GEOGRAPHICAL PROBLEMS OF ONOMASTICS IN THE SELECTED EXAMPLE OF THE KAMNISKE-SAVINJSKE ALPS GEOGRAFSKI PROBLEMI IMENOSLOVJA NA IZßRANEM PRIMERU KAMNISKO-SAVINJSKIH ALP Borut Persolja The Kamniške-Savinjske Alps (viewed from the north) are part of Slovenia's alpine world (photography Borut Per{olja). Kamni{ko-Savinjske Alpe (pogled s severa) so del slovenskega Alpskega sveta (fotografija Borut Per{olja). Abstract UDC: 910.1:001.4 81'373.21 Geographical Problems of Onomastics in the Selected Example of the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps KEY WORDS: geographical names, onomastics, geography, Kamniske-Savinjske Alps, Slovenia A database of geographical names in the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps region was assembled for Slovenia's Evidenca zemljepisnih imen (Record of Geographical Names). The database includes information on the inscription, type, location, and historical development of geographical names. The work revealed the importance of an interdisciplinary approach to the study of geographical names. We tried in particular to draw attention to the important role and the tasks of geographers in this type of research. Izvleček UDK: 910.1:001.4 81'373.21 Geografski problemi imenoslovja na izbranem primeru Kamniško-Savinjskih Alp KLJUCNE BESEDE: zemljepisna imena, imenoslovje, geografija, Kamnisko-Savinjske Alpe, Slovenija Za območje Kamniško-Savinjskih Alp smo izdelali Evidenco zemljepisnih imen. Ta obsega podatke o zapisu in tipu zemljepisnega imena, legi ter razvoju zemljepisnega imena skozi čas. Ob izdelavi se je pokazala pomembnost interdisciplinarnega pristopa k proučevanju zemljepisnih imen. Se posebej smo skušali opozoriti na vlogo in pomen ter naloge geografov pri tovrstnih raziskavah. Address - Naslov Borut Persolja Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU Gosposka 13 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia Phone- telefon: +386 (0)61 125 60 68 Fax - faks: +386 (0)61 125 77 93 E-mail - e-pošta: Persolja@alpha.zrc-sazu.si Contents - Vsebina 1. Introduction 163 1.1. Geography and Geographical Names 164 1.2. Cartography and Geographical Names 165 1.3. Linguistics 167 2. Presentation of the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps 167 3. The Purpose and Scope of the Project 169 4. Methodology of the project 170 5. Results and Conclusions 178 6. Sources 184 6.1. Bibliography 184 6.2. Maps 185 6.2.1. Older Maps 185 6.2.2. Recent Maps 185 7. Summary in Slovene - Povzetek 186 1. Introduction Geographical names play an important role in a life of an individual and society in general. For a better perception of the landscape, easier movement, and common understanding, man had to develop an effective system of orientation. Within this system occur geographical names that most frequently arose from »defining a place after a name and a name after a place« (Tuma, 1925). The need to provide names was propelled by human activity, whether settlement, land use, or exploration. By providing names, man conceptualized the landscape and brought it closer to himself; it became his living space. A native of a place chose names for most of the things that surrounded him—perhaps a shepherd or farmer who was »a precise, very astute observer of nature, gifted with a subtle sense for expressing in words the various forms and variegations of the surface blanket of our world« (Badjura, 1953). Geographical names emerge all the time, but there are many geographical names—particularly the names of waters, mountains, and locations—that are very old and have been preserved for a long time. Because of their very widespread use and unbroken presence for centuries or even millennia, geographical names are anchored in our consciousness as an equal component part of a landscape. With long-term use, some geographical names have lost their original objective meaning and their subjective and word-forming identity. If, however, they have preserved these qualities, they can be one of the foundations of modern geographical science since they carry information about the state and use of a place at the time of their formation and because of their role as faithful companions to the process of transformation from the original appearance of the landscape to today's cultural landscape. Such preserved names still in use today have the status of historical and cultural monuments and are an important part of the national cultural heritage. It is not difficult to imagine that every name was once a word with a universally accepted meaning. Today, geographical names are the part of the proper-name terminology that comprises half of an individual's vocabulary (Bezlaj, 1967). From the linguistic point of view, geographical names have a great number of properties and forms: orthographic, phonetic, accentual, morphological, word-forming, and syntactical. Their widespread everyday use in spoken or written form and in numerous means of private and public communication dictates thoughtful treatment by linguists and concern for correct usage by every individual. Maps are among the most recognized means for conveying geographical names. By inscribing a geographical name on a map, we present geographical and linguistic characteristics in one place. When showing an objective view of a landscape and the geographical names in it, maps carry even greater weight and responsibility. Due to technical limitations and other reasons, maps do not contain all the geographical names that occur in a landscape. Numerous geographical names have been preserved in various written and other sources, but there are other names that live only in the oral tradition. Such names—especially the names of small landscape elements—can only be collected through field-work. The study of geographical names has many dimensions, from the purely practical considerations that appear in fieldwork such as orientation and the everyday use and pronunciation of names to the scientific and professional level where problems arise involving the accurate and uniform transcription of names, their exact locations, and the search for the original meanings of names. Geographical names are the result of the development of landscape and the development of the language. It is possible to achieve a consistent and correct use of geographical names by collecting, researching, and standardizing their use. All these procedures require the cooperation of various professions (linguists, historians, cartographers, geodesists, and geographers), and an interdisciplinary approach is both a precondition and the only possibility for dealing with geographical names qualitatively and successfully. 1.1. Geography and Geographical Names Geography is the science that deals with research of the earth's surface. Geographical names are a component part of the landscape. The research efforts of geographers are directed at determining their distribution and location, accurate and systematic identification according to geographical elements, and classification into types of geographical names. Geographical names pertain to a specifically determined geographical element of the landscape that they thus determine and explain in more detail. The site of a geographical name denotes both a location in a coordinate system and information about altitude. Geographical names are therefore an important means for more accurate orientation since in the field they facilitate the determining of location and the identification individual geographical features and their recognition in a series of features of the same type. Along with this basic task of facilitating orientation in the landscape, names gradually became the means for conveying other varied information about it. Here it is possible to speak of etymological messages, most frequently with geographical and historical themes (for example, the place name Ponikva points to a karstic geomorphological form or hydrological feature, the place name Predmeja points to a location close to a border), or names that provoke associations (for example, Ljubljana as the capital city of Slovenia). More than in the latter, however, the geographer is interested in the link between a geographical name and the landscape, with those features that in many cases gave the object or place its name. Due to the time dimension, such research can tell us much about the former appearance and land use of a certain part of the landscape and about its development. In some places, this connection is quite clear, but in most cases it is somewhat obscure. Contemporary research therefore runs in the opposite direction since we derive the features of the landscape from the geographical name. An example of such research is the typ-ification of geographical names or their classification according to geographical content. We need precise definitions and criteria for systematic distinction and classification. In this type of professional work, we constantly encounter questions of terminology. The solution of such problems is the foundation of every profession, for with the unclear and loose definition of terms comes chaos and misunderstanding in the professional language. Knowledge of geographical names, especially those with universal meanings, can contribute greatly to achieving order and clarity in geographical terminology. Despite its universality, geography also has a national character in every country. The nationality of geography gives it an important role in preserving values that are linked to national existence in a certain space and respect for the cultural and linguistic characteristics of minorities. Here belongs also concern for the correct use of geographical names in all media that present a landscape. In practical terms, this means that we geographers must deal with geographical names with special care and prudence. In Slovenia, topography and the related research of geographical names have a long tradition. The foundations for such work were established by Janez Vajkard Valvasor with his book Glory of the Duchy of Carniola published in 1689. Despite this early beginning, research into geographical names has not been particularly extensive and still offers numerous research possibilities. Undoubtedly, the basic works—especially for studying geographical names in the mountain world—are Henrik Tuma's Imenoslovje Julijskih Alp (1929) and Rudolf Badjura's Terensko izrazoslovje (1953). To these milestones we can also add Roman Savnik's Krajevni leksikon Slovenije, whose first volume (of four) was published in 1968. Along with these three authors, Svetozar Ilešič, Anton Melik, Franc Zelko, Ivan Gams, and others should also be mentioned in a survey of the research. In recent years, Slovene geographers have shown increasing interest in this field. The independence of Slovenia and its membership in the United Nations has undoubtedly contributed to this interest, and concern for greater professionalism, order, and consistency in the use and recording of geographical names has increased. Five geographers work in the governmental Commission for the Standardization of Geographical Names established in 1995, and its current chairman is Milan Orožen Adamič, Ph.D., from the Anton Melik Geographical Institute. 1.2. Cartography and Geographical Names Maps are one of the most frequently used media for conveying geographical information about space. The task of a common geographical map as a minimized picture of a part of the earth's surface is to show the selected area as objectively as possible. Along with the various geographical elements that illustrate the landscape on a map (relief, waters, vegetation, settlements, roads, etc.), geographical names are carriers of information about space as well. They make informing and communication among map users much easier, since geographical names give »life and language« to a map—they are the »key to its understanding« (Peterca, 1974). Despite some past objections that geographical names are not alandscape-form-ing element and are therefore superfluous on maps, in modern cartography geographical names have a position equal to any other geographical element and are a component part of every common geographical map. A geographical name on a map must fulfil the following requirements: • it must clearly belong to a geographical feature shown on the map; • it must be positioned so it is unmistakably clear to which geographical feature it belongs, and at the same time it must not cover other more important elements of the map; • all the geographical names together must reflect the true arrangement and density of the geographical elements of the landscape to which they refer; they must also be clear and easily scanned by the reader; • names must be written in full or in accordance with a cartographic key and must agree with normal spelling and pronunciation. Depending on its purpose, content, and space limitations, a map will never include all the geographical names that exist in a landscape. A consensus is needed on the careful selection and placement of geographical names which then become conventions on the map. The selection and placement of geographical names are also influenced by other map content (for example, relief features), technical requirements (for example, the size and form of letters), and by the established rules and standards of map making. The process of selecting and placing geographical names is therefore professionally a very delicate and important matter since it has a major influence on the final quality and usefulness of a map. The selection of geographical names observes the following rules (Stepanov, 1984): foremost, the geographical names of small landscape features or micronames stand in situ. If there is a common name for a group of individual geographical features, the names of these features are combined under one name (for example, the small hamlets of Dolenje Poljane and Zgornje Poljane appear as the village of Dolenje Poljane). Geographical names can also be shortened (for example, Tuhinj instead of Tuhinjska dolina) or have their explanatory parts omitted (for example, Rinka instead of Rinka Falls). By overestimating the importance of geographical names, an inclination to include too many may lead to overburdening a map with geographical names. In this event, the rest of the content is pushed into the background, and the map will become unclear and loses its quality and meaning. In the same way, an inclination to oversimplify a map can lead to its impoverishment and decreased informativeness. The inclination to distribute geographical names evenly across the entire surface of a map is wrong as well, since geographical names are not equally distributed across a landscape. Given geographical reality, it is logical that geographers often oppose this latter approach, especially its use in practice, since their basic research approach accustoms them to the uniqueness and equality of landscape elements. Geographical names must be correctly placed and arranged on maps. This is especially demanded by the need for exact location or orientation in the landscape. According to the nature of geographical elements, we distinguish point, line, and area placement of geographical names. Problems that frequently occur in placing names on maps include the following: several different names are used for an individual geographical feature; the same geographical name refers to various features; parts of geographical names such as Lower and Upper are often switched; a frequent error with area geo- Figure 1: In modern cartography, geographical names have a position equal to any other geographical element and are a component part of every common geographical map (section from Grintavec page of the 1:25,000-scale Državna topografska karta-National Topographical Map). Slika 1: Zemljepisna imena imajo v sodobni kartografski stroki enakovreden položaj kot ostale geografske prvine in so sestavni del vsakega splošnogeografskega zemljevida (izrez iz Državne topografske karte v merilu 1: 25.000, list Grintavec). graphical names is the expansion of the meaning of a geographical name to include features that the name does not pertain to at all. »It is necessary to deal with geographical names in connection and equality with other geographical elements of a map. Here we should bear in mind that the other elements are the basis on which geographical names depend and to which they can have a harmonious relationship.