Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 Sare Rabia Öztürk Boğaziçi University, Turkey A B ST RAC T This article offers an outline of the literary translation flow from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 based on a catalogue of translated literary works that were published in this period that was compiled for the purposes of this research. The aim of the article is to understand what kinds of works make it into a literary-linguistic domain when the host system has a turbulent history with the source system (in the case of Turkey and the Arab Middle East, a series of ideological and polit- ical factors were behind such turmoil). Based on Even-Zohar’s concept of clusters, the bibliographic data are consulted to trace the systemic infrastructure that helped determine which works from the source literature were admitted into the host literature. The process is carried out through identify- ing sets of relatable elements (translations, agents) that clustered around six thematic elements to form the repertoire of translated Turkish literature in the Arabic literary system. The analysis shows that the translation flow from Turkish to Arabic continued despite the historical rancour between Turkey and the Arab Middle East. Keywords: translation flow, literary translation, networks of relations, repertoire, cluster Izris znanega: književno prevajanje iz turščine v arabščino med letoma 1923 in 2005 I Z V L EČ E K V članku je predstavljen oris književnega prevodnega toka iz turščine v arabščino med letoma 1923 in 2005. Oris temelji na katalogu prevedenih literarnih del, objavljenih v danem časovnem obdob- ju, ki je bil izdelan za namene te raziskave. Namen članka je predstaviti spoznanja o tem, kakšne vrste dela so vključena v literarno-jezikovno domeno v času zgodovinskih napetosti med izvirno in ciljno kulturo (v primeru Turčije in arabskega Bližnjega vzhoda je to trenje povzročila cela vrs- ta ideoloških in političnih dejavnikov). Raziskava s pomočjo koncepta skupka, kot ga je definiral Even-Zohar, uporablja bibliografske podatke za zaznavanje sistemske infrastrukture, ki je pomaga- la določiti, katera dela iz izvirne književnosti so bila vključena v prevodno literaturo. Postopek te- melji na identifikaciji nizov sorodnih elementov (prevodov, akterjev), ki se združujejo okrog šestih tematskih elementov in oblikujejo repertoar prevedene turške literature v arabskem književnem sistemu. Analiza pokaže, da se prevodni tok iz turščine v arabščino kljub zgodovinskemu sporu med Turčijo in arabskim Bližnjim vzhodom ni prekinil. Ključne besede: prevodni tok, književno prevajanje, mreže odnosov, repertoar, skupek 49Stridon. Journal of Studies in Translation and Interpreting, Volume 2 Issue 1, pp. 49–78 1. Introduction When the Ottoman state was abolished in 1922, and in its place came the Republic of Turkey, a geographical break between Turks and Arabs was initiated, and the Arab regions went on their respective journeys towards statehood and independence. Pri- or to this date, mostly in the late 19th century, the emergent Arab nationalism had been steadily increasing in an atmosphere of cultural revival that resulted from in- creased dialogue with the West (Somuncuoğlu 2015). Arab identity and cultural her- itage gained importance in this period, while the Ottoman presence was regarded as the source of cultural stagnation and inḥitāt [decadence] in the region (Haarmann 1988). A similar attitude could be found in Turkish nationalism, which saw Arabs as obstacles on the course towards modernity (Bozdağlıoğlu 2003). As Turkish and Arab modernization processes took their respective routes, the two nations were di- verging considerably from each other. Throughout the 20th century, ideological and political factors continued to trouble the waters between them. In both Turkish and Arab modernization processes, cultural import from Europe (or the westernization of local cultures) was concretized through textual translations from major European languages such as French, English and German.1 On the other hand, cultural flow in the form of literary translation from Turkish to Arabic was not progressing at such a high momentum (Suçin 2016). To answer the question of what kinds of products make it into a literary-linguistic domain when the host system has a turbulent history (political, ideological) with the source system, this article offers an outline of the literary translation flow from Turk- ish to Arabic2 in the first eighty years of the Republic of Turkey based on a catalogue of translated literary works between 1923 and 2005 that was compiled for the purposes of this research. Adopting Itamar Even-Zohar’s systemic view on cultural transac- tions, it traces “networks of relations” (Even-Zohar 2010, 40) that are discernible from bibliographic data. It proposes three hypotheses, as follows: 1 For more information on the cultural dynamics of the period, see Berk Albachten (1999) and Ziyāda (2015). 2 A note on transliterations: The transliteration of Turkish and Arabic words is conducted in accordance with the IJMES Transliteration system. For proper names (persons or in- stitutions) with self-proclaimed English transliterations, the preferred transliteration is retained. 50 Sare Rabia Öztürk: Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 1. Translation flow from Turkish to Arabic continued despite recent and ongoing acrimony between Turkey and the Arab Middle East.3 2. Certain thematic elements, intertwining with agents of transfer, formed clusters that became models for future processes of cultural production. 3. These clusters constituted the repertoire of translated Turkish literature in the Ar- abic literary system. 2. The systemic view of cultural production Itamar Even-Zohar’s theoretical work on systems (many of its milestones collected and revised in his Papers in Culture Research (2010)) offers a relational view of cultur- al phenomena that links cultural production with other variables affecting its opera- tion. Beside its emphasis on the need to look at “networks of relations” (Even-Zohar 2010, 40) that operate behind cultural phenomena, the systemic view is valuable for cultural research in that it accounts for irregularities by making a clear distinction between what is systemic and what is systematic (Even-Zohar 2010, 42). This high- lights the fact that although nothing occurs in a vacuum, the operating factors behind cultural phenomena are not likely to be prescriptive nor predictable. Moreover, the systemic view points to the relational dynamic between various domains that make up a given cultural reality (language, literature, politics, economy, etc.) by noting: 1) the multiplicity of systems that are at work in cultural settings, and 2) the stratified nature of cultural material in a heterogeneous reality – a view that renders indispensable the inclusion of the peripheral into the analysis of cultural dynamics. The present article takes as its standpoint the relational perspective that the systemic view allows for the consideration of cultural occurrences. The notions of “mega-polysystem” (1990, 24) “cluster” (2010, 13) and “agents of transfer” (2010, 75) that are part of Even-Zohar’s systemic model will provide tools of analysis for interpreting the bibliographic data. The idea of clusters is embedded in Even-Zohar’s conceptualization of culture reper- toire and is presented as a concept of its own (in 2010, 13) when explaining what his theory on repertoires entails. Repertoires are “the aggregate of rules and materials which govern both the making and handling, or production and consumption, of 3 Though the catalogue does not exclude translations published in Arab countries outside the Middle East, the latter region is the focus of this article, since almost all of the translations were published there. The three cases in which a translation occurred outside the Middle East (Tunisia, Tripoli, Cologne), were carried out by translators from the Middle East. The remaining bibliographic data in these cases (publishing dates, who the authors were, what kind of works were translated) also show synchrony with the models (discussed in the arti- cle) that were established within the Middle East for translating Turkish literature. 