is guided by the following research questions: (1) How do empirical studies on translanguaging differ in terms of their context (i.e., educational settings and languages) as well as their methodology? (2) What are the characteristics of feedback which include translanguaging in FL writing tasks? (3) How was translanguaging implemented to mediate corrective feedback provision? The methodology of this study followed a multiphase review procedure that included: (a) search term selection, (b) data abstraction, and (c) data analysis. Firstly, a bibliographic search for articles in indexed journals was conducted on Scopus and Google Scholar, covering the last five years, from 2017 to 2022. In this step, search terms played a crucial role in ensuring a (semi-)systematic review to maximize the retrieval of relevant results and optimize the quality of the search strategy (Bramer et al., 2018). Hence, keywords were vital in defining the inclusion criteria and narrowing the search process towards translanguaging and feedback in L2 teaching and learning. Table 1 illustrates the search criteria and the keywords employed in this literature review. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 361 Table 1. Keywords used in this literature review. Search order Keywords 1 “translanguaging” AND “feedback” OR “corrective feedback” 2 “translingual approach” AND “feedback” 3 “feedback” AND “translanguaging” OR “translingual practice” 4 “feedback” AND “pedagogical” AND “translanguaging” Initially, 10,600 research articles were identified, which necessitated a further systematic review of the titles, abstracts, and keywords referenced in the articles that specifically related to translanguaging and feedback provision in various classroom contexts. The systematic search encompassed all online citations available, starting from 2017 until October 2022, as the number of publications on translanguaging and feedback (e.g., CF) appears to have been noticeably increasing from 2017 onwards, as demonstrated in Figure 1: 362 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Figure 1. Publications on translanguaging in corrective feedback provision by year ((https://www.scopus.com/home.uri, accessed on 1 February 2023). The full texts are screened to identify whether the papers draw on empirical data using quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods for data collection. Consequently, the selection was based on the primary criteria for inclusion, as shown below: • The document and source categories were “research article” and “Journal”; hence, reports, bibliographies, book reviews and conference proceedings had been removed; • The language should be in English, Chinese, or Portuguese; • The article presented findings based on empirical evidence, specifically excluding theoretical pieces and review studies; • The article discussed a study that was conducted in foreign language education settings; • The article described a study that focused on contextualized translanguaging practices within formal and multilingual educational settings. Specifically, the study included primary schools, high schools, universities, and academic institutions; • The scope of articles was closely related to the concept of “translanguaging”, therefore, papers that deviated from the topic or discussed associated notions such as “code-switching,” “code-mixing,” “code-meshing,” “code-crossing,” and “plurilingualism” were excluded; ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 363 • The articles presented findings that informed the topic of pedagogical translanguaging and CF in particular; • The article was peer-reviewed, and the full text was available. Following these criteria, 22 articles were selected and obtained as a corpus for review processing. The subsequent step involves abstracting the relevant articles for qualitative data analysis. Table 2 outlines the 22 articles chosen as the data-driven source for this literature review, coded by the following categories: • Authors and published years; • Research methods; • Research setting; • Sample; • Feedback source; • Modes of communication. This classification was elaborated after a brief revision of each paper, under the scope of the three aforementioned research questions. Table 2. The synopses of selected empirical research articles. 364 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 3. Results I structure this section in accordance with the research questions. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 365 • How do empirical studies on Translanguaging differ in terms of their context (i.e., educational settings and languages) as well as their methodology? The selected articles were categorized based on the level of education they focused on, which included preschool, primary/elementary school, secondary school, high school, and college/university level. The raw frequencies and percentage frequency distribution of the levels of education are presented in Figure 2. English was the dominant language in the corpus, both as a target language among all levels of education and as the learners’ FL and teachers’ L1 or L2. The second most prominent language was Spanish as the target language. Other languages used in the research settings of the corpus included Arabic, German, Portuguese, Italian, Afrikaans, Turkish, and others. In most cases, Chinese was the most dominant language as the learners’ L1. Figure 