T. LAZAR et al.: ARMOUR PLATES FROM KOZLOV ROB – ANALYSES OF TWO UNUSUAL FINDS
767–773
ARMOUR PLATES FROM KOZLOV ROB – ANALYSES OF TWO
UNUSUAL FINDS
OKLEPNI PLO[^I S KOZLOVEGA ROBA – ANALIZE DVEH
NENAVADNIH NAJDB
Toma` Lazar1, Primo` Mrvar2, Martin Lamut3, Peter Fajfar2
1National Museum of Slovenia, Pre{ernova cesta 20, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
2University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Department of Material Science and Metallurgy, A{ker~eva cesta 12,
1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
3Slovenian centre of excellence for space sciences and technologies, A{ker~eva cesta 12, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
peter.fajfar@omm.ntf.uni-lj.si
Prejem rokopisa – received: 2015-07-30; sprejem za objavo – accepted for publication: 2015-10-13
doi:10.17222/mit.2015.242
During archaeological excavations of the fortifications on Kozlov rob, two perforated steel plates were discovered, the purposes
of which had never been explained satisfactorily. Detailed examinations and scientific analyses confirmed that in one case at
least we were dealing with fragments of armour from the late Middle Ages or the early Modern Period that had later been
reworked into an entirely unrelated object having, in all possibility, a non-warlike function.
Keywords: armour, weapons, archaeometallurgy, metallography, nano-indentation, Kozlov rob
Med arheolo{kimi izkopavanji utrdbe na Kozlovem robu sta bili odkriti dve preluknjani, jekleni plo{~i, katerih namembnost ni
bila nikoli zadovoljivo pojasnjena. Natan~ne preiskave in znanstvene analize so potrdile, da gre v vsaj enem primeru za
fragment oklepa iz poznega srednjega veka ali iz zgodnjega novega veka. Ta je bil naknadno predelan v predmet, ki po vsej
verjetnosti ni slu`il voja{kemu namenu.
Klju~ne besede: oklep, oro`je, arheometalurgija, metalografija nanovtiskovanje, Kozlov rob
1 INTRODUCTION
Kozlov rob is a lone hill of almost rectangular form
reaching an altitude of 426 m above sea-level overlook-
ing the town of Tolmin. Due to the strategic importance
of the location, a castle was built on Kozlov rob in the
12th Century. The castle remained in use until the
mid-17th Century.1
Archaeological excavations at Kozlov rob were car-
ried out in 1964/5 and 1996/7. The excavations revealed
various finds.2 As elsewhere in Central Europe,3,4,5 the
finds consisted mostly of small, often fragmentary ob-
jects. Among those related to warfare, the largest group
is represented by crossbow bolts.6 In addition to other
fragments of arms and armour, two steel plates were
found, both perforated with rows of holes. One of them
was first reported on in 2008.1,7
The unclear purposes of the plates soon stimulated
lively discussion. The first plate evidently represents the
upper half of a breastplate. The second plate is made
from much thicker steel sheet but lacks any recognisable
features. The two fragments have little in common apart
from the more or less symmetrically distributed holes.
This is an indication that both objects had performed an
identical function during their last period of working life.
At least three hypotheses have been suggested as to their
intended purpose:
1. Fragments of armour were used by the castle garrison
for target practice with crossbows.
2. The perforated breastplate with vent holes is an
example of extremely rare tournament armour for
foot combat.
3. Worn-out fragments of armour were recycled and
modified into something else, perhaps a grate or vent.
In 2010 the plates from Kozlov rob were submitted to
in-depth research for the first time. Four small samples
were removed from each plate and subjected to me-
tallographic analysis. The results indicated that both
plates were made from relatively high-quality steel con-
taining approximately 0.3 % to 0.8 % carbon with a
ferritic-pearlitic structure.8,9
These preliminary results underlined the need for
additional analyses and a more detailed publication
about the plates from Kozlov rob. The following paper
has been compiled to present a comprehensive overview
of the analytical methods used as well as an interdiscip-
linary discussion of the latest findings.