51Stridon. Journal of Studies in Translation and Interpreting, Volume 2 Issue 1, pp. 49–78 any given product” (Even-Zohar 2010, 17). Clusters are structural elements that take place in the making of a culture repertoire. A cluster can be thought of as a set of elements that come together in a relatable (networkable) fashion. Cultural items are often embedded in clusters and are acquired, produced and valued for such attach- ment. Finally, the formation of clusters can lead to the construction of models that are applied to future processes of cultural production. Understanding how clusters are formed can take us a step towards identifying the systemic infrastructure that is at work in a given culture. The concept of clusters is used in this article as a selection criterion for interpreting the dataset from a relational, systemic perspective. Sets of re- latable elements (translations, agents) are identified that together form the repertoire of translated Turkish literature in the Arabic literary system. Even-Zohar calls agents of transfer the different actors (people, institutions, etc.) who, through the transfer of “cultural goods” (Even-Zohar 2010, 9), facilitate repertoire building via acts of mediation. An essential component of interpreting the dataset of translations is the analysis of not only which people and institutions were involved in acts of literary transfer from Turkish to Arabic in the period in question, but also the authors of translated works themselves, some of whom might be considered indirect agents in the international dissemination of their work. In the 1990 version of his article on the polysystem theory, Even-Zohar refers to the site of interaction between different (international) communities, each operating within its own polysystemic dynamics, as a “mega-polysystem” (2010, 24) which he envisions as a conglomerate of several cultural entities. With this notion, Even-Zohar refers to transitivity rather than border-crossing, for he emphasizes that the border- lines between systemic units “are by no means clear-cut or forever finalized” (2010, 24). A mega-polysystem is a useful concept for considering the international dynam- ics that, in the interplay between two cultures, refer to matters transcending the pair in question. The article adds this macro-historical perspective to the micro-historical approach it uses to account for the factors that kept the two literary systems in touch. 3. Translation catalogue and criteria for selection The present article deals with literary transfers from Turkish to Arabic in the first 80 years of the Republic of Turkey. The catalogue (Appendix) lists translated items from 1923, the year in which Turkey’s status as a republic was established, until 2005, the year in which the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism launched TEDA, “a grant program intended to foster the publication of Turkish literature” on an international scale (Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism 2021), reaching 60 lan- guages by 2021. With the TEDA factor, two changes occurred: a relative regularization 52 Sare Rabia Öztürk: Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 of (some aspects of) the translation flow, and the state administration of Turkey en- tering this particular translational scene as a decision-maker. The present article aims to trace the translation flows up to this point, leaving the examination of the ensuing developments for another study. The catalogue is limited to book-length translated texts that are declared as such in the target system. The translated materials are literary texts that were written by authors from Turkey (which excludes, for example, the Turkmen of Arab geography) and trans- lated into Arabic. The catalogue aims to list first publishing dates and does not include further editions.4 It does not include children’s literature and non-fictional genres such as essays, memoirs and biographies. Finally, it does not include retranslations. The catalogue is built on the basis of external criteria that are provided for public use: publication data listed on online library catalogues, indexes and a few other sourc- es, all added to the catalogue along with available reference numbers. Adopting a target-oriented approach, the catalogue is arranged with the publishing dates of the translations sorted in ascending order. Such arrangement provides a sense of diachro- ny, while at the same time making visible the synchronic formation of certain clus- ters of people and institutions (agents of transfer) and books (transferred goods) that gathered around similar ideological, sociological and cultural themes. The catalogue is by no means all-encompassing. Given the possibility of there always remaining terra incognita or “blank spaces that … [indicate] an absence of contem- porary knowledge about the matter” (Pym 2014, 101), the list (and any interpretation that is based on it) is bound to remain tentative and open to improvement. However, as also suggested by Pym in his own conceptualization of transfer networks, the point is “[to map] what we know” (2014, 102). This is particularly useful for forming an idea about the actuality of the situation in historical episodes wherein cultural transfer between two literary systems might be deemed unlikely. Based on Even-Zohar’s concept of clusters, translational data is interpreted through identifying sets of relatable elements (translations, agents) that clustered around cer- tain thematic elements to form the repertoire of translated Turkish literature in the Arabic literary system. These clusters are then formulated in Section 4 as subsections, each referring to a particular networkable situation. Six clusters are identified in this way, which can be summarized as follows: The first cluster constitutes agency by and around women. Such agency is mainly related to constructing the image of the mod- ern woman, and popular romance novels that were written and translated by women. 4 It should be noted that edition numbers are not always registered in the bibliographic sources. When they are registered, the information is provided in the catalogue. 53Stridon. Journal of Studies in Translation and Interpreting, Volume 2 Issue 1, pp. 49–78 The second cluster refers to ethnic minorities (Kurds and Turkmen) and their role in facilitating the flow of translation from Turkish to Arabic during the period in question. The third cluster refers to supranational causes (socialism and Islam) that led the two systems to interact more in relation to this supranational platform than in direct relation to each other. The fourth cluster refers to translations and agents of transfer that gathered around authors from Turkey who had been at odds with the country’s politics. The fifth cluster refers to a point of overlap between some of the home repertoire and translated Turkish literature which deployed satire as a means of social criticism. The sixth and last cluster refers to translators who engaged in literary translation during the 20th century, acting within previously mentioned clusters, and produced translations for television in the 21st century. Such activity indicates that the clusters which kept the translation flow active between Turkish and Arabic in the 1900s generated agencies that went beyond literary translation, creating other possi- bilities for cultural transfer between the two systems in the 2000s. 4. Discussion and analysis In what follows, clusters that gathered around similar ideological, sociological and cultural themes are located and interpreted in order to understand the models that emerged from them and the repertoires they contributed to. 4.1 Agency by and around women Gendered national identities have been studied as part of nationalization processes in different geographies (Moghadam 1994; Altan-Olcay 2009). In a study that mentions some characteristics of Reşat Nuri Güntekin’s (Turkish novelist, story writer and play- wright) writings, Şahika Karaca (2012) analyses the changing image of women during the late Ottoman and early Turkish republican era as depicted through female teacher characters in fictional writings of the period. She argues that many of the novelists in question (Güntekin among them) were following an image-building strategy for women according to which they were encouraged, as modern citizens, to enter the public sphere with the condition that they preserved their iffet (modesty, virtue). İffet is the name of the female teacher character in Güntekin’s novel Damga [stamp/ mark], in which, as argued by Karaca, the author gave a message on what he expected from modern women. As demonstrated in the catalogue, the novel was translated into Arabic by ʿAbd al-Azīz Amīn al-Khānjī and published in 1927 in Cairo. Al-Khānjī’s attitude towards women strengthens Karaca’s argument and broadens its scope be- yond Turkey. Besides translating Güntekin’s novel, he wrote in the