« (Stepanov, 1984). 1.3. Linguistics Geographical names are the part of the proper-name terminology that comprises half of an individual's vocabulary (Bezlaj, 1967). Although this vocabulary can often be independent (Majdic, 1996), all linguistic categories such as, for example, spelling, morphology (gender, number, declension), syntax (subject-predicate agreement), and word-formation (adjectives; names for residents) touch upon and concern it. According to the fundamental linguistic characteristics, proper-name terminology must comply with general literary language norms in spelling, phonology, accent, morphology, syntax, and word-formation. Because individual geographical names came into general literary use at different times, in different circumstances, and with greater or smaller linguistic competence of those who entered them into the literary language context, their degree of conformity to the norms of the codified language varies greatly, from completely standardized to completely non-literary. Furthermore, later standardization was neither uniform nor coordinated, so that from this point of view the current situation is very heterogeneous. Because of the great dialectal diversity of the Slovene language and the quite late recognition of a uniform literary language in the Slovene linguistic space, the number of colloquially marked geographical names within the Republic of Slovenia is still great even though there have been many attempts over the last hundred years to bring such names closer to the norms of the literary language. The inclination to make colloquial geographical names conform to literary norms has always existed, especially among linguists, though less among geographers, historians, and other researchers. The fact is that explanations of meanings are sometimes simpler and more reliable if we derive them from the colloquial forms of names or their derivatives and the definition of etymological and grammatical rules is also easier even though in practice today the naming image of a geographical name is not recognized. 2. Presentation of the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps Four major European relief units meet and intertwine in Slovenia: the Alps, the Dinaric Alps, and the Pannonian and Adriatic basins. The alpine world in the north of Slovenia is divided into alpine mountains, alpine hills, and alpine plains. The Kamniške-Savinjske Alps are the mountains lying between the Western Karavanke Mountains to the northwest, the Eastern Karavanke Mountains to the north, the Velenje hills to the northeast, the low Ložnik hills and the Savinja River flood plain to the east, and finally the variegated Posavje hills and the Sava River flood plain to the south (Slovenija, Pokrajine in ljudje, p. 26,1998). Our selected region does not cover the entire landscape since it is defined by the natural-geographical regionalization of Slovenia. In the north, the research region includes the region south of the Austrian border; in the west, its border runs along the Jezernica stream and the Kokra River; in the east, the border runs along the Rucnik and Jezera stream, the Savinja River, and the Lucnica Creek; and in the south along the Volovljek stream, the Crna Creek, and the Bistricica stream to the Davovec saddle. The name »Kamniške-Savinjske (Kamnik-Savinja) Alps« was not derived from aliving folk language. The name for this collective landscape is artificial and was introduced in modern times. In the 18th century, the name »Kamniške Alps« (originally »Steiner Alpen« in German) was introduced by Baltasar Hacquet; and almost one hundred years later, the name »Savinjske Alps« (Sannthaler Alpen) was first used by Johannes Frischauf. The highest peaks on the south side are known under the popular name »Grintovci,« and the demarcation »Solčavske Alps« is taken from the last consolidated settlement along the upper course of the Savinja River. In his book Glory of the Duchy of Carniola (1689), Janez Vajkard Valvasor called these mountains »Snežniki« (Schneegebirge). Most recently, the name »Kamniške-Savinjske Alps« has been introduced in the professional literature The hyphenated name is intended to equally designate the two fundamental component parts, the Kamnik Alps and the Savinja Alps, and at the same time draw attention to their union in an inseparable whole. In our study, we use the name »Kamniske-Savinjske Alps« for the entire mountain group, and for individual parts we also use the appropriate regional names (Kamnik Alps, Savinja Alps). Mountains of medium height dominate the Kamniske-Savinjske Alps. Forty-two peaks rise above the height of 2000 meters, the highest being Grintovec (2558 m). The relief is the consequence of the work of glaciers, flowing water, and karstic corrosion. The surface is composed primarily of carbonate rock (there is considerably more limestone than dolomite), and karst phenomena therefore occur in many places. Characteristic features of mountain karst include karren, small channels, kotlices (steep- to vertically-sided dolines partially filled with snow), shafts, and caves, but karst plateaus with no surface streams are the most common (Dleskovška planota, Velika Planina, Kalce, Veliki podi and Mali podi below Grintovec and Skuta). Karst springs appear at the feet of these mountains (for example, the sources of the Kamniška Bistrica and Savinja rivers), and in some places the rivers have carved paths through genuine gorges and deep troughs (Predaselj in the upper reaches of the Kamniška Bistrica or the Savinja Gorge between Luče and Solčava). Figure 2: Relief of the central Kamni{ke-Savinjske Alps Slika 2: Povr{je osredja Kamni{ko-Savinjskih Alp. The Kamniške-Savinjske Alps are dissected by deep, glacially shaped valleys. Examples are the U-shaped Makekova Kočna and Ravenska Kočna valleys in the Jezersko region; on the other side of the Austrian border, the Belska Kočna valley is very similar. All these valleys have flat bottoms and steep sides and above them rise sharp and long crests. The Logarska dolina, Robanov kot, and Matkov kot valleys on the northern side of the mountain group and the Kamniška Bistrica valley on its sunny southern side are very similar. In addition to enormous glacial boulders and the remains of moraines, there is a 1.5-hectare glacier below the north walls of Skuta (2533 m) and Kranjska Rinka (2453 m) that bears witness to the former presence of glaciers. This is the easternmost glacier in the Southern Alps (Južne apneniške Alpe). The waterfalls that drop over former glacial steps are an indirect consequence of glaciation (the 130-meter Cedca Falls in the Makekova Kočna valley and the 90-meter Rinka Falls situated below Okrešelj at the end of the Logarska dolina valley). Numerous cirques also formed along the rocky crests above the valleys. (Kladnik, 1998). Forests contribute significantly to the landscape since Kamniške-Savinjske Alps belong among the most forested regions of Slovenia. Forests occupy almost two thirds of the surface. The timberline extends from 1550 to 1650 meters, while in some places, individual trees grow at altitudes up to 1900 meters. The tim-berline depends on natural circumstances, but undoubtedly man had an important influence, pushing the timberline lower as he created mountain pastures. Older archeological research proved that man lived in the wider region of the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps in the Old Stone Age, for example, in the karst caves of Mokriška jama and Potočka zijalka. Archeological finds in 1995 and 1996 in the Kamnik Alps offered the first insight into settlement in the mountains from the Bronze Age to modern times. So far, however, this research has not provided an answer to who populated the region of the present-day mountain pastures: hunters, miners, or herdsmen (Cevc, 1997). Today, there are 116 villages with somewhat more than 20,000 inhabitants in the entire region of the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps. In the distinctly mountainous region studied, we found twenty-four geographical names belonging to villages. In the more densely settled river valleys at lower altitudes, nucleate villages with nearby hamlets associated with them dominate. We counted twenty-four geographical names for this type of settlement. With increasing altitude and distance from centers of settlement, places become less and less densely built up and solitary homesteads therefore become the typical system of settlement. There are 146 such homesteads in the studied area. Numerous mountain pastures were once especially characteristic of the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps. Some are still preserved and used (Velika Planina and Mala Planina), but the majority (represented by forty-six geographical names) were abandoned long ago. The traditional economic branches of farming (especially stockbreeding), forestry, and tourism are characteristic of Slovenia's mountain areas. Farming is older than the forestry which gradually came to dominate in importance. Tourism began to develop only in the transition at the end of 19th century (Kladnik, 1998). From the administrative, territorial, and political point of view, the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps were not unified. In the period of Austria-Hungary, the intertwined influence of three Austrian provinces— Carinthia (Slovene: Koroška), Carniola (Kranjska), and Styria (Štajerska)—was well established. The traces of the region's former division are evident today not only in the language of its inhabitants but in its geographical names as well (for example, Kranjska Rinka—2453 m, Koroška Rinka—2433 m, Štajerska Rinka— 2289 m, Kranjska Bela, Štajerska Bela, etc.). Today the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps are divided among a number of smaller municipalities. An additional motivation for our research was the abnormal diversity of the landscape—as much in its natural features as in its social factors—that is reflected in the number and type of geographical names. 3. The Purpose and Scope of the Project The main purpose of our work was to create a database of geographical names which we named the Record of Geographical Names of the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps (hereafter »EZIKSA,« an abbreviation of the Slovene »Evidenca zemljepisnih imen Kamniško-Savinjskih Alp«). EZIKSA should contain: • all geographical names in the selected region that occur on maps, in the literature, or were acquired during fieldwork; • data about the location of an individual geographical name, geographical classification or type of a geographical name, an identification number, and notes about peculiarities and variations in the transcription of the name in different sources; • the list of the occurrence of a geographical name on maps and in the literature (index) and the development of names (chronology) with all known variations; • a record of geographical names in dialectal and accent variations. EZIKSA should enable: • uniform information about the geographical names in the selected region; • standardization of geographical names, especially those that refer to macro and mezzo geographical features; • further geographical, linguistic, and cartographic research with the aim of resolving open questions. 