2 EXPERIMENTAL PART
The fragment of breastplate No. 1 (Figure 1) is heav-
ily corroded. It represents the upper half of a steel
cuirass reaching up to the folded rim of the neck and
armpit cut-out. The fragment originally belonged to a
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 50 (2016) 5, 767–773 767
UDK 620.17:623.445.1:67.017 ISSN 1580-2949
Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni ~lanek MTAEC9, 50(5)767(2016)
breastplate of comparatively plain construction, possibly
of North Italian manufacture, in the style typical for the
period around 1500 AD.8,10 It is made from one piece of
steel sheet, approximately 1.5 mm to 3 mm thick. The
length of the plate is 252 mm, the width is 286 mm, and
its weight is 778 g. Due to a progressive state of corro-
sion, the original thickness of the sheet metal is difficult
to measure precisely, but can be estimated at around
2 mm on average. The convex-shaped steel sheet is per-
forated along two thirds of its width on the right-hand
side with 18 holes arranged in more or less symmetrical
rows. The holes are mostly of uniform, square shaped,
pierced from the inner side of the breastplate.1,9
The fragment of steel plate No. 2 (Figure 2) is
shaped as an irregular parallelogram. It is made from a
massive steel sheet with a multi-layered anisotropic mi-
crostructure. The plate is perforated with 16 square and
round holes pierced from both sides. Due to advanced
corrosion the metal sheet has largely disintegrated longi-
tudinally into multiple layers. The surface is covered
with a thick layer of corrosion products. The thickness of
the steel sheet is approximately 3.5 mm to 7 mm, with an
average of around 4.5 mm. The length of the plate is
245 mm, the width 244 mm, and its weight is 1.504 g.8,9
For the microstructural characterization and the
mechanical analysis three small samples were removed
from each steel plate. The locations of the samples of
fragment No. 1 are shown in Figure 1, and their shapes
are shown in Figure 3, and the locations of the samples
of fragment No. 2 are shown in Figure 2, and their
shapes are shown in Figure 4. The obtained samples
were embedded in resin, ground, polished and etched
using a solution of 2 % nital. The microstructural cha-
racterization was performed using light optical micro-
scopy (Olympus Microscope BX61). The tests for me-
chanical analysis were conducted on an Agilent G200
Nanoindenter using the continuous stiffness measure-
ment (CSM) option. The CSM technique allows the
contact stiffness together with the projected area of
hardness impressions to be measured at any point along
the loading curve.11,12 This instrument monitors and re-
cords the dynamic load and displacement of the indenter
during indentation with a force resolution of approxi-
mately 50 nN and a displacement resolution of approxi-
mately 0.01 nm.
3 RESULTS
3.1 Metallographic analysis
Sample 1 originates from the edge of a heavily cor-
roded hole. The examined surface runs along the plane
of the plate. The sample is corroded, hence the micro-
structure of the metal is invisible on the macro photo-
graph (Figure 3a). Sample 2 was removed from the
lower, broken part of the plate. The examined surface
T. LAZAR et al.: ARMOUR PLATES FROM KOZLOV ROB – ANALYSES OF TWO UNUSUAL FINDS
768 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 50 (2016) 5, 767–773
Figure 1: Fragment of breastplate showing the locations of the
samples (Photo: T. Lazar), Gori{ki muzej, Nova Gorica, s. n.
Slika 1: Odlomek prsne plo{~e z mesti odvzema vzorcev (foto: T.
Lazar), Gori{ki muzej, Nova Gorica, s. n.
Figure 3: Samples from the plate No. 1: a) sample 1, b) sample 2,
c) sample 3
Slika 3: Vzorci plo{~e {t. 1: a) vzorec 1, b) vzorec 2, c) vzorec 3
Figure 2: Fragment of steel plate showing the locations of the samples
(Photo: T. Lazar), Gori{ki muzej, Nova Gorica, s. n.
Slika 2: Odlomek jeklene plo{~e z mesti odvzema vzorcev (Photo: T.
Lazar), Gori{ki muzej, Nova Gorica, s. n.
runs perpendicular to the plane of the plate (Figure 5).
The microstructure contains mostly pearlite (darker
microstructural areas of the grain) with a small propor-
tion of ferrite (white microstructural areas). On the lower
edge of the sample the grain is finely formed within a
directional structure. Also, the proportion of ferrite is
markedly larger. The dark area along the left edge repre-
sents the corroded surface. Sample 3 was taken from the
right edge of the plate. The examined surface runs along
the plane of the plate (Figure 6). The microstructure
contains mostly pearlite with a small proportion of
ferrite. On the upper edge of the sample (the outside
edge of the plate) the grain is smaller and the proportion
of ferrite larger. The dark area around the right edge
represents the corroded surface. The existing corrosion
products are formed mostly on the basis of Fe2O3 and
Fe3O4.