preface of another 54 Sare Rabia Öztürk: Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 translation that women had the right to be included in public life, provided that they do not “yaṭfurna [caper, surge]” to a point where they become like “nisāʾ al-gharb [women of the West]” ((1920) 2014, 8). Two of Güntekin’s other translators were women: Ṣafiyya Luṭfī and Rewşen Bedirxan. Ṣafiyya Luṭfī, of whom no further biographical information was attained, translated Güntekin’s novel Acımak [to pity] (published in 1934 in Aleppo). Like Damga, Acımak also featured a female teacher as its central figure. As for Rewşen Bedirxan, she trans- lated into Arabic Güntekin’s famous novel Çalıkuşu [wren], also featuring a female teacher. The translation was titled Mudhakkarāt Muʿallima [memoirs of a teacher] and published in 1954. This is a cluster in which author, translator and product gathered around and gave val- ue to the idea that while modernity necessitates the inclusion of women in the public sphere, women should still be subject to certain restrictions with regard to physical appearance and moral behaviour. The image of an idealistic, female teacher seems to be a favoured expression of such idea. Moreover, it overlaps with another cluster (through shared themes and agents) which revolves around popular romance novels that were written and translated by women. Rewşen Bedirxan, the aforementioned translator, appears in the catalogue two more times, translating works by two women authors – a very small community in the cata- logue (five women authors in total and four women translators). She translated a nov- el by Güzide Sabri and another by Mükerrem Kamil Su. Sabri wrote tragic romance novels that featured female leading characters.5 Bedirxan translated her Ölmüş Bir Kadının Evrakı Metrukesi [papers left behind by a dead woman]. The translation was published in 1951 under a title with a very similar structure to that of the 1954 pub- lication, Mudhakkarāt Imraʾa [memoirs of a woman].6 Kamil Su also wrote romance novels. Bedirxan translated her Sevgim ve Izdırabım [my love and my sorrow]. Both novels relayed the difficulties endured by idealistic women and, as noted by Nurtaç Ergün Atbaşı (2020), Kamil Su was herself a teacher who frequently created female teacher characters in her novels. Another woman translator was Nafīsa Bahjat. She appears in the catalogue twice, as the translator of two romance novels, the first being Çamlar Altında [under the pine trees] by Muazzez Tahsin Berkand, and the second, Leylaklar Altında [under the li- 5 See Doğan (2019) for more information on Sabri’s writings. 6 Interestingly, in a 1996 reprint Bedirxan’s name appears on the cover (without indication of her role as translator) and Sabri’s name later, on the title page, where the book’s position as translated literature is established. See Sabri (1996). 55Stridon. Journal of Studies in Translation and Interpreting, Volume 2 Issue 1, pp. 49–78 lac trees] by Mebrure Sami. Like Sabri and Kamil Su, Tahsin Berkand and Sami are frequently categorized as authors of popular romance fiction. The only female author who stands outside of the popular romance cluster is Adalet Ağaoğlu, who will be mentioned in Section 4.4. 4.2 Ethnic minorities and their role in facilitating the flow of translation from Turkish to Arabic Under the nationalist regime of Saddam Hussein (president of Iraq between 1979 and 2003), the Turkmen of Iraq became a marginalized group who suffered discrim- ination (ʿUmar 2017; Oğuz 2016; Kevseroğlu 2006). The government went on a cam- paign to Arabize the region, especially the city of Kirkuk (a centre of the oil industry), forcing the demographic weight to shift towards an Arab population at the expense of other ethnic groups: Turkmen, Kurds and other minorities were replaced by Arabs trans- ferred from southern Iraq, resulting in Arabs forming the major [sic] of the city’s population, to the detriment of the formerly majority Turkmen and also of the Kurds resident there. (Oğuz 2016, 168) Kurds as another minoritized ethnic group were also marginalized in Syria, where the use of the Kurdish language was banned, including publishing in that language (ʿAli 2013). The situation was similar in Turkey, as Kurdish was banned in favour of Turk- ish nationalism, and for decades it only existed as an unofficial, oral language (Arslan 2015). The catalogue shows that, despite political, demographic and ideological mar- ginalization, Kurdish and Turkmen agents of transfer played an intermediary role in keeping the flow between the Turkish and Arabic literary systems, forming clusters that are relatable both internally and externally (with other clusters). Besides appearing in the cluster that is related to her identity as woman, Bedirxan is present in this cluster in relation to her identity as a Kurd. The latter identity was cen- tral in her intellectual life and political activity. She lived in Istanbul as an infant and later moved to Damascus. She established herself as a translator (into Arabic, from Turkish and Kurdish sources), literary and otherwise. She played diplomatic roles as a representative of both Syrian and Kurdish identities and engaged in political activ- ism, founding the Kurdish Women’s Union7 in Iraq (Altūnjī 2014; Reş 2012). Another Kurdish translator who appears in the catalogue is Khalaf Shawqī al-Dāwūdī from Iraq. He compiled an anthology of Turkish short stories that included Güntekin and 7 Original name: Al-Ittiḥād al-Nisāʾī al-Kurdī. 56 Sare Rabia Öztürk: Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 was published in Cairo in 1934. He is quoted (in al-Barzanjī al-Naqshibandī 2016) to have expressed, in the preface to this anthology, his delight in reading Turkish liter- ature. He is also referred to as being among the “Kurds who served the Arabic lan- guage” (al-Jubūrī 2003a, 314, my translation). As for Turkmen translators, Muḥammad Mawlūd Fāqi, a Turkman from Aleppo,8 car- ried out much of Aziz Nesin’s translations in the late 1990s and early 2000s (Nesin’s place in the translation flow will be discussed separately in Sections 4.3 and 4.5). Much of Fāqi’s translations were published in Damascus by a publisher named al-Waṭaniyya al-Jadīda [new nationalism]. He also appears to have worked with a publisher from Latakia named Dār al-Manāra. Latakia, along with Aleppo, are among the cities with the most Turkmen in Syria (see Hürmüzlü 2015). Another of Nesin’s Turkmen translators was Farūq Muṣṭafā from Kirkuk, Iraq, a city which is historically and politically linked with the Turkmen presence (among oth- er ethnic communities) in the region. Muṣṭafā appears in literary discourses around Kirkuk (see, for example, Qūryālī 2019; Mardān 2007; Abū Andalus 2014) as an es- teemed figure among the city literati who were active around the mid-1990s, whom Muṣṭafā himself termed “Jamāʿat Kirkūk [the Kirkuk community]” (cited in Ḥujayrī 2017) and emphasized their contribution (despite their different ethnic backgrounds) to Iraqi literature. Another Turkman from Kirkuk who appears in the catalogue is Nuṣrat Mardān (cited in the above paragraph).9 He translated a novel by Nedim Gürsel that brings a postmod- ernist perspective to the story of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. The translation was published in 2001 by an Iraqi publisher that was based in Cologne, al-Kamel Verlag.10 Also in the catalogue is Jamāl Jumʿa, another member – the term is used in a loose sense – of the Kirkuk community11 who translated a collection of Orhan Veli’s po- ems for the Ministry of Culture and Knowledge Development in Abu Dhabi to be published in 1998. This is the first and only time in which Veli (an innovative poet who influenced Turkish poetry with his contribution to the Garip movement of the 1940s) appears in the catalogue. This is also the first and only time Abu Dhabi enters the scene. The point of entrance, though, is more or less normative (i.e., indicative of certain established models): the agency in Kirkuk and (as will be discussed in Section 4.3) the interest in Turkish modern poetry. 8 For more information on Fāqi see: http://www.akhawia.net/showthread.php?t=122369. 9 For more information on Mardān see: https://www.biyografya.com/biyografi/11132. 10 For more information about the publisher see al-Sarāy (2010). 11 See Burton (2006) for more information about Jumʿa. 57Stridon. Journal of Studies in Translation and Interpreting, Volume 2 Issue 1, pp. 49–78 Two other Iraqi Turkmen translators were ʿ Abd al-Latīf Bandar Ūglū,12 who translated a collection of Turkish modern poetry for the Iraqi Ministry of Culture and Arts in Bagh- dad that was published in 1978; and Jinkīz Katāna,13 who translated a poetry collection of the 13th–14th century Sufi poet Yunus Emre that was published in Cairo in 1991. 