Science of Gymnastics Journal vol. 11, num. 3, year 2019 Published by Department of Gymnastics, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana ISSN 1855-7171 Science of Gymnastics Journal (ScGYM®) Science of Gymnastics Journal (ScGYM®) (abrevated for citation is SCI GYMNASTICS J) is an international journal that provide a wide range of scientific information specific to gymnastics. The journal is publishing both empirical and theoretical contributions related to gymnastics from the natural, social and human sciences. It is aimed at enhancing gymnastics knowledge (theoretical and practical) based on research and scientific methodology. We welcome articles concerned with performance analysis, judges' analysis, biomechanical analysis of gymnastics elements, medical analysis in gymnastics, pedagogical analysis related to gymnastics, biographies of important gymnastics personalities and other historical analysis, social aspects of gymnastics, motor learning and motor control in gymnastics, methodology of learning gymnastics elements, etc. Manuscripts based on quality research and comprehensive research reviews will also be considered for publication. The journal welcomes papers from all types of research paradigms. Editor-in-Chief Ivan Čuk, Slovenia Responsible Editor Maja Pajek, Slovenia Science of Gymnastics Journal is indexed in Web of Science (ESCI data base, since 2015), EBSCOhost SPORTDiscus, SCOPUS, COBISS Editorial and Scientific Board Koichi Endo, Japan Marco Antonio Bortoleto, Brazil Nikolaj Georgievic Suchilin, Russia William Sands, USA Kamenka Zivcic, Croatia Ignacio Grande Rodríguez, Spain Warwick Forbes, Australia David McMinn, Scotland, UK Almir Atikovic, Bosnia and Herzegovina José Ferreirinha, Portugal Istvan Karacsony, Hungary Hardy Fink, FIG Academy, Canada Keith Russell, FIG Scientific Commission, Canada Thomas Heinen, Germany Front page design: Sandi Radovan, Slovenia. Editorial Office Address Science of Gymnastics Journal Faculty of Sport, Department of Gymnastics Gortanova 22, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia Telephone: +386 (0)1 520 7765 Fax: +386 (0)1 520 7750 E-mail: scgym@fsp.uni-lj.si Home page: http://www.scienceofgymnastics.com (IZUM), SIRC (Canada), ERIHPLUS, OPEN. J-GATE, GET CITED, ELECTRONIC JOURNALS INDEX, SCIRUS, NEW JOUR, GOOGLE SCHOLAR, PRO QUEST and INDEX COPERNICUS. ScGYM® (ISSN 1855-7171) is an international online journal published three times a year (February, June, October). ® Department of Gymnastics, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana. All rights reserved. This journal and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under Copyright and Related Rights Act of the Republic of Slovenia. Science of Gymnastics Journal Education best qua rti le SJR ZOTE 0 31 ^^^^ ^__^__■ powered by scirnagojr.com Science of Gymnastics Journal is supported by Foundation for financing sport organisations in Slovenia, Slovenian Research Agency and International Gymnastics Federation. Slovenian Research Agency SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 11 Issue 3: 2019 CONTENTS Ivan Cuk EDITORIAL 277 In Memoriam BRUNO GRANDI 278 William A. Sands Kelly Bretl Gregory Bogdanis Leland Barker Olivia Donti Jeni R. McNeal Gabriella Penitente COMPARISON OF BUNGEE-AIDED AND FREE-BOUNCING ACCELERATIONS ON TRAMPOLINE 279 Miha Marinšek Ivan Čuk EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT LEG LOADINGS AT TAKE-OFF ON LANDING CHARACTERISTICS IN TWISTING SOMERSAULTS 289 George Dallas Stelliou Charis vid Theodorou Apostolos Costas Dallas COMPETITIVE STATE ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE IN YOUNG MALE ARTISTIC GYMNASTS 299 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WOMEN'S ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS TECHNICAL SKILL, Elina Virkki PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE TEST RESULTS Teppo Kalaja AND SUCCESS IN COMPETITIONS IN FINLAND 307 Lionela da Silva Corrêa Evandro J. S. R. C. Verde Michele Viviene Carbinatto BENEFITS OF THE UNIVERSITY RHYTHMIC GYMNASTICS EXTENSION PROJECT FOR UNDERGRADUATE TO STUDENTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS 321 Fotini Venetsanou Christina Ioannidou SOCIAL PHYSIQUE ANXIETY, DISTURBED EATING ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS, AND PERCEIVED PRESSURE FOR THIN BODY IN COMPETITIVE RHYTHMIC AND AEROBIC GYMNASTS 331 Michele Viviene Carbinatto Lorena Nabanete Reis Furtado CHOREOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN GYMNASTICS FOR ALL 343 Anton Gajdos Ivan Cuk HISTORICAL SHORT NOTES XVI 355 SLOVENSKI IZVLEČKI / SLOVENE ABSTRACTS 358 275 SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 11 Issue 3: 2019 In Memoriam Bruno Grandi (9 May 1934 - 13 September 2019) Dear gymnastics friends, Sad news came to us. Professor Bruno Grandi is no longer among us in material world, but his spirit will flaw around us. We would like to express condolences to his family and his gymnastics family. He supported many ideas, and was open to novelties. His biggest obstacle was how to implement novelties politically wise, and to persuade those who do not want changes. For what I'm especially grateful is, he supported publishing Science of Gymnastics Journal. Great man, leaves great works - Academy, Open ended Code of Points, Judging education, Judges control, new sports in Olympic family just to name from my perspective huge steps in our sport. Prof. Ivan Čuk, Editor in Charge Photo by Anton Gajdoš 276 SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL EDITORIAL Vol. 11 Issue 3: 2019 Dear friends, Let me start with the latest news: at the World Championships in Stuttgart (GER), gymnasts from Turkey, Hong Kong, Ireland and the Philippines won medals for their countries for the first time ever. Simone Billes (USA) is now officially the most decorated gymnast at world championships. We saw some excellent gymnastics one year prior to the Olympic Games in Tokyo. Parkour was included in the games. October was really full of events. Additionally, there were two symposiums about gymnastics, one held in Freiburg (GER) and one in Osaka (JPN). In Slovenia, our Olympic champion Miroslav Cerar is celebrating his 80th birthday this year and as a gift, his club (established in 1863) set up an exhibition about his achievements in the Ljubljana City Hall. In this issue, we have seven articles by authors from the USA, Greece, the United Kingdom, Slovenia, Finland and Brazil. The first article is about trampolining. It is authored by an international group of researchers lead by William A. Sands (USA). The second article is from Slovene authors; they discus symmetries at take-offs and landings. The third article is from Greece and is about anxiety in young male gymnasts. The fourth article comes from Finland and looks at the relationship between test motor abilities, technical knowledge and competition results. The fifth article is from Brazil and examines the importance of rhythmics in university programmes. From Greece comes another article, about diet in rhythmics and aerobics. The last article is from Brazil and is about choreography in gymnastics for all. Anton Gajdos drafted another article related to the history of gymnastics, refreshing our awareness of Miroslav Cerar, an excellent Slovene (formerly Yugoslav) gymnast. Just to remind you, if you quote the Journal, its abbreviation on the Web of Knowledge is SCI GYMN J. I wish you pleasant reading and a lot of inspiration for new research projects and articles, Ivan Cuk Editor-in-Chief 277 SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 11 Issue 3: 2019 Above: 8 Decades of Miroslav Cerar exhibition in city hall in Ljubljana (Photo Ivan Čuk) Below: Opening ceremony in front of City Hall in Ljubljana (Photo Nik Rovan) 278 Sands W. A. et al.: COMPARISON OF BUNGEE-AIDED AND FREE BOUNCING Vol. 11 Issue 3: 279 - 288 COMPARISON OF BUNGEE-AIDED AND FREE-BOUNCING ACCELERATIONS ON TRAMPOLINE William A. Sands1, Bret Kelly1, Gregory Bogdanis2, Leland Barker3, Olivia Donti2, Jeni R. McNeal4, Gabriella Penitente5 1 U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association - High Performance, Park City, Utah United States 2National and Kapodistrian University of Athens - School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Athens, Greece 3 Creighton University - Department of Exercise Science and Pre-Health Professions, Omaha, Nebraska, United States 4 Eastern Washington University - PEHR Cheney, Washington, United States 5 Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland _Original article Abstract Trampolines remain the single best apparatus for the training of aerial acrobatics skills. Trampoline use has led to catastrophic injuries from poor landings. Passive injury prevention countermeasures such as specialized matting have been largely ineffective. Active injury countermeasures such as hand spotting, "throw-in" mats, and overhead spotting rigs provide the most effective methods. The recent addition of several bungee cords between the ropes and the gymnast's spotting harness has resulted in altered teaching and coaching of trampoline-related acrobatics. Bungee cords have eliminated the need for a coach/spotter to manage the ropes during skill learning. The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of the addition of bungee cords with a traditional rope-based overhead spotting rig. There is a paucity of any research involving trampoline injury countermeasures. Ten experienced trampoline acrobatic athletes (5 males, 5 females) from the U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association Aerials National Team performed 10 bounces as high as they could control. A triaxial accelerometer (200 Hz) characterized 10 bungee cord aided bounces and 10 free-bounces on a trampoline from each athlete. Bed contact times, peak accelerations, and average accelerations were obtained. The results supported our hypotheses that the bungee-aided bounces achieved only 40% (average) to 70% (peak) of the free-bouncing accelerations (all p < 0.001 and all rfparttal >0.092). The bed contact time was approximately 65% longer during the bungee-aided bounces (p < 0.001). Bungee cords may reduce the harshness of landings on trampoline. Keywords: safe jumping, biomechanics data, time, peak values. INTRODUCTION Trampolines have received increased and as a training tool for acrobatic athletes. attention as both a performance apparatus Trampolines offer athletes the ability to Science of Gymnastics Journal 279 Science of Gymnastics Journal Sands W. A. et al.: COMPARISON OF BUNGEE-AIDED AND FREE BOUNCING Vol. 11 Issue 3: 280 - 288 rise as high as five or more meters in the air with minimal physical effort (Eager, Chapman, & Bondoc, 2012), practice difficult skills, and land on a flexible and elastic trampoline bed. However, trampolines can embody a revenge effect (Tenner, 1996). Providing easy access to high jumps that gives more air time to learn a skill also results in increased velocity and force at landing. Revenge effects are unanticipated consequences of some change to a complex system (Tenner, 1996). An uncontrolled fall that often occurs during learning may increase the risk of a serious injury aggravated by a greater descent distance. The dangers of trampolines have been well documented for decades (Council on Sports Medicine & Fitness, 2012; Kakel, 2012; Torg, 1987). The apparatus was banned from schools for years following position statements from the American Association of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (J.O.P.E.R., 1978), American Academy of Pediatrics (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1982, 1999), and the American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons (American Academy of Orthpaedic Surgeons, 2001). However, trampoline is a competitive sport with more than a million of active athletes worldwide and an Olympic discipline since 2000 (Jensen, Scott, Krustrup, & Mohr, 2013). Despite the amount of research associated with trampoline jumping, evidence is limited on injury prevention countermeasures for trampoline including both passive and active methods (Sands, 2000). Passive methods involve the use of various types of padding. Specialty mats can be used to cover the trampoline frame as well as the springs of the trampoline bed. Mat tables are placed flush with the height of above-ground trampolines, which are then padded with thick mats. Floor matting is also common. Unfortunately, trampoline injury research has indicated that none of the passive countermeasures are capable of preventing injury (American Society for Testing and Materials, 1990; Torg & Das, 1984). Active injury prevention countermeasures include, "throw-in" mats (Sands & Drew, 2007), and various types of manual hand and belt spotting (USA Tumbling and Trampoline, 2007). Throw-in mats are mats that are pushed onto the trampoline bed by coaches or athletes adjacent to the trampoline when an athlete is out of control. Throw-in mats may also be used to simply reduce the energy of the bounce (Sands & Drew, 2007). Perhaps the most effective injury countermeasure for trampolines is the overhead spotting belt or rig. The overhead spotting belt involves a snug waist and hip harness which is attached to ropes or bungee cords which are attached to the ceiling or a rigid frame (Figure 1). Such overhead spotting rigs allow the athlete to be suspended from above so that they are supported throughout the bounce, and have protection in the event of an unexpected fall. Overhead spotting rigs provide the highest degree of safety for athletes performing on a trampoline (Figure 1). For example, USA Diving, in their U.S. Diving Safety Certification manual, requires that all divers using a trampoline as a training tool, must use an overhead spotting rig or hand spotting with a belt and short ropes, and the coach must have completed special training provided by U.S, Diving (Kimball, 1999b). Overhead spotting rigs have been ubiquitous for decades (Figure 1). However, the addition of bungee cords has been more recent. There are two primary ways to support the athlete from an overhead spotting rig: using ropes or by bungee cords. In a rope-based overhead rig, two ropes are suspended from the ceiling or a rigid frame directly above the center of the trampoline (Figure 1). The ropes pass through pulleys spaced widely apart, with one end of each rope attached to the sides of a harness worn around the athlete's waist. The other ends of the ropes are controlled through active muscular effort provided by a skilled spotter Science of Gymnastics Journal 280 Science of Gymnastics Journal Sands W. A. et al.: COMPARISON OF BUNGEE-AIDED AND FREE BOUNCING Vol. 11 Issue 3: 281 - 288 (typically a coach). As the athlete bounces the spotter has to maintain tension on the ropes in order to provide continuous support for the athlete by avoiding slack in the ropes. The spotter accomplishes this by pulling down on the ropes as the athlete bounces upward, and letting the ropes rise upward as the athlete descends downward in the bounce. This up-and-down motion of the grip of the spotter on the rope requires considerable skill to maintain proper tension and timing (Hennessey, 1990; Kimball, 2007; Sands, 1990, 2000). If the athlete experiences an error or an unexpected fall, the spotter holds the ropes tightly and slows the athlete's descent. The spotter needs to be strong, heavier than the athlete, and possesses quick reflexes with high vigilance. Often the spotter is pulled completely off the floor while lowering the athlete. Figure 1. Overhead spotting rig using ropes and bungee cords. An overhead spotting rig which utilizes bungee cords to attach to the athlete removes the need for a skilled human spotter. The ropes and bungee cords need only be set in their optimal tension position and mechanically fixed (Figure 1). Setting the tension of the ropes and bungee cords is usually accomplished by an electric winch that pulls the ropes while stretching the bungee cords (Figure 1). The tension applied by the bungees and ropes lifts the athlete off of the trampoline bed. To begin bouncing, a teammate or assistant has to pull downward on the athlete in order to stretch the elastic bungees and initiate contact with the trampoline bed. After several preparatory bounces, the athlete is able to effectively use the trampoline spring characteristics and the recoil of the elastic bungee cords to rise into the air. Athletes can bounce higher with the combined forces from the trampoline springs and the bungee cords. Most importantly, high bounces are paired with rapid deceleration of the athlete as he or she returns back to the trampoline bed, softening the landing. The assured soft landing frees the athlete to perform many repetitions of difficult skills without a threat of falling harshly and possibly experiencing injury. Despite the widespread use of bungee cord overhead spotting rigs in trampoline, no studies have been conducted which quantifies how this system affects the bouncing athlete. The purpose of this study was to characterize the differences between bungee cord aided bouncing and bouncing without the aid of a bungee apparatus, known as 'free-bouncing'. As the first study of bungee cord aided trampoline bouncing the results may provide information that can be used to determine the levels of accelerations involved. We hypothesized that bouncing with the aid of bungees and bouncing freely would show statistically different bounce characteristics with the bungee-aided bounces showing longer acceleration times and lower peak and average accelerations. Science of Gymnastics Journal 281 Science of Gymnastics Journal Sands W. A. et al.: COMPARISON OF BUNGEE-AIDED AND FREE BOUNCING Vol. 11 Issue 3: 282 - 288 METHODS Participants. Five male (Mean ± SD; age 23.02 y ± 2.45 y; height 168.66 cm ± 9.77 cm; mass 73.2kg ± 8.22 kg) and five female (Mean ± SD; age 20.97 y, ±3.43 y; height 162.52 cm, ±6.17 cm; mass 59.56 kg, ±5.07 kg) experienced trampoline athletes from the U.S. National Aerials Team and the Center of Excellence of the U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association volunteered to participate in this study. Equipment. Athletes bounced on a large trampoline called a Super-Tramp (bed size 3.05m x 6.10m, one-string bed, Rebound Products, Thornhill, Ontario, Canada). The bungee setup included five tubular cords (3.66m long relaxed and 1.27cm diameter) attached at each end to holes in a plastic circle with end plugs that prevented the cords from slipping out of the attachment device (Figure 2). The bungees descended from ropes that were in turn attached to steel cables. Steel cables ran from the ropes to two pulleys and then were joined to an electric winch that raised and lowered the tension on the athlete, belt harness, bungees, and ropes. Figure 2. Attachment of bungee cords. Instrumentation. Accelerations were obtained from a PASCO Scientific, triaxial accelerometer (PASCO Scientific, Roseville, CA, USA PS-3202, ± 16 G all axes, no electronic filtering) attached rigidly to a waist belt that was worn tightly about the waist of the athlete placing the accelerometer posterior to the lumbar spine at approximately the level of lumbar vertebrae L3 to L4 (Simons & Bradshaw, 2016). Acceleration data were transmitted via Blue Tooth™ to a laptop computer. Data were captured (200 Hz), displayed, and stored using Capstone software (PASCO Scientific, Roseville, CA, USA, V1.11.1). Calibration was performed using gravitational vertical. Calibration