2. Educational settings examined. The remaining part of the first research question 366 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS pertains to the research methods employed in each of the articles included in this review. In this category, the studies were first categorized based on their methodological approach, including qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research. The analysis revealed that 54.5% (N=12) of the studies employed qualitative procedures in their methodological sections, 45.4% (N=10) were conducted using mixed methods, and there were no papers that reported quantitative-only methods. Further, when examining the qualitative studies, it was found that combined discourse and thematic analysis (e.g., Wang & Li, 2022; Omidire & Agbo, 2022; Gomez, 2020; Talavera, 2020; Sert & Balaman, 2018; Martin-Beltrán et al., 2018) and ethnographic microanalysis (e.g., Anya, 2021; Talavera, 2020; Li, 2018) were utilized in the majority of the qualitative studies. In the case of mixed methods studies, quantitative and qualitative data analysis were primarily used (e.g., Sun & Zhang, 2022; Canals, 2022, 2021; Ebadijalal & Yousofi, 2021; Kim & Chang, 2020; Chen et al., 2019; Walker, 2018). Figure 3 provides an overview of the methodology employed in this literature review. A half proportion of the empirical research was large-scale case studies that predominantly conducted qualitative or mixed methods (e.g., socio-cultural analysis, discourse and content analysis), exhibiting the way in which access to the tutor’s treatment of inadequate writing was incorporated, drawing on learners’ entire repertoires in a flexible and inclusive manner. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 367 Figure 3. Overview of research methods reported in this literature review. The study now proceeds to the next stage of the analysis to address the second research question. • What are the characteristics of feedback which include translanguaging in FL writing tasks? To address this question, the studies were first categorized based on who was involved in the CF provisions, thus four types were identified: teacher feedback, peer feedback, feedback in both conditions, and AI-informed feedback. The results, shown in Figure 4, revealed that peer feedback (N=10) and teacher feedback (N=8) were the main sources of communication in which translanguaging practices were meaningfully and constructively employed across various levels of classroom contexts. In addition, the context of feedback practices where translanguaging episodes were embedded was predominantly in on-site classrooms, although a few studies situated peer feedback via computer-mediated communication, e.g., online collaborative writing and blogging (Canals, 2022; Martin- Beltrán et al., 2018), video-based conferencing (Walker, 368 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS 2018), mobile-based messengers (Ebadijalal & Yousofi, 2021), among others. Another finding related to the feedback modes showed that language practices were more frequently observed in multimodal communications than in monomodal interactions as a consequence of translanguaging-oriented interventions. Figure 4. Overview of feedback sources examined in the corpus of studies. The remaining section of the second research question pertains to the feedback varieties expounded upon in the studies. According to the majority of the selected research, CF predominantly occured in the performance of tutor and peer responses, it is “information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify his or her thinking or behavior for the purpose of improving learning” (Shute, 2008: 154), and can take diverse forms and strategies in task-based language practices. For example, Mastellotto and Zanin (2022) categorized three critical feedback strategies in accordance with Nassaji and Kartchava (2021): guaranteeing children’s comprehension, promoting children’s output, and implicit CF. The study showed that translanguaging, as a collaborative, creative, and transformative space, can serve as a productive pedagogical metaphor for preschool children to achieve ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 369 their communicative goal and meaning-making objectives (see Medina, 2022). Wang and Li (2022) adopted feedback classifications and features proposed by Lyster and Ranta (1997), and classified six types of CF to investigate the role of translanguaging in tutor oral responses: explicit correction, recast, clarification request, metalinguistic clues, elicitation, and repetition. Gomez (2020) identified the aspects regarding feedback values and described three feedback strategies that coexist in the act of translanguaging: providing guidance, meeting clear objectives set by the tutor, and constructing dialogic spaces. 3.3 How was translanguaging implemented to mediate corrective feedback provision? To address this question, an analysis was conducted on relevant information from various papers. To accomplish this review, the genealogy of translanguaging in language education, as traced by Bonacina-Pugh, Cabral, and Huang (2021: 16), was followed, utilizing the conceptual map of two study methodologies wherein the term was employed and developed: the ‘fixed language approach’ and the ‘fluid languaging approach.’ The former makes the reference to the “planned, systematic and functional use of two languages in the bilingual classroom,” while the latter regards translanguaging as the “fluid and dynamic use of a complex set of semiotic signs” (2021:7). For example, in the study of Steinhagen and Said (2021), separate languages were used by the teacher for specific teaching functions and were viewed as separate and bounded entities, this kind of “plurilingual heteroglossic pedagogy” (García & Flores, 2016) is considered within the domain of fixed language approach, in this situation, translanguaging has 370 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS been evolved into a pedagogy that pertains to a planned alteration of separate languages (Cenoz & Gorter, 2017). On the contrary, in the study of Walker (2018), the complexity of digital, multimodal, and multilinguistic resource participation was unfolded through discursive peer online interactions, coming to signify the epistemological turn in today’s sociolinguistic realities where “the practice of making meaning using different semiotic signs as one integrated system” (Li, 2018b, cf. Bonacina-Pugh et al., 2021). In the revision of these empirical articles, a content analysis was conducted on these 22 studies, examining them through the lens of translanguaging approaches, feedback mode and context, feedback interlocutors, and translanguaging types which were suggested by Sah and Kubota (2022). The findings of the content analysis were presented in Table 3, summarizing the way translanguaging was approached in language practices, particularly in CF-related episodes. In online classroom settings, several studies (Adinolfi & Astruc, 2017; Canals, 2021; Martin-Beltran et al., 2018) adopted a mixed translingual approach in providing CF, incorporating multimodality and digital tools in the revision of writing tasks. Some studies (Ebadijalal & Yousofi, 2021; Sun & Zhang, 2022; Canals, 2022; Chen et al., 2019) typically employed translanguaging in a fixed approach, focusing on the alteration or combination use of the target language and L1 in peer CF, contributing to the development of grammatical, lexical, and metalinguistic knowledge in achieving the meaning-making objective. In face-to-face classes, the fixed language approach was also identified as a prominent translingual strategy in tutorial CF, involved in biliteracy practices (Talavera, 2020), instructional error ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 371 corrections (Wang & Li, 2022; Li, 2018), and interactional output (Mastellotto & Zanin, 2022; Gomez, 2020). It was inferred that communication is influenced by the similarity between form and meaning, based on in-class activity, teaching outcome, and cultural backgrounds during translingual practices when language choice is negotiated. Table 3. The forms of translingual practices in corrective feedback (CF). 372 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Translanguaging enabled learners and teachers to leverage various linguistic, semiotic, and translingual resources as an integrated system to complete international tasks, where CF plays a vital role in intrapersonal meaning exchanges (García and Li, 2014; Li, 2018; Sun & Zhang, 2022). By utilizing translanguaging in various forms of feedback, both social and linguistic practices can lead to a pedagogical shift from a ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 373 monolingual to a translingual approach in L2 and FL teaching and learning (Canagarajah, 2018). In accordance with the counterbalance hypothesis proposed by Lyster and Mori (2006), feedback provisions in these selected empirical studies were categorized into two generic purpose-oriented groups: instructional CF and interactional CF. In the former, teacher-directed translingual practice (i.e., when translanguaging is planned by the teacher) occurred more frequently (e.g., Talavera, 2020; Steinhagen & Said, 2021), whereas in the latter, peer-directed translanguaging practice (when translanguaging is planned by peers) was predominantly employed in online collaborative writing tasks (e.g., Yeh, 2018). Although the fluid languaging approach was suggested in both types of CF to foster the multisensory and multimodal process of language learning and use (Albawrdi, 2018), many of these empirical pieces of evidence (e.g., Omidire & Adobe, 2022; Anya, 2021; Zuo & Walsh, 2021) demonstrated the necessity of combining fixed and fluid translingual approaches in FL education. This can not only assist learners in demonstrating their knowledge about a specific genre and transferring it to similar genres in different language codes, providing available lexico-grammatical resources (Medina, 2022), but also foreground teachers’ and students’ multilinguistic repertoires and multimodal practices, where new discourses and forms of expression were being produced. 