4.3 Supranational causes and the mega-polysystem Data from the catalogue indicate that supranational causes might lead systems to in- teract more in relation to the mega-polysystem in which these causes are enacted than in direct relation to each other. Two clusters appear out of the bibliographic data: one related to socialism and the other to Islam as a common point of interest. During the early Arab nationalization processes, some Islamic-religious sentiments still regarded loyalty to the Ottoman ummah as important, seeing it home to all Muslims. Other adherents of religion chose loyalty to the nationalist, progressive ideology (Haar- mann 1988, 186). Soon after separation from the Ottoman community, the newly form- ing Arab nations found themselves in the context of European colonization which start- ed as French and British mandates in the aftermath of the First World War. In the case of Palestine, Zionism and the Jewish settlement were burning issues, and new topics such as the Arab-Israeli conflict and the Palestine question were permanently incorporated into the rhetoric of pan-Arabism (Bawardi 2014; Di-Capua 2018). The new states were ruled by nationalist leaders such as the Egyptian president Ga- mal Abdel Nasser and the Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein, who also adopted a more or less secularist and socialist outlook (Helfont 2018; McLean and McMillan 2009; Şahin 2014). In some instances, ideologies gave way to despotism, and governmental alliances with imperialist powers was often criticized by the circles that opposed such regimes. Arab nationalist sentiments were shaken in the Arab-Israeli War of 1948, which was to be known thereafter as the Nakba [catastrophe] (al-Mūsā 2009). The Republic of Turkey was the first Muslim country to recognize the state of Is- rael, during the presidency of İsmet İnönü on the 29th of March 1949, even before Israel was granted full membership to the United Nations on the 11th of May 1949 (Nafi 2009). Moreover, Turkey’s anti-Soviet regime in the 1950s and its subsequent “pro-Western policy aiming at creating a defense system against the Soviet Union and communism” (Bozdağlıoğlu 2003, 118) stood in opposition to rising socialism in the 12 Please refer to the following link for more information on Bandar Ūglū: https://www. biyografya.com/biyografi/2610. 13 Please refer to the following link for more information on Katāna: https://www.biyo- grafya.com/biyografi/1895. 58 Sare Rabia Öztürk: Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 Arab world. Turkey was regarded as “a mere imperialist instrument in the Middle East and a force for the perpetuation of the status quo in the region” (Nafi 2009, 69). Siding with the enemy of the Arab world, it became an enemy: “The newspaper of the Muslim Brotherhood, al-dawa, labeled Turkey as a ‘second Israel and called for its destruction’” (Bozdağlıoğlu 2003, 118). As demonstrated in the catalogue, the Turkish socialist poet Nazım Hikmet most probably entered the Arabic literary scene in 1952 when ʿAli Saʿd, a medical doctor by profession, published in Beirut a collection of his poems in Arabic (translated from French). At least, this is the translation that is said to have brought him recognition in the Arabic context (Shūsha 2001; Shūsha 2015; Dakuki 1998). This was a year after Hikmet was stripped of Turkish citizenship for communist propaganda (Göksu and Timms 1999). The Nakba of 1948 was still an open wound. Most Arab nations were struggling against British or French colonization. Hikmet’s poetry resonated with the Arab causes of the time. With regard to the reception of Hikmet through this transla- tion, Fārūq Shūsha, an Egyptian poet, wrote in the Egyptian al-Ahrām newspaper: “It was like a glowing fire that chanced in us an ignited aspiration to horizons of freedom, justice, human dignity and the revolt against restriction, dictators and colonizers”14 (2015, my translation). Many translations of Hikmet (from Turkish, French and Rus- sian), both poetry and plays, followed suit. They were published in a variety of loca- tions, including Beirut, Cairo, Damascus, al-Quds, Latakia, and Kuwait. In a study on Hikmet’s reception in Greece, Kenan Behzat Sharpe argues that he flour- ished in so many languages so many times due to his ties with an international body of “cultural networks [that] were supported by the Soviet Union” (2020, 131). This, then, was a case in which the mega-polysystem was activated through socialism. Moreover, Sharpe notes the importance of Paris and Moscow as trendsetters that had the power to control transactions between Turkish and Greek. This also resonates with the Ar- abic case, wherein some of Hikmet’s translations were mediated through French15 or Russian.16 Fāḍil Luqmān Jatkar, a social activist from Syria, was among a group of translators who established intellectual camaraderie with Turkish socialism, translating works by Turkish socialists (Mannāʿ 2017). Among his literary translations are works by Nazım Hikmet, Aziz Nesin, Erdal Öz and Yılmaz Güney. Jatkar was also an early translator of the Turkish Nobel-winning novelist Orhan Pamuk. His translation of Cevdet Bey 14 Original statement: “وكأنها النار المشتعلة، بعد أن صادفت فينا تطلعًا مشبوبًا إلى آفاق الحرية والكرامة .”اإلنسانية والثورة على القيود والمستبدين والمستعمرين 15 Alī Saʿd’s 1952 translation, Muḥammad al-Bukhāri’s 1971 translation. 16 Māhir ʿAsal’s 1971 translation, Sharīf Shākir’s 1978 translation. 59Stridon. Journal of Studies in Translation and Interpreting, Volume 2 Issue 1, pp. 49–78 ve Oğulları [Cevdet Bey and his sons] was published in 1989, well before Pamuk ac- quired global fame in 2006. Aziz Nesin is another socialist who kept the literary flow between the two systems alive. Appearing in 44 entries (plays, short stories, novels) in the catalogue (from a total of 112), he stands as the most published Turkish author in Arabic translation between 1923 and 2005. His name is synonymous in the Arab context with al-adab al-sākhir [satire literature]. He left his mark on broadcasting as well, inspiring a num- ber of Syrian television shows (Alkhaleej 2009). Discussing Hikmet’s internationalization, Sharpe (2020) points to the effect of his travel initiatives, through which he visited many parts of the non-Western world in solidarity with the socialist cause. Likewise, Nesin visited Arab countries and estab- lished friendships with intellectuals of the region. Both were members of the Union of Asian and African Writers (Al-Arnāʾūṭ 2021; Al-Burjāwī 1980). It is possible, there- fore, that the mega-polysystem in which Hikmet’s person and works circulated also comprised Nesin’s radius of action. A variety of Nesin’s short stories, novels and plays were transferred into the Arab lit- erary system by a number of translators through different publishers, the majority of which were based in Damascus. That being said, Amman and Kuwait appear among the early publishing locations of works by Nesin, both publishing in 1986 and working respectively with Jatkar (mentioned above) and another Syrian translator, Jūzīf Nāshif. Jatkar and Nāshif are two of the translators who were published by the Syrian Ministry of Culture and National Guidance,17 whose agency will be discussed in Section 4.4. As for the second cluster, the one related to Islam as a common cause, scholarly inter- est in Turkish/Ottoman literature appears to be tied in many instances with interest in Islam as the common religion between the two cultures. Ḥusayn Mujīb al-Miṣrī, whose translation of a poetic work that was dedicated to the prophet Muhammad by the Ottoman scholar Süleyman Çelebi was published in Cairo in 1981, wrote in his preface to another work of his (a book on Turkish literature) that he intended to “fill a void in knowledge that remained vacant for a long time”18 and referred to Turkish literature as “a Muslim literature that remained unknown, was kept silent and thrown into oblivion”19 (1978, 3–4, my translation). Al-Miṣrī also published, in Cairo in 1984, a bilingual poetry book in which he presented Turkish verse of his own writing and its Arabic translation.20 17 Registered in the catalogue (Appendix) as Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī. 18 Original statement: “سد فراغ في المعرفة ظل شاغرا منذ طويل زمان ”. 19 Original statement: “أدبا إسالميا بقى مجهوال مسكوتا عنه مطروحا في غور النسيان”. 