195
Skilful Practice in the Zhuangzi: Putting the 
Narratives in Context
*
Dušan V ÁVRA**
Abstract
The Zhuangzi, like many other early Chinese texts, is a composite work consisting of rel-
atively short textual units. Despite its composite nature, the Zhuangzi is often approached 
as a philosophical work, which (at least in part or parts) can be viewed as philosophically 
coherent. As a result, the Zhuangzi as a whole (or several wholes) is usually taken (at least 
implicitly) as the context in which all the textual units are read and understood.
In contrast, this paper explores alternative ways to establish context for individual textual 
units in the Zhuangzi. The famous short narratives about skilful practice (often introduc-
ing the idea of perfect craftsmanship) are taken as an example, and the possible contexts 
are examined along two lines of inquiry: 1) the narratives are read within their immediate 
context of the textual unit; 2) the vocabulary used in the narratives is checked against 
other textual units in the Zhuangzi where the vocabulary appears. The paper argues that 
diverse contexts can be established for seemingly similar narratives. The narratives about 
skilful practice are viewed as a literary device that can be used in various contexts for 
various purposes. The paper thus demonstrates that the received Zhuangzi can be read as 
a process of putting shared narratives and terms in contexts and using them for different 
ends. The paper concludes by suggesting that the proposed reading highlights and retains 
meanings that are necessarily obscured by any reading that establishes the whole Zhuang-
zi as the primary context. 
Keywords: Zhuangzi, Daoism, philosophy, textuality, reading strategy
Veščinske prakse pri Zhuangziju: postavljanje zgodb v kontekst
Izvleček
Zhuangzi je, kot mnogo drugih kitajskih besedil, sestavljeno delo, ki je sestavljeno iz raz-
meroma kratkih besedilnih enot. Kljub sestavljenosti se Zhuangzi pogosto obravnava 
kot filozofsko delo, ki se ga, vsaj delno ali znotraj posameznih delov, lahko dojema kot 
* This text was completed with the generous support of the Czech Science Foundation (GAČR), 
project no. GP14-24730P , “Cosmology and Self-cultivation in the Zhuangzi: Meaning Construc-
tion in Early Chinese Texts“.
** Dušan VÁVRA, Head of the Center, Center for Chinese Studies, 
 Masaryk University, Czech Republic. 
 dvavra[at]mail.muni.cz
DOI: 10.4312/as.2017.5.1.195-219
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   195 30.1.2017   14:01:12

196 Dušan Vávra: Skilful Practice in the Zhuang Zi ...
filozofsko koherentno. Tako se Zhuangzi kot celota (ali več celot), (vsaj implicitno) razu-
me kot kontekst, v katerem se berejo in razumejo vse enote besedila.  
V nasprotju s tem pa članek raziskuje alternativne načine določanja konteksta za posa-
mezne enote besedila znotraj Zhuangzija. Kot primeri služijo slovite kratke zgodbice o 
veščinskih praksah (ki pogosto vpeljujejo idejo popolne obrti), kontekste pa se proučuje v 
dveh smereh: 1) zgodbe se berejo znotraj neposrednega konteksta posamezne enote be-
sedila; 2) besedišče, ki se ga uporablja v posameznih enotah, se preverja tudi v primerjavi 
z drugimi enotami besedila v Zhuangziju, kjer se pojavlja. Članek trdi, da se za navidezno 
podobne zgodbe lahko določijo različni konteksti. Zgodbe o veščinskih praksah so ra-
zumljene kot literarni pripomočki, ki se jih lahko uporablja znotraj različnih kontekstov 
in z različnimi nameni. Tako se pokaže, da splošno sprejet Zhuangzi lahko razumemo kot 
proces postavljanja skupnih zgodb in pojmov v kontekste in uporabe za različne namene. 
Članek se sklene z mislijo, da predlagani način branja poudarja in ohranja pomene, med-
tem ko jih vsako drugačno branje, ki vzpostavlja celoto Zhuangzija kot primarni kontekst, 
nujno zastira. 
Ključne besede: Zhuangzi, daoizem, filozofija, tekstualnost, načini branja
Introduction
The narratives on skilful action represent one of the most well-known and often 
discussed topics of the Zhuangzi 莊子.
1
 Although interpretations of these nar-
ratives vary widely, most of the scholarship seems to share two basic (and in my 
view, problematic) assumptions concerning the reading of these passages. Firstly, 
the narratives are usually read simply as vehicles carrying meaning(s) emblematic 
of the Zhuangzi as a whole, and thus conveying important features of its philoso-
phy. More specifically, they are typically read in the light of the whole work, which 
is constructed by other means, and not (or at least not primarily) by the narratives 
in question. Secondly, all the skilful action narratives are generally supposed to 
convey a similar meaning. This paper explores the limits of these two assumptions 
and problematizes them. By doing so, it suggests an alternative strategy for read-
ing these narratives, one that does not read them primarily as instantiations of 
the Zhuangzi’s philosophy but, instead, focuses on the meaning constructed from 
the narratives themselves, read against the Zhuangzi, and not in the light of it. It is 
argued that this kind of analysis may suggest a context which does not necessarily 
include the other narratives on the same topic, and not even the Zhuangzi as a 
whole, but rather some parts of the work (against other parts) and even other texts.
1 Livia Kohn lists twenty-eight scholarly works discussing Cook Ding’s story, the most famous of 
these narratives (Kohn 2014, 211). 
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   196 30.1.2017   14:01:12

197 Asian Studies V (XXI), 1 (2017), pp. 195–219
Both the abovementioned assumptions are based on another, broader assumption, 
concerning the coherence of the text and its supposed authorship. This assump-
tion is applied not only to the Zhuangzi, but also to many other early Chinese 
texts, especially those designated as “Masters” or “Master texts” (zi 子)––a cate-
gory where the Zhuangzi is traditionally placed. These texts have been identified 
with their supposed authors,
2
 which in turn creates the image of coherence across 
the works. This practice is, however, in contrast with the content of these texts. The 
texts themselves usually do not create the image of coherence or homogeneity. In-
stead, they very often appear more like collections of texts of variable length, rang-
ing from short paragraphs to full chapters. Moreover the sequence of paragraphs 
within chapters and chapters within books typically does not reveal any apparent 
pattern. The Master texts as wholes, as well as their individual chapters, often look 
like a random collection of sayings, short narratives, dialogues, or expositions, 
only loosely tied thematically.
3
 This combination––seemingly unstructured texts, 
which are read as authorial texts––often results in a selective reading that picks 
out isolated sections of the text and puts them together (sometimes quite wilfully) 
as “building blocks” of a philosophy that is then presented as the essence of text 
by the related scholar.
4
 Since the Zhuangzi is very often subject to this kind of 
approach, it is the aim of this paper to problematize it and offer an alternative 
reading strategy for selected parts of the text.
5
 
2 This practice is first attested in the History of Former Han Dynasty (Hanshu 漢書), chapter Yiwen-
zhi 藝文志 (Hanshu 30).
3 This is definitely valid for the books (Master texts as wholes). As for the coherence of individual 
chapters, there are, of course, differences among the texts. A typical chapter from the Hanfeizi 韩非
子 is more coherent than a typical chapter from the Analects (Lunyu 論語). Moreover, as two recent 
publications have shown (Meyer 2015; De Reu 2015), a careful analysis can construct a meaning-
ful structure even for a text (a chapter, pian 篇, not the whole book) that looks, in an uninformed 
reading, like a random collection.
4 Matthias Richter (2014, 1026) points out this problem in a recent article: “Systematizing accounts 
of ancient Chinese philosophers tend to be constructed by relating representative extracts from the 
texts attributed to these philosophers to each other as building blocks of a consistent philosophy.” 
5 There is already a number of (mostly recent) works questioning the author-oriented approach to 
the Masters. Richter (2014) criticizes the “building block” approach to reading the Masters. De-
foort (2012, 459–62) stresses the link between writing and practice in early China: “Writings were 
usually not self-contained, consistent, theoretical constructions, but rather footnotes to living prac-
tices” (ibid., 460). Klein (2011) questions the validity of the “core text” approach to the Zhuangzi 
in principle, and proposes “that the most appropriate textual unit to use in analysing the Zhuangzi 
is not “inner/outer” or even whole chapters, but rather some subset of a chapter” (ibid., 317). The 
“building block” approach to the Zhuangzi is the target of two recent articles by Dirk Meyer (2015) 
and Wim De Reu (2015). These authors analyse individual chapters of the Zhuangzi, which they 
construe as structured wholes, and thus read the individual sections of each chapter in the context 
of its whole structure. This re-contextualisation has a profound impact on the meaning of many of 
the sections.
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   197 30.1.2017   14:01:12