4. Discussion and Concluding Remarks The objective of this literature review aimed to review the recent 5-year research on translanguaging pedagogies in 374 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS teacher-learner and peer-peer feedback related to error treatment on FL learners’ written and oral production. To achieve this goal, a semi-systematic review was conducted to provide methodological and practical contributions, map theoretical approaches, and identify knowledge gaps within the literature (Snyder, 2019). Following the screening procedures, as described in detail in the methodology section, the analysis was focused on a corpus of 22 empirical studies that approached translanguaging in feedback-related language practices and met all the inclusion criteria set forth for this investigation to address its research questions. The first research question sought to identify the characteristics of empirical studies on translanguaging regarding the educational context, target language, and research methods. The analysis showed that there was a significant proportion of studies conducted in English- related contexts, with English being the primary FL of learning. Moreover, translanguaging in CF was found to have been studied more frequently in tertiary educational contexts (see Figure 3). This could be attributed to the increasing inclusion of English as a common global second language in college-level language policy and planning, as well as the growing internationalization of education. In terms of methodology, a disproportionately large number of studies utilized qualitative and mixed-methods approaches, which is partially consistent with the findings of Prilutskaya (2021) and Medina (2022). The following question delved into the feedback sources and types in which translanguaging was involved. Four categories were identified based on the participants initiation and response in oral and written interactions. It was found that translingual practices were explored more ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 375 in peer feedback than teacher feedback, which suggests that L2 writing peer-as-provider feedback has demonstrated more variation in the translanguaging condition compared to tutorial corrective feedback (Sun & Zhang, 2022). In terms of feedback types examined in the 22 empirical research articles, CF was most frequently studied and regarded as the basis of translingual practice in classroom contexts. Wang and Li (2022) claimed that translanguaging can have a positive impact on FL learners’ writing, particularly in oral CF, as it enhances students’ learning and encourages their participation by providing them with a better understanding of grammatical or syntactical rules. However, some divergent empirical evidence suggests that translanguaging pedagogy is not always effective for the development of L2 performance. For example, Canals (2022) analyzed translanguaging sequences in language-related episodes (LREs) and found that translanguaging did not exerted a more facilitative role in explicit CF or produce modified output in learner- learner interactions. Talavera’s (2020) study highlighted pedagogical considerations related to this issue and suggested that translanguaging could be better approached in both teacher and peer CF so that learners can tap into all their linguistic resources when communicating with classmates, while their transferable skills between their native L1 and L2 can be improved under translingual teaching support and multimodal aids. To address the final research question regarding the implementation of translanguaging in CF, a comprehensive analysis was conducted on studies that follow translanguaging approach and types categorized by Bonacina-Pugh et al. (2021) and Sah & Kubota (2022). Results revealed that in teacher-oriented CF, pedagogical 376 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS translanguaging was frequently employed in both context- focused and form-focused negotiations, which are pedagogical strategies devised by the teacher within the physical or virtual classroom (Cenoz et al., 2022). Meanwhile, in pupil-oriented CF, spontaneous translanguaging was more commonly used in computer- mediated communication environments, which are discursive practices of multilingual speakers that occur both inside and outside school and are not planned by the teacher (ibid, 2022). A fixed language approach to translanguaging placed a high emphasis on communicative strategies such as linguistic alterations and heteroglossia with schooling and societal implications (Poza, 2017), that help reinforce vocabulary and grammar teaching (e.g., Talavera, 2020; Wang & Li, 2022; Li, 2018) and promote dialogic understanding and cognitive engagement (e.g., Gomez, 2020; Mastelloto & Zanin, 2022). A fluid languaging approach, on the other hand, placed a greater value on multiple forms of trans-semiotizing, such as embodied, digital, and multimodal trans-semiotizing, which were highly valued in some studies (e.g., Anya, 2021; Canals, 2021; Sert & Balaman, 2018) and used the entire linguistic and semiotic repertoire to fulfill peer communicative demands. Additionally, providing two or more types of translanguaging practices were shown to be productive methods in both approaches that teachers and learners used to exploit diverse linguistic resources and multimodal resources in resolving nonunderstandings (Sah, 2022). Therefore, rather than relying on a single type of translanguaging, the combination use of different translanguaging strategies should be implemented to create a critical space for scaffolding learning in FL ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 377 classrooms and to enhance current knowledge of the target language. Translingual mediation has been approached pedagogically into various forms of corrective feedback. Kim and Chang (2020) categorized CF and feedback commentary into ‘form’ (e.g., ‘grammar’, ‘expression’, and ‘mechanics’), ‘content’, ‘organization’, ‘comments with