20 See al-Miṣrī (2004), in which the author also mentions this bilingual work. 60 Sare Rabia Öztürk: Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 Another agent who can be regarded within this cluster is the Egyptian scholar of Turk- ish and Ottoman culture Muḥammad Ḥarb,21 who is currently established in Turkey. He is among the authors22 of the TDV23 Encyclopedia of Islam, a major reference for Islamic studies in Turkey. He translated Necip Fazıl Kısakürek’s play Bir Adam Yarat- mak [the making of a man] that was published in Cairo in 1988. Kısakürek is a major name among the religious literati in Turkey of the 20th century. In an interview by Wāʾil Ḥusnī (2019), Ḥarb states that he knew Kısakürek personally and that the latter thanked him for translating his works into Arabic. In 2018, he was given the Necip Fazıl award for arts and cultural research, the international category.24 Ḥarb also appears as the translator of a historical novel on Imam Shāmil, a major name in the Muslim Caucasian resistance against Russian invasion in the 19th century. His translation was published in Jeddah, which comprises the first and only occurrence in the catalogue of a publishing instance from Saudi Arabia. Upon inspection, the publisher (Dār al-Manāra)25 turns out to be affiliated with the Syrian religious schol- ar and judge ʿAlī al-Ṭanṭāwī26 who came to Saudi Arabia in the 1960s, an era which witnessed a wave of migration by members of the Muslim Brotherhood (al-Ikhwān al-Muslimīn) from Syria and Egypt to Saudi Arabia.27 Other agents of transfer who seem to have clustered around religious-scholarly in- terest in Turkish literature are İbrahim Sabri, ʿAbd al-Rāziq Barakāt and Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu. The first of these translators, Sabri, was the son of the last Şeyhülislam (highest religious rank in Ottoman legislative system). He moved to Egypt in his thir- ties and settled there. He translated Mehmet Akif Ersoy’s seventh poetry volume of Safahat ([pages], one of his major works) titled Gölgeler [shadows] into Arabic. The translation was published in Cairo in 1953. Gölgeler itself was published in Cairo in 1933, at a time when Ersoy resided there (Saraç 1997). As with Hikmet, Ersoy also represented a common cause. In his case, it was the unity of Muslims, irrespective of their nationalities. He shared the title Şairü’l-İslam/Shāʿir 21 Known in Turkey as Muhammed Harb. 22 The entries that have been contributed to the encyclopaedia by Ḥarb can be found at https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/muellif/muhammed-harb. 23 Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı (English name: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation). 24 See the award website, year 2018 for more information: https://www.necipfazilodulleri. com/2018/tum-kazananlar-0. 25 Not to be confused with the one in Latakia (mentioned in 4.2). 26 The publisher’s official website, http://daralmanara.com, states that it is “The exclusive publisher of Sheikh Ali Tantawi’s books” (main page, my translation). 27 For more information about the Brotherhood in Saudi Arabia see al-Rasheed (2007). 61Stridon. Journal of Studies in Translation and Interpreting, Volume 2 Issue 1, pp. 49–78 al-Islam [poet of Islam] with the Pakistani poet Muhammad Iqbal (as pointed out by Saraç 1997, 247), the two names operating in a mega-polysystem that was larger than their respective cultural systems. Akif had a mediating role, too, as he taught Turkish literature at the University of Cairo upon coming to Egypt.28 Sabri also translated two works by Abdülhak Hamit Tarhan, one published in 1962 and the other in 1977, both in Cairo. The 1962 translation was T arhan’s play İbni Musa yahud Zâtü’l-cemâl [son of Musa or the beautiful lady], that, as argued by İnci Enginün (1988), belonged to a group of his works in which Islam’s glory in the Anda- lusian era was portrayed in the background of stories of love and passion. The second was Tarhan’s elegy to his wife, Makber [the grave], which he wrote in Beirut in 1885, where she died on the way to Istanbul. Tarhan was rendered into Arabic before the ap- pointed period of our catalogue as well, i.e., during the late Ottoman era. For example, another of his Andalusian-Islamic themed works, Târık yahut Endülüs Fethi [Tariq or the conquest of Andalusia], appeared in Arabic translation in 1910, Cairo.29 As for Barakāt, he translated a work by Kısakürek, along with another major name that belongs to the religious literati in Turkey of the 20th century, Sezai Karakoç. He translated Kısakürek’s Esselâm in which fragments of the life of the prophet Muham- mad were portrayed in verse. The translation was published in 1994. He also translat- ed Karakoç’s Hızırla Kırk Saat [forty hours with al-Khidr], a title which contains many symbolic references to Islamic culture. The translation was published in 1992. Both translations appeared in Cairo. The last name in the cluster of religious-scholarly interest in Turkish literature is Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu. İhsanoğlu was born in Egypt. He is a cultural mediator on many levels, one of which is that of textual translation. Besides his role as an academician, he has appeared in diplomatic and political settings and was founding general director of IRCICA, a research centre that branched out of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation.30 Like Ḥarb, he is among the authors of the TDV Encyclopedia of Islam.31 He translated a collection of short stories from Turkish into Arabic that was published in 1970 in Cairo. İhsanoğlu also appears among the early translators of Hikmet, having translated in 1969 the latter’s version, composed as a play, of the mystical love story of Ferhat and 28 For more information about the matter, please refer to Saraç (1997). 29 For more information about this translation, please refer to İhsanoğlu (2012). 30 For more information about İhsanoğlu see: https://www.biyografya.com/biyografi/3403. 31 The entries that have been contributed to the encyclopaedia by İhsanoğlu can be found at https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/muellif/ekmeleddin-ihsanoglu. 62 Sare Rabia Öztürk: Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 Şirin – work which Gökhan Tunç describes as an attempt on Hikmet’s part “to con- textualize new ideas of socialist thought through the use of religious/Sufi discourse” (2009, 27, my translation).32 This is an interesting case in which the socialist and reli- gious clusters overlapped during their relatively autonomous excursions to form the repertoire of translated Turkish literature in the Arabic literary system during the 20th century. Egypt’s repeated appearance in the latter cluster reflects not only Cairo’s status as a cultural capital in the region, but also the country’s history as birthplace to both al-Azhar University (with its central position in Sunni Islamic research and legislation) and the Muslim Brotherhood (a prominent agent in Islamist activism). 4.4 Translating the outcasts of a system One important hub for modernist Arab thinking was the journal al-Ḥadīth [the mod- ern], which was founded in Aleppo by Sāmī al-Kayyālī and hosted many of the reform- ist thinkers of the era (al-Jubūrī 2003b). Ṣafiyya Luṭfī’s aforementioned translation of Güntekin’s Acımak appeared there. Kayyālī himself translated a work by the Turkish novelist and story writer Refik Halit Karay, who spent some of his many years of exile in Syria. The work Kayyālī chose for translation was Yezid’in Kızı [daughter of Yezid], which Karay wrote in Aleppo, depicting the lives of Yazidi people, an ethno-religious minority living in Iraq, Syria and Southeast Anatolia (Okay 2001; Taşğın 2013). In the following decades, another expatriate from Turkey, Nazım Hikmet, entered the Arab literary scene. This was not a singular case wherein Hikmet’s writings thrived in a setting that was not on the best terms with Turkey. Sharpe notes that Hikmet’s supranational position prevented his poetry from being disregarded in Greece as “the product of an enemy nation” (2020, 114). Nazım’s aforementioned Egyptian reviewer (Shūsha 2015) titled his column “When Nazım Hikmet Waged War Against Turkish Tyranny” (my translation),33 a statement which not only reflects a long history of neg- ative national perception, but also that Hikmet was likely to be idolized as a poet who opposed the enemy from within. The Syrian Ministry of Culture and National Guidance appears heavily in the cata- logue during the 1980s and 1990s, mostly as publisher of plays. Along with Hikmet’s works, it published plays by Adalet Ağaoğlu, Aziz Nesin, Cevat Fehmi Başkut, Güngör Dilmen and Haldun Taner. It also published novels by Yaşar Kemal, Erdal Öz, and Yılmaz Güney. These are authors who deployed social criticism as part of their writ- 32 Original statement: “Nâzım Hikmet’in dinî-tasavvufi söylemi kullanarak sosyalist düşünceye ilişkin yeni fikirleri konumlandırmaya çalışmasıdır.” 