Within the narrow band along the lower right edge,
the microstructure of sample 2 is directed along the flow
of material produced during the perforation process (Fig-
ure 5). The grain is plastically deformed, non-recry-
stallized, as is typical of cold working. Given that the
edge layers contain a significantly higher portion of
recrystallized ferrite grain, it can be estimated that the
steel plate was heated to a temperature between 700 °C
and 900 °C prior to the perforation process. At that
temperature and a suitable time of heating the steel plate
was partly decarburised on the surface. This is confirmed
by the microstructure containing an increased proportion
of ferrite. The narrow band of non-recrystallized grain
may have been formed during a later repair of the hole
done cold.
Sample 4 originates from the edge of a round hole.
The examined surface runs perpendicularly along the
plane of the plate (Figure 7). In the centre of the sample
the microstructure contains mostly pearlite with a small
proportion of ferrite. In the outer layers the grain is
formed more finely and there is an increased content of
ferrite. Sample 5 was removed from the left edge of the
plate. The examined surface runs perpendicular to the
plane of the plate (Figure 8). Along the entire cross-
section pearlite can be observed, indicating that the steel
has a composition containing 0.8 % carbon. Sample 6
was taken from the edge of a square hole. The examined
surface runs perpendicular to the plane of the plate (Fig-
ure 9). The microstructure is fine grained, containing
pearlite and ferrite. The edges of the sample contain
ferrite and the grain is larger, too.
The microstructure of sample 5 is predominantly
pearlitic. The examined surface is directed towards the
interior of the plate. Such a microstructure is typical of
hot working. The micro photographs demonstrate that
T. LAZAR et al.: ARMOUR PLATES FROM KOZLOV ROB – ANALYSES OF TWO UNUSUAL FINDS
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 50 (2016) 5, 767–773 769
Figure 7: Sample 4, plate No. 2
Slika 7: Vzorec 4, plo{~a {t. 1
Figure 5: Sample 2, plate No. 1
Slika 5: Vzorec 2, plo{~a {t. 1
Figure 6: Sample 3, plate No. 1
Slika 6: Vzorec 3, plo{~a {t. 1
Figure 4: Samples from plate No. 2: a) sample 4, b) sample 5,
c) sample 6
Slika 4: Vzorci plo{~e {t. 2: a) vzorec 4, b) vzorec 5, c) vzorec 6
the plate was formed by hot forging, then slowly air
cooled. The holes on the second plate were punched hot
as well. This is confirmed by the compositions of sam-
ples 4 and 6 that contain fine-grained microstructures
with an increased ferrite content in the outer layers,
which are partly decarburised. The grain is larger than is
the case with the first plate. The proportion of ferrite is
larger, too. Assuming that both plates were heated to the
same temperature during the manufacture, the larger
grain size may be attributed to a longer heating time, as
plate No. 2 is twice as thick as No. 1.
The examined samples also contain non-metallic
inclusions that were oriented perpendicularly to the
direction of deformation during the sequences of hot
forging.13,14
Figure 7 demonstrates that these inclusions are rela-
tively soft and therefore were deformed considerably.
3.2 Mechanical analysis
In order to obtain a deeper insight into the origin of
the archaeological finds in the form of two perforated
steel plates it was decided to obtain some mechanical
data. Since the archaeologists and museum curators are
not in favour of any material being detached from mu-
seum objects, the amount material to work with is
usually fairly small, hence it is difficult to extract its
mechanical properties. Due to such constraints the
nanoindentation technique was used, which can provide
a Young’s modulus and a hardness from very small sam-
ples.
The penetration depth of 1 μm was carefully chosen
in order to avoid the influences of the indentation size
effect, the surface roughness or the surface inclination
and to reach a constant value or plateau region. At each
point at least 6 measurements were taken. In spots where
the results showed extensive dissipation, the number of
measurements was increased considerably.
The first point of interest was plate No. 1, sample 2
(P1-S2), removed from the area next to a hole, where at
the edge finely formed grains are found with an in-
creased portion of ferrite and in the middle part larger
grains with a predominantly pearlitic microstructure. The
results are presented in Table 1. In order to eliminate
point fluctuations in the load-displacement curve the
values are averages at depths between 800 nm and
900 nm from each test. (Note that for the nanoindenta-
tion range the hardness values are greater than for the
micro or macro scale11,12). The hardness measurements of
P1-S2 (Figure 10) show a large dissipation at the edge in
comparison to the area in the middle. It shows a slightly
larger mean hardness (Table 1), but considering the
dissipation it all falls into the margin of error. Since
ferrite has a smaller hardness than pearlite it is assumed
that the influence of cold-worked smaller grains is mini-
mized by a greater ferrite share in the microstructure.