198 Dušan Vávra: Skilful Practice in the Zhuang Zi ...
There are many textual features shared across the text of the Zhuangzi––shared 
vocabulary and terminology, literary topoi, narrative structures and topics, ide-
as. Naturally, these shared features form the basis of most attempts to read the 
Zhuangzi as a whole or wholes (as a philosophical work or works).
6
 In this pa-
per, however, I would like to argue that these shared features do not construct the 
meaning of the text directly. Instead, I take them as a repertoire of literary devices 
available to the text’s authors, who used them to make a point that does not neces-
sarily amount to one coherent philosophy that underlies the text and is advocated 
by it. This means, above all, that any term, metaphor, narrative, dialogue, or other 
type of expression formulated by the text must be adequately understood within 
its textual context (primarily, textual units
7
 within the chapters). Only when this 
is done are attempts at linking passages across the text possible.
The narratives on skilful action, which are the topic of this paper, are taken as 
literary topoi that can be used to convey diverse meanings. It is argued that de-
spite similarities in content, narrative structures, and terminology, these narratives 
should be read (at least primarily) not as vehicles conveying an abstract philoso-
phy, but rather as texts making a point, communicating a specific instruction, that 
vary in different instances of this type of narrative. This view is further under-
pinned by the fact that most of the skilful practice narratives are simultaneously 
“instruction scenes”.
8
 Typically they depict dialogues between the skilful person 
and an observer marvelling at the skill performed, with the latter usually a person 
of high social or intellectual status (a ruler or Confucius in most cases). Most im-
portantly, the instruction is clearly implied (if not directly stated, in some cases) 
within the scene, aimed at both the fictional observer and the reader of the text. In 
6 The prevalent assumption is that the Zhuangzi as a whole is not an authorial work, and not one 
which is entirely coherent––it contains parts of diverse origin and intention. Those scholars who 
address the question of the origin and authenticity of the Zhuangzi divided the work into several 
parts according to the text’s supposed authorship (see Graham 1990; Liu 1994; Liu 2014, 129–58; 
Roth 1991a, 122–3). This approach thus tries to overcome the incongruity of the Zhuangzi as a 
whole by identifying partial wholes that themselves are supposedly coherent. In addition, this ap-
proach to the text typically tries to elevate one of these partial wholes to the position of the core 
text––the “true” Zhuangzi, the textual layer identified with Zhuangzi (Zhuang Zhou) as the author, 
or at least considered the most “authentic” layer identifiable with his intellectual heritage. There is a 
general consensus that the “Inner Chapters” (nei pian 内篇) as well as some of the “Outer Chapters” 
(wai pian 外篇) are the “core text”.
7 By “textual unit” I refer to parts of the Zhuangzi that can be identified as textual wholes by internal 
criteria (continuous narrative or dialogue, continuous exposition on a given topic, short sections 
linked together by formal means, like the simple “therefore” gu 故, etc.) Of course, in some cases 
setting the boundary between units can be controversial. The narratives about skilful action ana-
lysed in this paper usually form a clear whole identifiable as a “textual units”. 
8 See Defoort 2012 for the term “instruction scene” or “instruction dialogue” and an analysis of the 
genre of “instruction dialogue” in the Zhuangzi.
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   198 30.1.2017   14:01:12

199 Asian Studies V (XXI), 1 (2017), pp. 195–219
this paper, the instruction (or the point made by the narrative) is regarded as the 
primary import of the text. Textual analysis is thus undertaken in order to better 
understand the instruction.
Wheelwright Bian
The passages that I have been referring to as showing “skilful action” in the Zhuang-
zi have in previous scholarship been discussed using terms such as “knack-pas-
sages” (Needham 1956, 121), “effortless action” (Slingerland 2003), “skill stories” 
(Yearley 1996, 163), or “skilful spontaneity” (Kohn 2014, 209). All these labels 
point to the most obvious characteristics all these narratives share. They always 
depict a skilful person engaged in an activity performed with enigmatic mastery 
and ease. This mastery usually involves no effort, it is completely integrated in the 
person of the perfect craftsman, boatman, swimmer, or even a cicada catcher. 
Lee Yearley, in his article on this issue, distinguishes three fundamental elements 
of the skilful action in these narratives: adaptive responsiveness to change, unifica-
tion of the physical and mental, and resistance to being communicated by normal 
means (Y earley 1996, 165). All these characteristics can be found in the following 
section: 
桓公讀書於堂上，輪扁斲輪於堂下，釋椎鑿而上，問桓公曰：敢
問公之所讀者何言邪？公曰：聖人之言也。曰：聖人在乎？公
曰：已死矣。曰：然則君之所讀者，古人之糟魄已夫！桓公曰：
寡人讀書，輪人安得議乎！有說則可，无說則死。
輪扁曰：臣也，以臣之事觀之。斲輪，徐則甘而不固，疾則苦而
不入。不徐不疾，得之於手而應於心，口不能言，有數存焉於其
間。臣不能以喻臣之子，臣之子亦不能受之於臣，是以行年七十
而老斲輪。古之人與其不可傳也死矣，然則君之所讀者，古人之
糟魄已夫。
Duke Huan was in his hall reading a book. The wheelwright Bian, who 
was in the yard below chiselling a wheel, laid down his mallet and chisel, 
stepped up into the hall, and said to Duke Huan: “This book Your Grace 
is reading––may I venture to ask whose words are in it?”
“The words of the sages”, said the duke.
“Are the sages with us?”
“Dead long ago”, said the duke.
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   199 30.1.2017   14:01:12

200 Dušan Vávra: Skilful Practice in the Zhuang Zi ...
“In that case, what you are reading there is nothing but the chaff and 
dregs of the men of old!”
Duke Huan said: “Since when does a wheelwright have permission to 
comment on the books I read? If you have some explanation, well and 
good. If not, you die!”
Wheelwright Bian said: “Let me look at it from the point of view of my 
work. When I chisel a wheel, if the blows of the mallet are too gentle, the 
chisel slides and will not take hold. But if they are too hard, it bites in and 
will not budge. Not too gentle, not too hard––you can get it in your hand 
and feel it in your mind. You cannot put it into words, and yet there is a 
knack to it somehow. I cannot teach it to my son, and he cannot learn it 
from me. So I have gone along for seventy years and at my age I am still 
chiselling wheels.” 
When the men of old died, they took with them the things that could 
not be handed down. So what you are reading there must be nothing but 
the chaff and dregs of the men of old.”
9
 (Zhuangzi 13; Guo 1985, 119)
All three basic characteristics of skilful action narratives mentioned above are 
clearly present in this section. Chiselling a wheel is an activity that requires adap-
tive responsiveness to change, a “knack” that can be described only in negative 
terms––“not too gentle, not too hard”. It requires unification of the physical and 
the mental––“you can get it in your hand and feel it in your mind” and it cannot be 
expressed in words. The narrative structure, however, makes it clear that the skilful 
action (the mastery of chiselling the wheel)
10
 is not the focus of the narrative. 
The description of the craft and inherent problems it entails form a major part of 
the section but its point (the instruction) is something else––it is the resistance 
of a certain kind of human experience to being communicated. In this case we 
can safely say that the instruction the Duke Huan is given is communicated to 
the reader as well. The whole section uses the literary device of the skilful action 
narrative in order to promote the main idea of the section––human experience 
cannot be passed on in its fullness. Above all, it is inexpressible in words. 
As we shall see below, this narrative structure and the point the section makes are 
not typical of the skilful action passages in the Zhuangzi. Another dissimilar point 
9 Translation by B. Watson (970, 152–3), adapted. 
10 It should be noted that Wheelwright Bian’s skill is not in fact described as “enigmatic mastery” 
(comparable, for example, to that of Cook Ding). It is simply a skilful craft, nothing extraordinary. 
The point of this story is also different––that such skills cannot be expressed and passed on in 
words.
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   200 30.1.2017   14:01:12