4. Methodology of the project The methodology of the project included preparation and the collection, analysis, and evaluation of data pertaining to geographical names in the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps. Preparation and the collection of data included: • setting up EZIKSA with data obtained from various sources; • verifying and augmenting data, and • resolving open questions. Obtaining data As the basis of the EZIKSA database, we used geographical names obtained from the six pages of the 1:25,000-scale Državna topografska karta (National Topographical Map) assembled by the Geodetics Office of the Republic of Slovenia (Geodetska uprava republike Slovenije) in the framework of the overall Evidenca zemljepisnih imen project (EZI—Record of Geographical Names). The pages cover Preddvor, Zgornje Jezersko, Solčava, Spodnje Jezersko, Grintavec, and Podvolovjek (the page title »Grintavec« is incorrect; it should be »Grintovec«). Every geographical name in EZI is described with several notations; according to the purpose of our research, we elected to include the following notations for individual geographical names in EZIKSA: location data (the title of the column in the table: Y..z and X..z), a uniform identifier of the feature (I_D), the code for the type of geographical name (SIFRA), and the geographical name or part of the geographical name that appears on the map (NAPIS). Location data refers to the Gauss-Krueger rectangular coordinate system derived from the Gauss-Krueger cylindrical projection. In this projection, the y-axis is the equator and the x-axis is a meridian. The starting meridian for our country is the 15th meridian. We transformed the data into a form that made it possible to work with the Word and Excel programs in the Microsoft Windows operating system and arranged them into a five-column table. As an example, we present the geographical name Bistričica: TABLE 1: A SAMPLE ENTRY FROM EVIDENCA ZEMLJEPISNIH IMEN KAMNIŠKO-SAVINJSKIH ALP. PREGLEDNICA 1: DELNA EVIDENCA ZEMLJEPISNIH IMEN KAMNIŠKO-SAVINJSKIH ALP. Y..z X..z I_D šifra Napis 467183 124686 81 2101 Bistričica Figure 3: The research area extends across six pages of the 1:25,000-scale Državna topografska karta (National Topographical Map): Spodnje Jezersko (1), Zgornje Jezersko (2), Solčava (3), Preddvor (4), Grintavec (5), and Podvolovljek (6). Slika 3: Območje raziskave obsega naslednje liste Državne topografske karte v merilu 1: 25.000: Spodnje Jezersko (1), Zgornje Jezersko (2), Solčava (3), Preddvor (4), Grintavec (5) in Podvolovljek (6). We omitted geographical names from the table that were not within the studied region. Although the border of the region runs mostly across the natural features (especially water courses and mountain ridges), in the valleys we kept the geographical names of all geographical features that occur in their bottoms (disregarding the border which ran along the biggest water course). In this way, we at least partially achieved a landscape uniformity, since it would not make sense to include the geographical features on the left bank of a river that belongs to our selected region and not the geographical features from the right bank. When including names in EZIKSA, we followed the rule that every geographical name of a real geographical feature should be entered only once, in spite of the fact that it occurs more often on maps or in the literature. Data about such more frequent occurrences is noted in the index. After omitting the names that are not in the selected region and the names with frequent occurrences, we obtained a partial EZIKSA. Augmenting and verifying data Then followed the stage of verifying and augmenting the data on geographical names included in EZIKSA. This involved a detailed inspection of the basic maps and the literature. Because the total bibliographic material about the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps is so extensive, it was necessary to make a careful selection of basic and auxiliary sources. The quality of the research depended to a great extent on this selection. As basic map sources, we included 1:5,000 or 1:10,000 scale maps from Temeljni topografski načrti (altogether 22 pages), two mountain maps for Grintovci (1:25,000, 1994) and the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps (1:50,000, 1996), and maps from Atlas Slovenije (1:50,000, 1992). As basic cartographic sources, we also employed the Jožefinski vojaški zemljevidi (1:28,800-scale Austrian military maps, 1763-1787) and maps from the Franciscan Cadaster of 1826. The basic written sources were selected on the basis of their professionalism or reliability, authenticity, and usefulness, which depended on the purpose of these works (regional monographs, basic research, travel guides, etc.). We carefully studied eleven selected works by eight authors and entered the information about geographical names in EZIKSA. Further written sources were used in the second stage of verification when we cross-checked individual names. Examination of maps During the examination of basic and auxiliary maps, we considered and compared: • whether a geographical name on the map in the selected region was already included in the partial EZIKSA; • whether the transcription on the map matched the name in the partial EZIKSA morphologically and in spelling; • the location of the geographical feature to which a geographical name belongs (coordinates in the Gauss-Krueger coordinate system and the absolute altitude); • the geographical classification of the feature or the type of name (on the basis of the code of types). If a geographical name was already in EZIKSA, we merely augmented the data in the second to last column of the table with a note of the source where the geographical name appeared. If not, all the available data about the new geographical name was entered in EZIKSA. The name on the map must match the name in EZIKSA. All name variations and any differences were noted especially. When verifying locations, we were careful to match the situation on the map with the situation in the partial EZIKSA, and at the same time we checked the placement of the name relative to the geographical feature it denoted. In EZIKSA, the location date given at the beginning of the entry—y and x axes—pertain to the location of the first letter in the geographical name on the map. Determining absolute altitudes proved very problematic. The geodesically measured altitudes of geographical features given in various sources frequently differ. There is also difficulty entering data about absolute altitude for those geographical features whose geographical names are new entries in EZIKSA. The problem stems as much from the scale of the map and the related distances as it does from the nature of the geographical features (for example, whether to mark relief features with their lower, upper, or both borders—furthermore, in nature both borders are usually debatable or changeable—or even possbily with a mathematically calculated average altitude). We therefore entered in EZIKSA only data about the absolute altitude of geographical features that referred to the measured altitude points. From the viewpoint of geographical research, the most important work was the classification or typifi-cation of names. This was done by comparing the inscriptions of geographical name on the maps with data on the types of geographical names in the partial EZIKSA that had been previously determined by the collectors of geographical names for EZI in accordance with an established code system (Evidenca zemljepisnih imen, 1996). The inscriptions of some geographical features are defined by a cartographic key (established topographic symbols, the colour of the inscription, and the choice and size of the font). For other geographical names, it was necessary to classify the type of name on the basis of available landscape information on the maps; however, our knowledge of the terrain was also extremely important. There are, of course, more geographical features in a landscape than the code system and cartographic key cover, and professional interpretation is therefore essential. For our needs, the basic code system was augmented or further divided (see Table 2). TABLE 2: AUGMENTED CODE SYSTEM OF TYPES OF NAMES. PREGLEDNICA 2: DOPOLNJENI ŠIFRANT TIPOV. 1000 PLACE NAMES 1100 DOMICILONYMS 1101 Naselje, mesto; village, town 1102 Zaselek, del naselja; hamlet, part of hamlet 1200 DOMUSONYMS 1201 Domačija; homestead 1202 Cerkev, sakralni objekt; church, sacral object 1203 Pomemben objekt; important building 12031 Planina; mountain pasture 12032 Turistični objekt; tourist object 12033 Planinska pot; mountain trail 12034 Vodni objekt; water feature 12035 Večji gospodarski objekt; larger nonresidential building 12036 Drugi objekt; other feature 2000 HYDRONYMS 2100 POTAMONYMS 2101 Stalni in nestalni tok, permanent and periodic watercourse 21011 Stalni tok (potok, reka); permanent watercourse (stream, river) 21012 Nestalni tok (hudournik); periodic watercourse (torrent) 2102 Izvir; spring 2103 Slap, slapišče; waterfall, system of waterfalls 2200 LIMNONYMS 2201 Jezero; lake 2202 Manjša stoječa voda, kal, lokev; small standing water, pond, pool 2203 Ledenik, snežišče, snežna tvorba; glacier, snowfield, snow formation 3000 ORONYMS 3100 ORONYMS 3101 Gorovje, hribovje, gričevje; mountains, hills, low hills 3102 Vrh vzpetine, vzpetina, planota; peak, elevation, plateau 3103 Sedlo, prelaz; saddle, pass 3104 Del vzpetine, pobočje, hrbet, greben; part of elevation, hillslope, ridge, crest 3105 Dolina, soteska, vintgar, globel; valley, gorge, ravine, dell 3106 Stene in stenske oblike (raz, steber, kamin, streha, polica); wall and wall forms (spur, pillar, chimney, overhang, shelf) 3107 Udornica, brezno, kraška jama, zijalka; collapse doline, shaft, karst cave, cliff cave 3108 Okno, luknja, naravni most, osamljena skala; window, hole, natural bridge, isolated rock formation 3109 Grapa, žleb, graben, jarek; mountain gorge, gully, gully, ditch 3110 Tektonske oblike; tectonic formations 3111 Krnica, okrešelj, kočna; cirque, cirque, U-shaped glacial valley 3112 Morene, balvani; moraine, boulders 3113 Kraški podi; karst plateau 3114 Suha dolina; dry valley 3115 Vrtača, konta; doline, high mountain uvala 3116 Melišče, kamniti plaz, podor, odlom; scree, landslide, rockfall, rockslide 4000 HORONYMS 4100 REGIONYMS 4101 Krajinski del, ledina, predel; landscape part, piece of land, section 4102 Gozdni predel; forest section The code system has a tree hierarchy and is expandable and independent of map scales. On the first (highest) levels, it defines the type and subtype of a geographical name, and on the third level, the type of the geographical feature. The code system of types was prepared with the help of definitions and examples; Figure 4: Velika Planina on the Velika planina plateau is the highest settlement in Slovenia. According to the code types of geographical names, it belongs under type 1000—Place Names, subtype 1100—Domicilonyms, subtype 1101 —Village, town (photography Borut Peršolja). Slika 4: Velika Planina na planoti Velike planine je najvišje ležeče samostojno naselje v Sloveniji. Po šifrantu tipov zemljepisnih imen sodi v tip 1000 Imena krajev, podtip 1100 Domicilonimi in tip objekta 1101 Naselje, mesto (fotografija Borut Peršolja). Figure 5: Along with Krvave (Rdeče) lokve on the Kalce plateau below the Kalški greben ridge, this lake is the only high mountain lake in the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps. There are several names for this lake: Vodotočno jezero, Vodotočje, Vodotočnik. Which is most appropriate? According to the code types of geographical names, it belongs under type 2201 (photography Borut Peršolja). Slika 5: Jezero, ki leži na Dleskovški planoti vvišini 1810m je poleg Krvave (Rdeče) lokve na planoti Kalce pod Kalškim grebenom edino visokogorsko jezero v Kamniško-Savinjskih alpah. Za jezero je poznanih več imen: Vodotočno jezero, Vodotočje, Vodotočnik. Katero ime je najbolj ustrezno? Po šifrantu ga uvrščamo v tip 2201 (fotografija Borut Peršolja). — - Figure 6: The small channels, kotlices, and shafts that dissect the surface of Velikipodibelow Mount Skuta are characteristic features of the high mountain karst. According to the code types of geographical names, it belongs under type 3113 (photography Borut Peršolja). Slika 6: Z žlebiči, kotlići in brezni razčlenjeno površje Velikih podov pod Skuto je značilen primer visokogorskega krasa. Uvrščamo ga v tip 3113 (fotografija Borut Peršolja). Figure 7: The geographical name Podni is a landscape name that marks the flat section at the end of the glacially formed Makekova kočna valley below the Cedca waterfall. According to the code types of geographical names, it belongs under type 4101: landscape part, piece of land, section (photography Borut Peršolja). Slika 7: Zemljepisno ime Podni je pokrajinsko ime, ki označuje zatrepni ploski del ledeniško preoblikovane doline Makekove kočne pod slapom Cedca. Gre za tip 4101, kamor uvrščamo (po)krajinske dele, ledine in predele (fotografija Borut Peršolja). however, the classification beyond despute of all geographical features was impossible (for example, under what category to classify Zeleniške špice: among mountains—type 3102—or among ridges—type 3104?) All the data about an individual geographical name for which variations were found during the verification process (for example, in the inscription of a name on a map and in the partial EZIKSA, different data about location, etcd.) were especially marked in EZIKSA and on the map as well. Further inquiries were made later in the second stage of examination. During this stage of the research, we also examined older maps. As historical sources, we used the Jožefin-ski vojaški zemljevidi (1:28,800-scale Austrian military maps, 1763-1787) and maps from the Franciscan Cadaster (1826) provided by the Archives of the Republic of Slovenia. We copied geographical names from the maps, but due to the difficulty deciphering inscriptions that were barely legible in some places, we entered all these names in capital letters in EZIKSA. Due to the various scales of the maps and the German inscription of names, it was frequently difficult to recognize today's geographical features. On the basis of comparison, such geographical names were assigned to the closest feature from the Državna topografska karta, and controversial locations were indicated in the Notes column of the table. Examination of the literature The literature on the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps is very extensive, and we included 300 items on our list of written sources, not counting all of the articles from the one hundred Planinski vestnik annuals published since 1895. We first carefully read each written source and entered every occurrence of a geographical name in an index of geographical names. The majority of the literature have appended lists of geographical names, and these served as an additional control. In the literature we also encountered geographical names that had not been entered in EZIKSA. These were mostly the names of minor landscape features that make orientation much easier for an observant visitor but are not on the maps. Since determining their exact locations is not possible from the descriptions, in stating the location only the quadrant where the name occurred was given. The exact location could only be specified in the field. We did not include in EZIKSA the names of climbing routes, even though there are many of them in the mountain world and in their own way they represent a part of the landscape inaccessible to most of people. No professional classification of such geographical names is found in the literature. We also came across two important older articles by Kopač (1946, 1947) and Kunaver (1956). In his article (published in several parts), Kopač collected geographical names in their original form, particularly from the south side of the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps, in a list of phonetically transcribed geographical names and with appended maps with the names placed in the landscape. Due to the phonetic inscription of the names, there were difficulties entering the data in EZIKSA since a modified software program would be required. As we did not have this program, we were unable to include these names in EZIKSA. Kunaver's article contributes a list of 211 geographical names. They are partly standardized already. Unfortunately, the names are not pinpointed on a map or in any sketches, although Kunaver mentions a »specialist 1:25,000 map.