Furthermore, the tests were made separately at the
ferritic and pearlitic grains, but the results overlapped,
most likely due to effects from adjacent grains, so it was
T. LAZAR et al.: ARMOUR PLATES FROM KOZLOV ROB – ANALYSES OF TWO UNUSUAL FINDS
770 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 50 (2016) 5, 767–773
Figure 9: Sample 6, plate No. 2
Slika 9: Vzorec 6, plo{~a {t. 1
Figure 10: Hardness as a function of contact depth for P1S2: a) the
edge and b) the middle
Slika 10: Trdota v odvisnosti od kontaktne globine za P1S2: a) rob in
b) sredina
Figure 8: Sample 5, plate No. 2
Slika 8: Vzorec 5, plo{~a {t. 1
hard to draw any sound conclusions. Sample 3 (P1-S3),
taken away from the afterwards induced holes, shows a
considerably smaller hardness. The grains remained in
the original state and no plastic deformation occurred,
which agrees well with the above hypothesis.
Table 1: Hardness tests statistics on the first plate
Tabela 1: Statistika preizkusov trdote za prvo plo{~o
P1-S2 middle P1-S2 edge P1-S3
Mean 3.18 3.38 2.29
Std. Dev. 0.24 0.53 0.15
% COV 7.48 15.82 6.36
In Table 2 the hardness results from plate No. 2 are
given. Samples 4 and 6 (P2-S4, P2-S6), taken from the
vicinity of a hole, show higher hardness where the grains
are smaller with a lower share of ferrite, which in these
cases is in the middle of the samples. Where the grains
are larger and a higher share of ferrite is observed, the
hardness is lower, comparable with the samples P1-S3
and P2-S5, taken from the area with no subsequent
reworking of the plates.
Table 2: Hardness tests statistics on the second plate
Tabela 2: Statistika preizkusov trdote za drugo plo{~o
P2-S4
middle
P2-S4
edge P2-S5
P2-S6
middle
P2-S6
edge
Mean 3.05 2.69 2.82 2.97 2.57
Std. Dev. 0.08 0.09 0.3 0.3 0.23
% COV 2.56 3.24 10.53 10.1 9
4 DISCUSSION
Fragments of armour were used by the castle garrison
for target practice with crossbows.
Both steel plates are perforated with holes, mostly of
a square shape, measuring approximately 10 mm × 10 mm
(Figures 11 and 12). Such dimensions correspond to the
typical late-medieval crossbow bolt with a square- or
diamond-shaped head. A sizeable group of bolt heads of
that same type was unearthed on Kozlov rob6,7, seem-
ingly supporting the idea that the plates had been used
for marksmanship practice.
However, several arguments speak against such an
explanation. On both plates the holes are placed quite
neatly in straight rows. Such precise shot placement
would be difficult to achieve even by a skilled marks-
man. At any rate, the arrangement of holes is much more
symmetrical than might be expected from a random
dispersion of hits.
The penetration of late medieval crossbows should
not be overestimated. The spanning force of a "one-foot"
military crossbow was within the range of 1500 N, or
2100 N in the case of the heavier "two-foot" type. In the
15th century, even more powerful crossbows were deve-
loped with draw weights up to 5000 N.16–20 However,
their efficiency was low. At point-blank range, the maxi-
mum penetration of a typical crossbow bolt weighing 70
g might reach up to 60 mm of pinewood. Documented
cases of projectiles stuck within the wooden structures of
medieval castles show a degree of penetration averaging
only 20 mm in seasoned softwood.16
The kinetic energy of a crossbow bolt21 at point-blank
range may be estimated at around 200 J.16 The latter is
clearly superior to a yew longbow with a kinetic energy
of 120 J at a draw weight of 670 N.22 However, it would
be barely sufficient to penetrate even the relatively thin
plate No. 1. The second plate, at least twice as thick,
would prove entirely resistant to crossbow bolts. In fact,
it would be proof against a musket ball possessing at
least ten times greater kinetic energy.23
Therefore, it seems highly unlikely that the two steel
plates from Kozlov rob were pierced by crossbow bolts.
The final answer is provided by the metallographic
analysis. Had the holes been made by the impact of
crossbow bolts the samples would show evidence of
mechanical deformation and cold work hardening of the
microstructure.
The perforated breastplate with vent holes is an
example of extremely rare tournament armour for foot
combat.