201 Asian Studies V (XXI), 1 (2017), pp. 195–219
is the section’s lack of any terminology concerning perfect skill. We do not know 
how wheelwright Bian attained his skill or what kind of psychological features 
it consists of. All we have is a vague description of the “knack”––“not too hard, 
not too gentle”, which can be “got in your hand and felt in your mind”––and the 
rest of the section is focused on the main point––the inexpressibility of human 
experience. 
Cook Ding
The next section is by far the most well-known of all the skilful action narratives, 
indeed, it is one of the most famous passages of the whole Zhuangzi:
庖丁為文惠君解牛。手之所觸，肩之所倚，足之所履，膝之所
踦，砉然嚮然，奏刀騞然，莫不中音。合於桑林之舞，乃中經首
之會。文惠君曰：譆！善哉！技蓋至此乎？
庖丁釋刀對曰：臣之所好者道也，進乎技矣。始臣之解牛之時，
所見无非牛者。三年之後，未嘗見全牛也。方今之時，臣以神
遇，而不以目視，官知止而神欲行。依乎天理，批大郤，導大
窾，因其固然。技經肯綮之未嘗，而況大軱乎！[…] 雖然，每至
於族，吾見其難為，怵然為戒，視為止，行為遲。動刀甚微，謋
然已解，如土委地。提刀而立，為之四顧，為之躊躇滿志，善刀
而藏之。文惠君曰：善哉！吾聞庖丁之言，得養生焉。
Cook Ding was cutting up an ox for Lord Wenhui. At every touch of 
his hand, every heave of his shoulder, every move of his feet, every thrust 
of his knee––zip! zoop! He slithered the knife along with a zing, and all 
was in perfect rhythm, as though he were performing the dance of the 
Mulberry Grove or keeping time to the Jingshou music.
Lord Wenhui said: “Ah, this is marvellous! The skill must have reached 
perfection at this point?” 
Cook Ding laid down his knife and replied: “What I care about is the 
way (dao), which is more advanced than a mere skill. When I first began 
cutting up oxen, all I could see was the ox itself. After three years I no 
longer saw the whole ox. And now––now I approach it with spirit and 
do not look with my eyes. Perception and understanding have come to a 
stop and spirit (shen) moves where it wants. I go along with its “heavenly 
structure” (tianli), strike in the big hollows, guide the knife through the 
big openings, and follow things as they are. So I never touch the smallest 
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   201 30.1.2017   14:01:12

202 Dušan Vávra: Skilful Practice in the Zhuang Zi ...
ligament or tendon, much less a main joint. (…) However, whenever I 
come to a complicated place, I size up the difficulties, tell myself to watch 
out and be careful, keep my eyes on what I am doing, work very slowly, 
and move the knife with the greatest subtlety,––flop! the whole thing 
comes apart like a clod of earth crumbling to the ground. I stand there 
holding the knife and look all around me, completely satisfied and reluc-
tant to move on, and then I wipe off the knife and put it away.”
Lord Wenhui said: “Excellent! I have heard the words of Cook Ding and 
learned how to care for life!”
11
 (Zhuangzi 3; Guo 1985, 119)
The structure of this section is typical of skilful action narratives. The craftsman 
performs his skill and is marvelled at by an observer (a prince, in this case). The 
skilful person then talks about his skills and reveals its underlying principles. The 
explanatory part forms the core of the narrative and the focus of its instruction. In 
this section, the instruction is made explicit in the last sentence––the prince has 
learned from Cook Ding not how to cut oxen, but how to care for life. The prin-
ciples underlying the perfect skill obviously have a general significance and could 
be applied to other activities, not just cutting oxen. The instruction is clearly aimed 
at the prince in the narrative, although the reader also receives the same advice.
The explanatory part of the narrative employs a specific terminology, which we find 
not only in other skilful action narratives, but in many other passages in the Zhuang-
zi. It is the self-cultivation terminology that is used often in early Chinese texts, 
especially those labelled as “Daoist”––“spirit”, shen 神, as a source of superhuman 
perception (See Roth 1991b and Roth 1994).
12
 Besides this terminology another 
common discursive strategy is used, which we will also encounter in other skilful 
action narratives––the description of the gradual closing of the conventional ways of 
perceiving the world that leads to a more effective way of perceiving things.
13
 
This famous story of Cook Ding is in my view exceptional, in a way that may seem 
trivial but in fact is crucial to the narrative’s reception by the reader. Compared to 
the other skilful action narratives and many other textual units in the Zhuangzi, it 
is remarkably clear and easy to understand. Cook Ding’s mastery is based on two 
11 Translation by B. Watson (1970, 50–51), adapted. 
12 Roth argues that the Guanzi 管子 chapter Inner Training (Neiye 內業) and the self-cultivation 
process described there is the core of all Daoism. This self-cultivation is based on cultivation of 
one’s “vital energy” (qi 氣), accumulation of “vital essence” (jing 精) and reaching the state of “spirit” 
(shen 神), in which the adept acquires certain superhuman cognitive abilities. See also Puett 2003 
for the term “spirit” in the Zhuangzi.
13 At first, he saw the whole ox (with his “senses”, guan 官), then “not the whole ox”––only the parts 
(“rational analysis”, zhi 知), at the end he approached the ox with his “spirit” only.
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   202 30.1.2017   14:01:12

203 Asian Studies V (XXI), 1 (2017), pp. 195–219
interconnected factors: on one hand, the subject––Cook Ding––has exceptional 
skill (conceptualized as “approaching the ox with spirit”), and on the other hand, 
the object––the ox––is not just a mass of flesh and bones but is structured (it is 
endowed with “heavenly structure”, tian li 天理).
14
 The text makes clear that by 
using the “spirit” a man can discern the “heavenly/natural structure” and thus be 
capable of highly refined and miraculously effective action. Reality is thus struc-
tured (intelligible), but only a uniquely trained individual can see and make use 
of it. This is, I believe, the point of the instruction and the main significance of 
the narrative.
15
 It presents a universally comprehensible image of a “master”,
16
 and 
thus it is perhaps no wonder that it is exactly this version of skilful action narra-
tives that is the most well-known. As we shall see, most of the others present more 
obscure and less easily digestible examples of this literary topos.
The terminology used in this section can be put into the context of other Zhuang-
zi passages as well as other texts. It has been suggested by other scholars
17
 that 
the three-step sequence leading to “approaching the ox with spirit” can be read 
as parallel to another famous passage from the Zhuangzi, a conversation between 
Confucius and Yan Hui in Chapter 4. (Zhuangzi 4; Guo 1985, 147; Watson 1970, 
57–58)
 
In this dialogue the process of attaining true understanding is called “fast-
ing of the mind” (xinzhai 心齋), a three-fold sequence of “listening” with one’s ears 
(sensory perception), then with the mind (discursive understanding)––and finally 
with the vital energy (qi 氣) (instead of shen), which is the final state representing 
a superhuman understanding of the world. Putting shen and qi together in this way 
further puts into play the widely shared (in traditional Chinese culture in general, 
14 Or simply “natural structure”. The meaning of the word tian 天 ranges between “heaven” as the dei-
ty or cosmic power, and “nature” as the sum of natural cycles and processes. In the Zhuangzi it very 
often means the latter. However, I still often translate tian as “heaven” (heavenly, heaven-like, etc.) 
because I find the translation “nature” strangely ambiguous, among other reasons because “nature” 
is the standard translation for xing 性––which also appears frequently in the Zhuangzi.
15 There are, however, many authors who include the Cook Ding story into a broader concept of “im-
mersion” in reality, which in their view informs all the skilful action stories: Kohn 2014, 209–19; 
Yearley 1996; Slingerland 2003, 197–203 (although Slingerland’s position is more complicated, 
and we get back to it below); Graham 1981, 135–42. As I argue below, I take “immersion” as an 
important metaphor informing many of the skilful action narratives, but not all of them, and not 
Cook Ding’s story.
16 In this general evaluation of Cook Ding’s story, I basically follow Robert Eno’s analysis in his 
article “Cook Ding’s Dao and the Limits of Philosophy” (Eno 1996, 135–6). Eno notices that 
Cook Ding’s skill is actually a mix of enigmatic, effortless action and a more conventional way of 
action, a conscious concentration, which is based on senses and cognition. According to Eno, “in 
its imperfection, Cook Ding’s level of mastery bears a recognizable relationship to levels of human 
skill performance that we encounter in actual life, the skills of great athletes or performing artists” 
(ibid., 136).
17 Slingerland (2003, 201), who refers to Pang Pu (1994) as to the origin of this idea.
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   203 30.1.2017   14:01:13