« It will be necessary to examine Kunaver's article more thoroughly and enter the resulting data in EZIKSA. In the second stage of examination, we directed our attention to solving open questions on all the specially cited information about individual geographical names in the partial EZIKSA (different locations, divergent spellings on the maps and in the literature, controversial types of names, etc.). The examination and augmenting was carried out with the aid of auxiliary maps (22 maps were used), auxiliary literature (more than 100 different items), and fieldwork. For classifying the types of geographical names, the analysis of aerial photographs was of immense help, and tourist guides also proved especially valuable. Due to their accurate descriptions, many questions about classifying the type of a geographical name were resolved. Fieldwork In the opinion of many, fieldwork is the basis of any kind of geographical approach in studying geographical names. Through fieldwork, we expected: • to check controversial data and add missing data for names in EZIKSA; • to collect geographical names not yet entered in EZIKSA. We went into the field seven times, mostly to the south side of Grintovci (Velika Planina, Planjava, the Kamniška Bistrica valley, Kalce) with one day spent in Logarska dolina, Robanov kot, Jezersko, and Pokokrje (the area along the Kokra River). In the field, we successfully verified over one hundred names. This, of course, does not suggest that fieldwork is unnecessary. On the contrary, it is necessary and reasonable, but only with careful material and organizational preparation. In our case, the fieldwork did not provide us with the results we expected for several reasons: • The research area is quite large and effective fieldwork would require more time and an extremely systematic approach. Thus, we should have gone into the field only after having completing the examination of the maps and the literature. However, because this examination was very time-consuming, we went to into the field before finishing it. • Fieldwork primarily involves establishing contacts with local residents, particularly with those who are economically, proprietarily, or in some other way closely connected to the individual parts of a landscape. However, time is needed to establish contacts and win confidence. One visit usually did not produce very promising results since we lost a great deal of time explaining and justifying the purpose of our work. Most of the people we spoke to found it hard to find time to talk, let alone accompany us in the field. • Those who know the landscape best, especially its details, are usually simple, unscientific people. Our approach (as much in its terminology as in its exactness) was often too demanding for the local farmers or herdsmen. We still have much to learn in this field. • Kunaver's warning of fifteen years ago (1984) that time would soon be extremely short for systematically collecting names due to social and economic changes is probably already reality. There are fewer and fewer people who have daily contact with the mountain landscape. With the development of mountaineering, the number of people visiting the mountains is certainly growing, but this does not apply to the entire region; furthermore, these visitors mostly frequent previously researched and accessible regions. • Cooperation with nonresidents familiar with individual areas proved successful, but since in this case the method of showing photographs, monographs, slides, and maps dominated, only modest results were achieved relative to the time invested. The method, scope, and level of verification are noted in the »Other Sources« and »Notes« columns of the table. TABLE 3: EXAMPLES OF DATA RECORDED IN THE »OTHER SOURCES« COLUMN OF EZIKSA. PREGLEDNICA 3: KAKO BEREMO PODATEK ZAPISAN V POLJU OZIROMA STOLPCU »DRUGI VIRI« V EZIKSA. Other sources 1, F 237 1 = the note is the same as on DTK; Vodnik Kamniške inSavinjske Alpe, Ficko, 1982, p. 237 Belšakova planina, F 227 inscription = the note is different from DTK; Vodnik in Savinjske Alpe, Ficko, 1982, p. 227 Geographical names that remained controversial are specially marked in EZIKSA with an asterisk (*). We later used EZIKSA prepared in this manner (see tables 4 and 5) for the final research steps and interpretation of results. TABLE 4: LEGEND FOR THE EZIKSA TABLE. PREGLEDNICA 4: LEGENDA K PREGLEDNICI EZIKSA. Abbreviation Meaning or explanation ST consecutive number of geographical name in alphabetical order IME correct transcription of a geographical name Y ... z coordinate in meters (east to west direction) X ... z coordinate in meters (south to north direction h) ID unique identifier of a feature SIF type of geographical feature NV height above sea level 1.25,000 inscription on1:25,000-scale Državna topografska karta JOŽEF. IME name on Jožefinski vojaški zemljevid FRANCI. KAT. name on map from Franciscan Cadaster of 1826 1:10,000 inscription on1:5,000- or 1:10,000-scale Temeljni topografski načrt GRINTOVCI inscription on 1:25,000-scale Grintovci map DRU. VIRI quotations from literature or index of names OPOMBA information on different locations, errors, etc. 5. Results and Conclusions We included 1476 geographical names in EZIKSA. Of these, 1160 geographical names have been checked using geographical methods to the point that the linguists can examine them further. After such further examination and correction, these names can become subject to standardization. Controversial geographical names (316 or 21.5% of all the names) are specially marked in EZIKSA and must be examined more thoroughly. Figure 8: Geographical names can reveal the former appearance and land use of an area. An example is Goli vrh (»gol« means »nude, bare, bald, naked«) above Ravenska Kočna: the name indicates barren or exhausted ground (due to grazing) although today the area is quite overgrown due to the smaller scale of pasturing operations (photography Borut Peršolja). Slika 8: Zemljepisna imena nam lahko razkrivajo nekdanjo podobo in rabo tal v pokrajini. Primer takšne sporočilnosti je Goli vrh nad Ravensko kočno: ime opozarja na neporaščen oziroma zaradi paše iztrebljen svet, ki pa je danes zaradi manjšega obsega paše že skorajda v celoti zaraščen (fotografija Borut Peršolja). TABLE 5: A SAMPLE EXTRACT FROM THE EZIKSA TABLE. PREGLEDNICA 5: IZPIS PODATKOV IZ DELA PREGLEDNICE EZIKSA. ŠT IME Y...z X...z ID ŠIF NV 1.25,000 JOZEF.IME FRANCI.KAT. 1:10,000 GRINTOVCI DRU.VIRI 278 Jamski sistem 475000 135000 1900 3107 Sistem Molička peč (Zadnikovo brezno, Molička peč Ledena devica, Brezno 1-51, Videkovo brezno), PV 94/12; Jamski sistem Molička peč, GI 135 279 Janeščeva vas 468599 124887 80 1102 Janežičeva vas PRI ANISTISCHEN 1 Janeščeva vas ali Kurja vas, KL (Kurja vas) 280 Jarčja zelenica 470000 135000 3106 Jarčja zelenica 1 281 Jaška 473013 131224 3102 Jaška 282 Javorje 475000 139000 4101 Javorje, RO 338 283 Javornik 463351 138466 2061 3102 1399 Javornik 284 Jeberski most 479000 137000 12034 Jeberski most 285 Ječmenovec 462000 139000 3102 Ječmenovec 286 Jekler 478000 131000 1201 Jekler 287 Jelenski graben 476004 137839 3109 Jelenski graben 1 1, RO 280 288 Jelenski hriber 476000 138000 4101 Jelenski hribar Jelenski hriber, K, A; 1, RO 280 289 Jelše 472000 129000 4101 Jelše 290 Jelšev konfin 475000 127000 4101 Jelšev konfin 291 Jenk 463000 140000 1201 Jenk JENKO 292 Jenkov graben 463369 140117 2007 21012 Jenkov graben 293 Jenkova kasarna 463000 140000 12032 950 Jenkova kasarna na Ravneh, F 56 294 Jenkova planina 465982 139014 1948 12031 1495 Jenkova planina NA MALI SEDEL planina Jenk, KO 70/5 295 Jenkove trate 464407 140808 1951 4101 1761 Jenkove trate IENKO 296 Jeras 470433 125607 29 1201 Jeras 297 Jerčetov ker 478067 138005 3109 Jerčetov ker Jerčetov kir 298 Jerebičje 468575 140294 1936 3102 Jerebičje 1, F 188 299 Jerebičje 478000 134000 4102 Jerebičje 300 Jerij 479125 133787 1201 Jerij Jurij, F 211 301 Jerin skok 469434 128114 84 3102 Jerin skok 1, druga lega 1, NZ 43 302 Jerin skok 470000 128000 4101 Jerin skok 303 Jermanca 468091 132594 82 4101 Jermanca JERMANZE, NA JERMANZA 1 304 Jermanca 466000 131000 4101 Jermanca 305 Jermanov turn 465000 131000 1 3102 Jermanov turn 1, kota 1951 kota 1793 A 306 Jermanova vrata 469112 135240 88 3103 1903 Jermanova vrata NA SEDEL ODER SATTLA 1 Kamniško sedlo Kamniško sedlo K0 82; Kamniško (Kamniško sedlo) (Kamniško sedlo) (Jermanova vrata) sedlo, S117 (Vsedli na Brani); Sedlo, FH 74 307 Jermenci 466000 130000 3106 Jermenci OPOMBA 1 - napačna lega, prav G TABLE 6: THE NUMBER OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES ACCORDING TO THE CODE OF NAME TYPES. PREGLEDNICA 6: ŠTEVILO ZEMLJEPISNIH IMEN PO ŠIFRANTU TIPOV IMEN. 1000 PLACE NAMES 355 1100 DOMICILONYMS 48 1101 Naselje, mesto; village, town 24 1102 Zaselek, del naselja; hamlet, part of hamlet 24 1200 DOMUSONYMS 307 1201 Domačija; homestead 146 1202 Cerkev, sakralni objekt; church, sacral object 14 1203 Pomemben objekt; important building 147 12031 Planina; mountain pasture 46 12032 Turistični objekt; tourist object 61 12033 Planinska pot; mountain trail 9 12034 Vodni objekt; water feature 10 12035 Večji gospodarski objekt; larger nonresidential building 3 12036 Drugi objekt; other feature 18 2000 HYDRONYMS 111 2100 POTAMONYMS 101 2101 Stalni in nestalni tok, permanent and periodic watercourse 71 21011 Stalni tok (potok, reka); permanent watercourse (stream, river) 41 21012 Nestalni tok (hudournik); periodic watercourse (torrent) 30 2102 Izvir; spring 19 2103 Slap, slapišče; waterfall, system of waterfalls 11 2200 LIMNONYMS 10 2201 Jezero; lake 2 2202 Manjša stoječa voda, kal, lokev; small standing water, pond, pool 4 2203 Ledenik, snežišče, snežna tvorba; glacier, snowfield, snow formation 4 3000 oronYMS 745 3100 ORONYMS 3101 Gorovje, hribovje, gričevje; mountains, hills, low hills 23 3102 Vrh vzpetine, vzpetina, planota; peak, elevation, plateau 272 3103 Sedlo, prelaz; saddle, pass 37 3104 Del vzpetine, pobočje, hrbet, greben; part of elevation, hillslope, ridge, crest 124 3105 Dolina, soteska, vintgar, globel; valley, gorge, ravine, dell 42 3106 Stene in stenske oblike (raz, steber, kamin, streha, polica); wall and wall forms (spur, pillar, chimney, overhang, shelf) 50 3107 Udornica, brezno, kraška jama, zijalka; collapse doline, shaft, karst cave, cliff cave 29 3108 Okno, luknja, naravni most, osamljena skala; window, hole, natural bridge, isolated rock formation 35 3109 Grapa, žleb, graben, jarek; mountain gorge, gully, gully, ditch 64 3110 Tektonske oblike; tectonic formations 1 3111 Krnica, okrešelj, kočna; cirque, cirque, U-shaped glacial valley 31 3112 Morene, balvani; moraine, boulders 9 3113 Kraški podi; karst plateau 4 3114 Suha dolina; dry valley 4 3115 Vrtača, konta; doline, high mountain uvala 7 3116 Melišče, kamniti plaz, podor, odlom; scree, landslide, rockfall, rockslide 13 4000 HORONYMS 265 4100 REGIONYMS 4101 Krajinski del, ledina, predel; landscape part, piece of land, section 250 4102 Gozdni predel; forest section 15 On the basis of studying various maps and the literature, we may say that the geographical names in the Kamniške-Savinjske Alps experienced the same development as geographical names elsewhere in present-day Slovene territory. The oldest are the names of rivers and mountain peaks followed by the names of set- tlements; through intensive economic use (pasturing, hunting, forestry, mining, etc.) other features, in particular smaller relief features, acquired names as well. Some geographical names, especially the names of mountain pastures, indicate former land use. An example is Goli vrh (»gol« means »nude, bare, bald, naked«) above Ravenska kočna: the name indicates barren or exhausted ground (due to grazing) although today the area is quite overgrown due to the smaller scale of pasturing operations. The majority of the geographical names appear on the maps. We discovered that the various maps do not use a uniform inventory of names. Differences occur not only in the number of geographical names on the map (even on maps of the same scale) but also in the characteristics of the name (location, inscription on the map). Many names, particularly those pertaining to micro geographical features, are preserved in the literature. The examination of the literature is not yet finished, and therefore not all names are included in EZIKSA. Individual sections of the studied region (for example, the southern and northern parts of the Krvavec, Pokokrje, and Jezersko mountain group) were not included in any thorough recording and study of geographical names in the past. Undoubtedly, there are still many undiscovered geographical names in these areas that survive only among the local people. Because the way of life of the local people for whom the economic space of the mountains once signified the most important or at least a supplementary source of income is changing, geographical names are dying out and we will be unable to save them from oblivion. Fieldwork, the only effective method for collecting such geographical names, must be very systematic and long-term. A major contribution to their consistent and correct use would be to heed the often repeated recommendation that a list of the geographical names employed should be added to every map and to observe the requirement to cite the authorship and the sources used (Kunaver, 1984; Stepanov, 1984). TABLE 7: GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES APPEARING ON MAPS OF VARIOUS SCALES. PREGLEDNICA 7: ZEMLJEPISNA IMENA, KI SE POJAVLJAJO NA ZEMLJEVIDIH RAZLIČNIH MERIL. Map scale Geographical names (alphbetical order) 1:250,000 and 1:300,000 Ambrož pod Krvavcem, Baba, Bistričica, Crna, Crna pri Kamniku, Grintovec, Jezerski vrh, Kališe, Kalška gora, Kamniška Bistrica, Kamniška Bistrica, Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe, Kočna, Kokra, Kokra, Kranjski Rak, Krivčevo, Krvavec, Logarska Dolina, Logarska dolina, Luče, Lučnica, Matkov Kot, Mrzla gora, Ojstrica, Podveža, Podvolovljek, Slap Rinka, Robanov Kot, Savinja, Skuta, Solčava, Spodnje Fužine, Spodnje Jezersko, Stahovica, Stiška vas, Velika Baba, Velika planina, Veliki vrh, Zgornje Fužine, Zgornje Jezersko, Županje Njive 1:400,000 and 1:500,000 Ambrož pod Krvavcem, Brana, Črna pri Kamniku, Gradišče, Grintovec, Jezerski vrh, Jezersko, Kališe, Kamniška Bistrica, Kamniška Bistrica, Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe, Kočna, Kokra, Kokra, Krvavec, Logarska Dolina, Logarska dolina, Luče, Lučnica, Matkov Kot, Mrzla gora, Ojstrica, Pavličev vrh, Podvolovljek, Podvolovljek, Podveža, Slap Rinka, Robanov Kot, Savinja, Skuta, Solčava, Spodnje Jezersko, Stahovica, Velika planina, Zgornja Savinjska dolina, Zgornje Jezersko 1:750,000 Crna pri Kamniku, Grintovec, Kamniška Bistrica, Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe, Kokra, Luče, Ojstrica, Solčava, Zgornje Jezersko 1: 900,000, 1:1.000,000, and