33 Original statement: “عندما هاجم ناظم حكمت االستبداد التركى”. 63Stridon. Journal of Studies in Translation and Interpreting, Volume 2 Issue 1, pp. 49–78 ing. Moreover, as with Hikmet and Karay, many of them had been sued, arrested or banned in Turkey for what they wrote or said (Şentürk 2009). Given the not-so-ideal state of affairs between Turkey and Syria in the 1980s and 1990s, it is possible that many of the authors who were admitted into the receiving literary system through the ministry had made it partly because they represented the castaways of the source system. Individual cases should be studied to see whether such initiatives could be considered as ways in which the social structure of the other nation were criticized by means of translating its outcasts. Most of the translations that were published by the ministry had been carried out by Jūzīf Nāshif. Nāshif is a Syrian translator, playwright and actor, who worked as manager in the Syrian National Theatre between 1982 and 2003, and held many other official positions in the cultural sphere (Damlag 2021). Nāshif deployed his knowledge of Turk- ish when he played, in the Syrian historical soap opera Kūm al-Ḥajar [pile of stones] (first aired in 2007),34 the role of a high-ranking officer in the mutaṣarrifiyya (Turkish administrative body) in Syria of 1930s. His character appears as a rigid figure who exerts authority over the populace. Such a representation falls in line with the negative percep- tion of Turkish presence in the region in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 4.5 Satire and the post-Naksa situation Unlike the case with the Nakba, the second defeat against Israel in 1967, which is known as the Naksa [setback], resonated in Turkey on both diplomatic and civil lev- els. While still recognizing Israel, Turkey stood against its expansion unto Palestinian territory and refused to lend military support (Sinkaya 2011). During the 1970s, both the social-democratic and the Islamist views in Turkey took a critical stance against Western hegemony and, especially with the latter, a strong commitment to the Pales- tinian cause. Such developments contributed to the emergence of a “softer image of Turkey” in the region (Nafi 2009, 69). However, its NATO membership and ongoing diplomatic relationships with Israel allowed such positive attitude only to a certain degree (Sinkaya 2011). After the Naksa, self-criticism and social critique permeated artistic expression in the realm of Arabic literature and art. Sarcasm became a prominent stylistic feature, found in the works of such poets as Nizār Qabbānī (Syria) and Aḥmad Maṭar (Iraq) and artists such as the Palestinian cartoonist Nājī al-ʿAlī (al-Mūsā 2009; al-Nābulsī 1999; Ibrāhīm 2012). Nesin’s social realist outlook and his combination of satire with 34 For a clip from the show see (on the official YouTube channel of the actor Wael Sharaf, who also appeared in the same series): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9c6YozK5xYY&t=73s. 64 Sare Rabia Öztürk: Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 social critique in many of his works must have found fertile ground in the post-Naksa stylistics (and the clusters and models that were formed around it), allowing for an overlap between the home repertoire and that of translated Turkish literature. The humorous, satiric nature of other translations (like the ones by Muzaffer İzgü, Cevat Fehmi Başkut, Sermet Çağan and Güngör Dilmen) can be seen in relation to both repertoires. 4.6 From 20th century literary scene to 21st century mediascape The 2000s commenced with better relations with the Arab region. Moreover, as ar- gued by Bayram Sinkaya (2011, 90), the US and EU had at the beginning of the mil- lennium different attitudes towards the Middle East, with the latter preferring more diplomatic solutions to regional problems – and Turkey went on to adopt in its foreign policies a framework that went parallel to that of the EU. Data from the catalogue indicate that some of the translators who engaged in literary translation during the 20th century, acting within the previously mentioned clusters, produced translations for other media in the 21st century. The Syrian translator ʿAbd al-Qādir ʿAbdallī35 entered the Turkish-to-Arabic translation scene in roughly the late 1980s. He started with the production model that was formed around Nesin trans- lations. He contributed to the cluster of satire literature with other translations, too, such as works by Muzaffer İzgü and Haldun Taner. His 1988 translation of Nesin’s novel Zübük36 was adapted as the Syrian comedy series al-Dughrī [the smackdab].37 In the 2000s, ʿAbdallī would become an important agent of transfer between the Turk- ish and Arabic mediascapes through taking part, as translator, in the phenomenal success of dubbed Turkish soap operas (Al-Ḍāhir 2017). Jamāl Dūrmūsh, another 20th century translator of Nesin from Syria, also moved in the 2000s to soap opera translation. He translated a number of Turkish shows such as İki Aile [two families] Kaybolan Yıllar [lost years] and Asi [the rebel/proper name].38 The clusters that kept the translation flow active between Turkish and Arabic in the 20th century can thus be regarded as having generated agencies that went beyond literary translation, creating other possibilities for cultural transfer between the two systems in the 21st century. 35 Known in Turkey as Abdulkadir Abdelli. 36 A fictional name. 37 Zübük was also made into a Turkish movie that was first broadcast in 1980. 38 For more information on Dūrmūsh see: https://www.milliyet.com.tr/dunya/abdulham- it-ve-filistin-konulu-senaryo-hazirlaniyor-1044451. 65Stridon. Journal of Studies in Translation and Interpreting, Volume 2 Issue 1, pp. 49–78 5. Conclusion This article presented an outline of the literary translation flow from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 based on a catalogue that was compiled for the purposes of this research of translated literary works that were published in this period. The aim was to understand what kinds of works make it into a literary-linguistic domain when the host system has a turbulent history with the source system. Based on Even-Zohar’s concept of clusters, the bibliographic data were consulted to trace the systemic infra- structure that helped determine which works from the source literature were admit- ted into the host literature. The process was carried out through identifying sets of re- latable elements (translations, agents) that clustered around certain thematic elements to form the repertoire of translated Turkish literature in the Arabic literary system. The analysis showed that the translation flow from Turkish to Arabic continued de- spite historical rancour between Turkey and the Arab Middle East. Six clusters were identified, each referring to a particular networkable situation. The first cluster consti- tuted agency by and around women. Such agency was mainly related to constructing the image of the modern woman, and popular romance novels that were written and translated by women. The second cluster referred to ethnic minorities (Kurds and Turkmen) and their role in facilitating the flow of translation from Turkish to Arabic during the appointed period. The third cluster referred to supranational causes (so- cialism and Islam) that acted within a mega-polysystem, causing the two systems to interact more in relation to this mega-polysystem than in direct relation to each other. The fourth cluster referred to translations and agents of transfer that gathered around authors from Turkey who had been at odds with its politics. Highlighting the role of the Syrian Ministry of Culture and National Guidance as publisher in many such in- stances, the article proposed that translating the outcasts of a system might be a way to criticize that system and reinforce its perceived image. The fifth cluster indicated a point of overlap between the home repertoire that was established around post-Naksa stylistics and that of translated Turkish literature: certain clusters in each repertoire deployed satire (a stylistic element) as a means of social criticism. In the sixth and last cluster, translators who engaged in literary translation during the 20th century, acting within previously mentioned clusters, produced translations for TV broadcasting in the 21st century. 