204 Dušan Vávra: Skilful Practice in the Zhuang Zi ...
beginning with several early Daoist texts) self-cultivation sequence of “vital ener-
gy” (qi)––“vital essence” (jing 精)––“spirit” (shen).
18
 In these texts, shen represents 
a state of mind with superior cognitive abilities transcending the ordinary human 
sensory and cognitive processes. It attunes the sage’s mind to cosmic processes due 
to energetic and material continuity––everything is made of “vital energy” (qi) and 
“vital essence” (jing), which gives rise to the subtlest reality called “spirit”: “Gener-
ally speaking, the vital essence (jing) of things is what gives them life. Below it gives 
life to five grains, above it creates stars and constellations. When it flows between 
Heaven and Earth, it is called “ghosts and spirits” (guishen). When it is hidden in 
the breast, it is called the Sage (shengren 聖人).”
19
 The human mind, endowed with 
the quality of “spirit”, is then capable of superhuman understanding of the world. 
For example, according to the famous chapter of the Guanzi known as “Inner 
Training”, a person with such abilities will be able to foretell good and bad fortune 
without resorting to divination.
20
Finally, it should be noted that part of the specifically Daoist concept and ter-
minology of self-cultivation, the general meaning of shen as “superior cognitive 
abilities” (distinct from “mind”, xin 心), appears often in early Chinese texts. In 
these, “spirit” or “spiritual insight” (shenming 神明) often refers to a highly refined 
perception, characteristic of the sage (shengren), and this is conceived in various 
ways, not only in the context of Daoist self-cultivation set out above. For exam-
ple, in the Xunzi 荀子, the superior perception and understanding of the sage is 
described as follows: 
If you accumulate earth and make a hill, wind and rain will arise there. 
If you accumulate water and make a pool, dragons will be born there. If 
you accumulate goodness and make moral charisma, the spiritual insight 
(shenming) will be naturally attained and the sagely mind (shengxin 聖心) 
will be complete.
21
 
Or Guanzi 管子, Chapter 41: “It was due to the utmost spiritual insight (shen-
ming) of the Yellow Emperor that he obtained these six ministers and established 
order in the whole world.”
22
18 See note 12 above.
19 Guanzi 49, Chapter “Inner Training” (Neiye): 凡物之精, 此則為生。下生五穀，上為列星。流
於天地之間，謂之鬼神，藏於胸中，謂之聖人。(Li 2009, 931; Cf. Rickett 1998, 39)
20 Guanzi 49, Chapter “Inner Training” (Neiye). (Rickett 1998, 51)
21 Xunzi 1.6: 積土成山，風雨興焉；積水成淵，蛟龍生焉；積善成德，而神明自得，聖心備
焉 (Wang 2010, 7; Cf. Knoblock 1988, 138)
22 Guanzi 41: 黃帝得六相而天地治, 神明至。(Li 2009, 943; Cf. Rickett 1998, 123)
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   204 30.1.2017   14:01:13

205 Asian Studies V (XXI), 1 (2017), pp. 195–219
In sum, Cook Ding’s story conveys the idea of superior cognitive abilities, termed 
“spirit”, by which one can recognize the true structure of things, and thus act with 
miraculous efficiency, transcending the abilities of ordinary men. The process of 
reaching the state of mind called “spirit” is described only very vaguely as a grad-
ual “stopping” (zhi 止) of the conventional capacities of perception (guan 官) and 
understanding (zhi 知). It can, however, be put into the context of other passages 
in the Zhuangzi, as well as other texts, where the meaning of “spirit” as a refined 
and miraculously effective power is often applied. 
Woodworker Qing
The following skilful action narrative seems to be very similar to that of Cook 
Ding in terms of narrative structure, terminology, social setting, and the implied 
reader’s response:
梓慶削木為鐻，鐻成，見者驚猶鬼神。魯侯見而問焉，曰：子何
術以為焉？
對曰: […] 臣將為鐻，未嘗敢以耗氣也，必齊以靜心。齊三日，而
不敢懷慶賞爵祿；齊五日，不敢懷非譽巧拙。
齊七日，輒然忘吾有四枝形體也。當是時也，無公朝，其巧專而
外骨消；然後入山林，觀天性；形軀至矣，然後成見鐻，然後加
手焉；不然則已。則以天合天，器之所以疑神者，其是與？
Woodworker Qing carved a piece of wood and made a bell stand, and 
when it was finished, everyone who saw it marvelled, for it seemed to 
be the work of gods or spirits. When the marquis of Lu saw it, he asked: 
“What art is it you have?” 
Qing replied: “(…) When I am going to make a bell stand, I never let it 
wear out my energy. I always fast in order to still my mind. When I have 
fasted for three days, I no longer have any thought of congratulations or 
rewards, of titles or stipends. When I have fasted for five days, I no longer 
have any thought of praise or blame, of skill or clumsiness.
“And when I have fasted for seven days, I am so still that I forget I have 
four limbs and a form and body. By that time, the ruler and his court no 
longer exist for me. My skill is concentrated and all outside distractions 
fade away. After that, I go into the mountain forest and examine the 
heavenly nature (of the trees). If I find one of superlative form, then I 
imagine a bell stand in it, and then I put my hand to the job of carving; 
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   205 30.1.2017   14:01:13

206 Dušan Vávra: Skilful Practice in the Zhuang Zi ...
if not, I let it go. This way I am simply matching up heaven with heaven. 
That is probably the reason that people wonder if the results were not 
made by spirits.”
23
 (Zhuangzi 19; Guo 1985, 658–9)
Just like the Cook Ding story, this is a narrative about a perfect craftsman who 
is admired by his ruler. The ruler asks him for the principles of his craft and the 
woodworker gives him an explanation. The explanatory part is the core of the 
section, and the instruction given to the ruler in the fictional dialogue is also giv-
en to the reader in the act of reading. All these features also appear in the Cook 
Ding narrative. Moreover, the explanatory part itself is also very similar to the 
same part in the earlier text. According to the woodworker’s words, his skill is 
attained in a three-fold sequence of “fasting” (qi 齊) and a similar pair of terms 
is employed––“spirit” (shen) and “heaven” (tian 天). Moreover, just as Cook Ding 
is able to discern the “heavenly/natural structure” (tianli) of the ox, Woodworker 
Qing is able to see the “heavenly/natural condition” (tianxing 天性) of trees, and 
thus select those suitable for carving a bell stand.
There are, however, important differences between the two passages.
24
 These can 
be found in the sequence of the three-fold self-cultivation and in the meaning of 
two key terms: shen and tian. I will analyse these in turn, as follows.
In Cook Ding’s story, the three steps of self-cultivation consist of gradual trans-
formation of one’s perceptive and cognitive abilities. This is a long-term process 
that, most likely, occupied most of Cook Ding’s life. The result is “approaching 
the ox with spirit”, which enables one to discern the “heavenly/natural structure” 
of the ox, although it can be surmised that this kind of training could be done 
with any other focus, or with life as a whole, as Duke Wenhui notes. The “spirit” 
seems to be a profound and active cognitive ability. Besides the perception and 
cognition, no other transformation of Cook Ding’s personality is hinted at. By 
and large, despite the “metaphysical” nature of the terms “spirit” and “heavenly/
natural structure,” this passage presents a widely acceptable description of life-
long training to acquire a highly specialized skill, which results in the attainment 
of mastery.
25
 
23 Translation by B. Watson (1970, 205–6), adapted.
24 Eno (1996) identifies the difference between Cook Ding’s story and the other skilful action narra-
tives as based on the imperfection of Cook Ding vs. the perfection of the others, who are perfect 
due to “immersion in nature/heaven”. Slingerland (2003, 197–203) distinguishes between meta-
phors of “Self as irrepressible force” (i.e. “spirit” in Cook Ding) and “Self as allowing the world of 
normative order to do the work” (i.e. immersion in “heaven” in the other stories). Finally, however, 
he stresses the continuity of both as just different metaphors of “effortless action”.
25 “Mastery” itself is a term equally difficult to grasp. A “spiritual” understanding of the hidden “nat-
ural structure” of things may well serve as a description of “mastery” in any context. 
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   206 30.1.2017   14:01:13