Grintovec, Jezerski vrh, Kamniška Bistrica, Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe, Kokra, Logarska dolina, Luče, 1:1,500,000 Ojstrica, Savinja, Solčava, Stahovica, Zgornje Jezersko 1:2,200,000, 1:3,000,000 Grintovec, Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe In conducting our geographical research, we encountered a number of questions and problems well known to previous researchers: In determining the location of a geographical name, data about the coordinates of a geographical feature to which the geographical name refers can be controversial; differences also exist in the data on absolute altitude. Determining locations through fieldwork could often correct some inaccuracies that occur in particular with geographical names denoting larger areas (for example, mountain pastures, forest regions). Modern navigation systems for determining the location of objects on the earth (GPS) can aid in this work, but this method of collecting data is quite time-consuming and expensive. Figure 9: Geographical names that refer to geographical surface features pose the greatest problem for cartographers. Planina Ovčarija, which lies above the tree line on the slope that stretches between Mount Košutna (1974m) and Mount Mokrica (1853m), had a herdsmen's station in a deep cirque on the western edge of the slope while the pasture area stretched right to the top of the ridge. Positioning the name on a map depends on defining the area to which the geographical name refers: the herdsmen's station or the entire pasture area (photography Borut Peršolja). Slika 9: Največ težav povzroča kartografom zapisovanje zemljepisnih imen, ki zaznamujejo površinske geografske objekte. Planina Ovčarija, ki leži nad gozdno mejo na pobočjih med Košutno (1974 m) in Mokrico (1853 m), je imela pastirske stanove v globoki krnici na zahodnem robu pobočja, pašno območje pa je segalo vse do vršnega grebena. Iz vprašanja kaj obsega zemljepisno ime (pastirski stan ali pašno območje, ki pripada planini?) izhaja tudi njegova postavitev na zemljevidu (fotografija Borut Peršolja). A great number of names exist that have many spoken and written variations. Their final classification is only possible on the basis of careful examination during all three stages of research: the examination of maps and of the literature, and fieldwork. This process can be very time-consuming, and the final decisions are frequently imposed. In such cases, it is probably better to use the variation of the name chosen by the author himself according to the context. In Slovene, the rules for placing common nouns at the beginning of geographical names are still not uniformly resolved, and several questions arise. Are common nouns a component or generic part of a geographical name (Slap Rinka - Waterfall Rinka)? In which cases will an established topographic convention on a map replace the common noun or is it still necessary to write the common noun before the rest of the geographical name? How to write the common noun: Slap Rinka or slap Rinka? There is no rule about this, and usage depends mostly on the level of general knowledge of the feature (the longer a geographical feature has been widely known, the less need there is to include the noun at all) as well as on the informative use of a geographical name. If a geographical name must function as a key to reading a map, it is better to choose the longer and thus clearer name. In the classification of the geographical content to which an individual geographical name refers, there are problems as well. Classification into the types of geographical names and geographical features is done according to EZI guidelines. One of the main goals of typification is to link the types of geographical names with the cartographic key; a uniform index of geographical names will also make possible a new view of the diverse landscape of Slovenia, which is also reflected in its geographical names. Because an accurate and uniform classification of geographical features according to the present coding is only possible for Figure 10: The border between Slovenia and Austria runs south along the ridge across Baba and Ledinski vrh to Storžek. On the 1:25,000-scale Državna topografska karta (National Topographical Map), Slovene names appear first, followed by Austrian names if they exist. We also use different lettering to distinguish between official names such as »Savinjsko sedlo/Sanntaler Sattel« and unofficial names such as »Velika Baba (Baba).« New geographical names can also appear. The distinctive tower to the left of Jesersko sedlo in the photograph was given the name »Storžek« in 1994. The new name was proposed by Dr. Stanko Klinar when inquiries among the local people failed to awaken any memories of an old or indigenous name for this geographical feature (photography Borut Peršolja). Slika 10: Po grebenu čez Babe, Ledinski vrh in južno od Storžka poteka državna meja med Slovenijo in Avstrijo. Na listih Državne topografske karte v merilu 1: 25.000 pišemo najprej slovenska imena, tuja imena pa zapisujemo le, če obstajajo. Pri tem z različnim zapisom ločujemo uradna imena kot na primer Savinjsko sedlo/Sanntaler Sattel oziroma neuradna imena Velika Baba (Baba). V pokrajini pa se lahko pojavljajo tudi nova zemljepisna imena. Izraziti stolp na fotografiji levo od Jezerskega sedla je svoje ime- Storžek- dobil leta 1994. Dobil ga je na predlog dr. Stanka Klinarja šele, ko poizvedovanja med domačini niso obudila iz spomina starega oziroma prvotnega poimenovanja (fotografija Borut Peršolja). a part of the coded features, this image may be quite blurred. For example, the geographical name Požar (a hill above Kamniška Bistrica) can be classified as part of a mountain (code 3104) or as a forest region (4107); in a similar way, we can classify Kamniške planine as a mountain chain (3101) or as mountain pastures from the possessive form »Kamniške« (12031). Typification can therefore operate on the basis of one component of the landscape (relief, vegetation) as is the case with the present coding or according to the regional geography, that is, on the basis of two or more elements (relief and vegetation). In this case, we could classify Požar in the group denoting part of a mountain overgrown with forest. There are many similar transitional classes, and we must therefore give more consideration to a more universal (geographical) classification of geographical names and geographical features. In the EZI guidelines, examples for individual types of features should be augmented by additional examples that to improve the uniformity and consistency of classification. More than a few problems of classification spring from undefined professional or fieldwork terminology. Geographers have still much to do in this sphere. The diverse and often incorrect use of geographical names most frequently and most distinctly appears in the writing of names that should follow spelling norms. It is evident from an examination of the professional literature that we can not treat all names uniformly. All names that we denote as macro or mezzo names certainly should conform to spelling rules. These names have a certain history behind them, they are established, and they are also the most frequently used in speech, on maps, in the literature, etc. Micro names (the names of small landscape features) can also be old but are not in wide common use since they do not appear on maps and very rarely appear in the literature. These names have special value because they were born in the spoken language and are an authentic example of the language of the local population. They should therefore be taken in their original form and only later, when they are included in everyday or at least frequent use, would it be advisable to incorporate them in the literary language. In the opposite case, they should remain written as they first appeared. EZIKSA is designed so that it is possible to extend it and augment it with data not so relevant to our needs but which represents a holistic approach to the study of geographical names. In our opinion, an ideal EZIKSA should contain the following data: NAME Standardized form of name for maps of various scales CHARACTERISTICS OF NAME Location of geographical feature and geographical classification of the type of geographical name DEVELOPMENT OF A NAME Review of development of name on the maps and in the literature with an index of names LINGUISTIC ORIGINAL FORM OF NAME Spelling of name with accents GENERALIZED FORM OF NAME Standardized transcription of name for small scale maps ETYMOLOGY OF NAME Information on the origin of the meaning of name The naming of things and the landscape is a process that has its own development, consequences, and laws. Our actions as well depend on how we name a certain thing. If a word is somehow too loose or imprecise, the thing itself remain questionable to us and our response to it is uncertain and often inappropriate or the name may even trigger a reaction exactly opposite to the one desired. 6. Sources 6.1. Bibliography Badjura, R. 1953: Terensko izrazoslovje. Ljudska geografija. Ljubljana, Državna založba Slovenije. Bezlaj, F. 1967: Eseji o slovenskem jeziku. Ljubljana, 186 strani. Cevc, T. 1997: Davne sledi človeka v Kamniških Alpah. Ljubljana, ZRC SAZU, 107 strani. Evidenca zemljepisnih imen, 1996: Konceptualni, logični in fizični model z Navodilom za vzpostavitev, verzija 2.0. Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije, Ministrstvo za okolje in prostor, Ljubljana. Ficko, P. 1982: Kamniške in Savinjske Alpe. Planinski vodnik, Planinska zveza Slovenije. Kladnik, D. 1998: Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe. Slovenija. Pokrajina in ljudje. Mladinska knjiga, str. 108-121. Kocbek, F., Kos, M., 1894: Vodnik za Savinske planine in najbližjo okolico. Celje, Slovensko planinsko društvo. Kocbek, F. 1903: Savinske planine, vodnik po gorah in dolinah v Savinskih planinah. St. Peter v Savinski dolini, Savinska podružnica Slovenskega planinskega društva. Kocbek, F. 1926: Savinjske Alpe. Celje. Kopač, V. 1940: Razgled z Grintovca. Ljubljana, Akademska skupina SPD. Kopač, V. 1946, 1947: Krajevna imena v Grintovcih. Gore in ljudje, 1946, str. 47-49, 204-209, 1947, str. 28-42. Krajevni leksikon Slovenije, DZS, Ljubljana, 1995, 638 strani. Krajevni leksikon Slovenije, 1. knjiga, Zahodni del Slovenije. Ljubljana, 1968. Krajevni leksikon Slovenije, 2. knjiga, Jedro osrednje Slovenije in njen jugovzhodni del. Ljubljana, 1971. Krajevni leksikon Slovenije, 3. knjiga, Svet med Savinjskimi Alpami in Sotlo. Ljubljana, 1976. Kunaver, J. 1984: O nekaterih problemih zbiranja in uporabe zemljepisnih imen v slovenskih Alpah. Zbornik radova savjetovanja o pitanjima standardizacije geografskih naziva u jezicima naroda I narodnosti SFRJ, Sarajevo, str. 164-170. Kunaver, P. 1959: V Kamniški Bistrici nekdaj. Kamniški zbornik, 5, str. 194-208. Majdič, V. 1996: Razgledi po krajevnih imenih. Rokus, Ljubljana, 290 str. Peterca, M. in ostali, 1974: Kartografija, Vojnogeografski inštitut, Beograd. Slovenija. Pokrajina in ljudje. Mladinska knjiga, 1998. Pollak, B. 1995: Naravne znamenitosti Kamniško-Savinjskih Alp na kamniškem območju. Kamnik. Kamnik, Občina Kamnik. Režek, B. 1959: Stene in grebeni. Planinska zveza Slovenije, Ljubljana. Seidl, F. 1907: Kamniške ali Savinjske Alpe, njih zgradba in njih lice. Ljubljana, Matica slovenska, 255 strani. Slovenija, Pokrajine in ljudje. Ljubljana, 1998. Stepanov, M. 1984: Primena jezika, pisama i pravopisa u geografskim nazivima na našim kartama. Zbornik radova savjetovanja o pitanjima standardizacije geografskih naziva u jezicima naroda i narodnosti SFRJ, Sarajevo, str. 99-126. Stritar, A. 1995: Grintovci- južni pristopi. Planinski vodnik, Ljubljana, 175 strani. Simunovič, P. 1978: Značajke buzetske toponomije, OJ VII, Zagreb, 53-74. Simunovič, P. 1984: Uz diskusiju o zakjučcima. Zbornik radova savjetovanja o pitanjima standardizacije geografskih naziva u jezicima naroda i narodnosti SFRJ, Sarajevo. Tuma, H. 1925: Toponomastika. Geografski vestnik, št. 2, letnik 1. Tuma, H. 1929: Imenoslovje Julijskih Alp. Slovensko planinsko društvo. Ljubljana, 100 strani. 6.2 Maps 6.2.1. Older Maps Josephinische Landesaufnahme, Innerosterreich, 1:28.800, 1763-1787. Katastral plan der Gemainde, Wisterzhica in Krain, Laibacher Kreis, bezirk Minkendorf, 1826. Katastral plan der Gemainde, Supainenive, Laibacher Kreis, bezirk Minkendorf, 1826. Katastral plan der Gemainde, Sulzbach, In inner Oesterreich, Zillier Kreis, bezirk Oberburg, 1825. Katastral plan der Gemainde, Leutsch dorf, In inner Oesterreich, Zillier Kreis, bezirk Oberburg, 1825. Katastral plan der Gemainde, Ulrichsberg, Laibacher Kreis, bezirk Michelstetten zu Krainburg, 1826. Gemeinde Oberseeland mit enclave Unterseeland im Illyrien, Kreis Klagenfurt bezirk Kappel, 1826. Katastral plan der Gemainde, Kanker, Laibacher Kreis, bezirk Minkendorf, 1826. Katastral plan der Gemainde, Heiligen geist, In inner Oesterreich, Zillier Kreis, Laibacher Kreis, bezirk Oberburg, 1825. 6.2.2. Recent Maps Atlas Slovenije, 1992: Karte na straneh 58, 59, 60, 84, 85 in 86. 1:50,000. Mladinska knjiga in Geodetski zavod Slovenije, Ljubljana. Grintovci, 1:25,000, 2. popravljena in dopolnjena izdaja 1994, Planinska zveza Slovenije. Preddvor, topografska karta 1:25,000, Vojnogeografski institut Beograd, vsebina dopolnjena 1985, tiskano 1986. Spodnje Jezersko, topografska karta 1:25,000, Vojnogeografski institut Beograd, vsebina dopolnjena 1985, tiskano 1987. Zgornje Jezersko, topografska karta 1:25,000, Vojnogeografski institut Beograd, vsebina dopolnjena 1985, tiskano 1987. Solčava, topografska karta 1:25,000, Vojnogeografski institut Beograd, vsebina dopolnjena 1985, tiskano 1987. Grintavec, topografska karta 1:25,000, Vojnogeografski institut Beograd, vsebina dopolnjena 1985, tiskano 1987. Podvolovljek, topografska karta 1:25,000, Vojnogeografski institut Beograd, vsebina dopolnjena 1985, tiskano 1987. Kamniške in Savinjske Alpe, 1:50,000, prva izdaja 1996, izdelal Geodetski zavod Slovenije, Planinska zveza Slovenije. 