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Cairo: Al- Hayʾa al-Miṣriyya al-ʿĀmma li al-Kitāb. 70 Sare Rabia Öztürk: Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 Appendix Catalogue of literary translations from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 Cate- gory Author Original Title Translator Translation Title Translation Publisher Translation Publishing Place Translation Publishing Date Novel Güntekin, Reşat Nuri Damga al-Khānji, ʿAbd al-Azīz Amīn al-Wasma Maṭbaʿat al-Saʿāda Cairo 1927 Novel Güntekin, Reşat Nuri Acımak Luṭfī, Ṣafiyya al-Shafaqa Majallat al-Ḥadīth Aleppo 1934 Short Stories Güntekin, Reşat Nuri et al. al-Dāwūdī, Khalaf Shawqī Qaṣaṣ Mutkhtāra min al-Adab al-Turkī Maktabat ʿĪsā al-Bābī al-Ḥalabī (Dār iḥyāʾ al-kutub al- ʿarabiyya) Cairo 1934 Novel Ḥatāta, Yūsuf Kamāl ʿAbd- Alḥamīd fī Qaṣr Yildiz Maṭbaʿat Hindiyya Cairo 1941 Novel Sami, Mebrure Leylaklar Altında Dhū al-Fiqār/ Bahjat/ al-ʿAbādī, Nafīsa Taḥt Ẓilāl al-Līlā Ḥilmī Murād Cairo before 1947 Novel Sabri, Güzide Ölmüş Bir Kadının Evrakı Metrukesi Bedirxan, Rewşen Mudhakkarāt Imraʾa 1951 Poetry Hikmet, Nazım Saʿd, Alī Min Shiʿr Nāzim Ḥikmat Beirut 1952 Poetry Ersoy, Mehmet Akif Gölgeler Sabri, İbrahim Al-Ẓilāl: Min Dīwān Ṣafaḥāt Cairo 1953 Novel Kamil Su, Mükerrem Sevgim ve Izdırabım Bedirxan, Rewşen Gharāmī wa Ālāmī 1953 Novel Güntekin, Reşat Nuri Çalıkuşu Bedirxan, Rewşen Mudhakkarāt Muʿallima 1954 Novel Karay, Refik Halit Yezid’in Kızı al-Kayyālī, Sāmī Bint Yazīd Dār al-Maʿārif Cairo 1955 Poetry Hikmet, Nazım et al. al-Bayāti, ʿAbd al- Wahhāb Risāla ilā Nāzim Ḥikmat wa Qasāʾid Ukhrā Maktabat al-Maʿārif Beirut 1956 Play Tarhan, Abdülhak Hamit İbni Musa Yahud Zatülcemal Sabri, İbrahim Ibn Mūsā aw Dhāt al-Jamāl Dār al-Fikr al-ʿArabī Cairo 1962 71Stridon. Journal of Studies in Translation and Interpreting, Volume 2 Issue 1, pp. 49–78 Cate- gory Author Original Title Translator Translation Title Translation Publisher Translation Publishing Place Translation Publishing Date Play Hikmet, Nazım Ferhad İle Şirin İhsanoğlu, Ekmeleddin Ḥikāyatu Ḥubb, aw Farhād wa Shīrīn Dār al-Kātib al-ʿArabī Cairo 1965 Poetry Hikmet, Nazım ʿAzzāwi, Thābit Al-Nāzirūna ilā al-Nujūm Dār al-Jamāhīr Damascus 1968 Short Stories Various İhsanoğlu, Ekmeleddin Min al-Adab al-Turkī al-Ḥadīth: Mukhtārāt min al-Qaṣaṣ al-Qaṣīra Al-Hayʾa al-Misriyya al-ʿĀmma Cairo 1970 Poetry Hikmet, Nazım al-Bukhāri, Muḥammad Ughniyāt al-Manfā Al-Hayʾa al-Misriyya al-ʿĀmma Li al-Kitāb Cairo 1971 Play Hikmet, Nazım Demokles’in Kılıcı; İvan İvanoviç Var mıydı, Yok muydu? ʿAsal, Māhir Sayf Dīmīqlīs wa Jawhar al-Qaḍiyya Al-Hayʾa al-Misriyya al-ʿĀmma Li al-Kitāb Cairo 1971 Novel Güney, Yılmaz Salpa Jatkar, Fāḍil Ṣālbā Al-Maktaba al-Ḥadītha Damascus 1973 Poetry Tarhan, Abdülhak Hamit Makber Sabri, İbrahim Al-Ḍarīḥ Al-Hayʾa al-Misriyya al-ʿĀmma Li al-Kitāb Cairo 1977 Play Hikmet, Nazım Shākir, Sharīf Awwal Ayyām al-ʿĪd Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1978 Poetry Various Bandar Ūglū, ʿAbd al-Latīf Qaṣāid Mukhtāra min al-Shiʿr al-Turkī al-Muʿāṣir Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Funūn Baghdad 1978 Play Başkut, Cevat Fehmi Buzlar Çözülmeden: Komedi 3 Perde Nāshif, Jūzīf Qabla an yadhūb al- Jalīd Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1979 Poetry Hikmet, Nazım Simavne Kadısı Oğlu Şeyh Bedrettin Destanı Jatkar, Fāḍil Malḥamat al-Shaykh Badr al-Dīn Ibn Qāḍī Sīmāwna Dār al-Fārābī Beirut 1979 Play Hikmet, Nazım Ocak Başında Jatkar, Fāḍil ʿInd al- Mawqid Dār al-Fārābī Beirut 1979 Play Hikmet, Nazım Kafatası Jatkar, Fāḍil Al-Jumjuma Manshūrāt Ṣalāh al-Dīn Al-Quds 1980 72 Sare Rabia Öztürk: Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 Cate- gory Author Original Title Translator Translation Title Translation Publisher Translation Publishing Place Translation Publishing Date Poetry Hikmet, Nazım al-Dāqūqī, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb Qaṣāʾid Malḥamiyya Al- Muʾassasa al-ʿArabiyya li al-Dirāsāt wa al-Nashr Beirut 1980 Poetry Çelebi, Süleyman Vesîletü’n-necât al-Miṣrī, Ḥusayn Mujīb Al-Mawlid al-Sharīf: Manẓūma li al-Shiʿr al-Turkī al-Qadīm Maktabat al-Injlū al-Miṣriyya Cairo 1981 Play Hikmet, Nazım İnek Nāshif, Jūzīf Al-Baqara Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1981 Poetry Hikmet, Nazım Memleketimden İnsan Manzaraları Jatkar, Fāḍil Mashāhid Insāniyya Dār al-Ḥiwār Latakia 1982-1987 Novel Hikmet, Nazım Yaşamak Güzel Şey be Kardeşim al-Shawfī, Nazīh Al-ʿAyshu Sheyʾun Rāiʿun yā ʿAzīzī Dār al-Majd Damascus 1983 Poetry al-Miṣrī, Ḥusayn Mujīb Solgun bir Gül/ Warda Dhābila: Shiʿr Turkī ʿArabī al-Miṣrī, Ḥusayn Mujīb Solgun bir Gül/Warda Dhābila: Shiʿr Turkī ʿArabī Maktabat al-Injlū al-Miṣriyya Cairo 1984 Play Başkut, Cevat Fehmi Göç Nāshif, Jūzīf Al-Raḥīl Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1984 Play Başkut, Cevat Fehmi Ölen Hangisi? Nāshif, Jūzīf Man Huwa al-Mayyit? Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1984 Play Çağan, Sermet Ayak Bacak Fabrikası Nāshif, Jūzīf Masnaʿ al-Aqdām wa al-Sīqān Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1984 Novel Öz, Erdal Yaralısın Jatkar, Fāḍil Anta Jarīḥ Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1984 Novel Hikmet, Nazım Yaşamak Güzel Şey be Kardeşim Al-Qarawī, Hishām/ Hichem Karoui Dār al-Fārābī Beirut 1985 Play Ağaoğlu, Adalet Kendini Yazan Şarkı Nāshif, Jūzīf Ughniya Taktub Nafsahā Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1986 73Stridon. Journal of Studies in Translation and Interpreting, Volume 2 Issue 1, pp. 49–78 Cate- gory Author Original Title Translator Translation Title Translation Publisher Translation Publishing Place Translation Publishing Date Play Ağaoğlu, Adalet Evcilik Oyunu Nāshif, Jūzīf Luʿbat al-Zawāj Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1986 Play Başkut, Cevat Fehmi Emekli Nāshif, Jūzīf Al-Mutaqāʿid Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1986 Play Dilmen, Güngör Canlı Maymun Lokantası Nāshif, Jūzīf Maṭʿam al- Qird al-Ḥayy Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1986 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Vatan Sağolsun Jatkar, Fāḍil ʿĀsh al-Waṭan Dār al-Jalīl Amman 1986 Play Nesin, Aziz Bir Şey Yap Met Nāshif, Jūzīf Ifʿal Shayʾan yā Mut Wizārat al-Iʿlām Kuwait 1986 Play Nesin, Aziz Toros Canavarı Nāshif, Jūzīf Waḥsh Turūs Wizārat al-Iʿlām Kuwait 1986 Poetry Hikmet, Nazım Jatkar, Fāḍil Nāzim Ḥikmat: al-A ʿmāl al-Shiʿriyya al-Kāmila Dār al-Fārābī Beirut 1987 Novel Güney, Yılmaz Boynu Bükük Öldüler Ḥaddād, Hishām Mātū wa Ruʾūsahum Maḥaniyya Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1988 Play Kısakürek, Necip Fazıl Bir Adam Yaratmak Ḥarb, Muḥammad Khalq Insān Dār al-Hilāl Cairo 1988 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Damda Deli Var Al-Ẓāhir, Muḥammad & Samāra, Munya Majnoon ʿala al-Ṣath Dār al-Karmal Amman 1988 Novel Nesin, Aziz Zübük ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Zūbuk: al-Kalb al-Multajiʾ fī Ẓill al-ʿAraba Dār al-Ahālī Damascus 1988 Novel Nesin, Aziz Memleketin Birinde ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Fī iḥdā al-Duwal Majallat Ittiḥād Kuttāb Āsyā wa Afrīqiyā Tunisia 1988 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Jatkar, Fāḍil Al-Wujūh al-Ḥazīna Dār Ibn Hāniʾ Damascus 1989 Novel Pamuk, Orhan Cevdet Bey ve Oğulları Jatkar, Fāḍil Jawdat Bīk wa Awlāduh Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1989 74 Sare Rabia Öztürk: Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 Cate- gory Author Original Title Translator Translation Title Translation Publisher Translation Publishing Place Translation Publishing Date Novel Tahsin Berkand, Muzazzez Çamlar Altında Dhū al-Fiqār/ Bahjat/ al-ʿAbādī, Nafīsa Sirr al-Miyāh al- Qurmuziyya Akhbār al-Yawm Cairo 1990 (reprint?) Short Stories Gürsel, Nedim Uzun Sürmüş bir Yaz Suwayd, Aḥmad Ṣayf Ṭawīl fī Isṭambūl Dār al-Fārābī Beirut 1990 Short Stories Taner, Haldun On İkiye Bir Var ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Al-Thāniya ʿAshr illā Daqīqa Dār Yaʿrib Damascus 1990 Poetry Emre, Yunus Katāna, Jinkīz Yūnus Amra: Mukhtārāt min Ashʿārih al-Dār al-ʿArabiyya Cairo 1991 Novel Kemal, Yaşar Yer Demir, Gök Bakır Rifʿat, Jalāl Fattāḥ Al-Arḍu Ḥadīd, al-Samāʾu Nuḥās Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Iʿlām Baghdad 1991 Novel Kaleli, Selçuk Şeyh Şamil: Kartal Yuvası Ḥarb, Muḥammad Ṣuqūr al-Qūqāz Dār al-Manāra Jeddah 1992 Poetry Karakoç, Sezai Hızırla Kırk Saat Barakāt, ʿAbd al-Rāziq Arbaʿūn Sāʿa maʿa