207 Asian Studies V (XXI), 1 (2017), pp. 195–219
Woodworker Qing, on the other hand, undergoes a very different three-fold 
self-cultivation process. While the result is a similar spiritual insight into the in-
ner condition of things, unattainable by normal means, the steps involved are 
different. What Woodworker Qing gets rid of is not his ordinary sensory and cog-
nitive abilities, but instead the social and cultural values and relations that normally 
define a person as a social being. Then, in the final step, he loses his awareness of 
his body. The whole process is called “fasting in order to still the mind,” and in 
the state of a still mind it is possible to acquire spiritual insights into trees. The 
process is obviously short-term, as the woodworker repeats it each time he needs 
to find a tree trunk for carving a bell stand, and it requires a profound existential 
transformation of the craftsman’s personality, albeit only for the duration of the 
action. An important term is used for the last step of the process: the woodworker 
forgets (wang 忘) his limbs and his body. This term is often used in the Zhuangzi 
to refer to a profound existential transformation that results in a specific state of 
mind enabling one to act more effectively, as we shall see below.
26
Both the Cook Ding and Woodworker Qing narratives make use of the term 
“spirit” (shen). It should be noted, however, that the term is used in a very different 
sense in each section. As I argued above, in Cook Ding’s story, the “spirit” simply 
means superior cognitive abilities, a meaning that is often used in early Chinese 
texts. However, shen is used differently in Woodworker Qing’s story. At the be-
ginning of the narrative, the observer marvels at the woodworker’s mastery, won-
dering if the bell stand is not the work of spirits (guishen 鬼神). At the end of the 
explanatory passage, where Woodworker Qing explains the secrets of his mastery, 
he adds: “That is probably the reason that people wonder if the results were not 
made by spirits (shen).” Clearly, “spirit” here does not refer to a supernatural cogni-
tive ability. Rather, it belongs among many examples in various early Chinese texts 
where “spirit” (shen) refers to the unknown cause or the principles of a (seemingly) 
miraculous action, which thus seems to be “as if ” done by spirits, or simply looks 
magical or daemonic. An example from the Zhuangzi runs as follows: “In the state 
of Zheng there was a spirit-like shaman (shenwu 神巫), named Ji Xian. He knew 
whether people will live or die, perish or survive, be lucky or unlucky, die young or 
live long. He could predict the year, month, week, and the day, as if he was a spirit 
(ru shen 如神).”
27
 (Zhuangzi 7; Guo 1985, 297–306) While “shen” in Ji Xian’s appel-
26 See also the similarity with the famous dialogue between Confucius and Yan Hui, where Yan Hui 
explains the state of “sitting and forgetting” (zuo wang 坐忘) (Zhuangzi 6; Guo 1985, 282–5; Wat-
son 1970, 90–91). The structure is similar. Yan Hui “forgets” social and cultural values (rites, music, 
etc.) and, in the final step, he forgets his body and merges with the “Great Thoroughfare” (datong 
大通), i.e. with the Dao.
27 Translation by B. Watson (1970, 94–97), adapted. 
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   207 30.1.2017   14:01:13

208 Dušan Vávra: Skilful Practice in the Zhuang Zi ...
lation “spirit-like shaman” may refer to his superhuman cognitive abilities (which 
he clearly has), the second “shen” is different––it refers to his abilities viewed from 
outside, without the knowledge of their principles. The situation is similar to the 
prince wondering about the principles behind Woodworker Qing’s work.
28
The usage of the word tian is also different in both sections. On the one hand it 
is used as an adjective in both––“heavenly/natural structure” (tianli) and “heav-
enly/natural condition” (tianxing). These expressions both refer to the true inner 
nature of things unattainable by conventional means. They thus seem to serve 
the same function in both sections. However, in the Woodworker Qing narra-
tive tian is used once more in a different way. It is the core of the explanatory 
passage––after the process of “fasting,” the craftsman reaches a state in which 
he gains insight into the nature of trees by “matching up heaven with heaven 
(yi tian he tian 以天合天).” This is a peculiar expression that requires careful 
examination. Most scholars agree that “heaven” in this context refers to both the 
inner state of the craftsman (a state reached by “fasting”), and the inner nature 
of the trees. Therefore, “matching up heaven with heaven” means that reaching 
the state of “heaven” by the subject (in this case, Woodworker Qing) results in 
the ability to “see” the “heavenly” (i.e. true, genuine) nature of things. Realizing 
a quality of “heaven” in one’s personality is in fact a very typical and common 
topic in the Zhuangzi. The word “heaven” is often used in the work in the sense 
of the sum of cosmic cycles and processes, as opposed to human society with 
its institutions, norms and values. According to the text, “heaven” should be 
adopted by people, so that each person can fulfil his/her natural potential and 
live better (or more effectively, in some instances) than within the confines of 
human society.
29
 “Heaven” is thus viewed as the alternative setting of human life 
with an (implied) alternative set of values, radically different from the estab-
lished social and cultural values––which a person embodying “heaven” in his/
her life or a certain activity must get rid of. As we can see, this is the same as the 
description of “fasting” in the section of the text discussed above.
To sum up, the key point (or the instruction given) of Woodworker Qing’s narra-
tive proves to be radically different form that of Cook Ding in certain important 
aspects. Both narratives depict the perfect and effortless skill of a craftsman, and 
28 Xunzi 17.2 puts this explicitly. In a section describing the workings of Nature (“heaven”, tian), he 
states that every being is born and nurtured by Nature, while “we do not perceive the process, but 
perceive the results––this is why we call it divine 不見其事而見其功，夫是之謂神” (Wang 2010, 
309; Cf. Knoblock 1994, 15)
29 For example, in Chapter 6 the image of the True Man (zhenren 真人) includes his independence 
from anything concerning human society, which is called “not using man to assist heaven” (不以人
助天). (Guo 1985, 262; Watson 1970, 78)
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   208 30.1.2017   14:01:13

209 Asian Studies V (XXI), 1 (2017), pp. 195–219
present an explanation of the process through which the skill was attained. In the 
case of Cook Ding we have a mastery built on a life-long effort, which results in 
a miraculous skill brought about by a specially trained mental capacity, termed 
“spirit” (shen). In the case of Woodworker Qing, on the other hand, we have an in-
dividual capable of a much more obscure (and short-term, meditational) activity, 
“fasting,” which results in the “forgetting” of established social and cultural values 
and immersion into nature (or “heaven”). In this state, superhuman cognition is 
possible, which entails the “spirit-like” skilful action.
I conclude that these two skilful action narratives are in fact based on very dif-
ferent views of human existence and its relation to culture and nature. The two 
narratives share terminology but use it differently, which in turn opens very dif-
ferent contexts for both sections within the Zhuangzi, as well as beyond it. Shen 
as a supernatural cognitive ability dominates in Cook Ding’s story, while tian as 
a realm devoid of established social values (and as such a source of superhuman 
powers) dominates the story of Woodworker Qing. Both stories share the same 
literary topos, but base it on different philosophical grounds and present different 
key points to the reader. 
Skilful Eccentrics
The following section also employs the skilful action topos, and again it seems 
quite similar to Cook Ding’s story, at least at first glance:
仲尼適楚，出於林中，見痀僂者承蜩，猶掇之也。仲尼曰：子巧
乎？有道邪？曰：我有道也。五六月累丸，二而不墜，則失者錙
銖；累三而不墜，則失者十一；累五而不墜，猶掇之也。
吾處身也若厥株拘，吾執臂也若槁木之枝，雖天地之大，萬物之
多，而唯蜩翼之知。吾不反不側，不以萬物易蜩之翼，何為而不
得！孔子顧謂弟子曰：用志不分，乃凝於神，其痀僂丈人之謂乎！
When Confucius was on his way to Chu, he passed through a forest 
where he saw a hunchback catching cicadas with a sticky pole as easily 
as though he were grabbing them with his hand. Confucius said: “What 
skill you have! Is there a special way to this?”
The hunchback said: “I have a way. For the first five or six months I prac-
tice balancing two balls on top of each other on the end of the pole and, 
if they do not fall off, I know I will lose very few cicadas. Then I balance 
three balls and, if they do not fall off, I know I will lose only one cicada in 
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   209 30.1.2017   14:01:13