7. Summary in Slovene - Povzetek Geografski problemi imenoslovja na izbranem primeru Kamnisko-Savinjskih Alp Borut Peršolja 1. Uvod Zemljepisna imena imajo v življenju posameznika in družbe v celoti pomembno vlogo. Človek je moral zaradi boljše predstave o pokrajini, lažjega gibanja ter medsebojnega sporazumevanja, razviti učinkovit sistem razvedanja. Znotraj sistema živijo tudi zemljepisna imena, ki so največkrat nastala z »opredeljevanjem kraja po imenu in imena po kraju« (Tuma 1925). Potrebo po poimenovanju je gnala človekova dejavnost, najsibo to naseljevanje, gospodarjenje ali raziskovanje prostora. S poimenovanjem si je človek pokrajino predstavil in približal, postala je njegov življenjski prostor. Za večino stvari, ki so ga obdajale, je izbral imena domačin - pastir, poljedelec, »ki je natančen, zelo bistroumen opazovalec narave, obdarjen s tenkim čutom za izražanje raznovrstnih oblik in pisanosti površinske odeje našega sveta« (Badjura 1953). Zemljepisna imena nastajajo ves čas, vendar je veliko zemljepisnih imen, zlasti imen voda, gora in krajev, zelo starih in se dolgo ohranjajo. Zaradi zelo razširjene uporabe in stalne več stoletne ali celo tisočletne prisotnosti, so se zemljepisna imena zasidrala v našo zavest kot enakovredni, sestavni del pokrajine. Ob dolgotrajni rabi so nekatera zemljepisna imena izgubila svoj nekdanji stvarni pomen, svojo predmetno in besedotvorno prepoznavnost. Če so jo ohranila, so zaradi svoje sporočilnosti o stanju in rabi prostora v času nastanka in zaradi vloge zanesljivih spremljevalcev procesa preoblikovanja pokrajine od prvobitne do današnje kulturne podobe, lahko eden od temeljev sodobne geografske znanosti. Tista, ki so se ohranila in so v rabi še danes, imajo status zgodovinskih in kulturnih spomenikov in so pomemben del nacionalne kulturne dediščine. Ni si težko predstavljati, da je nekoč bilo vsako ime beseda z občim pomenom. Danes so zemljepisna imena del lastnoimenskega besedja, ki še vedno pomeni kar polovico posameznikovega besedišča (Bezlaj 1967). V jezikovnem pogledu imajo zemljepisna imena cel kup lastnosti in oblik: (pravo)pisno, glasoslovno, na-glasno, oblikoglasno, oblikoslovno, besedotvorno in skladenjsko. Množična vsakodnevna raba, bodisi v govorjeni ali pisni obliki, v številnih sredstvih zasebnega in javnega komuniciranja, narekuje pozorno obravnavo jezikoslovcev in skrb vsakega posameznika za pravilno rabo. Med najbolj uveljavljena sredstva za posredovanje zemljepisnih imen sodijo zemljevidi. Z zapisom zemljepisnega imena na zemljevidu predstavimo geografske in jezikovne lastnosti na enem mestu. Zato nosijo zemljevidi pri stvarnem prikazu pokrajine in zemljepisnih imen v njej, še toliko večjo težo in odgovornost. Zaradi tehničnih omejitev in drugih razlogov zemljevidi ne vsebujejo vseh zemljepisnih imen, ki se nahajajo v pokrajini. Številna zemljepisna imena so ohranjena v različnih pisnih in drugih virih, obstajajo pa tudi imena, ki živijo samo v ustnem izročilu med ljudmi. Ta imena, gre zlasti za imena drobnih pokrajinskih prvin, je moč zbirati samo s terenskim delom. Nakazali smo, da ima problematika raziskovanja zemljepisnih imen več razsežnosti: od čisto praktične, ki se kaže na terenu ob orientaciji v prostoru ali ob vsakodnevni rabi in izgovorjavi imen, do strokovne in znanstvene ravni, kjer pridejo v ospredje težave ob pravilnem in enotnem zapisovanju imen, natančni lokaciji imen in iskanju izvirnih pomenov imena. Zemljepisna imena so rezultat razvoja pokrajine ter razvoja jezika. Dosledno pravilno rabo zemljepisnih imen je moč doseči z zbiranjem zemljepisnih imen, njihovim raziskovanjem in poenotenjem rabe oziroma standardiziranjem. Vsi ti postopki zahtevajo sodelovanje različnih strok (jezikoslovcev, zgodovinar- jev, kartografov, geodetov in geografov), interdisciplinarnost je hkrati pogoj in edina možnost za uspešno in kvalitetno ukvarjanje z zemljepisnimi imeni. 1.1. Geografija in zemljepisna imena Geografija je veda, ki se ukvarja z raziskovanjem zemeljskega površja. Sestavni del pokrajine so tudi zemljepisna imena. Ob tem je raziskovalna vnema geografov usmerjena v njihovo razširjenost in lego, natančno ter sistematično opredeljevanje po geografskih prvinah in razvrščanje v tipe zemljepisnih imen. Zemljepisna imena pripadajo natančno določeni geografski prvini pokrajine, ki jo tako še podrobneje določajo in pojasnjujejo. Lega zemljepisnega imena zajema tako lego v koordinatnem sistemu kot podatek o nadmorski višini objekta. Zato so zemljepisna imena pomembno sredstvo za natančnejšo orientacijo v prostoru, saj na terenu olajšajo ugotavljanje stojišča in identifikacijo posameznih geografskih objektov ter njihovo prepoznavanje v nizu objektov iste vrste. Poleg te temeljne naloge, da nam zemljepisna imena olajšujejo orientacijo v pokrajini, so imena sčasoma postala tudi sredstvo za prenašanje še drugih najrazličnejših informacij o njej. Pri tem gre lahko za etimološka sporočila z najpogosteje geografsko in zgodovinsko vsebino (na primer krajevno ime Ponikva nas opozarja na kraško geomorfološko obliko oziroma hidrološko značilnost, krajevno ime Predme-ja nas seznanja z obmejno lego kraja) ali za izzvane asociativne miselne povezave (na primer Ljubljana, slovensko glavno mesto). Bolj kot slednje, geografa zanima povezanost zemljepisnega imena s pokrajino, s tistimi njenimi značilnostmi, ki so objektu največkrat dale ime. Zaradi časovne dimenzije lahko takšna raziskovanja veliko povedo o nekdanji podobi in rabi tal določenega dela pokrajine oziroma o njenem razvoju. Ponekod je ta zveza zelo jasna, v večini primerov, pa je precej zabrisana. Zato poteka sedanje raziskovanje v obratni smeri, saj izhajamo iz geografskega objekta nazaj k značilnostim pokrajine. Primer takšnega raziskovanja je tipizacija zemljepisnih imen oziroma njihovo razvrščanje po geografski vsebini. Za sistematično razločevanje in razvrščanje potrebujemo natančne definicije. Ob tovrstnem strokovnem delu se zato stalno srečujemo z vprašanji terminološke narave. Njihovo reševanje sodi k temeljem vsake stroke, saj prihaja ob nejasni in ohlapni opredelitvi pojmov do zmede in nejasnosti v strokovnem jeziku. Poznavanje zemljepisnih imen, zlasti tistih z občim pomenom, lahko zato pomembno pripomore tudi k urejenosti in preglednosti geografske terminologije. Kljub univerzalnosti ima geografija v vsaki državi tudi nacionalen značaj. Nacionalnost geografske vede postavlja pred njo pomembno nalogo ohranjanja vrednot, ki so povezane z nacionalnim bitjem na določenem prostoru in upoštevanje kulturnih ter jezikovnih značilnosti manjšin. Sem sodi tudi skrb za pravilno rabo zemljepisnih imen v vseh medijih, ki predstavljajo pokrajino. V praksi pa to pomeni, da moramo geografi z zemljepisnimi imeni ravnati še posebej skrbno in previdno. Med Slovenci ima krajepisje in z njim povezano raziskovanje zemljepisnih imen precejšnjo tradicijo. Temelje tovrstne literature je postavil že Valvazor v knjigi Slava vojvodine Kranjske, ki je izšla leta 1689. Kljub zgodnjim začetkom pa geografska bera raziskovanj zemljepisnih imen ni ravno obsežna in ponuja še številne raziskovalne možnosti. Nedvomno sta, še zlasti pri proučevanju zemljepisnih imen gorskega sveta, temeljni deli Imenoslovje Julijskih Alp Henrika Tume (1929) ter Terensko izrazoslovje Rudolfa Badjure iz leta 1953. K mejnikom lahko prištejemo še Savnikov Krajevni leksikon Slovenije, ki je s prvo knjigo od štirih izšel leta 1968. Poleg teh treh avtorjev se v pregledu raziskovanj navajajo še Svetozar Ilešič, Anton Melik, Franc Zelko, Ivan Gams in drugi. V zadnjih letih je ponovno opaziti večje zanimanje geografov za to problematiko. K temu je nedvomno pripomogla osamosvojitev Slovenije ter članstvo v Organizaciji Združenih narodov. Povečala se je skrb za večjo strokovnost, urejenost in doslednost pri rabi in zapisovanju zemljepisnih imen. V vladni Komisiji za standardizacijo zemljepisnih imen, ki je bila ustanovljena leta 1995 deluje pet geografov, geograf dr. Milan Orožen Adamič pa je v tem mandatu njen predsednik. 1.2. Kartografija in zemljepisna imena Eden najpogosteje uporabljenih medijev za posredovanje geografskih informacij o prostoru so zemljevidi. Naloga splošno geografskega zemljevida, kot pomanjšane slike dela zemljine površine, je prikazati izbrano zemljino površino čim bolj objektivno. Poleg različnih geografskih prvin, ki na zemljevidu predstavljajo pokrajino (relief, vodovje, rastje, naselja, prometne komunikacije ...), so nosilci informacij o prostoru tudi zemljepisna imena. Ta močno olajšajo informiranje ter sporazumevanje med uporabniki zemljevida, saj dajejo zemljepisna imena zemljevidu »življenje in jezik«, oziroma so »ključ za njegovo razumevanje« (Peterca 1974). Kljub nekaterim pomislekom v preteklosti, češ da so zemljepisna imena ne-pokrajinotvorna prvina in so zato na zemljevidih odveč, imajo zemljepisna imena v sodobni kartografski stroki enakovreden položaj kot ostale geografske prvine in so sestavni del vsakega splošnogeografskega zemljevida. Zemljepisno ime, izpisano na zemljevidu, mora izpolnjevati naslednje zahteve: • nedvomno mora pripadati geografskemu objektu, ki ga prikazujemo na zemljevidu; • postavljeno mora biti tako, da je enopomensko razvidno, kateremu geografskemu objektu pripada, pri čemer ne sme prekriti ostale pomembnejše vsebine zemljevida; • vsa zemljepisna imena skupaj morajo odražati stvarno razporeditev in gostoto tistih geografskih prvin pokrajine, na katere se nanašajo, dosežena pa mora biti tudi jasnost in preglednost branja; • izpisano mora biti v celoti oziroma v skladu s kartografskim ključem, napis na zemljevidu pa mora biti v skladu s pravopisom ter pravilno izgovorjavo. Na zemljevidu se zaradi namena, vsebine in z merilom omejenega prostora nikoli ne pojavijo vsa zemljepisna imena, ki obstajajo v pokrajini. Potreben je dogovor in premišljen izbor ter razporeditev zemljepisnih imen, ki na zemljevidu postanejo dogovorjeni znak. Na izbor in razporeditev zemljepisnih imen vplivajo še nekatere druge vsebinske (na primer značaj površja) in tehnične zahteve (na primer velikost in nabor črk) ter dogovorjena pravila in standardi izdelave zemljevidov. Delovna stopnja izbora in razporeditve zemljepisnih imen je zato strokovno izredno občutljiva in pomembna, saj močno vpliva na končno kakovost in uporabnost zemljevida. Izbor zemljepisnih imen poteka ob upoštevanju naslednjih pravil (Stepanov 1984): najprej ostanejo na situ zemljepisna imena drobnih pokrajinskih objektov oziroma mikroimena. Ce obstaja za skupino posameznih geografskih objektov skupno ime, potem imena teh objektov združujemo v eno ime (na primer zaselka Dolenje in Zgornje Poljane tvorita naselje Dolenje Poljane), zemljepisna imena tudi krajšamo (na primer Tuhinj namesto Tuhinjska dolina) ali izpuščamo pojasnjevalne dele zemljepisnih imen (na primer Rinka namesto slap Rinka). Ob napačnem razumevanju pomena zemljepisnih imen, lahko težnja po njihovi veliki gostoti privede do preobremenjenosti zemljevida z zemljepisnimi imeni. V tem primeru stopi ostala vsebina v ozadje in zemljevid postane nejasen ter izgubi na sporočilnosti in kvaliteti. Enako lahko težnja po preglednosti zemljevida privede do njegove osiromašenosti in zmanjšane informativnosti. Napačna je tudi težnja po enakomerni razporeditvi zemljepisnih imen po celotni površini zemljevida, saj zemljepisna imena v pokrajini niso enakomerno porazdeljena. Glede na geografsko stvarnost je logično, da geografi tem postopkom, predvsem pa njihovemu udejanjanju v praksi pogosto oporekamo, saj nas temeljni raziskovalni pristop navaja k enotnosti in enakovrednosti pokrajinskih prvin. Zemljepisna imena morajo biti na zemljevidih pravilno razporejena in postavljena. To zahteva zlasti potreba po natančni lokaciji oziroma orientaciji v pokrajini. Glede na značaj geografskih prvin ločimo točkovno, linearno ter površinsko postavljanje zemljepisnih imen. Pogosti problemi, ki se pojavljajo pri razporeditvi imen na zemljevida so naslednji: za posamezen geografski objekt se uporablja več različnih imen, isto zemljepisno ime se nanaša na različne objekte, pogosta je zamenjava delov zemljepisnih imen na primer spodnji, zgornji, pri površinskih zemljepisnih imenih je pogosta napaka razširitev pomena zemljepisnega imena na objekte, na katere se ime sploh ne nanaša. »Zemljepisna imena je potrebno obravnavati v povezanosti in enakovrednosti z ostalimi geografskimi prvinami zemljevida. Ob tem upoštevajmo, da so ostale prvine osnova, na katero se zemljepisna imena nanašajo in s katero so lahko v skladnem odnosu« (Stepanov 1984). 1.3. Jezikoslovje Zemljepisna imena so del lastnoimenskega besedja, ki pomeni kar polovico posameznikovega besedišča (Bezlaj 1967). Čeprav je to besedišče marsikdaj samosvoje (Majdič 1996) se ga dotikajo in zadevajo vse jezikovne kategorije kot na primer pravopis, oblikoslovje (spol, število, sklanjatev), skladnja (ujemanje osebka s povedkom) in izpeljava besed (pridevnik; ime za prebivalca). V bistvenih jezikovnih značilnostih bi se morala (pravo)pisno, glasoslovno, naglasno, oblikoglasno, oblikoslovno, besedotvorno in skladenjsko podrejati splošnim knjižnojezikovnim normam. Ker pa so posamezna zemljepisna imena prihajala v splošno knjižno rabo v različnih časih, v različnih okoliščinah, ob večji ali manjši jezikovni pristojnosti tistih, ki so jih vključevali v knjižnojezikovni kontekst, je stopnja prilagojenosti normam zbornega jezika zelo različna, od popolnoma prilagojenih do povsem nepoknjiženih. Tudi kasnejši poknjiževalni posegi niso bili niti enotni niti usklajeni, tako da je današnje stanje v tem pogledu zelo raznoliko. Zaradi velike narečne raznolikosti slovenskega jezika in dokaj pozne uveljavitve enotnega knjižnega jezika na vsem slovenskem jezikovnem prostoru je delež narečno zaznamovanih zemljepisnih imen tudi znotraj meja Republike Slovenije še vedno velik, čeprav je bilo v zadnjih sto letih več prizadevanj, da bi se taka imena približala normi knjižnega jezika. Težnja, da se narečna podoba zemljepisnega imena poknjiži, je bila in je še vedno navzoča predvsem med jezikoslovci, manj med geografi, zgodovinarji in drugimi raziskovalci. Tudi pomenske razlage so marsikdaj preprostejše in zanesljivejše, če izhajamo iz narečnih oblik imena oziroma njegove izpeljanke, lažja pa je tudi določitev etimološko in slovnično pravilne, četudi v praksi danes neuveljavljene imenovalniš-ke podobe zemljepisnega imena. 2. Predstavitev Kamniško-Savinjskih Alp V Sloveniji se stikajo in prepletajo štiri velike evropske reliefne enote: Alpe in Dinarsko gorstvo ter Panonska in Jadranska kotlina. Na severu Slovenije je alpski svet, ki se deli na alpska visokogorja, alpska hribovja in alpske ravnine. Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe so visokogorska pokrajina, ki leži med Zahodnimi Karavankami na severozahodu, Vzhodnimi Karavankami na severu, Velenjskim hribovjem na severovzhodu, Ložniškim gričevjem in Savinjsko ravnjo na vzhodu ter razgibanim Posavskim hribovjem in Savsko ravnjo na jugu (Slovenija. Pokrajine in ljudje, stran 26, 1998.) Naše izbrano območje ne obsega celotne pokrajine, kot jo opredeljuje naravnogeografska regionalizacija Slovenije. Območje raziskave je na severu obsegalo pokrajino južno od državne meje z Avstrijo, na zahodu je meja potekala po potoku Jezernici in reki Kokri, na vzhodu po potoku Ručniku in Jezeri, reki Savinji in rečici Lučnici, na jugu pa po potoku Volovljeku, rečici Črni ter potoku Bistričica na sedlo Davovec. Ime Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe ni vzeto iz žive ljudske govorice. Vsa poimenovanja celotne pokrajine so umetna in so nastala v novejšem času. Ime Kamniške Alpe (izvirno v nemščini Steiner Alpen) je vpeljal Baltazar Hacquet v 18. stoletju, ime Savinjske Alpe (Sannthaler Alpen) pa je skoraj sto let kasneje prvi zapisal Johannes Frischauf. Na južni strani je za najvišje vrhove poznano ljudsko ime Grintovci, oznaka Solčavske Alpe pa se naslanja na zadnje sklenjeno naselje ob zgornjem toku Savinje. Janez Vajkard Val- vazor je to gorovje vknjigi Slava vojvodine Kranjske (1689) poimenoval Snežniki (Schneegebirge). V zadnjem času se je v strokovni javnosti uveljavilo ime Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe. Z vezajem zapisana oblika imena naj bi enakovredno označevala oba bistvena sestavna dela, Kamniške Alpe in Savinjske Alpe, hkrati pa naj bi opozarjala na njuno povezanost v neločljivo celoto. V raziskavi za celotno gorsko skupino uporabljamo ime Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe, za posamezne dele pa tudi ustrezna krajevna poimenovanja (Kamniške Alpe, Savinjske Alpe). V pokrajinskem pogledu gre za visokogorsko pokrajino, čeprav prevladuje sredogorski svet. Nad višino 2000 m se vzpenja 42 vrhov, najvišji pa je Grintovec (2558 m). Izoblikovanost površja je posledica delovanja ledenikov, tekočih voda in kraške korozije. Glavnino površja sestavljajo karbonatne kamnine (apnenca je precej več kot dolomita), zato so se marsikje razvili kraški pojavi. Za visokogorski kras so značilne škraplje, žlebiči, kotliči, brezna in jame, najbolj obsežne pa so zakrasele planote brez površinskih vodnih tokov (Dleskovška planota, Velika planina, Kalce, Veliki in Mali podi pod Grintovcem in Skuto). Na njihovih vznožjih se pojavljajo kraški izviri (takšna sta izvira Kamniške Bistrice in Savinje), vode pa so si ponekod izdolble pot skozi prave tesni in globoka korita (Predaselj v zgornjem toku Kamniške Bistrice ali soteska Savinje med Lučami in Solčavo). Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe so razčlenjene z globokimi, ledeniško preoblikovanimi dolinami. Na Jezerskem so takšne Makekova in Ravenska kočna, onstran državne meje pa jima je povsem podobna Belska kočna. Vse naštete doline imajo ploska dna in strma ostenja, nad njimi pa se dvigujejo priostreni, podolgovati grebeni. Podobno velja za Logarsko dolino, Robanov kot in Matkov kot na severni strani skupine, pa tudi za dolino Kamniške Bistrice na prisojni strani. Poleg ogromnih ledeniških balvanov in ostankov moren nam o nekdanji prisotnosti ledenikov priča tudi 1,5 ha velik ledenik pod severnim ostenjem Skute (2533 m) in Kranjske Rinke (2453 m). Gre za najbolj vzhodni ledenik v Južnih apneniških Alpah. Posredna posledica poledenitve so slapovi, ki padajo prek nekdanjih ledeniških pragov (130 m visoka Čedca v Ma-kekovi kočni in 90 m visok slap Rinka pod Okrešljem v zatrepu Logarske doline). Nad dolinami so se med skalnimi grebeni izoblikovale tudi številne krnice (Kladnik 1998). Pomemben pečat daje pokrajini gozd, saj so Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe med najbolj gozdnatimi pokrajinami v Sloveniji. Gozdovi poraščajo skoraj dve tretjini površja. Gozdna meja sega 1550 do 1650 m visoko, posamezna drevesa pa ponekod rasejo tudi do višine 1900 m. Gozdna meja je odvisna od naravnih okoliščin, brez dvoma pa je nanjo pomembno vplival človek, ki jo je ob urejanju planinskih pašnikov potisnil navzdol. Starejša arheološka preučevanja kažejo, da je človek bival na širšem območju Kamniško-Sa-vinjskih Alp že v kameni dobi (na primer v Mokriški jami ter Potočki zijalka). V letih 1995 in 1996 pridobljeni arheološki predmeti s planin v Kamniških Alpah pa omogočajo prva spoznanja o poselitvi visokogorja v času od bronaste dobe do novega veka. Zaenkrat ta raziskovanja ne dajejo odgovora, kdo je najprej poselil ozemlja današnjih planin: lovec, rudar ali pastir? (Cevc 1997) Na območju celotnih Kamniško-Savinjskih Alp je danes 116 naselij z nekaj več kot 20.000 prebivalci. Na izbranem, izrazito goratem območju, smo našteli 24 zemljepisnih imen pripadajočih naselij. V gosteje poseljenih rečnih dolinah v nižjih legah prevladujejo gručasta naselja, ki imajo v okolici pripadajoče zaselke. Tudi tovrstnih zemljepisnih imen smo našteli 24. Z naraščanjem nadmorske višine in oddaljevanjem od središč naselij postajajo kraji vse manj strnjeno pozidani, zato postane značilen sistem poselitve v obliki samotnih domačij. Teh je na našem območju 146. Za Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe so bile zlasti nekdaj značilne številne planine. Nekaj jih je še ohranjenih in delujočih (Velika in Mala planina), večina planin, ki jih označuje 46 zemljepisnih imen pa je že davno opuščenih. Za slovensko visokogorje in sredogorje je značilna tradicionalna gospodarska podoba, temeljne panoge pa so kmetijstvo (zlasti živinoreja), gozdarstvo in turizem. Kmetijstvo je starejše od gozdarstva, ki je sčasoma po pomenu prevladalo. Turizem se je začel razvijati šele na prelomu v 19. in 20. stoletje (Kladnik 1998). Tudi v upravno-teritorialnem in političnem pogledu Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe niso bile enotne. V času Avstro-Ogrske so se na tem ozemlju prepletali in uveljavljali vplivi kar treh avstrijskih dežel: Koroške, Kranjske in Stajerske. Sledovi nekdanje deželne pripadnosti oziroma razdelitve so živi še danes ne samo v govorici domačinov, ampak tudi v zemljepisnih imenih (na primer Kranjska Rinka- 2453 m, Ko- roška Rinka - 2433 m, Štajerska Rinka - 2289 m, Kranjska in Štajerska Bela...). Danes je območje razdeljeno med številne manjše občine. Nakazana pokrajinska pestrost, tako v njenih naravnih kot tudi družbenih danostih, ki se kaže tudi v številu in vrsti zemljepisnih imen, je bila dodatna vzpodbuda našega raziskovanja. 3. Cilj in namen naloge Glavni cilj našega dela je bila vzpostavitev podatkovne zbirke zemljepisnih imen, ki smo jo poimenovali Evidenca zemljepisnih imen Kamniško-Savinjskih Alp (EZIKSA). EZIKSA naj bi vsebovala: • vsa zemljepisna imena za izbrano območje, ki se pojavljajo na zemljevidih, v pisnih virih in do katerih smo prišli s terenskim delom; • podatke o legi posameznega zemljepisnega imena, geografsko opredelitev oziroma tip zemljepisnega imena, identifikacijsko številko, ter zaznamke o posebnostih in razlikah pri zapisu imena v različnih virih; • seznam prisotnosti zemljepisnega imena na zemljevidih in v pisnih virih (imensko kazalo) ter razvoj imen (kronologijo) z navedbo vseh znanih različic; • zapis zemljepisnega imena v narečni in naglasni različici. EZIKSA naj bi po vzpostavitvi omogočala: • enotno informiranost za zemljepisna imena na izbranem območju; • standardizacijo zemljepisnih imen, zlasti tistih, ki se nanašajo na makro in mezo geografske objekte; • nadaljnje geografske, jezikoslovne in kartografske raziskave s ciljem reševanja odprtih vprašanj. 4. Metodologija naloge Metodologija naloge obsega pripravo in zbiranje, analizo ter vrednotenje podatkov o zemljepisnih imenih v Kamniško-Savinjskih Alpah. Priprava in zbiranje podatkov je obsegalo: • vzpostavitev EZIKSA z zajemanjem podatkov iz različnih virov; • preverjanje in dopolnjevanje podatkov ter • reševanje odprtih vprašanj. Zajemanje podatkov Za osnovo podatkovne zbirke EZIKSA smo vzeli zemljepisna imena zajeta s šestih listov Državne topografske karte v merilu 1: 25.000, ki jih je v okviru projekta Evidence zemljepisnih imen zbrala Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije (EZI). Gre za liste Preddvor, Zgornje Jezersko, Solčava, Spodnje Jezersko, Grintavec in Podvolovljek (v imenu lista Grintavec se pojavlja napačno ime, pravilno bi bilo Grintovec). V EZI je vsako zemljepisno ime opisano z več oznakami, glede na cilj naše raziskave smo se odločili, da v EZISA za posamezno zemljepisno ime vključimo naslednje oznake: podatek o legi (naslov stolpca v preglednici: Y..z ter X..z), enolični identifikator objekta (I_D), tip zemljepisnega imena (SIFRA) in zemljepisno ime ali del zemljepisnega imena, ki se nahaja na zemljevidu (NAPIS). Podatki o legi se nanašajo na Gauss-Krügerjev pravokotni koordinatni sistem, ki izhaja iz Gauss-Krügerjeve valjne projekcije. Pri tej projekciji je os y ekvator, os x pa poldnevnik. Začetni poldnevnik je za naše državno ozemlje 15. poldnevnik. Podatke smo pretvorili v takšno obliko, da jih je bilo moč obdelovati s programoma Word in Excel v okolju Windows in jih uredili v preglednico s petimi stolpci (navajamo primer zemljepisnega imena Bistričica - preglednica 1). Iz preglednice smo izločili zemljepisna imena, ki niso bila v mejah izbranega območja. Čeprav meja območja večinoma poteka po naravnih objektih (zlasti po vodotokih in slemenih gora), smo v dolinah (ne glede na mejo, ki je potekala po največjem vodotoku) obdržali zemljepisna imena vseh geografskih objektov, ki se nahajajo na dolinskem dnu. Tako smo vsaj deloma dosegli pokrajinsko enotnost, saj bi ne bilo smiselno, da so geografski objekti na levem bregu reke, ki sodi v naše izbrano območje vključeni, geografski objekti z desnega brega pa ne. Pri vključevanju imen v EZIKSA je bilo uporabljeno tudi pravilo, da se vsako zemljepisno ime realnega geografskega objekta hrani samo enkrat, ne glede na to, da se na zemljevidih ali v pisnih virih pojavi večkrat. Podatek o večkratnem pojavljanju se zabeleži v imenskem kazalu. Po izločitvi imen, ki ne ležijo na izbranem območju in imen, ki se pojavijo večkrat, smo dobili delno EZIKSA. Dopolnjevanje in preverjanje podatkov Sledila je stopnja dopolnjevanja in preverjanja podatkov o zemljepisnih imenih, ki so vključena v EZISA. Obsegala je natančen pregled osnovnih zemljevidov in pisnih virov. Ker je celotno bibliografsko gradivo o Kamniško-Savinjskih Alpah preobsežno, je bilo potrebno opraviti premišljen izbor temeljnih in pomožnih virov. Od tega izbora je bila v veliki meri odvisna kvaliteta raziskave. Pri zemljevidih smo med osnovne vire uvrstili Temeljne topografske načrte v merilu 1 : 5.000 oziroma 1: 10.000 (skupaj 22 listov), dva planinska zemljevida - Grintovci (1: 25.000, 1994) ter Kamniške in Savinjske Alpe (1: 50.000, 1996) in zemljevide iz Atlasa Slovenije (1: 50.000, 1992). Med osnovne kartografske vire smo uvrstili še Jožefinske vojaške zemljevide (1: 28.800, 1763-1787) ter zemljevide iz Franciscejskega katastra (1826). Osnovne pisne vire smo izbrali na podlagi njihove strokovnosti oziroma zanesljivosti, verodostojnosti in izkazane uporabnosti, ki izhaja iz namena teh del (regionalne monografije, temeljne raziskave, potopisni vodniki). Izbranih enajst del osmih avtorjev smo podrobno preštudirali, podatke o zemljepisnih imenih pa vnesli v EZIKSA. Ostale pisne vire smo uporabili v drugi stopnji preverjanja, ko smo navzkrižno preverjali posamezna imena. Preverjanje zemljevidov Pri preverjanju osnovnih in pomožnih zemljevidov smo ugotavljali in med seboj primerjali: • ali je zemljepisno ime na zemljevidu z izbranega območja že vključeno v delno EZIKSA; • ali napis na zemljevidu oblikovno in pravopisno ustreza zapisu v delni EZIKSA; • lego geografskega objekta, ki mu pripada zemljepisno ime (koordinate v Gauss-Krügerjevem koordinatnem sistemu in absolutno nadmorsko višino); • geografsko opredelitev objekta oziroma tip imena (na podlagi šifranta tipov). Če je zemljepisno ime že bilo v EZIKSA, smo samo dopolnili podatek v predzadnjem stolpcu preglednice z navedbo vira, v katerem se nahaja zemljepisno ime. V nasprotnem primeru smo v EZIKSA na novo vnesli vse razpoložljive podatke o zemljepisnem imenu. Napis na zemljevidu se mora ujemati z zapisom v EZIKSA. Vse imenske različice in kakršnekoli razlike smo zabeležili posebej. Pri preverjanju lege smo bili pozorni na ujemanje stanja na zemljevidu s stanjem v delni EZIKSA, hkrati pa smo ob tem preverjali tudi izbor postavitve napisa glede na geografski objekt, ki ga zaznamuje. Podatek o legi se je v EZIKSA nanašal na začetek napisa - koordinati x ter y sta torej podajali lego prve črke v napisu zemljepisnega imena na zemljevidu. Kot zelo problematično se je pokazalo ugotavljanje absolutne nadmorske višine. Pri geodetsko izmerjenih višinah geografskih objektov se pogosto v različnih virih navajajo različni podatki. Težava nastopi tudi pri vnosu podatka o absolutni nadmorski višini za tiste geografske objekte, katerih zemljepisna imena smo na novo vnesli v EZIKSA. Problem sta tako merilo zemljevida in z njim povezana ekvidistanca, kot tudi značaj geografskih objektov (kako na primer označiti površinske objekte - s spodnjo, z zgornjo ali z obema mejama, pri čemer sta ponavadi tudi obe meji v naravi sporni oziroma spremenljivi ali morda z matematično izračunano povprečno višino). Zato smo v EZIKSA vnesli samo tiste podatke o absolutni nadmorski višini geografskih objektov, ki so se nanašali na izmerjene višinske točke (kote). Z vidika geografskega proučevanja je bilo najpomembnejše opravilo opredeljevanje oziroma tipizacija imen. Potekalo je ob primerjavi napisa zemljepisnega imena na zemljevidu s podatki o tipu zemljepisnega imena v delni EZIKSA, ki so ga že predhodno določili zajemalci zemljepisnih imen za EZI v skladu z dogovorjenim šifrantom (Evidenca zemljepisnih imen 1996). Napisi nekaterih geografskih objektov so določeni s kartografskim ključem (dogovorjeni topografski znak, barva napisa ter izbor in velikost črk). Za ostala zemljepisna imena je bilo potrebno opredeliti tip imena na podlagi razpoložljivih pokrajinskih informacij na zemljevidu, izrednega pomena pa je bilo tudi naše poznavanje terena. Geografskih objektov je v pokrajini seveda več, kot jih poznata šifrant in kartografski ključ, zato je strokovna interpretacija bistvenega pomena. Za naše potrebe smo osnovni šifrant nekoliko dopolnili oz. dodatno razčlenili (glej preglednico 2). Šifrant ima drevesno hierarhijo, je razširljiv in neodvisen od merila zemljevida. Na prvih (najvišjih) nivojih definira tip in podtip zemljepisnega imena, na tretjem pa tip geografskega objekta. Šifrant tipov je pripravljen z definicijami in primeri, vendar enolična opredelitev za vse geografske objekte ni bila možna (Kam na primer uvrstiti Zeleniške špice: med gore - tip 3102 ali med grebene - tip 3104?). Vse podatke za posamezno zemljepisno ime, za katere smo ob preverjanju ugotovili razlike (na primer v napisu imena na zemljevidu in v delni EZIKSA, različni podatki o legi...), smo v EZIKSA posebej označili, prav tako smo posebej zaznamovali ime na zemljevidu. Dodatne poizvedbe smo opravili kasneje v drugi stopnji preverjanja. V tej stopnji raziskovalnega dela smo opravili tudi pregled starejših zemljevidov. Kot zgodovinske vire smo uporabili Jožefinske vojaške zemljevide (1: 28.800, 1763-1787) ter zemljevide iz Franciscejskega katastra (1826), ki so nam bili dostopni v Arhivu Republike Slovenije. Zemljepisna imena smo ročno prepisovali z zemljevidov, pri čemer smo zaradi težav pri prebiranju ponekod težko čitljivih napisov, imena v EZIKSA vnesli zapisana z velikimi tiskanimi črkami. Zaradi različnih meril zemljevidov in nemških napisov