explanations’, ‘suggestions’, and ‘questions’ (2020: 5). Adinolfi and Astruc (2017) implemented translingual mediation in CF through five interactional patterns: ‘giving instructions’, ‘reviewing language’, ‘eliciting language’, ‘setting up dialogues’, and ‘prompting non-verbal responses’ (2017:194). Planned or spontaneous interlinguistic and trans-semiotic mediation in CF has been shown to be an effective strategy for the development of language users’ communicative and intercultural competencies (Cummins, 2019), whereas learners’ writing accuracy and lexical-grammatical knowledge in the target language could be better fostered, combined with the assistance of automated writing systems. On the one hand, the technological aids help students to be self-aware of micro-level written errors and to correct them effectively, on the other hand, it may help alleviate teachers of the time-intensive practice of CF provision. Therefore, in future research designs it is suggested that an automated CF could be provided at the early stage of learners’ FL writings as a task discussion clue for further translingual in feedback commentaries. The present paper calls for a more holistic understanding of not only the writing product but also of L2 learners’ writing process. As such, it may be insightful that more research addresses how personalized and effective corrective feedback can be translanguaged by 378 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS teachers, and how learners behave themselves in the writing process through feedback practices to optimize their learning strategies. For this, researchers are suggested to consider how context and participants would mediate or be mediated by the overall research ecology, and they could provide context-specific, individualized analysis of the impact of L2 writing feedback (Liu & Yu, 2022). Alongside discursive interactions between peers, tutorial translingual CF might help more to improve learners’ writing performance, to enable learners’ uptake, and to raise metalinguistic awareness in multilingual classrooms. Furthermore, in improving the quality of feedback, understanding the learners´ beliefs and goals is crucial for providing appropriate responses and reactions. Another recommendation based on this review study concerns teachers’ fundamental knowledge regarding their students’ linguistic repertoires, educational backgrounds, and language choices, before adopting specific CF strategies in writing instructions (Bitchener & Storch, 2016; Mu et al., 2023). Lastly, as a creative, transformational and collaborative space, where learners have different meaning-making goals and communicative purposes, the implementation of translanguaging in foreign language writing instruction should also be tailored to the learners’ needs and language proficiency (Hyland & Hyland, 2019), so that this pedagogical tool can foster reliable feedback to grasp students’ learning position and misunderstandings, thereby enhancing self-directed learning and self- awareness in academic settings. In conclusion, this review has its limitations. Firstly, only two large and multidisciplinary databases were searched, which may have resulted in a reduced number of selected publications for the analysis section. Secondly, the review ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 379 questions were mostly related to research methods, settings, feedback sources, and translanguaging approaches, with limited examination of the potential impact and contributions of translanguaging in CF practices. 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L1 versus L2 use in peer review of L2 writing in English. Asian EFL Journal, 20(9.1), 124–147. Zuo, M., & Walsh, S. (2021). Translation in EFL teacher talk in Chinese universities: a translanguaging perspective. Classroom Discourse, 1–19. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 387 388 | ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS Thank you. ISSBM 2022 PROCEEDINGS | 389 Document Outline naslovnica_E-pub_ENG 4_Proceedings-of-the-International-Summer-School-of-Bilingualism-and-Multilingualism-ISSBM2022-1681304689 - Copy 3_Proceedings-of-the-International-Summer-School-of-Bilingualism-and-Multilingualism-ISSBM2022-1681304689 - Copy 3_Proceedings-of-the-International-Summer-School-of-Bilingualism-and-Multilingualism-ISSBM2022-1681304689 - Copy Contents Foreword Across Introduction Assessing metalinguistic awareness in multilingual classes Corpus in Focus: A Guide to Use Corpus in EFL/ESL Classroom Analysing ESL learners’ complexity development: linguistic corpus insights on L2 chunks acquired in online multimedia learning contexts. A corpus-based analysis of contemporary Russian netspeak: can corpora help us predict the future of a language? Japanese interactional particles: designing contents for teaching. Bilingualism and (developmental) language disorders. An overview. Macedonian Heritage Speakers' Strategies of Interpreting Specificity and Genericity The gendered aspect of sociolinguistic variation: Insights from the Qaf in Tartus, Syria Code-switching usage in English language class at tertiary institutions in Kano Person deixis in English and Romanian Telecollaboration: A 21st Century Teaching Approach? Translanguaging in Corrective Feedback Provision as a Flexible Approach to Communicative Foreign Language Teaching and Learning: a semi-systematic literature review Thank you.