210 Dušan Vávra: Skilful Practice in the Zhuang Zi ...
ten. Then I balance five balls and, if they do not fall off, I know it will be as 
easy as grabbing them with my hand. My body is to me no more than the 
stump of a broken trunk, and my shoulder no more than the branch of 
a rotten tree. Great as heaven and earth are, and multitudinous as things 
are, I take no notice of them, but only of the wings of my cicadas; neither 
turning nor inclining to one side. I would not for them all exchange the 
wings of my cicadas––how should I not succeed in taking them?”
Confucius looked round, and said to his disciples: “Where the will is not 
diverted from its object, then it is concentrated through the spirit––this 
might have been spoken of this hunchback gentleman.”
30
 (Zhuangzi 19. 
Guo 1985, 639–41)
This is the story of a very peculiar “master”––a hunchback skilled in catching cica-
das with a stick who trains for this by balancing balls on the end of the stick––but 
it still presents the topos of skilful action, like the two sections analysed above. The 
narrative section is similar––a skilful person admired by someone of higher status, 
here Confucius. The explanatory part forms most of the section and it is clearly 
the focus of the narrative. The first part of the explanation consists of a description 
of completely ordinary training––the skilful person simply trains hard and with 
increasingly difficult objects (in this case, he increases the number of balls to be 
balanced on a tip of a stick). No special terminology is employed. 
It is the second part of the explanation that makes the most important statements. 
It turns out this is a story about concentration of will, which consists of several as-
pects. A certain disregard for one’s body is presented––the hunchback likens his 
own to a broken trunk, and limbs to the branches of a rotten tree. However, no 
terminology known from elsewhere in the Zhuangzi is used, so it is hard to tell if 
this refers to the same phenomenon as “forgetting” one’s body in the previous pas-
sage. Then we learn that the skill of catching cicadas depends on the exclusion of 
all other thoughts. The cicadas thus became the sole preoccupation of the hunch-
back. Once the will is concentrated like this, his skill reaches a level of mastery. In 
the final sentence, Confucius mentions the only term we know from the previous 
stories––“spirit” (shen). Here, Confucius draws a lesson from this encounter with 
the hunchback, and presents it to his disciples. He states that a will concentrated 
in this manner becomes “concentrated through spirit”. This may be read as an-
other approach that leads to the same spiritual state as the one enjoyed by Cook 
Ding, although the whole story is a little too vague to be sure of this connection.
It is perhaps more plausible to read this tale as another story of “forgetting”, 
30 Translation by B. Watson (1970, 199–200), adapted. 
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   210 30.1.2017   14:01:13

211 Asian Studies V (XXI), 1 (2017), pp. 195–219
although the term wang is not used here. Moreover, the idea of forgetting is re-
called by the comparison of the body to a withered tree, and especially by the way 
the story describes the concentration of will. Having an absolute focus on cicadas 
means that everything else is “forgotten”. This state is called “spiritual,” and is un-
derstood as the crucial component of the hunchback’s training.
The skilful action presented in this narrative thus seems to be a combination of key 
aspects of the previous narratives. The hunchback’s training is a life-long enterprise 
(like that of Cook Ding), but it is based on forgetting (like the case of Woodwork-
er Qing). In turn, this combination accounts for the most conspicuous feature of 
the hunchback’s story. Life-long forgetting of the social and cultural values (and 
everything else except cicadas) implies an idiosyncratic personality, one whose be-
haviour is not only unusual but often weird, as with the hunchback at first glance. 
The philosophical background of this narrative is unclear, but it is probably closer 
to the one seen in the story of Woodworker Qing than that of Cook Ding.
31
 The 
lesson that Confucius, his disciples and the reader obtains is not clear in this narra-
tive. What makes this narrative distinctive is the peculiar personality of the hunch-
back. Both Cook Ding and Woodworker Qing are full-fledged masters, skilled in 
their craft but also fulfilling their social roles. Instead of a skilful master, we have a 
skilful nerd in this section,
32
 and no doubt this shapes the reader’s response to the 
story. For instance, it is easy to understand why Cook Ding, and not the hunch-
back, became the exemplar of Zhuangzi’s skilful masters in general awareness.
In the Zhuangzi we find another interesting story that deals with the problem of 
a “skilful nerd” and also suggests a solution. The first part of this narrative from 
Chapter 22 is very similar to the hunchback story.
大馬之捶鉤者，年八十矣，而不失豪芒。大馬曰：子巧與？有道
與？曰：臣有守也。臣之年二十而好捶鉤，於物無視也，非鉤無
察也。
是用之者，假不用者也。以長得其用，而況乎無不用者乎！物孰
不資焉？
The grand marshal’s buckle maker was eighty years old, yet he had not 
31 We do not know if the hunchback’s existence is conceived of as “immersion in the nature” (tian). 
The tian imagery is not used in this section, but is also not excluded. However, this might as well 
simply refer to the exclusion of all distractions, and nothing more. 
32 In this light, it seems possible to read Confucius’ endorsement of the hunchback’s approach to 
self-cultivation as a subversive form irony directed at Confucius himself. In the Zhuangzi, tradi-
tional values of contemporary society are often undermined by putting them in provocative con-
text. Crippled thus persons become the models of moral virtue (see Moeller 2015), a butcher (i.e. 
Cook Ding) becomes a teacher of a prince (see Graziani 2005), and so on.
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   211 30.1.2017   14:01:13

212 Dušan Vávra: Skilful Practice in the Zhuang Zi ...
lost the tiniest part of his old skilfulness. The grand marshal said: “What 
skill you have! Is there a special way to this?”
He replied: “I have a way. From the time I was twenty I have loved to 
forge buckles. I never look at other things––if it is not a buckle, I do not 
bother to examine it.” 
This kind of using things relied on not using other things. This is why 
he could use it for so long. And how much greater would a man be if he 
reached the point where there was nothing that he did not use! All things 
would come to depend on him.
33
 (Zhuangzi 22; Guo 1985, 760–1)
The buckle master is not as peculiar as the hunchback from the previous section. 
There is nothing special about his skill (making buckles), what is remarkable is 
his age and the fact he has lost none of his abilities. The connection to the hunch-
back’s story is the explanatory part––the buckle master has excelled in his craft for 
so long because he “never looks at other things”, the buckles are his sole interest. 
It is this “forgetting” of other things enables him to excel in his work.
The second part of the section presents a turn not present in the previous nar-
ratives. The buckle master’s skill admired by the grand marshal in the first part  
(conventionally, as is within the genre of skilful action narratives), is now ques-
tioned and disparaged. A different kind of skilful practice is suggested, one which 
we might call universal––it is no longer a particular craft or skill, but the complete 
transformation of one’s existence that has a profound impact on one’s surround-
ings. The author points to the limits of buckle master’s skill––the fact that beyond 
his mastery he can do nothing else. The concept of universal mastery that is then 
presented implies a master who is skilled at everything, and not just one particular 
activity. 
Universal Skilfulness
Before I present more material contextualizing the topic of universal skilfulness, 
we will turn to one more type of skilful action narrative, which describes a par-
ticular skill once more:
顏淵問仲尼曰：吾嘗濟乎觴深之淵；津人操舟若神。吾問焉曰：
操舟可學邪？曰：可。善游者數能。若乃夫沒人，則未嘗見舟而
便操之也。吾問焉而不吾告, 敢問何謂也？
33 Translation by B. Watson (1970, 244–55), adapted. 
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   212 30.1.2017   14:01:13

213 Asian Studies V (XXI), 1 (2017), pp. 195–219
仲尼曰：善游者數能，忘水也。若乃夫沒人之未嘗見舟而便操之
也，彼視淵若陵，視舟之覆猶其車卻也。覆卻萬方陳乎前而不得
入其舍，惡往而不暇！
以瓦注者巧，以鉤注者憚，以黃金注者殙。其巧一也，而有所
矜，則重外也。凡外重者內拙。
Yan Yuan said to Confucius: “I once crossed the gulf at Goblet Deeps 
and the ferryman handled the boat with supernatural skill (like a spirit). 
I asked him: ‘Can a person learn how to handle a boat?’ He replied: ‘Cer-
tainly. A good swimmer will in no time get the knack of it. And, if a man 
can swim under water, he may never have seen a boat before and still he 
will know how to handle it!’ I asked him what he meant by that, but he 
would not tell me. May I venture to ask you what it means?”
Confucius said: “A good swimmer will in no time get the knack of it––
that means he has forgotten the water. If a man can swim under water, he 
may never have seen a boat before and still he will know how to handle 
it––that is because he sees the water as so much dry land, and regards the 
capsizing of a boat as he would the overturning of a cart. The ten thou-
sand things may all be capsizing and backsliding at the same time right 
in front of him and it cannot get at him and affect what is inside––so 
where could he go and not be at ease? 
When you are betting for tiles in an archery contest, you shoot with skill. 
When you are betting for fancy belt buckles, you worry about your aim. 
And when you are betting for real gold, you are a nervous wreck. Your 
skill is the same in all three cases––but because one prize means more to 
you than another, you let outside considerations weigh on your mind. He 
who looks too hard at the outside gets clumsy on the inside.”
34
 (Zhuangzi 
19; Guo 1985, 641–2)
The narrative structure here is similar to most of the sections discussed above, ex-
cept that here the skilful actor appears only briefly in the first part of the section, 
and most of the explanatory part is presented as a dialogue between Confucius 
and Yan Yuan (i.e. Yan Hui, Confucius’s favourite disciple). 
Several terms appear here that we discussed above. The boatman is said to handle 
the boat “like a spirit” (ruo shen 若神). Here the term clearly has the meaning 
identified in Woodworker Qing’s story––the action is “like a spirit” in the eyes of 
the observer, who can see the action but not the principles that it relies upon––that 
34 Translation by B. Watson (1970, 200–1), adapted. 
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   213 30.1.2017   14:01:13