imen se je večkrat pojavila težava z današnjo razpoznavo geografskih objektov. Na podlagi primerjanja je bilo takšno zemljepisno ime pripisano najbližjemu objektu z Državne topografske karte, v preglednici pa je bilo v stolpcu Opomba označena sporna lega. Preverjanje pisnih virov Bibliografija o Kamniško-Savinjskih Alpah je zelo obsežna, saj smo ob pregledu na seznam pisnih virov uvrstili kar 300 enot, pri čemer niso upoštevani vsi članki iz stotih letnikov Planinskega vestnika. Delo je potekalo tako, da smo vsak pisni vir natančno prebrali, vsako pojavo zemljepisnega imena v besedilu pa smo vnesli v imensko kazalo zemljepisnih imen. Večina pisnih virov ima na koncu priložen seznam zemljepisnih imen, ki nam je služil za dodatno kontrolo. V pisnih virih smo naleteli tudi na zemljepisna imena, ki še niso bila vključena v EZIKSA. Šlo je predvsem za imena drobnih pokrajinskih oblik, ki pozornemu obiskovalcu močno olajšajo orientacijo v naravi, jih pa ni na zemljevidu. Ker iz opisa ni možno razbrati natančne lege, smo pri navedbi lege podali samo kvadrant v katerem se ime nahaja. Točno lokacijo bi lahko ugotovili le na terenu. V EZIKSA nismo vključili imen plezalnih smeri, čeprav jih je v gorskem svetu veliko in nam na svoj način predstavljajo del, večini nedostopne pokrajine. O teh zemljepisnih imenih v literaturi ni najti nobene strokovne opredelitve. Pri delu smo naleteli tudi na dva pomembna starejša članka, ki sta ju napisala Kopač (1946, 1947) in Ku-naver (1956). Kopač je v svojem članku, objavljenem v več delih, zbral zemljepisna imena zlasti na južni strani Kamniško-Savinjskih Alp v izvirni obliki. Gre za seznam zemljepisnih imen, ki so zapisana fonetično in za priložnostne zemljevide, kjer so imena umeščena v pokrajino. Zaradi zapisa imen smo imeli težave pri vnosu v EZIKSA, saj bi potrebovali prilagojeno programsko orodje. Ker ga nismo imeli, teh imen nismo mogli vključiti v EZIKSA. Kunaverjev članek prinaša seznam 211 zemljepisnih imen. Njegova imena so deloma že poknjižena. Žal imena niso locirana na zemljevidu ali kakšni skici, čeprav Kunaver omenja »specialko 1:25.000«. Tudi Kunaverjev članek bo potrebno ponovno podrobneje pregledati in izsledke dodatno vnesti v EZIKSA. V drugi stopnji preverjanja smo pozornost usmerili v razreševanje odprtih vprašanj vseh posebej označenih podatkov posameznih zemljepisnih imen v delni EZIKSA (na primer neenotna lega, različni pravopisni napisi na kartah in v literaturi, sporni tipi imen...). Preverjanje in dopolnjevanje je potekalo s pomočjo pomožnih zemljevidov (uporabljenih je bilo 22 zemljevidov), pomožnih pisnih virov (več kot 100 različnih enot) in s terenskim delom. Pri opredeljevanju tipov zemljepisnih imen smo si učinkovito pomagali z analizo aerofoto posnetkov, do posebne veljave pa so prišli potopisni vodniki. Zaradi natančnih opisov je bila razrešeno marsikatero vprašanje pri opredeljevanju tipa zemljepisnega imena. Terensko delo Terensko delo je po mnenju mnogih osnova kakršnega koli geografskega pristopa pri raziskovanju zemljepisnih imen. Pričakovali smo, da bomo s terenskim delom: • preverili sporne in dopolnili manjkajoče podatke za imena v EZIKSA; • zbirali zemljepisna imena, ki jih še ni v EZIKSA; Na teren smo se odpravili sedemkrat, večinoma na južno stran Grintovcev (Velika planina, Planjava, dolina Kamniške Bistrice, Kalce), po en dan pa smo bili tudi v Logarski dolini in Robanovem kotu, na Jezerskem in v Pokokrju. S terenskim delom smo tako uspeli preveriti nekaj več kot 100 imen. Seveda to ne pomeni, da je terensko delo nepotrebno. Nasprotno: še kako je potrebno in smiselno, vendar le ob dobri vsebinski in organizacijski pripravi. V našem primeru nam terensko delo ni dalo tistih rezultatov, ki smo jih pričakovali. Razlogov za to je več: • Izbrano območje je precej veliko in bi za učinkovito terensko delo potrebovali več časa in izredno sistematičen pristop. Na teren bi se lahko odpravili šele po opravljenem pregledu zemljevidov ter pisnih virov. Ker sta pregleda terjala veliko časa, smo na teren odhajali še pred koncem pregleda. • Terensko delo je povezano predvsem z navezovanjem stikov z lokalnim prebivalstvom, zlasti z ljudmi, ki so s posameznimi deli pokrajine gospodarsko, lastniško ali kako drugače tesno povezani. Pri navezovanju stikov in za ustvarjanje zaupanja pa je potreben čas. Enkratni obisk ponavadi ni prinesel kakšnih obetavnih rezultatov, saj smo veliko časa izgubili s pojasnjevanjem namena našega dela in prepričevanjem, da ima to delo smisel. Večina povabljenih si je težko odtrgala čas za razgovor, kaj šele za pravi terenski obhod. • Pokrajino, zlasti v njenih drobcih, najbolje poznajo preprosti ljudje. Naš pristop (tako glede izrazoslovja kot tudi natančnosti) je bil pogosto prezahteven za preprostega domačina, pastirja, kmeta. Na tem področju se imamo še marsikaj za naučiti. • Opozorilo, ki ga je pred petnajstimi leti zapisal Kunaver (1984), da je zaradi socialnih in gospodarskih sprememb nastopil skrajni čas za sistematično zbiranje imen, je verjetno že stvarnost. Vedno manj je ljudi, ki bi imeli vsakodnevni stik z gorsko pokrajino. Z razvojem gorništva se sicer povečuje obisk gorskega sveta, vendar ta ni vezan na celotno območje, hkrati pa se ti obiskovalci večinoma gibljejo po raziskanem in dostopnem svetu. • Obneslo se je sodelovanje ostalih dobrih poznavalcev posameznih območij oziroma nedomačinov. Vendar je tu prevladovala predvsem metoda ogledovanja fotografij monografij, diapozitivov in pregleda zemljevidov, kar pa je glede na vloženi čas prineslo skromne rezultate. Način, obseg in stopnja preverjanja so razvidni iz navedb v preglednici v stolpcih Drugi viri ter Opombe (preglednica 3). Zemljepisna imena, ki so ostala sporna, so v EZIKSA posebej označena z zvezdico (*) v tretjem stolpcu. Tako pripravljeno EZIKSA (glej preglednici 4 in 5) smo kasneje uporabili za sklepne raziskovalne korake in interpretacijo rezultatov. PREGLEDNICA 4: LEGENDA K PREGLEDNICI EZIKSA. okrajšava pomen oziroma razlaga [T zaporedna številka zemljepisnega imena po abecednem vrstnem redu IME pravilni zapis zemljepisnega imena Y...z koordinata v metrih (smer od vzhoda proti zahodu) X...z koordinata v metrih (smer od juga proti severu) ID enolični identifikator objekta [IF tip geografskega objekta NV nadmorska višina 1.25.000 napis na Državni topografski karti v merilu 1:25.000 JOŽEF IME ime na Jožefinskem zemljevidu FRANCI. KAT. ime na zemljevidu iz Franciscejskega katastra 1:10.000 napis na Temeljnem topografskem načrtu v merilu 1:5.000 ali 1:10.000 GRINTOVCI napis na zemljevidu Grintovci v merilu 1:25.000 DRU. VIRI citati pisnih virov oziroma imensko kazalo OPOMBA podatki o drugačni legi, napakah... 5. Rezultati in sklepne ugotovitve V EZIKSA smo vključili 1476 zemljepisnih imen. 1160 zemljepisnih imen je z geografskimi metodami preverjenih do te stopnje, da jih lahko dodatno pregleda še jezikoslovec. Po tem pregledu in popravkih so ta imena lahko predmet standardizacije. Zemljepisna imena, ki so ostala sporna (gre za 316 zemljepisnih imen oziroma 21,5 % vseh imen), so v EZIKSA posebej označena. Ta imena je potrebno še natančneje preveriti (preglednica 6). Na podlagi pregleda različnih zemljevidov in pisnih virov lahko rečemo, da so zemljepisna imena v Kam-niško-Savinjskih Alpah doživela podoben razvoj kot zemljepisna imena drugod na današnjem slovenskem ozemlju. Najstarejša so imena rek in vrhov, ne dosti mlajša so imena naselij, z intezivno gospodarsko rabo (pašništvo, lov, gozdarstvo, rudarstvo ...) pa so svoja imena dobile tudi druge, zlasti reliefno manjše prvine v pokrajini. Nekatera zemljepisna imena, zlasti imena planin, opozarjajo na nekdanjo rabo tal. Takšno zemljepisno ime je na primer Goli vrh nad Ravensko kočno: ime opozarja na neporaščen oziroma iztrebljen svet (zaradi paše), ki pa je danes zaradi manjšega obsega paše že močno zaraščen. Večina zemljepisnih imen je zapisanih na zemljevidih. Ugotovili smo, da različni zemljevidi ne uporabljajo enotnega imenskega inventarja. Razlike so tako v številu zemljepisnih imen na zemljevidu (če gre za zemljevide enakega merila), kot tudi v svojstvih imena (lega, napis na zemljevidu). Veliko imen, zlasti tistih, ki pripadajo mikro geografskim objektom, je ohranjenih v pisnih virih. Pregled pisnih virov še ni končan, zato tudi v EZIKSA še niso uvrščena vsa imena. Posamezni deli izbranega območja (na primer južni in severni del gorske skupine Krvavca, Pokokrje in Jezersko) v preteklosti niso bili deležni skrbnega zapisovanja in proučevanja zemljepisnih imen. Na teh območjih je nedvomno skritih še veliko zemljepisnih imen, ki pa živijo samo med ljudmi. Zaradi spremenjenega načina življenja domačinov, ki jim je gospodarski prostor gora nekoč pomenil najpomembnješi ali vsaj dopolnilni vir zaslužka, zemljepisna imena izumirajo oziroma jih ne bomo mogli vseh oteti pozabi. Terensko delo, ki je edina metoda zbiranja zemljepisnih imen, bi moralo biti v ta namen zelo sistematično in plod dlje časa trajajočega raziskovanja. Velik prispevek k dosledni in pravilni rabi bi bilo upoštevanje že večkrat ponovljenega predloga, da je potrebno vsakemu zemljevidu priložiti tudi seznam uporabljenih zemljepisnih imen, ter upoštevanje zahtev po navajanju avtorstva vsebine in citiranju uporabljenih virov (Kunaver, 1984; Stepanov, 1984). Pri geografskem raziskovanju smo naleteli na vrsto vprašanj in problemov, ki so dobro znana že predhodnim raziskovalcem: Pri določevanju lege zemljepisnega imena so lahko sporni podatki o koordinatah geografskega objekta, na katerega se nanaša zemljepisno ime, do razlik prihaja pa tudi pri podatku o absolutni višini. Določevanje lege na terenu bi marsikdaj odpravilo nekatere netočnosti, ki se zlasti pojavljajo pri zemljepisnih imenih, ki zaznamujejo večje območje (na primer planina, gozdni predel, ledinsko ime). Sodobna tehnika navigacijskega sistema določevanja položajev objektov na Zemlji (GPS) to omogoča, je pa takšno zbiranje podatkov precej zamudno in drago. Obstaja veliko imen, za katere obstaja več pogovornih in pisnih različic imena. Dokončno opredeljevanje je možno le na podlagi skrbnega preverjanja v vseh treh stopnjah raziskovanja: pregled zemljevidov in pisnih virov ter raziskovanje na terenu. Takšen proces je lahko dolgotrajen, pogosto pa so tudi končne rešitve še vedno vsiljene. Verjetno je v tem primeru bolje uporabljati vsa imena v različici, za katero se avtor pod vsebinskimi pogoji odloči. Se vedno ni enotno rešeno zapisovanje občih pojmov pred zemljepisnimi imeni. Vprašanja ob tem je več: Ali so obči pojmi sestavni oziroma generični del zemljepisnega imena (Slap Rinka)? V katerih primerih obči pojem na zemljevidu zamenja dogovorjeni topografski znak in ali je v tem primeru še potrebno obči pojem pisati pred ostalim delom zemljepisnega imena? Kako pisati obči pojem: Slap Rinka ali slap Rinka? Pravila pri tem ni, raba je odvisna predvsem od splošnega poznavanja objekta (dlje je geografski objekt znan širši javnosti, manj je potreb za njegovo razločevanje), kot tudi od informativne rabe zemljepisnega imena. Če naj bo zemljepisno ime »ključ za branje karte«, potem se raje odločimo za daljše in tako jasnejše ime. Tudi pri opredeljevanju geografske vsebine, na katero se nanaša posamezno zemljepisno ime, naletimo na probleme. Določevanje tipov zemljepisnih imen in geografskih objektov poteka na podlagi navodil EZI. Eden od glavnih ciljev tipizacije je povezava tipov zemljepisnih imen s kartografskim ključem, enotni indeks zemljepisnih imen pa bo omogočal tudi nov pogled na pestro pokrajinsko podobo Slovenije, ki se kaže tudi v zemljepisnih imenih. Ker je natančna in enolična opredelitev geografskih objektov ob sedanjem šifrantu možna le za del objektov šifranta, bo ta podoba precej popačena. Zemljepisno ime na primer Požar (hrib nad Kamniško Bistrico) lahko opredelimo kot del vzpetine (šifra 3104) ali kot gozdni predel (4107), podobno lahko Kamniške planine opredelimo kot gorovje (3101) ali kot planine v lastniškem pomenu (12031). Tipizacija torej lahko poteka na podlagi ene sestavine pokrajine (relief, rastje), kot je večinoma zasnovan obstoječi šifrant, lahko pa tudi regionalno geografsko oziroma na podlagi dveh ali več sestavin (relief in rastje). V tem primeru bi lahko na primer Požar uvrstili v skupino, ki bi označevala del vzpetine, poraščen z gozdom. Podobnih prehodnih razredov je še več, zato bi bilo potrebno razmisliti o celovitejšem (geografskem) opredeljevanju zemljepisnih imen in geografskih objektov. V navodilih EZI bi bilo potrebno z dodatnimi primeri dopolniti primere za posamezne tipe objektov, s čimer bi izboljšali enotnost in doslednost opredeljevanja. Kar nekaj težav pri opredeljevanju izvira tudi iz nedefinirane strokovne terminologije oziroma terenskega izrazoslovja. Na tem področju čaka geografe še veliko dela. Pri zapisu imena, ki naj ustreza pravopisnim normam se najpogosteje in najizraziteje pokaže neenotna in pogosto tudi nepravilna raba zemljepisnih imen. Ob pregledu strokovne literature se je pokazalo, da ne moremo vseh imen obravnavati enotno. Pod pravopisna pravila zagotovo sodijo vsa imena, ki jih označujemo kot makro ali mezo imena - ta imena imajo za seboj določeno zgodovino, so uveljavljena in so tudi najpogosteje uporabljena (v govoru, na zemljevidih, v pisnih virih ...). Mikro imena (imena manj- ših pokrajinskih oblik) so lahko tudi stara, niso pa v širši javni rabi, saj jih ni na zemljevidih in se zelo redko pojavijo v literaturi. Imajo pa posebno vrednost zlasti zato, ker se rojevajo v govoru in so avtentičen primer jezika lokalnega prebivalstva. Zato bi jih bilo potrebno zajemati v njihovi izvorni obliki, šele sčasoma, ko bi se ta imena vključila v vsakodnevno ali vsaj pogostejšo rabo, bi kazalo ta imena poknjiži-ti. V nasprotnem primeru naj ta imena ostanejo zapisana v obliki, kot so nastala. EZIKSA je zasnovana tako, da jo je moč še dodatno razširiti in dopolniti tudi s podatki, ki za naše potrebe niso tako zanimivi, so pa stvar celovitega pristopa k proučevanju zemljepisnih imen. Idealna EZIKSA naj bi po našem mnenju vsebovala naslednje podatke: IME Standardizirani zapis imena za zemljevide različnih meril DANOSTI IMENA Lega geografskega objekta in geografska opredelitev tipa zemljepisnega imena RAZVOJ IMENA Pregled razvoja zapisa imena na zemljevidih in v pisnih virih z imenskim kazalom JEZIKOSLOVNA IZVORNA OBLIKA IMENA Zapis imena z naglasnimi poudarki GENERALIZIRANA OBLIKA IMENA Standardizirani zapis imena za pregledne karte ETIMOLOGIJA IMENA Zapis o pomenskem izvoru imena Poimenovanje stvari in pokrajine je proces, ki ima svoj razvoj, posledice in zakonitosti. Od tega, kako poimenujemo neko stvar, je odvisno tudi naše delovanje. Ce je beseda nekako preohlapna, nenatančna, se nam stvar v svoji vprašljivosti ne odpre, naš odziv na stvar pa je negotov in velikokrat neustrezen ali pa celo zbudi prav nasprotno reakcijo od želene.