al-Khiḍr Dār al-Zahrāʾ Cairo 1992 Novel Kemal, Yaşar İnce Memed Sarkīs, Iḥsān Muḥammad al-Saqr Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1992 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Ḥamādi, Hāshim Lā Tansa Takkat al-Sirwāl Dār al-Ḥaṣād Damascus 1992 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Bir Koltuk Nasıl Devrilir Muṣṭafa, Farūq Kayfa Yanqalibu Kursiyyun Dār al-Yanābīʿ Damascus 1992 Short Stories Various ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Mukhtārāt min al-Qiṣṣa al-Turkiyya al-Sākhira Dār al-Yanābīʿ Damascus 1992 Short Stories Gürsel, Nedim Son Tramvay Ṣāliḥ, Shafīq al-Sayyid Al-Trām al- Akhīr Maktabat Madbūlī Cairo 1993 Play Hikmet, Nazım Unutulan Adam al-Yahrazī, ʿAmmār Al-Rajul al-Mansiyy Wizārat al-Iʿlām Kuwait 1993 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd, ʿAbd al-Latīf Asfal al- Sāfilīn Dār al-Ḥaṣād Damascus 1993 Poetry Kısakürek, Necip Fazıl Esselâm Barakāt, ʿAbd al-Rāziq Dīwān al-Salām: Lawḥāt min al-Sīra al- muqaddasa Dār al-Zahrāʾ Cairo 1994 75Stridon. Journal of Studies in Translation and Interpreting, Volume 2 Issue 1, pp. 49–78 Cate- gory Author Original Title Translator Translation Title Translation Publisher Translation Publishing Place Translation Publishing Date Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Ah Biz Eşekler Dūrmūsh, Jamāl Āh Minnā Naḥnu Maʿshar al-Ḥamīr Dār al-Ṭalīʿa al-Jadīda Damascus 1994 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Ḥamādī, Hāshim Innahū Bāqin 1995 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Vatan Sağolsun (?) Dūrmūsh, Jamāl Yaslam al- Waṭan Al-Nawwār Damascus 1996 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Dūrmūsh, Jamāl Al-ʿArḍ al- Akhīr Dār al-Yanābīʿ Damascus 1996 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Tek Yol ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Al-Ṭarīq al- Waḥīd Dār al-Madā Damascus 1997 Nesin, Aziz Hangi Parti Kazanacak? Muṣṭafa, Farūq Ayyu Ḥizbin Sayafūz? Dār Naynawā Damascus 1997 Novel Nesin, Aziz Ölmüş Eşek ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Al-Ḥimār al-Mayyit Dār al-Manāra Latakia 1997 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Sosyalizm Geliyor Savulun Fāqi, Muḥammad Mawlūd Khudhū Ḥadharakum Dār al-Manāra Latakia 1997 Play Taner, Haldun Gözlerimi Kaparım Vazifemi Yaparım ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Aʿmalu ʿAmalī Mughmaḍ al-ʿAynayn Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1997 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz İhtilali Nasıl Yaptık al-Ibrahīm, Aḥmad Kayfa Qumnā bi al-Thawra Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1998 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Hoptirinam ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al- Qādir Tirī Lī Lam Dār al-Madā Damascus/ Baghdad 1998 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Salkım Salkım Asılacak Adamlar Fāqi, Muḥammad Mawlūd Al-Rijāl wa al-Mashāniq Dār al-Manāra Latakia 1998 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz İt Kuyruğu Zhanab al- Kalb Dār al-Manāra Latakia 1998 Poetry Veli, Orhan Deli Eder İnsanı Bu Dünya (?) Jumʿa, Jamāl Hādhihī al-Arḍ, Tilka al-Nujūm, Hādhi al-Ashjār al-Mujammaʿ al-Thaqāfī Abu Dhabi 1998 Novel Nesin, Aziz Surnâme ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Sirnāma: Waqāiʿ Iḥtifāl Rasmī Dār Ward Damascus 1999 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Namus Gazı al-Ibrahīm, Aḥmad Ghāz al-Sharaf Wizārat al-Thaqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī Damascus 1999 76 Sare Rabia Öztürk: Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005 Cate- gory Author Original Title Translator Translation Title Translation Publisher Translation Publishing Place Translation Publishing Date Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Dūrmūsh, Jamāl Ḥikāyat al-Baghal al-ʿĀshiq Dār ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Damascus 1999 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Kazan Töreni Fāqi, Muḥammad Mawlūd Al-Iḥtifāl bi al-Qāzān Al- Waṭaniyya al-Jadīda Damascus 1999 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Nah Kalkınırız Fāqi, Muḥammad Mawlūd Lan Nataṭawwar Abadan Al- Waṭaniyya al-Jadīda Damascus 1999 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Gıdıgıdı Fāqi, Muḥammad Mawlūd Al- Daghdagha Al- Waṭaniyya al-Jadīda Damascus 1999 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Kördöğüşü Muṣṭafa, Farūq Ṣirāʿ al-ʿUmyān Dār ʿAbd al-Munʿim Damascus 1999 Play Taner, Haldun Keşanlı Ali Destanı ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Malḥamat ʿAlī al-Kāshānī Al-Majlis al-Waṭanī li al-Thaqāfa wa al-Iʿlām Kuwait 1999 Short Stories İzgü, Muzaffer Bando Takımı Fāqi, Muḥammad Mawlūd Ṭāqim al- Bāndū Al- Waṭaniyya al-Jadīda Damascus 2000 Novel İzgü, Muzaffer Sıpa ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Jaḥsh Maktabat al-Sāʾḥ Tripoli 2000 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Dūrmūsh, Jamāl Khiṣṣīṣan li al-Ḥamīr Dār ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Damascus 2000 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz İnsanlar Uyanıyor Fāqi, Muḥammad Mawlūd Ṣaḥwat al-Nās Al- Waṭaniyya al-Jadīda Damascus 2000 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Biz Adam Olmayız Fāqi, Muḥammad Mawlūd Lan Nuṣbiḥa Basharan Al- Waṭaniyya al-Jadīda Damascus 2000 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Hayvan Deyip de Geçme Fāqi, Muḥammad Mawlūd Lā Taqul Hayawān wa Tamḍī Dār Dimashq Damascus 2000 Novel Pamuk, Orhan Beyaz Kale ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Al-Qalʿa al- Bayḍāʾ Dār Ward Damascus 2000 Novel Pamuk, Orhan Benim Adım Kırmızı ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Ismī Aḥmar Dār al-Madā Damascus/ Baghdad 2000 Novel Gürsel, Nedim Boğazkesen: Fatih’in Romanı Mardān, Nuṣrat Muḥammad al-Fātiḥ al-Kamel Verlag Cologne 2001 Short Stories İzgü, Muzaffer ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Nafaq al-Mushāt Dār Ward Damascus 2001 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Fāqi, Muḥammad Mawlūd Al-Majānīn al-Hāribūn Al- Waṭaniyya al-Jadīda Damascus 2001 77Stridon. Journal of Studies in Translation and Interpreting, Volume 2 Issue 1, pp. 49–78 Cate- gory Author Original Title Translator Translation Title Translation Publisher Translation Publishing Place Translation Publishing Date Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Sizin Memlekette Eşek Yok mu? Fāqi, Muḥammad Mawlūd Alā Yūjadu Ḥamīrun fī Bilādikum Al- Waṭaniyya al-Jadīda Damascus 2001 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Tatlı Betüş Ṣidqi, Bakr Batūsh al- Ḥulwa Dār Naynawā Damascus 2001 Novel Pamuk, Orhan Yeni Hayat ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Al-Ḥayā al- Jadīda Dār Ward Damascus 2001 Short Stories Various ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Mukhtārāt min al-Qiṣṣa al-Turkiyya al-Majlis al-Waṭanī li al-Thaqāfa wa al-Funūn wa al-Ādāb Kuwait 2001 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Dūrmūsh, Jamāl Yasāriyyun Anta am Yamīniyy Dār ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Damascus 2002 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Mahmut ile Nigar Fāqi, Muḥammad Mawlūd Maḥmūd wa Nīkār (Ṭāhir wa Zahra) Al- Waṭaniyya al-Jadīda Damascus 2002 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Nazik Alet Madanī, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb Ālatun Sarīʿatu al-ʿAṭab Al- Waṭaniyya al-Jadīda Damascus 2002 Novel Nesin, Aziz Yaşar Ne Yaşar Ne Yaşamaz Ṣidqi, Bakr Yaḥyā Yaʿish wa lā Yaḥyā Dār Naynawā Damascus 2002 Short Stories Nesin, Aziz Medeniyet’in Yedek Parçası Madanī, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb Qiṭaʿ Tabdīl al-Ḥaḍāra Al- Waṭaniyya al-Jadīda Damascus 2003 Novel Pamuk, Orhan Kara Kitap ʿAbdallī, ʿAbd al-Qādir Al-Kitāb al-Aswad Dār al-Madā Damascus/ Baghdad 2003 Novel Öz, Erdal Gülün Solduğu Akşam al-Ibrahīm, Aḥmad Masāʾ Dhubūl al- Warda Dār ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Damascus 2004 About the author Sare Rabia Öztürk is a PhD candidate at Boğaziçi University, Translation and Inter- preting Studies. She is engaged in cultural research in the framework of translation, studying instances of inter-cultural transfer in relation to historical context, popular culture and power relations. She also has professional experience in the field of gender studies, working as senior research and development specialist. She carries out her professional and academic studies in Turkish, English and Arabic. 78 Sare Rabia Öztürk: Mapping what we know: Literary translation from Turkish to Arabic between 1923 and 2005