214 Dušan Vávra: Skilful Practice in the Zhuang Zi ...
is why it appears “daemonic”. The second term is “forgetting” (wang). In the first 
part of the section, the boatman says to Yan Hui that a good swimmer can become 
a skilled boatman immediately (simply by being a swimmer). Yan Hui is confused, 
and Confucius explains that it is because a swimmer “has forgotten water” (wang 
shui 忘水). The rest of the explanation, as well as the final part about archery, 
makes it clear that “forgetting water” means “getting rid of fear.” Someone who 
“forgets water,” and thus sees it dry land, loses clumsiness, which is normally the 
result of fear. This section employs the opposition of “inner” (nei 内) and “outer” 
(wai 外). One’s actions must not be inhibited by the “outer” (which damages the 
“inner” with fear, or simply with “too much thinking”). “Forgetting” thus means 
guarding the “inner” against detrimental impacts from the “outer”. 
It is not difficult to notice that the kind of skilful action presented in this section is 
different from that discussed in previous sections in several fundamental aspects. 
Above all, the skill is not conditioned by training and/or a psychological process 
of self-cultivation that would be aimed directly at attaining the skill. Instead, a 
transformation process is required that would change one’s attitude towards the 
environment. The environment must be “forgotten” because any awareness of it 
elicits destructive mental processes. If a person thinks about the water (or even is 
just aware of it), then he/she will never swim or ride a boat well. 
The image of the boatman in this narrative is not necessarily incompatible with 
that of Cook Ding or the hunchback. Cook Ding, when using “spirit” to cut an 
ox, is perhaps also required to close his mind against distractions from the en-
vironment. The focus of the boatman’s narrative (and the key point of the story, 
the instruction given) is, however, directly opposite to that of Cook Ding. In the 
latter, everything depends on the right way of cutting (guided by the “spirit”), and 
the environment is not mentioned. In the former the opposite is true––the skill of 
handling a boat relies solely on “forgetting water;” the handling itself is not men-
tioned. Moreover, what in my view is crucial in this section––since the importance 
of handling the boat is actually played down––a good swimmer can handle a boat 
without any specialized training, and could probably handle anything involving 
deep water just as well. This moment leads us back to the idea of universal skill. 
Being attuned to the environment (here: “forgetting water”) is a way to achieve 
any skill within the environment. Notice how different this is from the skill of 
Cook Ding or the hunchback. Those masters concentrated their powers (termed 
“spirit” in both narratives) on the object of their skill. In contrast, with the boat-
man the skill lies in mastery of the environment. Within the limits of water “there 
is nothing the master cannot do”––which is exactly the idea of universal skill put 
forth in the conclusion of the buckle master section. 
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   214 30.1.2017   14:01:13

215 Asian Studies V (XXI), 1 (2017), pp. 195–219
It should be noted that what I call “universal skill” here is actually present in many 
sections in the Zhuangzi, even those that are generally not considered skilful ac-
tion narratives. The following passage is a good example, as although it is usually 
not regarded as representing a skilful action (for good reasons, one must admit), 
it is nevertheless based on a similar idea––being completely attuned to one’s envi-
ronment, as brought about by “forgetting” it, leads to a perfect action:
夫醉者之墜車，雖疾不死。骨節與人同，而犯害與人異，其神全
也，乘亦不知也，墜亦不知也，死生驚懼不入乎其胷中，是故遻
物而不慴。彼得全於酒而猶若是，而況得全於天乎！聖人藏於
天，故莫之能傷也。
When a drunken man falls from a carriage, though the carriage may be 
going very fast, he will not be killed. He has bones and joints the same as 
other men, and yet he is not injured as they would be, because his spirit 
is whole. He did not know he was riding, and he does not know he has 
fallen out. Life and death, alarm and terror do not enter his breast, and so 
he can bang against things without fear of injury. 
If he can keep himself whole like this by means of wine, how much more 
someone who can keep himself whole by means of heaven! The sage 
hides himself in heaven––hence there is nothing that can do him harm.
35
 
(Zhuangzi 19; Guo 1985, 636)
The forgetfulness of the drunken man in this passage is complete. Nothing can 
harm him because he has a total lack of fear (or, truth be told, any other mindful 
mental process). He is completely immersed in his environment (by means of al-
cohol), and thus is capable of perfect action (in the sense of not getting harmed). 
The word “spirit” is used as follows––“his spirit is whole” (qi shen quan ye 其神全
也). This is a peculiar usage of the word, and it is obvious that no supernatural 
cognitive ability is meant here. Instead, “wholeness” of the spirit clearly means the 
drunken man is immune to all outside distractions. 
The last part of the section is reminiscent of the buckle master narrative. It makes 
clear that while becoming whole by means of alcohol is valuable, it is still of 
limited value. The possibility of another, more perfect and universal wholeness is 
suggested––being whole by means of “heaven” (tian). Immersion in “heaven” (that 
is, into the whole of natural process) is the absolute wholeness, and it is clearly 
implied that this represents a kind of universal attunement to one’s environment 
(i.e., the whole cosmos, not just water or any other specific environment). 
35 Translation by B. Watson (1970, 198–9), adapted. 
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   215 30.1.2017   14:01:13

216 Dušan Vávra: Skilful Practice in the Zhuang Zi ...
The drunken man passage is just a final part of longer section, and the earlier part 
reads as follows:
子列子問關尹曰：至人潛行不窒，蹈火不熱，行乎萬物之上而不
慄。請問何以至於此？關尹曰：是純氣之守也，非知巧果敢之
列。[…] 則物之造乎不形，而止乎無所化，夫得是而窮之者，物
焉得而止焉！彼將處乎不淫之度，而藏乎無端之紀，遊乎萬物
之所終始，壹其性，養其氣，合其德，以通乎物之所造。夫若是
者，其天守全，其神無郤，物奚自入焉！
Master Liezi said to the Barrier Keeper Yin: “The Perfect Man can walk 
under water without choking, can tread on fire without being burned, 
and can travel above the ten thousand things without being frightened. 
May I ask how he manages this?”
The Barrier Keeper Yin replied: “This is because he guards the pure 
breath––it has nothing to do with wisdom, skill, determination, or cour-
age. (…) But things have their creation in what has no form, and their 
conclusion in what has no change. If a man can get hold of this and ex-
haust it fully, then how can things stand in his way? He may rest within 
the bounds that know no excess, hide within the borders that know no 
source, wander where the ten thousand things have their end and begin-
ning, unify his nature, nourish his breath, unite his virtue, and thereby 
communicate with that which creates all things. A man like this guards 
what belongs to heaven and keeps it whole. His spirit has no flaw, so how 
can things enter in and get at him?
36
 (Zhuangzi 19; Guo 1985, 633–4)
(The drunken man narrative follows.)
The section as a whole has the standard structure of the skilful action narratives. 
A skilful person (Master Liezi) is introduced, who is admired by an observer and 
asked to explain his abilities. This is then followed by the explanatory part.
The terms “spirit” and “heaven” make the core of the argument (besides a range of 
subtle references to self-cultivation practices and cosmological concepts known 
from many early Chinese texts, as well as some of the sections discussed above in 
this paper). Both these terms are used in a similar fashion––Liezi “keeps his heav-
en whole” and “his spirit without flaw.” These expressions evoke forgetful immer-
sion in one’s environment (just like the boatman or drunk, as well as Woodworker 
Qing). There is, however, an important difference––Master Liezi’s immersion and 
forgetfulness is universal and complete. He does not depend on any particular 
36 Translation by B. Watson (1970, 198), adapted. 
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   216 30.1.2017   14:01:13