In the late Middle Ages, new types of armour were
developed specifically for tournament use. The famous
T. LAZAR et al.: ARMOUR PLATES FROM KOZLOV ROB – ANALYSES OF TWO UNUSUAL FINDS
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 50 (2016) 5, 767–773 771
Figure 12: Holes on plate No. 1 (Photo: T. Lazar)
Slika 12: Luknje na plo{~i {t. 1 (foto: T. Lazar)
Figure 11: Square-shaped holes of plate No. 2 (Photo: D. Todorovi})
Slika 11: Luknje kvadratne oblike na plo{~i {t. 2 (foto: D. Todorovi})
tournament book of René of Anjou from ca. 1460 depicts
a cuirass with numerous vent holes for fighting on foot
(Figure 13).24,25 Recent archaeological excavations at the
Haus Herbede in the Ruhr district have revealed a breast-
plate of the exact same type.26,27 The discovery of a per-
forated breastplate at Kozlov rob gave rise to speculation
that it might have belonged to a similar suit of tourna-
ment armour designed to prevent overheating.1,7
Nonetheless, a closer examination of the breastplate
disproved such a possibility. The holes are crudely made,
which is clearly inconsistent with the workmanship of
late-medieval tournament armour. At any rate, the breast-
plate would be very uncomfortable to wear due to the
sharp perforations. The second perforated plate is an
even less sophisticated product. The holes were struck
into the steel sheet from both sides, in many cases, form-
ing crude bulges up to a centimetre deep. Such a plate
could never have belonged to armour worn on one’s
person (Figure 14).
Worn-out fragments of armour were recycled and re-
worked into something else, perhaps a grate or vent.
Steel was an expensive commodity in the past, hence
recycling of old or damaged steel products was part of
everyday life. Provided that a damaged fragment of
armour had to be scrapped, it seems plausible that it was
reworked into a new product, even something as mun-
dane as a fireplace grate or a vent. Two very similar
plates used for that purpose were spotted coincidentally
in 2010, built into a modern brick structure on the island
of Rab (Figures 15a and 15b).
The perforations on the plates were clearly made
using a massive chisel or punch. Due to the thickness of
the metal sheet, particularly on plate No. 2., it can be
T. LAZAR et al.: ARMOUR PLATES FROM KOZLOV ROB – ANALYSES OF TWO UNUSUAL FINDS
772 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 50 (2016) 5, 767–773
Figure 13: Armour for foot combat as depicted in René of Anjou’s
tournament book (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, MS Fr 2695, fol.
25v)
Slika 13: Oklep za pehotni dvoboj iz turnirske knjige Renéja An`uj-
skega (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, MS Fr 2695, fol. 25v)
Figure 14: Side view of plate No. 2 (Photo: D. Todorovi})
Slika 14: Stranski pogled plo{~e {t. 2 (foto: D. Todorovi})
Figure 15: a), b): Unexpected analogy from the Adriatic coast: two
simple steel vents, designed in the same manner, built into a modern
outbuilding on the island Rab (Photo: T. Lazar)
Slika 15: a), b): Nepri~akovana podobnost z Jadranske obale: dva pre-
prosta jeklena zra~nika, oblikovana na enak na~in in vgrajena v
moderno zgradbo na otoku Rab (foto: T. Lazar)
assumed that the punching was performed while the
plate was heated in a forge. Even so, the process would
have necessitated heavy hammer blows, causing severe
deformation of the material. Further explanation of the
work process may be provided by scientific analyses, in
particular metallography.13,14,28,29
5 CONCLUSION
The fragmentary breastplate No. 1 was a quality pro-
duct made of steel with a relatively high carbon con-
tent.16 The latter also holds true for plate No. 2, even
though, based on its shape alone, it is impossible to
determine what sort of object it had belonged to origi-
nally. One cannot exclude the possibility that it was
merely a steel semi-product.8
The results of the metallographic analyses proved
that both plates had been reworked in a similar manner.
As could be expected given the technological capabilities
of the pre-industrial era, the holes were made by hot
punching. Only later on, as indicated by the non-recry-
stallization, the directional structure of the part of sample
2 (Figure 5), some of the holes may have been repaired
or reworked slightly by cold working. The mechanical
analyses show that in the case of small samples the
nanoindentation technique can provide useful additional
data. The results confirm the metallographic analyses
and further reveal the material properties as well as the
methods of making and processing the plates.
Based on the above observations, it is clear that once
the holes had been punched and formed, at least plate
No. 1 was not exposed to temperatures in excess of
approximately 400 °C that would have caused recry-
stallization of the cold-worked areas. Therefore, it is
possible to conclude that the perforated plates were most
likely used as simple grates, vents or were put to some
other similar uses.
The reworking of the steel plates seems all the more
plausible considering the gradual decline of armour in
Europe during the 17th century. From that standpoint it
might be easier to understand why on Kozlov rob a
breastplate was reworked into a new product, no longer
having anything in common with the armour’s original
purpose.
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