217 Asian Studies V (XXI), 1 (2017), pp. 195–219
environment and does not excel in any particular skill. His environment is the 
universe, and he lives in perfect attunement with it––as such, nothing can harm 
him. Moreover, he is presented as a being with superhuman capabilities (even 
water or fire cannot hurt him, and he can travel “above ten thousand things”.
Conclusion
In this paper we identified interesting differences among various examples of skil-
ful action narratives in the Zhuangzi. The most important dividing line seems to 
be formed by the terms “spirit” (shen) and “heaven” (tian). The former has been 
read as generally referring to a spiritual state consisting of superhuman cognitive 
abilities, leading to a refined understanding of the outer world and, consequently, 
to more effective action. The latter is usually seen as consisting of a profound trans-
formation of human personality and immersion in the environment (ultimate-
ly immersion in “heaven”). Although both approaches result in “skilful action,” 
the process leading to this outcome is completely different and implies different 
philosophical backgrounds (or, more precisely, different forms of self-cultivation 
and cosmological backgrounds). Furthermore, both ways bring into play differ-
ent contexts––shen can be contextualized in a broad range of early Chinese texts, 
while tian remains almost exclusively in the context of the Zhuangzi itself. 
In the chapter on the Zhuangzi in his Effortless Action, Edward Slingerland (2003, 
197–203) also analyses the difference between shen and tian,
37
 and states: “(…) 
all of the various and sometimes literally incompatible metaphor schemas used 
to convey a given idea such as wu-wei must be considered together if we are to 
arrive at a full understanding of the concept” (ibid., 198, italics in original). For 
Slingerland, “effortless action, or wuwei 無為” is a single concept expressed by var-
ious metaphors in the Zhuangzi (and other texts). He approaches the individual 
sections with a pre-established concept and reads the concept into the text. In this 
approach, the individual sections are nothing but vehicles conveying the concept. 
If we state, for example, that the Zhuangzi contains a “philosophy of spontaneity” 
(another pre-established concept), we can quote all the sections analysed in this 
paper (despite their differences) to illustrate the point.
The concepts can be “pre-established” for good reasons, I do not mean to question 
the validity of this common approach. If we wish to approach a fragmented text 
like the Zhuangzi as philosophy, we probably have no other choice. However, 
37 Slingerland (2003, 200) conceptualizes them as two different metaphor schemas ESSENTIAL 
SELF AS IRREPRESSIBLE FORCE (shen) and NORMATIVE ORDER AS IRREPRESS-
IBLE FORCE (tian).
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   217 30.1.2017   14:01:13

218 Dušan Vávra: Skilful Practice in the Zhuang Zi ...
we should be aware of the fact that this approach is necessarily reductionist––
reading a single concept or a single world-view into the textual diversity we find 
in the Zhuangzi necessarily obscures certain meanings that can be retained by 
unit-by-unit reading undertaken in this paper. These meanings are embedded in 
the “instruction scenes” unfolded by the individual narratives. Nevertheless, they 
still have some generalizing potential––they can bring into play specific contexts 
revealing underlying cosmologies or self-cultivation ideas the instruction scenes 
draw upon. Instead of philosophy, we arrive at archaeology––we may thus try to 
recover the worldviews that underlie and inform these instruction scenes. 
References
De Reu, Wim. 2015. “A Ragbag of Odds and Ends? Argument Structure and 
Philosophical Coherence in Zhuangzi 26.” In Literary Forms of Argument in 
Early China, edited by Joachim Gentz and Dirk Meyer, 243–96. Leiden: Brill. 
Defoort, Carine. 2012. “Instruction Dialogues in the Zhuangzi: An ‘ Anthropolog-
ical’ Reading.” Dao 11: 459–78.
Eno, Robert. 1996. “Cook Ding’s Dao and the Limits of Philosophy”. In Essays 
on Skepticism, Relativism, and Ethics in the Zhuangzi, edited by Paul Kjellberg 
and Philip J. Ivanhoe, 127–15. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Graham, Angus C. 1981. The Seven Inner Chapters and Other Writings from the 
Book Chuang-tzu. London: George Allen & Unwin. 
–––, ed. 1990. “How Much of Chuang-tzu Did Chuang-tzu Write?” In Studies in 
Chinese Philosophy and Philosophical Literature, 283–321. Albany: State Uni-
versity of New York Press.
Graziani, Romain. 2005. “When Princes Awake in Kitchens: Zhuangzi’s Rewrit-
ing of a Culinary Myth.” In Of Tripod and Palate: Food, Politics, and Reli-
gion in Traditional China, edited by Roel Sterckx, 62–74. New York: Palgrave 
Macmillan.
Guo, Qingfan 郭慶藩, ed. 1985. Zhuangzi jishi 莊子集釋 (Collected Explanations 
of the Zhuangzi). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju. 
Klein, Esther. 2011. “Were there ‘Inner Chapters’ in the Warring States? A New 
Examination of the Evidence about the Zhuangzi.” T’oung Pao 96: 299–369.
Knoblock, John. 1988. Xunzi. A Translation and Study of the Complete Works, vol. 1. 
Stanford: Stanford UP .
–––. 1994. Xunzi. A Translation and Study of the Complete Works, vol. 3. Stanford: 
Stanford UP .
Kohn, Livia. 2014. Zhuangzi: Text and Context. St. Petersburg (Florida): Three 
Pines Press. 
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   218 30.1.2017   14:01:13

219 Asian Studies V (XXI), 1 (2017), pp. 195–219
Li, Xiangfeng 黎翔鳳. 2009. Guanzi jiao zhu 管子校注 (An Annotated Guanzi), 2 
vols. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju. 
Liu, Xiaogan. 1994. Classifying the Zhuangzi Chapters. Ann Arbor: Center for 
Chinese Studies, University of Michigan.
Liu, Xiaogan. 2014. “Textual Issues in the Zhuangzi.” In Dao Companion to Daoist 
Philosophy edited by Liu Xiaogan, 129–58. Dordrecht: Springer.
Meyer, Dirk. 2015. “Truth Claim with no Claim to Truth: Text and Performance of 
the ‘Qiushui’ Chapter of the Zhuangzi.” In Literary Forms of Argument in Early 
China, edited by Joachim Gentz and Dirk Meyer, 297–340. Leiden: Brill.
Moeller, Hans-Georg. 2015. “Paradoxes of Health and Power in the Zhuangzi.” 
In New Visions of the Zhuangzi, edited by Livia Kohn, 70–81. St. Petersburg 
(Florida): Three Pines Press. 
Needham, Joseph. 1956. Science and Civilization in China, vol. 2. Cambridge: 
Cambridge UP . 
Pang, Pu 龐朴. 1994. “Jie niu zhi jie 解牛之解.” Xueshu Yuekan 学术月刊 (Aca-
demic Monthly) 3: 11–20.
Puett, Michael. 2003. “‘Nothing Can Overcome Heaven’: The Notion of Spirit in the 
Zhuangzi.” In Hiding the World in the World: Uneven Discourses in the Zhuangzi, 
edited by Scott Cook, 248–262. Albany: State University of New York Press. 
Richter, Matthias. 2014. “Handling a Double-Edged Sword: Controlling Rheto-
rics in Early China.” Asiatische Studien 68 (4): 1021–68.
Rickett, W. Allyn. 1998. Guanzi: Politic, Economic, and Philosophical Essays from 
Early China, vol. 2. Princeton: Princeton UP . 
Roth, Harold. 1991a. “Who Compiled the Chuang Tzu?” In Chinese Texts and 
Philosophical Contexts. Essays Dedicated to Angus C. Graham., edited by Henry 
Rosemont, 79–128. La Salle: Open Court.
–––. 1991b “Psychology and Self-Cultivation in Early Taoistic Thought.” Har -
vard Journal of Asiatic Studies 51 (2): 599–650.
–––. 1994. “Redaction Criticism and the Early History of Taoism.” Early China 
19: 1–46.
Slingerland, Edward. 2003. Effortless Action: Wu-wei as Conceptual Metaphor and 
Spiritual Ideal in Early China. Oxford: Oxford UP . 
Wang, Xianqian 王先謙, ed. 2010. Xunzi jijie 荀子集解 (Xunzi: A Translation 
and Study of the Complete Works). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju. 
Watson, Burton. 1970. The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu. New Y ork and London: 
Columbia UP . 
Y earley, Lee H. 1996. “Zhuangzi’s Understanding of Skillfulness and the Ultimate 
Spiritual State.” In Essays on Skepticism, Relativism, and Ethics in the Zhuang-
zi, edited by Paul Kjellberg and Philip J. Ivanhoe, 152–82. Albany: State Uni-
versity of New York Press.
Azijske_studije_2017_1_FINAL.indd   219 30.1.2017   14:01:13