was conducted by rotating the accelerometer systematically such that one of the three axes of the accelerometers was oriented to the line of gravity approximately 9.806 m/s2, while the remaining axes measured approximately 0 m/s2. Procedures. At arrival for testing the athletes were weighed, measured for height, and queried for birthdate. The athletes were fitted with the belt and accelerometer. Athletes performed a self-selected number of initial bounces, and progressively increased bounce height until they verbally announced that they were bouncing at their greatest controllable height. The athletes first completed the bungee-aided trials, followed by free bouncing (belt and bungees removed). The fixed order of conditions was required because of the athletes' training schedules. The highest ten sequential bounces were used as the bounce trials to characterize each condition's acceleration profile, although sampling was undertaken throughout all bounces, similar to previous procedures (Briggs, 2014; Harden & Earnest, 2015). The interval between the two bounce conditions was approximately five minutes. Data analysis. Descriptive statistics and athlete demographics were collected and recorded. Following data capture and storage, MatLab™ (Natick, MA, USA) was used for data extraction and analysis. Initially, 9.806 m/s/s was added to the vertical-axis signal so at rest the accelerometer read 0 m/s/s. The z-axis was -9.806 m/s/s when the accelerometer was at rest on a flat surface. The added Science of Gymnastics Journal 282 Science of Gymnastics Journal Sands W. A. et al.: COMPARISON OF BUNGEE-AIDED AND FREE BOUNCING Vol. 11 Issue 3: 283 - 288 value for gravity was due to the orientation of the accelerometer on the belt of the athlete. Resultant acceleration was calculated from triaxial accelerations (resultant acceleration = V(x2 + y2 + z2)). Using the resultant is necessary to account for the orientation of the accelerometer, which is subject to change during human movement. The vertical acceleration adjustment converts free fall resultant acceleration to 0 m/s/s, which is critical to defining the start and end points of acceleration due to the trampoline or bungee systems. Acceleration time, peak acceleration, and average acceleration were obtained from the acceleration data and MatLab™ algorithms. Acceleration time during the bungee trials represents the entire acceleration performed by the bungee and trampoline (acceleration occurs pre- and post-trampoline contact), while acceleration time during the free trials represents acceleration performed by the trampoline alone. Bounce acceleration time, peak acceleration, and average acceleration were obtained from the acceleration data and MatLab™ algorithms. The acceleration data were digitally filtered using a 4th-order low-pass Butterworth filter with a cutoff frequency of 50Hz. The filtering was used on all axes individually prior to calculating the resultant acceleration. A bounce was defined as the time from acceleration rising above zero to acceleration reaching zero again. Trends across the ten trials (i.e., bounces) were analyzed using procedures provided by Hopkins (http://www.sportsci .org/resource/stats/rely calc.html#bot). The Hopkins procedure calculates correlations and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) for pairs of trials such as, trial 1 with trial 2, trial 3 with trial 4, and so forth. The final ICC for the ten trials is determined by the mean of the paired ICCs. All data were analyzed using IBM SPSS software (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp). The ten trials were collapsed to means for each athlete, condition, and variable resulting in ten means of trials for three variables, and two conditions. Three one-way repeated measures ANOVAs (RMANOVA) were calculated to assess differences (i.e., bungee-aided vs free-bounce) for the variables: acceleration time, peak acceleration, and average acceleration. Effect size estimates were calculated as partial eta2 (q2Partial), values: < 0.02 = small, 0.02 to 0.13 = medium, 0.13 to 0.26 = large (Cohen, 1988). Experiment-wise statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Type I error correction for the three RMANOVA procedures was provided by the Dunn-Sidak method (Sokal & James Rohlf, 1969). RESULTS The means of the ten trials from the two conditions and three variables were examined first for differences by sex. No statistical differences between the sexes were observed (all p > 0.05). Since the means of the ten trials did not differ statistically by sex, the data were collapsed across sex (all p > 0.05). The Shapiro-Wilks test for normality revealed that all variables met normality assumptions (all p > 0.05). Four of the six variables showed excellent ICCs (all > 0.90) (Table 1). The negative and low ICC values for the free-bounce acceleration times and for free-bounce average accelerations indicated a near complete lack of pairwise stability of the trials of the ten bounces. Closer inspection of these data showed no consistent pattern of variability such as increasing values indicative of learning or decreasing values indicative of fatigue. Therefore, because four of the six variables' ICCs. were extremely high, CoVs were low or modest for all six variables (i.e., bungee-aided acceleration time, bungee- aided peak acceleration, bungee-aided average acceleration, free-bounce acceleration time, free-bounce peak Science of Gymnastics Journal 283 Science of Gymnastics Journal Sands W. A. et al.: COMPARISON OF BUNGEE-AIDED AND FREE BOUNCING Vol. 11 Issue 3: 284 - 288 acceleration, and free-bounce average acceleration), a reluctance to discard data (Henry, 1950), and no apparent pattern of variations across trials, all data were retained and means were calculated utilizing all ten trials for each athlete and bounce condition (Kroll, 1967). The poor ICCs supported observations that the athletes had more variability during free-bounces (Figure 3). Figure 4 shows all bounces for both conditions from one athlete. Descriptive information from the three variables and two conditions are shown in Table 2. The RMANOVA analyses for the three variables comparing bungee aided bounces versus free-bouncing conditions are shown in Table 3. The Sphericity assumption was met and no adjustment of degrees of freedom was merited. Bungee acceleration times were statistically longer for the bungee-aided condition (almost 3 times longer, 290.2%). Peak accelerations for bungee-aided bounces were statistically lower (70%). Average bungee-aided accelerations were statistically lower (41.1%). Acceleration times were statistically longer for the bungee-aided condition (almost 3 times longer, 290.2%). Peak and average accelerations were statistically lower (70% and 41.1%, respectively) in the bungee-aided condition compared to free bouncing. Table 1 Trials Analyses. Variables ICC Lower CI Upper CI CoV(%) Std Dev Bungee-Aided Bound Bound Acceleration time (s) 0.948 0.892 0.981 6.74 4.80 Peak Acceleration (m/s/s) 0.960 0.917 0.986 3.73 1.41 Average Acceleration (m/s/s) 0.970 0.937 0.989 1.99 1.87 Free-Bounce Acceleration time (s) -0.099 -0.178 0.107 11.38 3.48 Peak Acceleration (m/s/s) 0.987 0.972 0.995 2.25 0.90 Average Acceleration (m/s/s) 0.271 0.059 0.589 10.30 2.46 Note: ICC = intraclass correlation coefficient, Lower CI Bound = Confidence interval lower bound, Upper CI Bound = Confidence interval upper bound, CoV = Coefficient of variation, Std Dev = Standard deviation Table 2 Descriptive Data - Bounce Variables. Variables Mean Standard 95% CI 95% CI Error Lower Upper Bound Bound Bungee-Aided Acceleration time (s) 1.486 0.091 1.280 1.692 Peak Acceleration (g) 6.945 0.302 6.261 7.629 Ave Acceleration (g) 1.720 0.081 1.536 1.905 Free-Bounce Acceleration time (s) 0.512 0.010 0.491 0.534 Peak Acceleration (g) 9.913 0.381 9.051 10.775 Ave Acceleration (g) 4.185 0.110 3.937 4.423 Science of Gymnastics Journal 284 Science of Gymnastics Journal Sands W. A. et al.: COMPARISON OF BUNGEE-AIDED AND FREE BOUNCING Vol. 11 Issue 3: 285 - 288 Table 3 Results of ANOVAs comparing bungee-aided bounces with free-bouncing. Tests F(1,9) Sig. 2 ^ Partial Power Bungee-Aided vs Free Bounce Acceleration time (s) 108.01 <.001 0.923 1.0 Peak Acceleration (m/s/s) 207.04 <.001 0.958 1.0 Ave Acceleration (m/s/s) 342.90 <.001 0.974 1.0 Example: Acceleration-Time of One Athlete 10 Free-Bounces 100-1-1-1-1-1-p— 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Time (ms) Figure 3. Example of acceleration-time data for one athlete performing in the free-bounce condition. Figure 4. Comparison of Bungee-aided and Free-bounce acceleration-time data. Science of Gymnastics Journal 285 Science of Gymnastics Journal Sands W. A. et al.: COMPARISON OF BUNGEE-AIDED AND FREE BOUNCING Vol. 11 Issue 3: 286 - 288 DISCUSSION Our original hypothesis was supported in that the two conditions differed with longer acceleration times and lower peak and average accelerations in the bungee-aided condition. Moreover, the effect size statistics indicate that the differences were very large (i.e., all q2partial > 0.75). The problem with bounce data stability was troubling and a limitation of this study with regard to the athlete's abilities to bounce under control. This problem is supported by the larger CoVs of the bungee-aided bounces' acceleration times and average accelerations. In spite of the poor ICCs from acceleration time and average accelerations, we believe that the acceleration times and average accelerations do not represent error but rather the actual variability of the individual athletes' performance values. The decreased peak and average accelerations found with the bungee-aided bounces helps clarify how much the bungee cords reduce the harshness of landings from 41% to 70% as compared to free-bouncing. Given this, it is important for coaches and practitioners to utilize bungee-aided conditions, especially during the execution of complex and new or technical skills. In addition, since all the jumps performed on a trampoline are maximal or near maximal, the metabolic load and neuromuscular fatigue are also high (Jensen et al., 2013). The accelerations experienced by both types of bounce conditions studied here are greater than those used by roller coaster designers (+4-6g) (Elvin, 1999; Smith & Meaney, 2004). Spine injuries have been studied from the Rattler roller coaster in San Antonio, TX, for a 19-month period in 1992 and 1993 (Freeman, Croft, Nicodemus, Centeno, & Elkins, 2005). The results of the roller coaster study of 656 reported spine injuries showed that relatively low vertical peak acceleration levels (+4-6g) and horizontal acceleration g levels of 1.5g sustained occurred in less than 100ms (Smith & Meaney, 2004). Although reports of the maximum acceleration to the head are important, information is incomplete without the duration of the force and direction. The durations of the applied accelerations in the referenced study were at least five times briefer than those observed in the present study, and all of the acceleration directions in the present study were positive (i.e., vertical). Estimated maximum acceleration values obtained from injurious bungee jumping have reached 7-8g (Hite, Greene, Levy, & Jackimczyk, 1992). By g value alone, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration has indicated that sustained g levels of this magnitude may easily injure an astronaut's neck or spine (Hite et al., 1992). Bungee jumping is not the same as the task assessed in this study while some factors are shared. Although the bungee-aided method of bouncing safety is helpful, this method may not be a panacea. Diving coaches have demonstrated that a skillful coach/spotter can aid or detract from somersaulting angular velocity by "bumping" the athlete through small and quick tugs on the spotting ropes mid-somersault (Kimball, 1999a, 2007). Moreover, the use of bungee-aided bounces and the accompanying ropes precludes the practice of extreme skiing and parkour skills such as "corks," "grabs," and modified somersaults with combinations of body shapes because the skis or legs strike the bungees. CONCLUSION The etiology of trampoline injuries is well documented in the literature (Esposito, 2003; Nysted & Drogset, 2006; Silver, Silver, & Godfrey, 1986), and an alarming magnitude of serious injuries (e.g. cervical spine) have been reported. Bungee-aided jumping is commonly Science of Gymnastics Journal 286 Science of Gymnastics Journal Sands W. A. et al.: COMPARISON OF BUNGEE-AIDED AND FREE BOUNCING Vol. 11 Issue 3: 287 - 288 practiced as an effective means to prevent injury from an uncontrolled fall and to provide optimal conditions to learn difficult skills and correct technical errors. This study presents the first data that describes the behavior of bungee-aided bouncing on a trampoline. With no comparative data found in the literature, one is forced to compare with tangentially related studies. While not ideal, related literature from different tasks can present some interesting, but in the end, poor comparisons. In practical terms, bungee cord spotting devices, such as the one described here, can reduce peak and average accelerations substantially. Acceleration reduction favors the safety and comfort of the athlete bouncing on trampoline. Lower accelerations translate to an increased number of repetitions prior to fatigue, an increased number of repetitions that allow more learning repetitions due to the freedom to learn by trial and error, less chance of a harsh impact and injury, and freeing the former spotter to shift from spotting to coaching. REFERENCES American Academy of Orthpaedic Surgeons, A. A. O. S. (2001). Trampolines and trampoline safety. In I. F. o. S. Medicine (Ed.), International Sports Medicine Directory (pp. 148). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. American Academy of Pediatrics, A. A. P. (1982). Trampolines II. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 10(12), 63. American Academy of Pediatrics, A. A. P. (1999). Trampolines at home, school, and recreational centers. 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Esposito, P. W. (2003). Trampoline injuries. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research(409), 43-52. doi:10.1097/01.blo.0000057783.10364.5b Freeman, M. D., Croft, A. C., Nicodemus, C. N., Centeno, C. J., & Elkins, W. L. (2005). Significant Spinal Injury Resulting From Low-Level Accelerations: A Case Series of Roller Coaster Injuries. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 86(11), 21262130. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2005.05.017 Harden, M., & Earnest, C. P. (2015). The effect of warm-up modalities on trampoline flight time performance. Central European Journal of Sport Sciences and Medicine, 10(2), 33-43. Hennessey, J. T. (1990). Part 3. Trampoline safety and diving programs. In J. L. Gabriel (Ed.), U.S. Diving Safety Manual (pp. 159-165). Indianapolis, IN: U.S. Diving, Inc. Henry, F. M. (1950). The loss of precision from discarding discrepant data. The Research Quarterly, 21(2), 145-152. Hite, R. R., Greene, K. A., Levy, D. I., & Jackimczyk, K. (1992). Injuries Resulting From Bungee-Cord Jumping Annals of Emergency Medicine, 22, 1060-1063. J.O.P.E.R. (1978). The use of trampolines and minitramps in physical education. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation, 49(8), 14. Jensen, P., Scott, S., Krustrup, P., & Mohr, M. (2013). Physiological responses and performance in a simulated trampoline gymnastics competition in elite male gymnasts. Journal of Sports Sciences, 31(16), 1761-1769. doi:10.1080/02640414.2013.803591 Science of Gymnastics Journal 287 Science of Gymnastics Journal Sands W. A. et al.: COMPARISON OF BUNGEE-AIDED AND FREE BOUNCING Vol. 11 Issue 3: 288 - 288 Kakel, R. (2012). Trampoline fracture of the proximal tibial metaphysis in children may not progress into valgus: A report of seven cases and a brief review. Orthopaedics & Traumatology: Surgery &Research, 94(4), 446-449. doi:10.1016/j.otsr.2012.02.007 Kimball, D. (1999a). Part 3. Overhead Mounting Belt Spotting Techniques. In J. L. Gabriel (Ed.), U.S. Diving safety training manual (2nd ed., pp. 108-110). Indianapolis, IN: United States Diving, Inc. Kimball, D. (1999b). Part 7. Diving Training Stations and Spotting Rigs for Trampoline, Dry Board, Dry Platform and Wet Board. In J. L. Gabriel (Ed.), U.S. Diving safety training manual (2nd ed., pp. 81-88). Indianapolis, IN: United States Diving, Inc. Kimball, D. (2007). Overhead mounted belt spotting techniques. In R. M. Malina & J. L. Gabriel (Eds.), USA Diving Coach Development Reference Manual (pp. 637-642). Indianapolis, IN: USA Diving Publications. Kroll, W. (1967). Reliability theory and research decision in selection of a criterion score. The Research Quarterly, 38, 412-419. Nysted, M., & Drogset, J. O. (2006). Trampoline injuries. British Journal Sports Medicine., 40, 984-987. Sands, W. A. (1990). Spotting belts. In G. S. George (Ed.), USGF gymnastics safety manual (2nd ed., pp. 47-50). Indianapolis, IN: U.S. Gymnastics Federation. Sands, W. A. (2000). Injury prevention in women's gymnastics. Sports Medicine, 30(5), 359-373. Sands, W. A., & Drew, G. (2007). A case study of trampoline throw-in mats & peak accelerations. Technique, 27(1), 10-11. Silver, J. R., Silver, D. D., & Godfrey, J. J. (1986). Trampolining injuries of the spine. Injury, 17(2), 117-124. Simons, C., & Bradshaw, E. J. (2016). Do accelerometers mounted on the back provide a good estimate of impact loads in jumping and landing tasks? Sports Biomech. doi:10.1080/14763141.2015.1123765 Smith, D. H., & Meaney, D. F. (2004). Roller Coasters, G Forces, and Brain Trauma: On the Wrong Track? Journal of Neurotrauma, 19(10). doi:http://doi.org/10.1089/0897715026033792 1 Sokal, R. R., & James Rohlf, F. (1969). Biometry. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman. Tenner, E. (1996). Why Things Bite Back. New York, NY: Random House. Torg, J. S. (1987). Trampoline-induced quadriplegia. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 6(1), 73-85. Torg, J. S., & Das, M. (1984). Trampoline-related quadriplegia: Review of the literature and reflections on the American Academy of Pediatrics' Position Statement. Pediatrics, 74(5), 804-812. USA Tumbling and Trampoline, U. (2007). Trampoline Safety. Retrieved from USATT Online Corresponding author: William A. Sands U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association - High Performance Park City, Utah, United States E mail: wmasands@hotmail.com Science of Gymnastics Journal 288 Science of Gymnastics Journal Marinšek M., Čuk I.: EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT LEG LOADS AT TAKE-OFF ON. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 289 - 298 EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT LEG LOADINGS AT TAKEOFF ON LANDING CHARACTERISTICS IN TWISTING SOMERSAULTS 1 v ^ Miha Marinšek1, Ivan Čuk2 1 Faculty of Education, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia 2 Faculty of Sport, Univerity of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia _Original article Abstract The purpose of the study was to determine whether take-off asymmetry affects landing asymmetry. Eleven male gymnasts performed forward and backward somersaults with 1/2, 1/1, and 3/2 twists. The leading leg for each participant was defined according to the twisting direction. Ground reaction forces under each foot were measured with Parotec insoles. Absolute and relative measures of lateral asymmetry were used as dependent variables. Three-way ANOVA and a series of one-way ANOVAs were used to determine the main effects between take-off and landing. A series of paired t-tests with Bonferroni corrections were used to find differences between the leading and non-leading legs. Maximal ground reaction forces showed that the leading leg was set out to a higher load at take-off than the non-leading leg for twisting somersaults. There were no statistically significant differences found in the maximal ground reaction force between the legs at landings. Index of bilateral asymmetry indicated landings with negligible asymmetry. However, the maximal force differences between the legs in somersault 3/2 were higher when compared to other somersault variations. No evidence was found to affirm that the asymmetry at take-off affects asymmetry at landing in a twisting somersault. Presumably, gymnasts can take corrective measures during the aerial phase of the twisting somersault that effectively diminish the tilt of the body and enable gymnasts to prepare for the landing with small proportional asymmetry. Prudence is required as these proportions rise in the quantity of load with the height of the somersault. Keywords: Acrobatics, floor, asymmetry, twisting technique. INTRODUCTION In gymnastics, most injuries on the floor occur during landing (Pettrone & Ricciardelli, 1987; Hudash & Albright, 1993; Gervais, 1997; Kirialanis, et al., 2002). The greatest dynamic loads on the lower extremities occur for asymmetrical landings rather than for unsuccessful landings, as typically assumed. The asymmetrical, yet reasonably successful landings appear to represent the greatest injury potential for the Achilles tendon, knee joint, and spine (Panzer, 1987). Additionally, landing asymmetry decreases landing quality and the possibility of landing without deductions (Marinšek, 2010; Čuk & Marinšek, 2013; Pajek Bučar, Science of Gymnastics Journal 289 Science of Gymnastics Journal Marinšek M., Čuk I.: EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT LEG LOADS AT TAKE-OFF ON. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 290 - 298 Hedbavny, Kalichova, & Čuk, 2016). Landings with different dynamic loading on legs (which we refer to in this article as asymmetrical landings) occur in non-twisting and in twisting (rotations around longitudinal axis) somersaults. The different loading on legs in the non-twisting somersault can be explained by the fact that a small rotational motion exists even in the non-twisting somersault. During the wobbling motion in the non-twisting somersault, the body tilts first in one way and then the other way (Yeadon, 2000). These small sideway tilts of the body can result in sideway landing and thus produce different loading to the legs. In the twisting somersaults, landing characteristics are associated with the twisting technique. In the somersault, any technique that tilts the body away from the somersault plane will result in twisting in order to maintain constant angular momentum (Frolich, 1980). When the tilt of the body is introduced while the feet are in contact with the take-off surface, this can be defined as a contact twisting technique; when the tilt of the body is introduced in the aerial phase of the somersault, this can be defined as an aerial twisting technique (Yeadon, 1993 a; Yeadon, 1993b). To stop twisting, gymnasts must eliminate the tilt of the body. If the tilt is not eliminated, asymmetrical landing occurs. In the aerial twisting technique, asymmetrical movements of the arms, chest, or hips about the sagittal plane can eliminate the tilt; while piking, the body can remove it in the contact twisting technique (Yeadon, 1993a; Yeadon, 1993b). Modification of the shoulder joint moment is believed to be the most effective mechanism for controlling the body in the aerial phase in preparation for landing without inducing a modification in mechanical loading after foot contact (Requejo, McNitt-Gray, & Flashner, 2002). In contrast, modifications in neck, knee, and hip joint cause less advantageous joint angles at touchdown. There is evidence that the somersaults that are performed in competition with a lower aerial phase and with more twists are more likely to end in asymmetrical landings (Marinšek & Čuk, 2010). However, to our knowledge no study has explicitly focused on the association between take-off and landing characteristics in twisting somersaults. Does the asymmetrical take-off with different leg loadings mean a potentially greater chance for an asymmetrical landing? Is there a leg that is constantly more loaded at take-off and landing than the other is? For somersaults with more twists, a greater twisting rate is required. According to Yeadon (1993 a, 1993b), gymnasts can achieve a greater twisting rate with appropriate movements at the take-off and/or aerial phase. The movements initiated at take-off are more effective in obtaining the greater twisting rate but boost the initial value of the tilt angle. The tilt of the body at take-off increases the difference in leg loading. Therefore, if gymnasts need to augment the tilt of their body to perform more twists, the asymmetry of leg loading at take-off would be expected to increase with number of twists. In order to initiate the twist at takeoff, the body must tilt to the side of the twisting direction (tilt to the left side if the twist is performed to the left direction). The tilt is supposed to be produced with reduced muscle activity of the twisting leg in backward take-offs and with the increased muscle activation of the twisting leg in forward take-offs (McNeal, Sands, & Shultz, 2007). Despite the take-off asymmetry, gymnasts can detect errors and take corrective measures that change the position of the body prior to landing in the aerial phase of twisting somersaults with flight times of 1.4s (Yeadon & Hiley, 2014). The corrections in the body position allow gymnasts to land with negligible quantities of asymmetry. Although the flight times of twisting somersaults on the floor are shorter (Karacsony & Čuk, 2005) Science of Gymnastics Journal 290 Science of Gymnastics Journal Marinšek M., Čuk I.: EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT LEG LOADS AT TAKE-OFF ON. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 291 - 298 than the ones on trampolines reported from Yeadon and Hiley (2014), it is believed that participants in our study will have enough time to take eventual corrective measures and prepare for landing. Therefore, it is expected that the number of twists and the increase in asymmetry of leg loading at take-off will not increase the asymmetry of leg loading at landing. The purpose of this study was to use empirical data to examine the effects of absolute and relative measures of takeoff characteristics on landings in twisting somersaults in training- and competition-specific situations. For the purpose of this study, the following questions were asked: (a) Does the asymmetry in dynamic loading on legs at take-off and landing change with the number of twists? (b) Does the asymmetry in dynamic loading on legs at take-off affect landing asymmetry? (c) Which leg is more loaded during take-off and landing in twisting somersaults? METHODS Eleven male gymnasts took part in the research, who were all competing as national team members on international competitions or higher. Informed consent was obtained from each gymnast and/or parents for minors according to the Helsinki Declaration. The local ethics committee approved the conduct of the study. On the day of the measurements, the average participants' age was 18.83 ± 2.74 years; their average height was 169.63 ± 6.21 cm; and the average weight 67.79 ± 10.64 kg. Every gymnast had to demonstrate proficiency in performing the acrobatic skills of interest: stretched forward and backward somersault, stretched forward and backward somersault with 1/2 twist, stretched forward and backward somersault with 1/1 twist, stretched forward and backward somersault with 3/2 twist. Because the gymnasts did not twist in the same direction, the leading and non-leading leg was defined according to the direction of the twist. The leg corresponding to the direction of the gymnast's twist was assigned as the leading leg. In that sense, the gymnast who twisted to the left had his left leg as his leading leg and his right leg as his non-leading leg. Participants performed two familiarisation sessions with all testing procedures. After the familiarisation sessions gymnasts attended a testing session that was considered for the analysis. All the somersaults were performed on a Spieth competition floor after a warm-up. The difficulty of the somersault was increased in half-twist intervals. Reaction forces under each foot were sampled at 300 Hz using an insole pressure measurement system (Parotec, Paromed GmbH). The Parotec system was found to be an effective tool for assessing pressure under each foot in dynamic situations. Parotec insoles are equipped with 24 discrete hydro cell pressure sensors for each foot; both insoles are triggered at the same time. Hydro cell technology enables measurement of compressive force and shear force but does not discriminate between them. Sensors have shown less than 2% measurement error in the range of 0-400 kPa and provided highly consistent data (Zequera, Stephan, & Paul, 2006), which was deemed acceptable for the current study. A study by Chesnin, Selby-Silverstein, and Besser (2000) assessed the concurrent validity comparing the Parotec System to a force plate. The Parotec System showed good correlation and small root mean square errors when compared to the force plate; force calculated from the two systems showed excellent correlation (>0.90) for 20/20 trials. Additionally, a study by Koch, Lunde, Ernst, Knardahl, and Veiersted (2016) showed that the use of insoles may be an acceptable method for measuring vertical ground reaction forces in field studies. Science of Gymnastics Journal 291 Science of Gymnastics Journal Marinšek M., Čuk I.: EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT LEG LOADS AT TAKE-OFF ON. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 292 - 298 The dependent variables were categorized into two groups: absolute measures of lateral asymmetry and relative (proportional) measures of lateral asymmetry. The absolute measures were represented by the following set of variables: (a) maximal ground reaction force for leading (maxFll) and non-leading leg (maxFnl), and (b) maximal ground reaction force difference between legs (mFdif). The proportional measure was represented by the absolute index of lateral asymmetry (aIndex). Maximal ground reaction force was measured with Parotec insoles within the contact time and normalized on the gymnast's body weight (BW) [times BW]. The contact time was defined as the period from the point of ground contact to the point at which the total ground reaction force reached the magnitude of BW after the maximal ground reaction force. Maximal ground reaction force difference was calculated as a maximal difference between legs during the contact time at take-off and landing. It was normalized on the gymnast's BW [times BW]. The index of lateral asymmetry (Teixeira, 2008; Teixeira, Silva, & Carvalho, 2003) was calculated to measure proportional asymmetry between legs at take-off and landing. An index of lateral asymmetry was proposed by Teixeira, Silva, & Carvalho (2003) as proportional difference between the legs, in relation to summation of the values obtained with each leg: [\(maxFll-maxFnl)\/(maxFll+maxFnl)] /2*100 where maxFll corresponds to maximal force for the leading leg, maxFnl corresponds to maximal force for the non-leading leg. The absolute values of the proportional difference between leading and non-leading leg were used in our study, thus making magnitude of asymmetry independent of any specific direction. All statistical analyses were performed using Microsoft Excel software and IBM SPSS Statistics version 21.0. Intra-class coefficient correlations (ICC) were utilised to verify the reliability of forward somersaults (somersault ICC = 0.930; somersault 1/2: ICC = 0.785; somersault 1/1: ICC = 0.875; somersault 3/2: ICC = 0.830) and backward somersaults (somersault ICC = 0.945; somersault 1/2: ICC = 0.810; somersault 1/1: ICC = 0.910; somersault 3/2: ICC = 0.855). Additionally, differences between two familiarisation sessions were tested with paired t-test and no differences were observed (p > .05). For the analysis of maximal ground reaction force three-way ANOVA (p < .05) with one between-subject factor (rotation: no twist, 1/2 twist, 1/1 twist, 3/2 twist) and two within-subjects factors (contact: takeoff, landing; laterality: leading, non-leading) was used with repeated measures on the last factors and Bonferroni post hoc adjustments. Preliminary analyses were also conducted, including direction of the somersault, direction of the take-off and direction of the landing as between-subject factors, but no statistically significant effect was found. For this reason, these factors were not considered in the final analysis. A series of paired t-tests with Bonferroni corrections was used to evaluate differences between take-off and landing for each leg (leading and non-leading). Additionally, the averaged maximal ground reaction forces for leading and non-leading legs were compared for take-off and landing separately across twist modalities (no twist, 1/2 twist, 1/1 twist, 3/2 twist). For the analysis of maximal force difference at take-off and at landing oneway ANOVA (rotation: no twist, 1/2 twist, 1/1 twist, 3/2 twist) was employed (p < .05) independently with Bonferroni post hoc adjustments. A series of paired t-tests was used to evaluate differences (p < .05) in maximal force difference between takeoff and landing for each twist modality. Science of Gymnastics Journal 292 Science of Gymnastics Journal Marinšek M., Čuk I.: EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT LEG LOADS AT TAKE-OFF ON. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 293 - 298 A one-way ANOVA (p < .05) for the proportional measure of lateral asymmetry at take-off and landing with one between-subject factor (rotation: no twist, 1/2 twist, 1/1 twist, 3/2 twist) and Bonferroni post hoc adjustments was used. Preliminary analyses on the direction of the somersault, direction of the take-off and direction of the landing as between-subject factors did not reveal a statistically significant effect. Therefore, the latter factors were not considered in the final analysis. A series of paired t-tests with Bonferroni corrections was used to evaluate differences between take-off and landing in relation to proportional lateral asymmetry. The averaged absolute indices of lateral asymmetry were compared for take-off and landing separately for each twist modality. RESULTS Nine participants twisted to the left side, which is why their left leg was assigned as the leading leg. Two participants twisted to the right side and had their right leg assigned as the leading leg. Take-off and landing loadings were measured for somersaults with different numbers of twists for each leg separately. The maximal ground reaction forces for leading leg (mFle) and non-leading leg (mFnl) are provided in Table 1. Similar values with ground reaction take-off force below 3.3 times BW have been reported in other research for backward tucked somersault on a force plate (Krol et al. 2016, Mkaouer et al. 2014) and for backward tucked somersault on balance beam (Kim, Ryu & Jeon, 2012). Other authors (Panzer, 1987) reported much higher ground reaction forces (8.8-14.4 times BW), however their research analysed double backward tucked somersault with take-off directly from force plate, without use of elastic floor. The three-way ANOVA revealed a significant main effect for the interaction between contact and laterality, F(1,84) = 26.03, p < .001, np2 = .24. The statistically significant main effects for the interaction were due to the higher maximal ground reaction force of the leading leg at take-off (leading leg 2.14 vs. non-leading leg 1.94 times BW) in comparison to landing (leading leg 1.94 vs. non-leading leg 2.02 times BW). Bonferroni correction was applied for analysis of individual twist modalities, resulting in a significance level set atp < .008. Analysis of individual twist modalities revealed no statistically significant difference between leading and non-leading leg at take-off (all p > .031) or landing (all p > .061). Although the results (Table 1) suggest an increase of take-off and landing asymmetry with rising number of twists, a three way Contact x Laterality x Rotation interaction failed to reach significance, F(3,84) = 0.22; p = .885, np2 = .01. Following the aforementioned interaction, a series of paired t-test for each leg and somersault modality was conducted with Bonferroni correction with a significance level set at p < .013. Tests revealed no statistically significant differences between take-off and landing loading for leading (all p > .022) or non-leading leg (all p > .242) (Table 1). The analysis of maximal force differences between legs at take-off indicated a significant main effect for rotation, F(3) = 5.96; p = .001, np2 = 18, due to the lower maximal force difference for the non-twisting somersault (0.59 ± 0.19 times BW) in comparison to other somersault modalities (1/2 twist 0.82 ± 0.35 times BW, 1/1 twist 0.73 ± 0.35 times BW, 3/2 twist 0.95 ± 0.30 times BW), as seen in Figure 1. A significant main effect was also found for the maximal force differences at landing for rotation, F(3) = 8.18; p < .001, np2 = 23. Post hoc comparison indicated a significantly higher maximal force difference for the 3/2 twist (1.2 ± 0.52 times BW) in comparison to other somersault variations (no twist 0.66 ± 0.18 times BW, 1/2 twist 0.81 ± 0.39 times Science of Gymnastics Journal 293 Science of Gymnastics Journal Marinšek M., Čuk I.: EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT LEG LOADS AT TAKE-OFF ON. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 294 - 298 BW, 1/1 twist 1.01 ± 0.48 times BW). Further analysis with series of paired t-test and Bonferroni correction (p < .008) indicated no significant differences between take-off and landing in maximal force difference for individual twist modalities. Table 1. Mean maximal forces scaled to BW and standard deviations (in brackets) at take-off and landing, differences in mean maximal forces between take-off and landing, p-values for paired t-test, and Cohen's d for leading and non-leading leg of somersaults with various rotations around longitudinal axis. Take-off Landing Diff p(t) d Leading leg no twist 2.10 (0.46) 1.95 (0.47) 0.14 (0.28) 0.163 -0.31 1/2 twist 2.13 (0.47) 1.93 (0.48) 0.20 (0.47) 0.072 -0.42 1/1 twist 2.14 (0.43) 1.92 (0.36) 0.22 (0.31) 0.022 -0.56 3/2 twist 2.17 (0.39) 1.94 (0.43) 0.23 (0.37) 0.048 -0.55 Non-leading leg no twist 1.96 (0.56) 2.06 (0.51) -0.10 (0.23) 0.242 0.18 1/2 twist 1.90 (0.46) 1.99 (0.45) -0.09 (0.25) 0.327 0.19 1/1 twist 1.94 (0.55) 2.06 (0.53) -0.11 (0.34) 0.267 0.21 3/2 twist 1.96 (0.62) 1.96 (0.51) 0.00 (0.39) 0.991 0.00 Sum no twist 4.06 (0.97) 4.01 (0.94) 0.05 (0.74) 0.764 -0.05 1/2 twist 4.04 (0.79) 3.92 (0.84) 0.12 (0.70) 0.442 -0.14 1/1 twist 4.08 (0.91) 3.98 (0.84) 0.11 (0.76) 0.516 -0.12 3/2 twist 4.13 (0.89) 3.90 (0.88) 0.23 (0.86) 0.233 -0.26 1,8 ■ T—I 0J >,1,2 ■ö I 0,9 o i .131). These results indicate that performance with negligible quantities of asymmetry was consistent across twisting modalities. DISCUSION Twisting somersaults on the floor were initiated during the take-off, which indicates that the contact technique of twisting was used. This was seen as a significant rise in maximal load difference between legs in comparison to non-twisting somersaults; gymnasts probably tilted their body at take-off to the side of the twisting direction to boost the twist (Yeadon, 1993a, 1993b). Leading leg was set out to a higher load at take-off than the non-leading leg. However, the load on the leading leg decreased at landings, which enabled gymnasts to land with negligible asymmetry. Our results suggest that lateral asymmetry at take-off increased significantly with the initiation of twist but it remained stable following the adding of more twists to the somersault. It seems that for the purpose of up to 3/2 twist executions longitudinal rotational velocity initiated at contact does not need to rise significantly, as probably, the majority of longitudinal rotational velocity needed for the completion of the twist is initiated in aerial phase. Possibly, higher longitudinal rotational velocity is initiated at contact, as circumstances require when more twists are performed. Therefore, it would be useful to measure the asymmetry at takeoff in somersaults with multiple twists. The magnitude of force difference at takeoff would be expected to increase because of the need to initiate higher rotational velocity around longitudinal axis. The index of lateral asymmetry showed that lateral asymmetry at landings was stable. Although the index of lateral asymmetry did not change significantly with the addition of twists to the somersaults, the maximal force difference between legs at landing 3/2 twists was significantly different to other somersaults performed. The reason might be in the magnification of total ground reaction force at landing due to the higher aerial phase. Although the proportions of asymmetry at landing suggest that landings are performed with low outcome variability, caution is needed as these proportions rise in the quantity of load with the height of the somersault. The latter can influence the safety and quality of the landings. This effect is probably even more evident in somersaults with multiple twists that are performed higher. The current findings show that augmented lateral asymmetry at take-off did not result in augmented lateral asymmetry in landing. One explanation for this effect can be that gymnasts used body movements in the aerial phase of the somersault as correctional movements to adjust their body for the appropriate landing. Gymnasts can initiate and reduce twist in the aerial phase of the somersault with asymmetrical body movements, and twisting somersaults are of sufficient duration to permit the detection of errors in the performed movement; corrective discrete or continuous measures can be taken (Yeadon & Hiley, 2014). The balance mechanisms of the inner ear are the ones that provide information on linear and angular accelerations (Wendt, 1951), which can be used by athletes to help control aerial movements (Yeadon & Science of Gymnastics Journal 295 Science of Gymnastics Journal Marinšek M., Čuk I.: EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT LEG LOADS AT TAKE-OFF ON. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 296 - 298 Mikulcik, 1996). However, the application of correctional movements is probably highly associated with experience acquired through practice. Voyer and Jansen (2017) found that motor expertise in gymnastics positively influences performance in spatial tasks that require spatial visualization, mental rotation, and spatial perception, which are all the visual-spatial abilities required for execution of twisting somersaults. Although variability is never eliminated, Cohen and Sternad (2009) demonstrated that with practice the cost of movement variability to the performance outcome can be reduced. In the opinion of authors of this paper, only enough experienced gymnasts that were exposed to appropriate twisting somersault progressions when learning how to twist can adequately use correctional movements for a safe and effective landing. Additionally, it is vital that coaches devote enough time to teaching twisting techniques and allow gymnasts to acquire the necessary experience. It should be emphasized that in this study gymnasts executed all somersault attempts without major errors. We can assume that the executions in which the magnitude of lateral asymmetry at take-off leads to major technical errors (and consequently make correctional movements in the aerial phase impossible) can also amplify the asymmetry at landing. The data in the present study was collected in a real-life environment. Consequently, it could be argued that data are less objective in comparison to laboratory studies. When designing the study we were aware of the bias because of the different twisting techniques or other factors. One of the main goals of the present study was to analyse the data in training- and competition-specific situations. Take-off and landing loadings were tested for up to the 3/2 twist somersaults. Nowadays multiple twists are commonly seen in elite modern gymnastics; thus, it would be interesting to see how multiple twists affect take-off and landing loadings. The possibility of further studies in the analysis of take-off and landing dynamic characteristics of multiple twists are seen. CONCLUSIONS Asymmetry of leg loading at take-off in twisting somersaults does not directly influence landing asymmetry, probably because potential errors that can affect landing symmetry can be adjusted in the aerial phase. However, even small proportional asymmetries, which gymnasts cannot avoid due to the wobbling and tilting motion of their bodies during somersaults, rise in magnitude with higher aerial phases of the somersaults. Gymnasts have to be mindful when including twisting somersaults in their competition routines as other factors (anxiety, fatigue, etc.) can influence twisting performance and consequently landings. REFERENCES Chesnin, K. J., Selby-Silverstein, L., & Besser, M. P. (2000). Comparison of an in-shoe pressure measurement device to a force plate: concurrent validity of center of pressure measurements. Gait & posture, 12(2), 128-133. 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Flight phase joint control required for successful gymnastics landings. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 34(5), 99. Teixeira, L. A. (2008). Categories of manual asymmetry and their variation with advancing age. Cortex, 44(6), 707-716. Teixeira, L. A., Silva, M. V., & Carvalho, M. (2003). Reduction of lateral asymmetries in dribbling: The role of bilateral practice. Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition, 8(1), 53-65. Voyer, D., & Jansen, P. (2017). Motor expertise and performance in spatial tasks: A meta-analysis. Human Movement Science, 54, 110-124. Wendt, G. R. (1951) Vestibular functions. In S. S. Stevens (Ed.), Handbook of Experimental Psychology (pp. 1191-1223). New York: Wiley. Yeadon, F. (1993a). The biomechanics of twisting somersaults Part III: Aerial twist. Journal of Sports Sciences, 11(3), 209-218. Yeadon, F. (1993b). The biomechanics of twisting somersaults Part II: Contact twist. Journal of Sports Sciences, 11(3), 199-208. Yeadon, M. R. (2000). Aerial movement. In: Zatsiorsky, V. M. (Ed.). Biomechanics in Sport: Performance Enhancement and Injury Prevention. Olympic Encyclopaedia of Sports Medicine (pp. 273-283). Oxford: Blackwell Science. Yeadon, M. R., & Hiley, M. J. (2014). The control of twisting somersaults. Science of Gymnastics Journal 297 Science of Gymnastics Journal Marinšek M., Čuk I.: EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT LEG LOADS AT TAKE-OFF ON. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 298 - 298 Journal of biomechanics, 47(6), 13401347. Yeadon, M. R., & Mikulcik, E. C. (1996). The control of non-twisting somersaults using configuration changes. Journal of biomechanics, 29(10), 13411348. Zequera M, Stephan S, & Paul J (2006). The "parotec" foot pressure measurement system and its calibration procedures. In 28th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (pp. 521216). New York. Corresponding author: Miha Marinsek Faculty of Education University of Maribor Maribor Slovenia E mail: miha.marinsek@um.si Science of Gymnastics Journal 298 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Charis S., Apostolos T., Dallas C.: COMPETITIVE STATE ANXIETY AND. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 299 - 306 COMPETITIVE STATE ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE IN YOUNG MALE ARTISTIC GYMNASTS George Dallas, Stelliou Charis, Theodorou Apostolos & Costas Dallas National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Athens Greece The purpose of this study was to investigate the competitive state anxiety and self-confidence on artistic gymnasts participating in the Greek national competition. 84 gymnasts, aged 9 -11 years, completed the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2, one hour before the competition. The gymnasts, based on the total score they have received in all-around competition were divided into high and low performance, responded to the three subscales: Cognitive Anxiety, Somatic Anxiety, and Self-confidence. Results showed that there was significant difference in Self-confidence between high performance and low performance gymnasts. However, no significant differences were found in cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety in these gymnasts. The Pearson coefficient revealed statistically significant between cognitive and somatic anxiety. The regression analysis failed to reveal any significant predictor of performance in these young male artistic gymnasts. The findings of the study underline the importance of examining competitive state anxiety and self-confidence in young male artistic gymnasts, mainly developing strategies to improve self-confidence to enable the athletes to better prepare for forthcoming competitions. Keywords: anxiety, self-confidence, performance, gymnastics. Original article Abstract INTRODUCTION The anxiety occurs in athletes prior to the competition due to the concerns related to the competition and expresses the interpretation of psychological arousal (Hardy, Jones & Gould, 1996). As Abdoli (2008) reported, anxiety is the negative state accompanied by feelings of nervousness, discomfort and uneasiness that are along with somatic activity or motivation. In these cases, there is a decrease in performance relative to the amount of training experienced by athletes (Weinberg & Gould, 1995). Subsequently, state anxiety that is one dimension of anxiety, is generally regarded as an unpleasant emotional reaction related to stressful situations, in which the arousal component is one inherent element Science of Gymnastics Journal 299 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Charis S., Apostolos T., Dallas C.: COMPETITIVE STATE ANXIETY AND. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 300 - 306 (Woodman & Hardy, 2011) and described as varying from moment-to-moment and fluctuating proportionately to the perceived threat in a situation (Spielberger, 1966). Various theoretical models have been developed to describe the anxiety for sport competitions (Craft, Magyar, Becker & Feltz, 2003). The Yerkes and Dodson theoretical model, based on the inverted-U hypothesis, stated that there is a curvilinear relationship between physiological arousal and performance (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908). Lower levels of performance occur when levels of arousal are too high or too low, while higher levels of performance are observed with moderate levels of arousal (Craft et al, 2003). The other theoretical models are the catastrophe model (Hardy, Jones & Gould, 1996), the zones of optimal functioning (Hanin, 1986), and the multidimensional anxiety theory (Martens, Vealey & Burton, 1990). Martens and colleagues (Martens, Vealey, Burton, Bump, and Smith, 1990) developed the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) to measure the intensity of performers' cognitive and somatic responses, and also self-confidence. Martens, Vealey and Burton (1990) believe that cognitive anxiety is the cognitive dimension of anxiety and is created by the negative expectations of the individual for performance and success while somatic state anxiety is the result of activation of the autonomic nervous system and is the natural dimension of anxiety. Martens and colleagues (1990) suggested that both lower and higher levels of somatic anxiety would be detrimental to performance. In multidimensional anxiety theory Hardy, Woodman and Carrington. (2004) support the negative linear relation between cognitive components with fulfillment because it deals with results of defeat while the somatic component has reverse U relation with fulfillment. One of the characteristics that distinguish highlevel athletes and/or successful athletes is self-confidence, which is a key feature that states whether athletes believe in themselves and their strengths and whether they can achieve their goals (Vealey, 1986). Self-confidence that states the occasional or transient confidence of a person in his ability to successfully perform a desired task (Psychountaki, 1998) has been shown to protect athletes from the effects of stressful thoughts during competition (Hanton, Mellalieu & Hall, 2004). Furthermore, as Roberts et al. (2004) stated Self-confidence has linear direction with fulfillment, because it is in contrast with cognitive anxiety. In artistic gymnastics (AG), athletes may feel stressed by performance requirements, (Cottyn, De Clercq, Pannier, Crombez & Lenoir 2006), and the subjective scoring system according to the rules of FIG (2016). During the competition, athletes are possessed by different emotions that may affect their performance (Williams & Krane, 2001). Data by Jones, Swain, and Hardy's. (1993) compared female artistic gymnasts who were divided into good and poor performance groups based on their beam competition scores and found that the more successful gymnasts experienced greater facilitative interpretations of their cognitive and somatic anxiety symptoms than their less successful counterparts. In another study, Pineda-Espejel, LopezWalle, Rodriguez, Villanueav and Gurrola. (2013) investigated the pre-competitive anxiety and self-confidence in 60 male and female artistic gymnasts during Pan American Games and found a linear correlation between cognitive and somatic anxiety and that self-confidence was negatively correlated with the intensity of cognitive anxiety. Other studies indicate that the status of athletes and their future performance can be influenced by various psychological features (McNamara, Button & Collins. 2010) such as anxiety, and self-confidence, motivation (Durnad-Bush & Salmela, 2001; Gould et al, 2002). Status anxiety expresses the subjective feelings of fear, Science of Gymnastics Journal 300 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Charis S., Apostolos T., Dallas C.: COMPETITIVE STATE ANXIETY AND. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 301 - 306 nervousness and anxiety of the person in a transient, transient state (Martens, Burton, Nealey, Bump & Smith, 1983) and is distinguished in cognitive and somatic. There is a lack of scientific data concerning the psychological characteristics that predispose the outcome of the competition of young male gymnasts, especially in 9 - 11 years, noting that this age is considered by experts to be crucial for the future development of athletes (Smolefski & Gaverdofski, 1999). Furthermore, the fact that boys are less attentive and more agitated (Steindl et al, 2006) is another factor that may be affect the psychological characteristics of sport performance. However, there is lack of scientific data concerning the competitive state anxiety and self-confidence of young gymnasts. So, the aim of the present study was to investigate the competitive state anxiety and self-confidence of young male artistic gymnasts in Greece. More specifically, differences were examined between male artistic gymnasts with high and low scores. In addition, inter-correlations among the three CSAI-2 subscales and performance, and prediction of the gymnast's performance score from the three subscales, were examined. It was hypothesized that gymnast with higher performances score would have lower mean Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety and higher mean Self-confidence compared to gymnasts with lower mean performance scores. METHODS 84 competitive young male artistic gymnasts, ages 9 - 11 years (M = 9.66 yr., SD = 0.71) belonging on different clubs affiliated with the Greek Gymnastics Federation were participated in the present study. Their training and competitive experience ranged from 3 to 6 and 3 to 4 years, respectively. According to the technical guidelines of the Greek Gymnastic Federation, gymnasts may compete from very young ages in official national competition. This result to acquire competitive experience from the age of 8 years old which lead these gymnasts to be prepared their selves in a better way for the following competition. Sixteen of the gymnasts did not compete in all of the apparatus (floor exercise, pommel horse, rings, vaulting, parallel bars, and high bar) and their data were therefore excluded for further statistical analysis. All participants belong on the same age category group and were competed in the same routines according to the Hellenic Federation of Gymnastics. These routines were evaluated based on the Code of Points of Federation International Gymnastics - FIG (2016). The points earned, according to the criteria used by the judges and the scoring system of the code of point used by the IGF, provided solid evidence of their performance. Accordingly, performance was separated, using the split half method (Scordilis, Douka, Spartali & Koutsouki, 2004; Takei & Dunn, 1996), in the high performance and low performance groups. The goal was to examine the differences of the two performance groups in cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence. The present study was concerned with pre-competitive state anxiety of gymnasts and for this reason the CSAI-2 for children questionnaire (Martens, et al., 1990), modified by the laboratory of athletic psychology and motor behavior (Kakkos & Zervas, 1993; Stavrou & Zervas, 2005), was used. A standardized administration procedure was used, following similar studies in the past (Tsopani, et al, 2011). The questionnaires were given one hour before the start of the competition (including the time for warm-up). There was a briefing from the coaches first and their permission was requested. An explanation was given to the athletes, who responded accordingly. The primary researcher was present during the data collection and provided clarifications to Science of Gymnastics Journal 301 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Charis S., Apostolos T., Dallas C.: COMPETITIVE STATE ANXIETY AND. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 302 - 306 the respondents. The administration process lasted 5-10 minutes approximately. The questionnaire (CSAI-2) incorporates 15 questions in which the participants evaluated on a 4-point scale the extent of their agreement using anchors of 1: Not at all and 4: Very much so (see appendix A). This questionnaire is used in sports to examine the three subclasses of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence. Each of the three subscales incorporates 5 questions; higher scores indicate greater Cognitive and Somatic anxiety or Self-confidence (Martens, et al, 1990). The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Norusis, 1993) was used for the analysis. The sample was separated into two groups (Hardy, Woodman, & Carrington, 2004; Skordilis, Douka, Spartali & Koutsouki, 2004; Takei & Dunn, 1996) according to the median split of their respective all-around competition scores, as either high or low. Accordingly, the multivariate and Univariate differences were examined with Bonferroni adjustments between high-and low-score groups, on the three CSAI-2 subscales (Cognitive Anxiety, Somatic Anxiety, and Self-Confidence). Further, the intercorrelation matrix was examined to detect sources of multicollinearity among the three independent variables. The independent variables were the three CSAI-2 subscales scores, whereas the dependent variable was the score that received during competition by the judge panel (FIG, 2016). RESULTS The responses for all gymnasts on the three CSAI-2 subscales and their respective gymnastics scores are presented in table 1. Table 1 Means and standard deviations for all gymnasts on CSAI-2 subscales of Cognitive Anxiety, Somatic Anxiety, and Self Confidence and by gymnastics scores (n = 68). Variable M SD n Gymnastic score 43.74 9.73 68 CSAI-2 Cognitive Anxiety 2.03 0.49 68 Somatic Anxiety 2.02 0.77 68 Self-Confidence 3.07 0.54 68 CSAI-2 High scoring Cognitive Anxiety 2.12 0.47 34 Somatic Anxiety 1.91 0.70 34 Self-Confidence 3.23 0.29 34 CSAI-2 Low scoring Cognitive Anxiety 1.96 0.52 34 Somatic Anxiety 2.13 0.84 34 Self-Confidence 2.92 0.68 34 Science of Gymnastics Journal 302 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Charis S., Apostolos T., Dallas C.: COMPETITIVE STATE ANXIETY AND. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 303 - 306 Table 2 Intercorrelation matrix of athletes' gymnastics scores and responses to CDAI-2 subscales of Cognitive anxiety, Somatic anxiety, and Self-confidence (n = 68). Variable 1 2 3 4 1. Gymnastics score 1.000 -.038 -.165 .223 2. Cognitive anxiety -.038 1.000 .363** .138 3. Somatic anxiety -.165 .363** 1.000 .069 4. Self-confidence .223 .138 .069 1.000 The multivariate analysis revealed a significant main effect for the high and low scoring groups (A =.854, F(3,64) = 3.654, p = .017, n2 = .143) on the three subscales. The univariate follow up analysis with Bonferroni adjustments showed no significant differences between the two groups on Cognitive Anxiety (F (1,60) = 1.497, p = .226, n2 = 022) and Somatic Anxiety (F(1,60) = 1.491, p = .226, n2 = .022). However, significant univariate findings were evident for Self-Confidence (F(1,60) = 6.052, p = .017, n2 = .084) and the high scoring performance group had a significant higher mean Self-Confidence than the low performance group. The Pearson coefficient did not reveal any significant inter-correlations between performance score and the responses in the three subscales. Therefore, no multiple regression analysis was conducted and the overall inter-correlation matrix is presented in table 2. DISCUSION The present study intended to examine the competitive state anxiety and Self-confidence on young male artistic gymnasts ages 9 - 11 years old participating in the Greek national competition. The aim of this study was to extend the scientific data concerning the relationship between competitive state anxiety, Self-confidence, and gymnastics performance (score) of male artistic gymnasts. The results revealed that there were no significant differences between high score and low score groups concerning the Cognitive Anxiety and Somatic Anxiety. This finding reinforces previous data of Tsopani, Dallas and Scordilis (2011), and those of Bejek and Hagtvet (1996) who examined female rhythmic gymnasts and female gymnasts, respectively. In addition, verify findings by Hanton and Jones (1997) who reported non-statistically significant differences between high- and low-level athletes on cognitive and somatic anxiety. In terms of cognitive anxiety and gymnastics score the absence of statistically significant intercorrelation support partially previous data (Burton, 1988; Gould, et al, 1984; Martens, et al, 1990) who stated a negative linear relation between Cognitive Anxiety and performance but are in contrast with those of Tsopani, et al. (2011). Nevertheless, it must be emphasized the significant intercorrelation between cognitive and somatic anxiety which means that performance of young male artistic gymnasts seems to be affected by these anxiety subscales. With respect to Self-Confidence a significant difference between high and low scoring groups was found as higher self-confidence was associated with higher performance (Kais & Raudsepp, 2004). This finding is in congruence with those of Tsopani and colleagues. (2011) who reported significant differences in Self-Confidence between finalists (high performance group) and non-finalist (lower performance group) of female rhythmic Science of Gymnastics Journal 303 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Charis S., Apostolos T., Dallas C.: COMPETITIVE STATE ANXIETY AND. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 304 - 306 gymnasts and those of Bejek and Hagtvet. (1996) who found a significant difference in Self-Confidence between elite and nonelite athletes. In addition, our results verify data by Vealy who considered that self-confidence is an important factor that distinguish high-level athletes and/or successful athletes (Vealey, 1986). The no statistical correlation between self-confidence and somatic anxiety confirm previous data of Pineda-Espejel and colleagues. (2013) who found that self-confidence did not correlate statistically significantly with somatic anxiety. However, opposed to the other studies (Jones, Swain, and Hardy, 1993; Kais & Raudsepp, 2004; Tsopani, et al, 2011). It is hypothesized that Self-Confidence has a positive linear relation with athletic performance upon the multidimensional anxiety theory of Martens et al. (1990). The fact that Self-Confidence did not significantly correlate with gymnastics score is in line with findings by Cottyn et al. (2006) who revealed no statistically significant intercorrelation between self-confidence and gymnastics score. However, results of the present study are in contrast to those of previous studies (Jones et al, 1993; Tsopani et al, 2011) who revealed a statistical significant intercorrelation between self-confidence and performance score, and those of Kais and Raudsepp. (2004) who reported a significant negative intercorrelation between Cognitive anxiety and Self-confidence. The present study failed to support any significant predictor of performance a finding that opposed of Tsopani et al. (2011) data who examined female rhythmic gymnasts. However, results of the present study should be applied with some caution. First, the competitive state anxiety was evaluated with a paper-and-pencil questionnaire, without retrospective assessment of relevant attributes, such as heart rate (Cottyn et al, 2006). Second, anxiety was measured one hour prior to competition. Finally, only young male artistic gymnasts were assessed, ages 9 to 11 years, and the results may not be generalized to other age groups or on female gymnasts or other sports (e.g., team sports; Stavrou, et al, 2006). Further research is required to refer to other individual sports with male athletes of the same age in order to form a wider database with competitive state anxiety norms or to evaluate pre-competitive anxiety by heart rate monitoring during the various phases of the warm-up prior to competition. The results of our work are practical in terms of pre-competitive mental preparation strategies of male artistic gymnasts. Sport psychologists should take into account that cognitive and physical anxiety does not always seem to adversely affect performance. In addition, Jones et al. 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Corresponding author: George Dallas National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, School of Physical Education and Sport Science 41, Ethnikis Antistaseos, Dafne, Athens, Greece e-mail: gdallas@phed.uoa.gr Science of Gymnastics Journal 303 Science of Gymnastics Journal Virrki E., Kalaja T.: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WOMEN'S ARTISTIC Vol. 11 Issue 3: 307 - 320 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WOMEN'S ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS TECHNICAL SKILL, PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE TEST RESULTS AND SUCCESS IN COMPETITIONS IN FINLAND Elina Virkki, Teppo Kalaja University of Jyvaskyla, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, Jyvaskyla, Finland _Original article Abstract The aim of this study was to find out the potential of the Minoritest to identify the most likely talented gymnasts to join the national team pre-training group in Finland. The study examined the relationships between gymnasts' (N=215, age 10-13) Minoritest results (2006-2010) and success in competitions after the Minoritests until the end of 2016. The competition results were also compared between the gymnasts who had participated in the test and a random number (N=180) of gymnasts who had not. According to this study, the majority (92%) of the best gymnasts in competitions had participated in the Minoritest. 39% of the best in competitions were among the top 10 in the Minoritest. The test results from the technical skills showed a significant connection to the average competition results in all age groups and to the average competition level in the 10-12-year-olds. The test results of the flexibility section did not show relation to competition success. The test results of the strength section showed a significant connection to the average competition results and to the average competition level in the 10-11-year-olds. In the 12-13-year-olds the test results of the strength section showed a relation to the average competition level. According to this study Minoritest success have a positive connection to the future competition success. However, the relation cannot be considered unequivocal. The test results of the strength section can be considered a significant section for the 10-11-year-olds to predict future potential to succeed. Keywords: Women's artistic gymnastics, talent identification, technical skills, physical performance, competition success. INTRODUCTION In women's gymnastics the training is typically started at about the age of five and the high intensity of training is maintained through the growth (Arkaev & Suchilin, 2004; Armstrong & Sharp 2013; Sands, 2000). It takes about 10 years of intensive training to achieve the elite level in women's gymnastics (Arkaev & Suchilin, 2004; Armstrong & Sharp, 2013; Sands, 2000). Because training is started at early childhood and the elite level is reached at middle to late adolescence, a talented gymnast must be identified earlier than in many other sports. Without early talent identification gymnasts might be excluded from the buoyant training and may not have the time required to reach the top level during the career. Talent Science of Gymnastics Journal 307 Science of Gymnastics Journal Virrki E., Kalaja T.: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WOMEN'S ARTISTIC Vol. 11 Issue 3: 308 - 320 identification at an early stage is important also to ensure gymnast's motivation. (Prescott, 1999.) There is no uniform world wide test for the identification of a potential gymnast. Each country has their own tests for talent identification which are, however, very much alike and include different kinds of measures of gymnast's physical fitness and technical skills (Bale & Goodway, 1990; Jemni, 2011). The importance of physical, anthropometric and motor characteristics have been highlighted in the talent identification (e.g., Bale & Goodway, 1990; Pion, et al, 2014; Prescott, 1999). However, comparison of these different characteristics has been shown to produce varying data (Pion, Hohmann, Liu, Lenoir & Segers, 2017). In addition, each apparatus has its own key elements for a successful performance. There is also a considerable variability in the ability of gymnasts to perform in different apparatuses. (Bradshaw & Le Rossignol, 2004). To understand the physiological conditions of gymnast's early adolescence, it is necessary to take into account the gymnast's age, growth and maturation (individual timing and tempo of puberty) (Armstrong & Barker, 2012; Armstrong, Welsman & Chia, 2001; Armstrong & Sharp, 2013; Brown, Patel & Darmawan, 2017; Mountjoy, 2008; Van Praagh & Dore, 2002). The stage at which the gymnast's growth is, affects the gymnast's physical performance (Brown et al., 2017; Rowland, 2005). Aerobic and anaerobic fitness as well as muscle strength develop with the growth (Goswami, Singha Roy, Dalui & Bandyopadhyay, 2014; Rowland, 2005) and especially during puberty (Beunen & Thomis, 2000; Geithner et al., 2004; Van Praagh, 2000). Increase in the size of the body or its body parts is the most important factor affecting physical performance. The development of physical performance, especially anaerobic fitness and muscle strength, is also influenced by other factors independent of the body size, which explains why gymnasts of the same size do not have the same level of physical performance. Such size-independent factors include e.g. functioning of the nervous system (recruitment, coordination) and the organization of the muscle fibers. (Rowland, 2005.) Talent identification with an individual test is difficult because of the multidimensional nature of gymnastics, gymnast's individual growth and differences in coaching (Pion, Lenoir, Vandorpe & Segers, 2015; Pion, et al, 2017; Prescott, 1999; Sands, 2003; Vayens, Lenoir, Williams & Philippaerts, 2008). The weaknesses in predicting future performance by a single test are that the performance tests are testing only a few characteristics at a time and that the evaluation is strongly governed by the gymnast's current physical and technical skill level (Vayens, et al, 2008). It is often assumed that the child's physical performance and characteristics are in linear relation to adult's ones (Morris, 2000; Vayens, et al., 2008). The problem in selection processes is also the high dropout rate of gymnasts (Pion & al. 2015) due to various reasons (Crane & Temple, 2015). In Finland, majority of gymnasts quit gymnastics during the 11-15 years of age (Lamsa & Maenpaa, 2002). In the talent identification it would be important to understand and identify the factors that influence the development of a gymnast, and to assess the development of talent characteristics, motor learning and the ability to develop performance in the long term (Di Cagno, et al, 2014; Pion, et al, 2015; Prescott, 1999; Vayens, et al, 2008). Minoritest is an annual test camp for female gymnasts in Finland where the gymnasts are selected for the Finnish national team pre-training group. All the 10-13-year-old gymnasts that have fulfilled the requirements of reaching the minimum competition score in the minimum competition level and completing successfully a certain performance badge, are able to participate Science of Gymnastics Journal 308 Science of Gymnastics Journal Virrki E., Kalaja T.: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WOMEN'S ARTISTIC Vol. 11 Issue 3: 309 - 320 in the Minoritest. Participation in the test is optional. The test is based on FIG Age Group Development and Competition Program and consists of various technical skill and physical performance test exercises. The technical skill section consists of different kinds of individual movements and their combinations on each apparatus testing the gymnasts' specific technical prerequisites. The flexibility section consists of exercises that are designed to measure the gymnasts' shoulder and hip flexibility. The strength section tests the gymnasts' explosive power, speed, agility and specific strength-resistance characteristics with various static and dynamic exercises. The gymnasts are divided into three different age groups: 10-11-, 12- and 13-year-olds. The strength and flexibility sections are the same for all age groups, while the test exercises of the technical skills vary by age group. The technical skill exercises have changed somehow each year due to the problems in interpretation in some of the exercises and/or due to the deficiencies in gymnasts' techniques or in general skills. Example of Minoritest exercises can be found on the following websites (only in Finnish): https://www.voimistelu.fi/Portals/0/N aisten%20telinevoimistelu/2019%20Minor itestist%C3%B6.pdf (technical skill test exercises). https://www.voimistelu.fi/Portals/0/N aisten%20telinevoimistelu/NTV%20valme nnusryhmien%20fyysiset%20testit_09032 018.pdf (physical performance test exercises). The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between gymnasts' Minoritest results and success in competitions after the test and also to see whether any of the test sections predict future success in competitions. The aim of this study was to find out the Minoritest's potential to identify the most likely talented gymnasts to join the national team pre-training group. METHODS This study was conducted as a retrospective quantitative research that compared the test results of the gymnasts (N=215; age 10-13) who participated in the Minoritest in 2006-2010 to the competition results after the Minoritest until the end of 2016. The test results of those gymnasts who participated in the Minoritest in several different years, were analysed as separate performances. The total number of the test participants was 328. The competition results consisted of all the available results between 20062016, depending on when the gymnast participated in the test and for how long she has been competing after the test, but did not include results before Minoritests, apparatus specific competition results, team competition results or international competition results. The Minoritest results as well as competition results were scaled to the seven-step-scale so that a certain percentage of the maximum points corresponded between values 1-7. The purpose of the scaling was to make the test and competition results comparable, and to separate the inadequate performances from the excellent ones (1=inadequate, 2=satisfactory, 3=fairly good, 4=good, 5=very good, 6=creditable, 7=excellent). The Minoritest results were divided into three sections: technical skill (subdivided into vault, uneven bars, balance beam and floor sections), flexibility and strength sections. The competition results were divided into vault, uneven bar, balance beam, floor, total competition score and competition level. In addition, the competition levels (shown in table 1) were scaled to a five-step-scale because the Finnish competition system in female gymnastics changed during the review period. Each gymnast had a different amount of competition results, still at least five, after the Minoritest. The average Science of Gymnastics Journal 309 Science of Gymnastics Journal Virrki E., Kalaja T.: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WOMEN'S ARTISTIC Vol. 11 Issue 3: 310 - 320 competition result, weighted for the competition level, were calculated for each gymnast separately for each apparatus and for total competition score by using the scaled results and competition levels [(Result 1 * competition level + result 2 * competition level + ... + result n * competition level) / N (the amount of results)]. The average competition levels were calculated for each gymnast. The average total competition scores and levels of the gymnasts who participated in the Minoritest were also compared to the average total competition scores and levels of a random number (N=180) of gymnasts who had not participated in the test. This was made to find out the level on which the non-participants were on their competition success. Finally, from the average total competition scores, the top 50 gymnasts among those who participated in the test and among all (gymnasts who did and did not participate in the test) were separated (as value 1) from the rest of the gymnasts' average total competition scores (as value 0). All the comparisons of this study between the test results and competition results, as well as the comparison between the gymnasts who participated in the test and those who did not, are made by using the gymnasts' average competition results (vault, uneven bar, balance beam, floor, total competition score) and average competition level. Table 1 Scaling of the competition levels. Old system New system Scaling competition competition category level level 1 2, 3 D 2 4 E, 2 3 5 F, 3 4 6 4 5 7, 8 5 The research material was analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics 24 -software. The normal distribution of the material was tested by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Nominal and ordinal measures were used to classify the material variables. Crosstabs and Chi-Square tests were used for testing how the top 50 gymnasts in the average total competition scores were divided into the group of gymnasts who had participated in the Minoritest and into the group of gymnasts who had not participated in the test. In the analysis, those gymnasts who had participated in the Minoritest were subdivided into the test ranking groups of 1-10, 11-20, 21-30 and >30. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to analyse the differences in the distribution of the average total competition score and the average competition level by test ranking groups. It was also used for testing the age effect on test results by testing the distribution equality of the test results of different test sections between different age groups (the 10-11-, 12- and 13-year-olds). The Mann-Whitney U test was used to analyse the differences in the distribution of the average total competition score and in the average competition level between the gymnasts who had and gymnasts who had not participated in the Minoritest. Spearman's correlation coefficient was used to explore the correlations between the test results of different test sections and competition success. In the analysis the apparatus specific test results of the technical skills were compared to the similar apparatus specific average competition results. The total test results of the technical skills were compared to the average total competition score and to the average competition level. The test results of the flexibility and strength sections were compared to the apparatus specific average competition results, to the average total competition score and to the average competition level. The total test score was compared to the average total competition score and to the average competition level. Spearman's correlation coefficient was also used to explore the relationships of the Science of Gymnastics Journal 310 Science of Gymnastics Journal Virrki E., Kalaja T.: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WOMEN'S ARTISTIC Vol. 11 Issue 3: 311 - 320 test results of different test sections to the average total competition score and to the average competition level by age groups. RESULTS Minoritest results connection to the competition success Figure 1 shows the distribution of the average total competition score and of the average competition level by test ranking groups. The differences between the test ranking of 1-10 and 21-30; 1-10 and >30; 11-20 and >30 were statistically very significant (p<0.001). The differences between test ranking of 21-30 and >30 were statistically significant (p<0.01). Those gymnasts with top 10 results in the test showed relatively the highest values in the average total competition score and in the average competition level. Figure 2 shows the distributions of the average total competition score and of the average competition level between the gymnasts who participated in the test and those who did not. The gymnasts who participated in the test showed relatively higher competition scores and progressed into higher competition levels compared to those who did not participate in the test. The differences between these two groups were statistically very significant (p<0.001). The results of the gymnasts who did not participate in the test showed some clear deviating values (marked with black spots) from the rest of the results. The crosstabs of how the top 50 gymnasts in the average total competition scores were divided into the gymnasts who did and into the gymnasts who did not participate in the Minoritest, showed that the majority (92%) of the best gymnasts in competitions participated in the Minoritest. Those with top 10 results in the test had the highest proportion (39%) of being among the best in the competitions. Test ranking of 11-20 showed also a connection (31%) of being among top 50 in the competition results. 8% of the best in competitions didn't participate in the test. The Chi-Square test showed statistically a very significant reliance (p<0.001) between the top placing in the test and the top placing in the competitions. The test characteristics ' connection to the future competition success Table 2 shows the different test sections' test results correlation coefficient (r) and the coefficient of determination (r2) to the average competition results and level. In the comparisons, the strength section showed significant coefficient of determination (25 .70 a very strong correlation). The correlation analysis results revealed that BMI was statistically significantly correlated with (a) SPAS total score and (b) pressure for thin body by coaches, parents and experts subscales. There was no statistically significant correlation between BMI and EAT-26 score. According to the above, to check potential differences between RG and AG athletes a t-test was computed on EAT-26 scores, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was utilized on SPAS scores, and a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was computed on the scores of the Pressure for thin body by coaches/parents/peers/experts subscales, using BMI as a covariate. In the next step, since there were no statistically significant differences between the RG and AG athletes on the variables of interest, their data were merged and were further analyzed to check whether athletes' abnormal eating behavior was associated to their SPA and the perceived pressure by "significant others". Thus, athletes were classified as (a) presenting normal eating behavior (EAT-26 total score < 20) and (b) presenting DEAB (EAT-26 total score >20) and an ANCOVA was computed on SPAS scores, whereas a MANCOVA on pressure by coaches, parents, peers and experts, using BMI as covariate. For the above statistical analyses the SPSS 24 for Windows statistical package was used and the level of significance was set at .05. RESULTS BMI associations with gymnasts' DEAB, SPA, and pressure for thin body According to the t-test utilized, statistically significant differences were revealed between RG and AG athletes on their BMI (t=5.20, p< .001), with AG athletes presenting higher values. The correlation results revealed that BMI was statistically significantly correlated with SPA and pressure for thin body by coaches, parents and experts. Specifically, BMI had a moderate correlation with athletes' SPAS score; a strong correlation with pressure for thin body by coaches and parents and a moderate correlation with pressure by experts, whereas there was no correlation with pressure by peers. No other significant correlations were identified (Table 2). Differences between RG and AG athletes In Table 3, means and standard deviations of RG and AG athletes on the variables of interest are presented. The t-test utilized on EAT-26 scores showed that there were no significant differences between the two groups for DEAB (t=1.23, p=.22). Moreover, BMI was found to be a significant covariate both in the ANCOVA computed on SPAS scores (F=10.52, p= .002) and the MANCOVA applied on pressure for thin body by coaches/parents/peers/experts subscales Science of Gymnastics Journal 334 Science of Gymnastics Journal Ioannidou C., Venetsanou F.: SOCIAL PHYSIQUE ANXIETY, DISTURBED EATING. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 335 - 342 (Pillai's trace=41, F=14.25, p<.001). However, the discipline of Gymnastics (RG vs AG) did not differentiate either gymnasts' SPAS score (F=0.17, p= .68) or Table 1 Participants' anthropometric characteristics. the pressure they received by "significant others" (Pillai's trace=07, F=1.69, p=16). RG athletes AG athletes Total Age (years) Height (m) Weight (Kg) BMI Underweight Normal weight 13.25+2.13 1.53+.12 38.70+9.73 16.14+2.07 14.6% 85.4% 14.43+2.53 1.56+.09 44.68+7.30 18.05+1.38 2% 98% 13.90+2.42 1.55+.11 41.99+8.94 17.19+1.96 7.78% 92.22% BMI classification (% Table 2 Pearson r values of the correlations between athletes' BMI and variables of interest. Pressure for thin body from EAT-26 SPAS coach parents peers experts BMI .186 .352* .560* .544* .071 .358* * p< .001 Table 3 Means and standard deviations on EAT-26, SPAS, and Press of thin body Questionnaire. _RG athletes_AG athletes_Total EAT- 15.57+11.69 18.32+9.39 17.08+10.51 SPAS 19.52+6.00 21.16+6.06 20.42+6.06 coach 5.25+2.72 6.46+2.25 5.92+2.53 parents 3.70+2.34 4.08+2.12 3.91+2.22 peers 2.60+1.23 2.46+.93 2.52+1.07 experts 4.47+2.41 5.38+2.28 4.97+2.37 Figure 1. Total SPA scores per eating behavior category (*Estimated marginal means are presented) Science of Gymnastics Journal 335 Science of Gymnastics Journal Ioannidou C., Venetsanou F.: SOCIAL PHYSIQUE ANXIETY, DISTURBED EATING. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 336 - 342 Figure 2. Perceived pressure by coaches, parents, peers and experts per eating behavior category (*Estimated marginal means are presented) The univariate analyses of covariance that followed the MANCOVA showed that BMI associated significantly with the pressure the athletes received by their coaches (F=32.26, p< .001), parents (F=42.92, p< .00l) and experts (F=9.03, p= .003), but not by peer pressure (F=1.16, p= .28), whereas significant differences between RG and AG athletes were revealed only on parents' pressure for thin body (F=5.46, p= .02) and not on coaches' (F= .17, p=68), peers' (F=1.04, p= .31) and experts' (F=04, p= .84). Differences between gymnasts with and without DEAB When the data of RG and AG athletes were merged into one group (gymnastics athletes), it was revealed that 40% of the total sample had a total EAT-26 score > 20, a result that indicates DEAB, whereas the remaining 60% presented normal eating attitudes/behaviors. The ANCOVA that applied on SPAS scores showed significant associations between gymnasts' SPAS scores and BMI (F=10.17, p= .002), whereas eating behavior (normal vs abnormal) significantly differentiated gymnasts' SPA (F=6.04, p= .02), with athletes presenting DEAB having higher SPAS scores (Figure 1). Finally, regarding the perceived pressure for thin body, according to the MANCOVA results, BMI was found to be a significant covariate (Pillai's trace=.39, F=13.55, p<.001), whereas eating behavior significantly differentiated athletes' perceived pressure (Pillai's trace= .26, F=7.16, p<.001). From the univariate analyses that followed, it was revealed that there were significant differences between athletes with normal eating behavior and those with DEAB on the pressure they received by their coaches (F=9.59, p=.003), parents (F=9.56, p<.003), peers (F=20.16, p<.001) and experts (F=5.53, p=.012). As it can be noticed in Figure 2, athletes with DEAB receive higher pressure for thin body by "significant others" than their peers with normal eating behaviors. Science of Gymnastics Journal 336 Science of Gymnastics Journal Ioannidou C., Venetsanou F.: SOCIAL PHYSIQUE ANXIETY, DISTURBED EATING. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 337 - 342 DISCUSION The purpose of the present study was to investigate DEAB, SPA and perceived pressure for a thin body by "significant others'', such as coaches, parents, friends and experts, in RG and AG female athletes at competitive level, while examining (and controlling) the potential effects of athletes' BMI. BMI associations with gymnasts' DEAB, SPA and pressure for thin body Results revealed that RG gymnasts' BMI was similar to that found in previous studies focusing on RG gymnasts (Kosmidou et al., 2015) and significantly lower than that of AG gymnasts of the current study. RG had a higher percentage of underweight athletes than AG. Moreover, athletes' BMI had a moderate correlation with their SPAS score, a finding that confirms the opinion of Gay et al. (2011), according to which in aesthetic sports, BMI can predict SPA, and a BMI increase can increase the possibility for higher SPA around 6%. Furthermore, in the present study, BMI had a strong correlation with perceived pressure for a thin body by coaches and parents, whereas its correlation with perceived pressure by experts was moderate. This result was expected as it is known that in gymnastics a specific body type is thought to be a prerequisite for performance or success (Cook & Hausenblas, 2011; Smolak et al., 2000). Kosmidou et al. (2015), in their study with RG gymnasts, found a weaker correlation between BMI and perceived pressure by parents (r=.29, p=.042), a similar correlation with pressure by coaches (r=.52, p <.001) and a much higher pressure by gymnastics experts (r=62, p <.001). The significant correlation between BMI and perceived pressure for a thin body found in this study requires attention, since it shows that the gymnasts with increased BMI (although lower than the BMI of their non - athletes peers) receive pressure to be thinner by "significant others". One can imagine how negatively an adolescent female gymnast experiences even a small weight gain. Differences between RG and AG athletes RG and AG gymnasts had similar EAT-26 mean scores (RG= 15.57; AG = 18.32, p>.05), which were in close agreement with those from the study of Kosmidou et al. (2015), who found EAT-26 total score of 16.27 in RG athletes. As far as gymnasts' SPA and perceived pressure to be thin are concerned, it was revealed that, when the effect of athletes' BMI was controlled, the two groups had similar SPAS scores; nevertheless, there were significant differences regarding the pressure for thin body by parents, with the AG athletes presenting higher scores than the RG athletes. It is interesting to note that the gymnasts of the present study, both RG and AG ones, felt like being more pressed to be thin by coaches, parents and experts than it was reported by RG athletes in the study of Kosmidou et al. (2015). Nevertheless, the current results of AG athletes cannot be compared to previous ones, as to our knowledge there is no previous research focusing on AG gymnasts. Taking into account that RG athletes receive pressure for a thin body from a very young age (Sample, 2000) and tend to have a thinner body compared to other kinds of gymnasts (Nordin, Harris, & Cumming, 2003), the current findings of higher pressure to be thin presented by the AG gymnasts are worrying. Nevertheless, they can be interpreted under the prism of the strong correlation found between athletes' BMI and parents' pressure for thin body in conjunction with the higher BMI presented by AG athletes. Differences between gymnasts with and without DEAB When the data of RG and AG athletes were merged it was revealed that DEAB had a high prevalence (40%) among the participants of this study. This percentage Science of Gymnastics Journal 337 Science of Gymnastics Journal Ioannidou C., Venetsanou F.: SOCIAL PHYSIQUE ANXIETY, DISTURBED EATING. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 338 - 342 is much higher compared to previous studies in which 26% (Kosmidou et al., 2015, 2018) up to 37.7% (Ferrand, Champely, & Filaire, 2009) of RG athletes and 30% of artistic and RG gymnasts (Theodorakou & Donti, 2013) were found to have DEAB. It is also similar to the percentage found in the study of Sundgot-Borgen and Torstveit (2004) in which, 42% of the female athletes of aesthetic sports (diving, synchronized swimming, artistic and rhythmic gymnastics) presented DEAB. Although it is well known that in aesthetic sports the athletes tend to show DEAB (Gay et al., 2011; Haase & Prapavessis, 2001; Sundgot-Borgen & Torstveit, 2004), due to the significant role physical appearance plays for success, the high DEAB percentage of the present study is alarming. Taking into account that DEAB can have a negative impact on both the performance (Costarelli & Stamou, 2009) and health of those young athletes (Chamay-Weber et al., 2005; Jacobi et al., 2004), the need of professional help to tackle the problem is imperative. Moreover, it was revealed that gymnasts with DEAB presented higher SPA than those with normal eating attitudes/behaviors, a finding that is in agreement with previous studies (Gay et al., 2011; Haase & Prapavessis, 2001; Sundgot-Borgen & Torstveit, 2004). As far as the association between DEAB and perceived pressure for a thin body is concerned, gymnasts with DEAB presented higher perceived pressure for thin body by every "significant others" -group (coaches, parents, friends, experts) than the gymnasts without DEAB. Several researchers refer to the important role of coaches in adolescent athletes' development (Fraser-Thomas & Côté, 2009), underlining that they are the most suitable people to influence athletes' eating behavior (Wheatley, Khan, Székely, Naughton, & Petroczi, 2012). However, the strong and positive correlation between the diet of elite gymnasts and the perceived pressure for a thin body by their coaches has been also noticed (de Bruin, Oudejans, & Bakker, 2007). As Petty and Cacioppo (1986) state, in RG, coaches argue for years with their athletes about controlling their weight and this kind of pressure can create serious problems to athletes' body image and body esteem. Several researchers (Heffner, Ogles, Gold, Marsden, & Johnson, 2003; Kerr, Berman & De Souza, 2006) point out that if coaches insist on believing that the low weight of their athletes is beneficial for their performance, their attitudes and behaviors can unintentionally lead their teenage athletes to be at risk for DEAB. In addition, according to the current results, young gymnasts perceived that they receive great pressure for a thin body from gymnastics experts (i.e., judges), a finding that shows the critical role of the judges for technical performance and the physique in athletes' weight control (Kerr et al., 2006). Nevertheless, in the current study two other groups of "significant others", parents and friends, have been found to press young gymnasts to be thin. Regarding parents, it is known that since the peak of gymnasts' career comes during adolescence, their parents are closely involved in their daily routines, driving them to the sport club, accompanying them at competitions, etc, so they may be influenced by coach's behavior regarding dieting. As far as perceived pressure by friends is concerned, it can be assumed that the gymnasts who participated in the current study being at competitive level and spending a lot of hours in gymnastics training, had created friendships within the gymnastics club, with other gymnasts who also care about their thinness. Limitations and strengths This study presents some limitations that should be mentioned. To begin with, information regarding gymnasts' DEAB, SPA and pressure for thin body was gathered using self-reported questionnaires and that should be taken into account when Science of Gymnastics Journal 338 Science of Gymnastics Journal Ioannidou C., Venetsanou F.: SOCIAL PHYSIQUE ANXIETY, DISTURBED EATING. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 339 - 342 interpreting its results. Moreover, the cross-sectional design does not allow for examining causal relationships among the variables. However, this study goes along with several strengths. First, it is the first one examining simultaneously DEAB, SPA and perceived pressure for thin body and controlling the effect of athletes' BMI, providing, in that way, valuable information about this important issue. Furthermore, this is the first study focusing on AG athletes, shedding light into their SPA, DEAB and perceived pressure for thin body by "significant others". CONCLUSION It is obvious that if gymnasts' DEAB is to be confronted, educating both athletes and "significant others" is essential. Several researchers (Cover, Hanna, & Barnes, 2012; Nagel, 2003; Thein-Nissenbaum & Carr, 2011) state that coaches should be informed about their athletes' DEAB so as to help them. Optimizing athletes' performance without sacrificing their health should be every coach's concern. Apart from coaches, everyone who is involved with female athletes should understand the negative consequences of their behavior on athletes' eating attitudes/behaviors. Moreover, it has been proved that an intervention aiming at the improvement of self-concept and dieting attitudes of gymnasts can have positive results, providing, in that way, a promising message in the direction of DEAB confrontation (Kosmidou et al., 2015). 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Retrieved from: http://www.who.int/growthref/who2007_b mi_for_age/en/ Corresponding author: Fotini Venetsanou National and Kapodistrian Univeristy of Athens - School of Physical Education and Sport Science Ethnikis Antistasis 41 Athens 17237 Greece e-mail: fvenetsanou@phed.uoa.gr Science of Gymnastics Journal 342 Science of Gymnastics Journal Carbinatto M.V., Reis Furtado L.N.: CHOREOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN GYMNASTICS. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 343 - 353 CHOREOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN GYMNASTICS FOR ALL Michele Viviene Carbinatto1'3, Lorena Nabanete Reis Furtado2'3 University of Sao Paulo - Sport Departament, Sao Paulo, Brazil 2Federal University of Cearâ, Fortaleza, Cearâ, Brazil 3Gymnastics Research and Study Group from University of Sao Paulo - GYMNUSP, Brazil _Original article Abstract To transcend the idea of objectifying the body and its movements in gymnastics and its technique-based sessions and/or classes, we propose some reflection on the artistic and aesthetic aspects of gymnastics for the Gymnastics for All (GfA) program. Officially guided by FIG (Féderation Internationale de Gymnastique), it is common that GfA composition includes group performances in festivals, whether they are competitive or not. This article describes the journeys of two GfA teams that developed practitioner-centered, not coach-centered choreographies supported by the stages of creativity proposed by Kneller (1973).More than learning/doing or even learning/memorizing coded, standard sequences, it is essential to explore possibilities of dialogue between the individual and the various elements that surround him/her, by establishing a parallel between GfA features and the creative, collaborative choreographic process in the Arts (Dance and Theatre). The coach's egocentrism is redefined, and he/she is stripped of the choreographer's role e. The choreography should be considered a sketch and should inspire constant change. It will be influenced by what spectators thinks of it, how it can inspire other artists, and how participants will feel fulfilled by it. There should be endless opportunities. Shaping movement and connecting actions gradually reveal the proposed theme and give rise to technique and aesthetics: that is the major challenge of the choreographic process. Keywords: Gymnastics for All; collaborative choreographic process; creative process. INTRODUCTION In past decades, research studies have focused on understanding the body and its movements beyond biological and biomechanical conditions. Influenced by traditional educational theories in teaching-learning scenarios, we often observe sports situations where the practitioner is oblivious to the process and simply repeats the movements or follows the commands determined by a teacher and/or coach. To transcend the idea of objectifying the body and its movements in sports (Brasileiro; Marcassa, 2008; Steinman, 1986), as well as in its technique-based practice sessions and/or classes, we propose some reflection on Gymnastics for All (GfA) practice that is filled with artistic and aesthetic aspects (Best, 1980), especially since one of its Science of Gymnastics Journal 343 Science of Gymnastics Journal Carbinatto M.V., Reis Furtado L.N.: CHOREOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN GYMNASTICS. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 344 - 353 ultimate goals is a choreographic performance. This paper will focus mainly on the choreographic process, where phases of the creative process and the role of teachers/coaches in the so-called "collaborative process" is characterized by the collective and creative participation of everyone. We also assume that these processes will encourage a non-hierarchical system, in which the responsibility does not lie solely on the coach (Soares, 2007). Gymnastics for All Gymnastics for All (GfA) is one of the official activities of FIG (Féderation Internationale de Gymnastique) that encourages experimenting with new movements and forms of body expression based on the fundamentals of biomechanical movements (support, suspension, rotation, swinging, balance, landing) with fun, fitness, and friendship. To become a discipline that encompasses all the aspects described above, its contents are organized as follows: Gymnastics and Dance -involve dance, theatre, modern dance, aerobics, folklore, jazz, rhythmic gymnastics, ballet, rock'n roll, fitness; Exercise with Apparatus - gymnastics with and on apparatus, such as trampoline, rings, balance beams, gymnastics wheels; Games -small games, social games, sports games, reaction games, and games to develop fitness(FIG, 1993, p.7). It can be noted that GfA was a pioneer in encouraging other disciplines to interact with gymnastics, focusing on pleasure and leisure. Additionally, GfA appreciates all forms, styles, and trends influenced by the traditions and cultural values of various peoples and addresses a variety of contents. It is a discipline that allows for all-inclusive participation, not bound by restrictions and rules, such as gender, number of practitioners, or expertise, and can therefore foster personal and social growth, especially by respecting the individual skills of each practitioner (Toledo; Tsukamoto; Carbinatto, 2016). Public performances often take place in mostly non-competitive festivals, that highlight the cultural aspects of the groups and allow participants to celebrate the practice of sports without losing the specific aspects of their local, regional, or national cultures (Carbinatto; Soares; Bortoleto, 2016). Creating a choreography is optional and depends on the goals of the group (whether it wants to participate in festivals or not, for example). However, researchers advocate that it is important to develop choreographies to foster aspects related to creativity, aesthetics, collective participation, which are essential elements of human development (Toledo; Tsukamoto; Carbinatto, 2016; Sborquia, 2008). GfA choreographies should go beyond the mere physical, biomechanical performance of the choreography using expressive movements. In a choreography, we see formations in space, change of planes/levels, unexpected combinations that will spark the curiosity of both spectators and practitioners/performers about the theme. In a paradoxical opposition to the freedom provided by the practice of GfA (regarding gymnastics disciplines, interactions between gymnastics and music/dance or other folklore expressions), the choreographic process will select options according to the group's preferences. There are choices to be made: What movements will be performed? Will other cultural aspects be included? Will the group use apparatus? What is the most appropriate costume? Although GfA seems to be comprehensive, there comes a time when it narrows its focus: everything converges so that the group can effectively communicate the chosen theme to the audience. The problem at hand deals with "how" these choices are made. Pérez-Gallardo (2008), for example, shows that, groups of Science of Gymnastics Journal 344 Science of Gymnastics Journal Carbinatto M.V., Reis Furtado L.N.: CHOREOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN GYMNASTICS. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 345 - 353 competitive gymnastics disciplines may use GfA festivals as another opportunity to perform, but they ignore the pedagogical aspects that are inherent to this discipline. They focus on the product, not on the process, which could be so enriching to the personal growth of participants. When participants reflection artistic elements that go beyond the acquired physical skills, they reach a higher level of understanding and performance. Such reflective work includes issues that permeate sports in society, such as the rights of children and adolescents, gender issues, the popularization of sports by the media, the rules of various sports disciplines and their influence in societal rules. We believe it is essential that teachers/coaches/coordinators of GfA groups take the choreographic process into consideration but should not restrict their focus to it. The work methodology should reflect the pedagogical basis so that GfA can provide opportunities of inclusion and social interaction, where everyone can contribute with their experiences and can become active players in the moments they share (Paoliello, 2008). To reinforce the pedagogical purpose of GfA, we have analyzed studies on creative and collaborative processes and found principles that helped us confirm the importance of cooperation and the effective engagement of participants during the choreographic process. Creative Process Studies on creativity argue and especially refute the mythological paradigm that inspiration - often considered divine - is responsible for showing what is unexpected, new, or original (Sternberg, 1999). Discussions on this topic also involve sports in general and not only choreographic performances (Samulski; Noce; Costa, 2001). Traditionally, practicing gymnastics has been determined by a set of rules involving body patterns capable of performing some movements, usually ruled by the scoring system of gymnastics disciplines. But even scoring systems foster originality: new elements or combinations of elements can be added to the choreography and this is appreciated by experts (technical committees or judges in general) (FIG, 2018a; FIG, 2018b). There are several disputable concepts about creativity. Nowadays, theorists confirm that the definition assumes its dynamic process. Briefly, creativity requires originality and effectiveness and includes novelty, utility, aesthetics and authenticity (Nanni, 1998), since it is aligned with the methods adopted by professionals who work with GfA, like us. In GfA, participants' movements are often determined by external evaluation criteria (Fortin, 2004), which prevents them from discovering innovative ways to move, for example. In Dance, the opposite could be observed in the modern German school of dance (Louie Fuller, Isadora Duncan, Ruth Saint-Denis), which allowed the combination of the roles of choreographer and practitioner, especially with individuality and subjectivity as inspiration and theme (Kleinubing; Saraiva; Melo, 2011). The term "creation lab," used in research studies about artistic composition, has become more prevalent in dance (Soares, 2007; Costa, 1997), music (Coulangeon, 2004), theatre (Silva, 2008; Pavis, 2001; Garcia, 1990) and circus (Cozer, 2006). In a creation lab, the development of a choreography requires negotiation and compromise. Choreographies take shape in the lab. For Miller (2007), the early processes of choreographic creation are called "inaction" and they report some "powerlessness," since improvisations arise, but still lack structure. To the choreographer, these labs should involve a state of "readiness", because one needs to be alert to be able to connect and align the technique with the creative process and Science of Gymnastics Journal 345 Science of Gymnastics Journal Carbinatto M.V., Reis Furtado L.N.: CHOREOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN GYMNASTICS. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 346 - 353 with the theme. Silva (2008) describes these moments as territories, -- not territories in the sense of a "geographical location,"-- but rather as a "zone of experimentation" where the composition is a work-in-process. The choreography is created in alignment with the individual and collective interests and requires knowing how to deal with and respect different ideas and opinions. It fosters situations of self-knowledge and knowledge of others. So why not use these labs in GfA? Here are some examples of the diversity we want to represent in the choreographies, such as the use of alternative apparatus and movements to enrich them. Table 1 Alternative use of materials, themes, and movements in a choreography Apparatus Official apparatus from competitive gymnastics disciplines (ball, hoop, ribbon, balance beam, parallel bars); complementary apparatus that are typically used in gymnastics (plinth, step, fitness trampoline, Pilates ball); other apparatus adapted to the practice of gymnastics (water bottle jug, buckets, ladders, tires); apparatus built for the practice of gymnastics __(plastic tubes; giant foam tangram)._ Movement Displacement (with or without); positions (standing, kneeling, sitting, lying); action verbs (walking, running, hopping, jumping, spinning, balancing, pushing, extending, bending, crawling); rhythm (beat, time/duration, pace, emphasis); dynamics (swinging, leading, pushing, holding); space (lines: vertical, horizontal, intermediate/ direction: forward, backward, right, left / Plane: frontal, horizontal and sagittal/ Trajectory: __line, curve, combined)_ Theme Children's story; sci-fi book; folklore tale; holidays; a country's political situation; celebrity; historical fact; something that happened in the life of one of the group members; folk dance; food; toy; among others. Source: Adapted from Nanni (1998); Bratifische; Carbinatto (2016); Silva (2016). We advocate that there is not one but countless ways to create a choreography. If we want to consider GfA as a means to develop autonomous, critical, and creative people, it is crucial to allow gymnastics practitioners to let their creative and expressive skills flourish. Like sound and its resonant waves, a choreography should create a stir in the audience, and those who are directly or indirectly engaged in the choreographic experience should experience intangible dimensions of perception (Soares, 2007; Miller, 2007). The most important take-home message is that creativity is present not only in the product but also in the journey! Collaborative process When we watch a choreography, it is impossible to determine if it is the result of the work of one person or many, since the way a choreography is developed does not lead to a specific aesthetic outcome. Therefore, there is no direct relationship between a good or bad choreography and the way it was created. It is risky to assume that a collaborative process is a methodology if it is seen as a recipe or formula. We intend to propose concepts that foster collective participation in agreement with the specific context and goals of the choreography. Additionally, we believe it is too early to say that there is a new paradigm in the coach-practitioner relationship in GfA, or Science of Gymnastics Journal 346 Science of Gymnastics Journal Carbinatto M.V., Reis Furtado L.N.: CHOREOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN GYMNASTICS. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 347 - 353 even in other environments, but it is a fact that current teaching-learning methodologies have opposed the traditional, centralizing-unifying model as to how a group or class should be conducted. Evidence shared by GfA groups in Brazil - especially university-based groups - have used small choreographic groups that, after experimenting and organizing a choreography, perform for each other in a class session (Paoliello et al, 2014). This methodology aims at expanding possibilities since each part that was created separately can be added to the final piece. In this process, the dominance of one gymnast gives way to the relationship among practitioners and how they use the apparatus (Sborquia, 2008). That is, in the collaborative process, a choreography is collectively created, and practitioners have significant participation in the process. Therefore, like in dance movements (Costa, 1997) and in the theatre (Silva, 2008), the collective creation system in GfA is based on a shared, cooperative, and democratic process of doing gymnastics. The processes of performing and creating a choreography are intertwined. Moreover, performing and creating sessions/classes/meetings are encouraged. The role of the coach is not eliminated but rearranged to become a catalyst and a trigger for the creative polyphony (Silva, 2008). The words of the Colombian playwrghtr and director, Carlos José Reyes, clarify the collaborative process and the role of the director in the theatre, when he explains that the collaborative method "does not imply eliminating the director, but rather destroying his omnipotence. The director no longer controls movements mechanically, according to his aesthetic tastes or whims" (Rizk, 1987, p. 69). All members are free to suggest ideas, which grants them agency and sparks their curiosity, fosters respect and critical thinking. The goal is to not suppress individual personalities; it is to liberate the strict relationships that are traditionally established (Pianca, 1990). Together with the aforementioned creation lab,the group should experiment when faced with new ideas and should test all suggestions. Everyone is responsible for the activities; participants are not inhibited by the presence of experts, and there is no fixed hierarchy. Although the coach plays a less emblematic role, in fact, he has more influence and his opinions end up having more weight on the decisions made and directions taken for the choreography. As the result of a collective development process, the choreography is not created in a peaceful and organized setting. It is characterized by asymmetries, bursts, an overflow of opinions, conflicts, and instabilities (Silva, 2008). To minimize the effects of conflicts (which are inherent to the process), decisions should ideally be justified based on concrete aspects, as much as possible. After all, we expect individual wishes to be turned into group decisions. The collaborative process should not be restricted to the choreography. The organization and management of the group should also be a collective effort (organizational structure, management, financial control, etc.) to be evaluated by everyone. The coach/teacher in GfA is committed to allowing participants to become more tolerant and empathetic; fostering values that will make society more just and caring; to experiencing those values in the class and making it an environment that allows participants to reflect on and challenge the world they live in. Please note that coaches/teachers are required to have an attitude that allows them to understand "the creative ability of other participants, the in-depth knowledge of characteristics and skills of your peers, as well as the limitations and insecurities that prevent them from unleashing their creative potential. By encouraging a Science of Gymnastics Journal 347 Science of Gymnastics Journal Carbinatto M.V., Reis Furtado L.N.: CHOREOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN GYMNASTICS. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 348 - 353 creative attitude - and not just a reactive one - coaches are committed to a creation process that involves more risks and that challenges his own centralizing, leading role" (Silva, 2008, p. 2). METHODS This research addresses the experience of the two authors conducting a GfA choreographic composition focusing on creative and collaborative process. To analyze that, we focused on studies conducted by Kneller (1973) that shed some light on this topic. Kneller (1973) indicates that several theories acknowledge the existence of stages that systematize collaborative creativity. According to the author, these theories are organized as follows: a. the early moment or first insight related to raising interest that will set the tone for the b. preparation stage, or collection of data through a literary, musical, photographic, or sports study, among others. The larger the collection, the higher the likelihood of exploring skills in the group. c. The incubation period is variable and allows for a time of reflection on the collected survey material, thus improving the next step, d. an epiphany. In this stage, the group is in the "hands-on" mode, so the movements, combinations and elements suggested by each member of the group start to take shape. Finally, there is the e. polishing stage- choosing the elements to be kept. After this phase, the choreography is completed. Our question was: Did our GfA groups employ these steps? The Gymnastics for All Group of the University of Sao Paulo (Gymnusp) has its meeting once a week, which lasts an hour and a half. It is open to any interested person above eighteen years old, and participants must register on the Extension Commission of the School of Physical Education and Sport of University of Sao Paulo. Approximately ten people participated in the whole process, but it is important to explain that we had people who came in and out, as the composition took one year (two semesters), and the students' schedules underwent changes. We affirm, however, that participants could offer opinions about the choreographyat all times. The Gymnarteiros, GfA group of the Federal University of Ceara, meet twice a week for two hours sessions. It's an Extension Project of the Physical Education and Sports Institute, and it is open to people above fifteen years old. This choreography the group had about thirteen participants, and its process took ten months. As in the Gymnusp experience, every member of the group could offer suggestions and opinions throughout the process. Both researchers analyzed field notes, each group's social media, and photos and videos that were taken during the process. Finally, they categorized the steps following Kneller's codes. RESULTS We present the stages of the creative process (Kneller, 1973) parallel to the choreographic process of two GfA groups (Gymnarteiros, from the Federal University of Ceara, and Gymnusp, from the University of Sao Paulo) led by the authors of this paper, followed by a collaborative and creative process. Collecting data and proposing the first ideas somehow determined the epiphany stage. That is, meetings and/or practice sessions were planned and developed in alignment with the ideas that were initially raised and that focused on the theme. But we highlight that the choreographic process aiming at a product to be performed at an event does not need to be the focus of every group meeting. The group spent months in various exploratory experiences. The choreography was developed depending on the short-, medium-, and long-term goals of the group, especially if the group wished to participate in festivals. Science of Gymnastics Journal 348 Science of Gymnastics Journal Carbinatto M.V., Reis Furtado L.N.: CHOREOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN GYMNASTICS. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 349 - 353 Until the group decided to finish the choreography, it was possible to hold sessions filled with the exploration of choreographic structures and possibilities involving movement and music, movement and space, movement and aesthetic elements, among others (Costa, 1997). Table 1 Stages of the creative process and how they relate to the experience of GfA groups Stages of the creative process Experience of the Gymnarteiros GfA group Experience of the Gymnusp GfA group First insight Have an idea (insight) that will be developed The first idea was to represent a typical element from the Brazilian Northeast region -hammocks and how they are used (to replace a bed) became the focus of the choreography. The city of Sao Paulo (where the group lives) sparked this idea; the Tiete River, which crosses the city, became the focus of the choreography Preparation Collecting data; investigation of first insights We studied how hammocks started to be used by indigenous peoples in South America. They were initially used both for rest and for other purposes, such as a means of transportation and to carry the dead in the rural area. We studied the cartography of the Tiete river and its round curves, which made it navigable and suitable for leisure. With the expansion of the city, its margins were redesigned, and its function was recovered. Incubation Unconscious action; when the topic is still the object of analysis, even outside the formal environment of creation. Reflection on the possibilities to portray the current uses of a hammock - specially to depict sertanejo people (people who live in the countryside of the Northeast in Brazil), and characteristics of the countryside; the group looked for a song that represented this scenario. Group members told stories about the river; they looked for songs by Brazilian singers Fernanda Porto and Fernanda Abreu; most of the points raised by the group members had to do with how the river relates to the ring roads that run alongside the river Epiphany Discovering solutions to problems; determining the paths to take Understanding that the choreography should show different ways to use a hammock, in the context of gymnastics. Understanding that the song to be used should portray the life of sertanejos. Understanding that the choreography should have a smoother beginning, indicating how quiet the river was back in the day. Later, the buzz of the city, the typical Sao Paulo rush and the ring roads alongside the river filled with cars and buildings would be portrayed as rigid movements and acrobatic poses. Polishing Corrections, adaptation, analysis, polishing of the product Choreography: "Enredando com Gonzaga" (In a hammock with Gonzaga) Song: Asa Branca by Luiz Gonzaga (orchestrated version) Choreography: "Rio Tiete" (Tiete river) Song: O Paraíso (Buscemi's Afro Mix) by Madredeus Science of Gymnastics Journal 349 Science of Gymnastics Journal Carbinatto M.V., Reis Furtado L.N.: CHOREOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN GYMNASTICS. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 350 - 353 DISCUSSION From the perspective of aesthetic education, GfA choreographies are focused on expanding perceptions and unleashing the human potential; they contribute to an enhanced understanding of oneself and of the world. For example, the onset of creative effervescence in dance, represented by North American post-modern dance in the 50's and 60's of the 20th century, was characterized by performances and events that involved the integration of artists who spoke different languages, which led to a breakdown of structures of shows and genres in performances (Costa, 1997). In sports, a similar movement took place involving Sports for All and Gymnastics for All: it proposed opening space to gymnasts who had different cultural and historical backgrounds and also included expressions of folklore. This movement opened a wide range of possibilities. There is polymorphism in GfA that enhances the breadth and depth of the repertoire, making choreographies more challenging. The problem is that we address choreographic elements in a unidirectional way, that is, we are concerned only with the symmetrical space/time dimensions, which ensures efficiency and functionality, but we ignore the subtle dimension of gestures (Soares, 2007). Despite portraying gesture in dance, Soares also emphasizes that the choreography should depict situations of gestures that go beyond their mere functional, Cartesian elements, i.e., as an execution of coded steps. We should achieve an expressive gesture in which "senses are intertwined and deeply affect the sensitivity of the practitioner" (p.2). Moreover, Nanni (1998) advocates that the body has a unique language that is complementary to oral language. Nanni (1998) also says that a choreography not only uses that language but also expands and codes it to establish communication and expression. The fact that choices and decisions involved in the creation of choreographies are embedded in a cultural context confirms that choreographies are "the expression of an artist's individuality, combined with the influences of his/her socio-cultural environment" (p. 168). Research studies - such as the one about choreology by Preston-Dunlop (1989) and about dance composition by Smith-Autard (1992) - focus more specifically on the object of our study. Both make an in-depth analysis of choreographic variations, such as the relations between movement and space, costume and stage set, music, and the proper care in integrating all these elements. Sometimes it is difficult to make a linear description of the choreographic research because these steps are part of a journey that swings like a pendulum over time, moving from one direction to another. We wondered, however, what conditions are required to create choreographies. During that experience we noticed some principles on how to work in GfA to achieve a creative and collaborative choreographic process, namely: a) Each participant should, if possible, work actively in all choreographic creation stages: think about the song, the costume, reflect on the relationship between theme and movement, prepare work plans. But one must realize that not all participants have skills, interest, or desire to take on roles in the creative process. b) It is important that suggestions are considered, at least to be tested and discussed, and to encourage everyone to participate at all times. This is the only way a choreography can represent the whole group. c) Sessions (meetings/practices) can be led by all - in a rotation system, for example - so that all members can share responsibilities for the group experiences. Science of Gymnastics Journal 350 Science of Gymnastics Journal Carbinatto M.V., Reis Furtado L.N.: CHOREOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN GYMNASTICS. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 351 - 353 d) The group can (and should!) organize and document the collected data. Logbooks, pictures and/or footage can be helpful to a group's creative process. e) It is crucial to give special attention to the theme that was selected, since the overwhelming creative organization can lead to an excessive number of suggestions (leading to digressions), and the group might find it difficult to finish the choreography. f) The dynamic negotiation process (or conflict resolution) can prolong rehearsal times, but this should not be considered a waste of time. It is rather an opportunity to develop the creative process and collaborative relations. CONCLUSION Looking only at the mechanics of gestures of a choreography and its series of movements reduces the energy of a choreographic performance. Intentionality is part of the choreography. In GfA classes, it is essential to explore the possibilities of dialogue between the individual and the various elements that surround him/her. This is far more important than merely learning/memorizing/doing coded, standard sequences. In a way, the coach's egocentrism is redefined, and he/she is stripped of the choreographer's role. The f practitioners are called to action as partners, and the coach becomes a facilitator of the creative process. The choreography should be considered a sketch since what it reveals inspires constant change. It will be influenced by what spectators think of it, how it can inspire other artists, and how participants will feel fulfilled by it. Therefore, there are endless opportunities. Shaping movement and connecting actions gradually reveal the proposed theme and give rise to technique and aesthetics: that is the major challenge of the choreographic process! ACKNOWLEDGMENT Authors are thankful to CAPES -Higher Education Improvement Coordination/Brazil for founding their research. We appreciate all participants that were involved in the process. We also thank PhD Monica Ehrenberg who is also in charge of GYMNUSP - Gymnastics for All of University of Sao Paulo Group. REFERENCES Best, D (1980). The objectivity of artistic appretiation. British Journal of Aesthetics, 20, 2, 115-127. Brasileiro, L.T., Marcassa, L.P. (2008). Linguagens do corpo: dimensoes expressivas e possibilidades educativas da ginástica e da dan9a. Pro-Posigdes, 19, 3, 195-207. Bratifische, S., Carbinatto, M.V. (2016). Inova9ao e Cria9ao de Materiais: Em busca da originalidade na Ginástica para Todos. In, Miranda, R.C.F., Ehrenberg, M.C.; Bratifische, S.A. Temas emergentes de pesquisa em Ginástica para Todos (77-102). Várzea Paulista: Fontoura. Carbinatto, M.V., Soares, D., Bortoleto, M.A.C. (2016). Festival Nacional de Ginástica para Todos. 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The Knowing Body: Elements of Contemporary Science of Gymnastics Journal 352 Science of Gymnastics Journal Carbinatto M.V., Reis Furtado L.N.: CHOREOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN GYMNASTICS. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 353 - 353 Performance And Dance Boston: Shambhala. Sternberg, R. (Ed). (1999). Handbook of Creativity (p.3-15). United Kingdom: University of Cambridge. Toledo, E, Tsukamoto, M.H.C., Carbinatto, M.V. (2016). Fundamentos da Ginástica para Todos. In, Nunomura, M (Ed). Fundamentos da Ginástica.(p. 1240). Jundiaí: Fontoura. Corresponding author: Michele Viviene Carbinatto University of Sao Paulo - Sport Departament Av. Prof. Mello Moraes, 65 - Cidade Universitária CEP: 05508-030 - Sao Paulo - SP , Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05345000 Brazil e-mail: mcarbinatto@usp.br Science of Gymnastics Journal 353 Science of Gymnastics Journal Carbinatto M.V., Reis Furtado L.N.: CHOREOGRAPHIC PROCESS IN GYMNASTICS. Vol. 11 Issue 3: 354 - 353 Above: Exhibition 8 Decades of Miroslav Cerar - Miroslav Cerar medals at OG, WC and EC; Below: Youth at exhibition (Photos: Ivan Čuk) Science of Gymnastics Journal 354 Science of Gymnastics Journal GAJDOŠ A. SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES XVI Vol. 11 Issue 3: 355-557 SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES XVI Anton Gajdoš, Bratislava, Slovakia & Ivan Čuk, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Ph.D. Anton Gajdoš born on 1.6.1940 in Dubriniči (today Ukraine) lives most of his life in Bratislava (ex TCH, nowadays SVK). He comes from gymnastics family (his brother Pavel have world championship medals) and he devoted his life to gymnastics. His last achievement is establishment of Narodna encyklopedia športu Slovenska (www.sportency.sk). Among his passion is collecting photos and signatures of gymnasts. As we tend to forget old champions and important gymnasts, judges and coaches, we decided to publish part of his archive under title Short historical notes. All information on these pages is from Anton's archives and collected through years. MIROSLAV CERAR (October, 28 1939 Ljubljana, Slovenia) Miroslav Cerar was born to father Ivan (navy officer) and mother Pavla (housekeeper and seamstress). In 1947 he started with gymnastics at TVD Partizan Narodni dom (the first Slovene gymnastics club, established in 1863). His development was extremely fast due to his excellent physical preparation, as he was very flexible and strong. He was between 1958 and 1970 the best gymnast on pommel horse, with great achievements also on other apparatus. He was famous for his scissors and excellent double leg circles, which allowed him to perform Russian circles on pommels. Medals from major competitions: Olympic games 1964 Gold: Pommel horse, Bronze: Horizontal bar 1968 Gold: Pommel horse World Championship 1958 Bronze: Pommel horse 1962 Gold: Pommel horse, Parallel bars 1966 Gold Pommel horse, Parallel bars 1970 Gold: Pommel horse Science of Gymnastics Journal 355 Science of Gymnastics Journal GAJDOŠ A. SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES XVI Vol. 11 Issue 3: 356-557 XVII. svetovno prvenstvo ljubljana jugosl3vija 2 Left: Miroslav Cerar on poster for WC 1970 Bellow: Miroslav Cerar on poster for OG 1968 European Championship 1961 Gold: All around, Pommel horse, Rings, Bronze: Floor exercise, Vault 1963 Gold: All around, Horizontal bar, Rings, Silver: Vault, Bronze: Floor exercise 1965 Gold: Parallel bars, Silver: Pommel horse, Floor exercise, Bronze: Rings 1967 Silver: Pommel horse, Bronze: Horizontal bar 1969 Gold: Pommel horse Silver: Parallel bars, Bronze: Horizontal bar He also won Mediterranean Games in all around two times and at Spartakiada in Prague 1965 (CZE) he won 6 gold medals and for his exercise on pommel horse he scored perfect 10. He was named as the best Yougoslav athlete 9 times, and also named as the best athlete after the WWII. He earned major state awards as award AVNOJ in Yougoslavia and The Golden Order of Merit in Slovenia. Silver Olympic Order for his distinguished service to sport from IOC received in 1985, and order for his excellence in gymnastics by FIG in 1971. He was introduced into Gymnastics Hall of Fame (USA) in 1999. After his gymnastics career, he became lawyer, since 2005 he is retired and works for Slovene Olympic Committee (which he personally cofounded with Leon Stukelj and Slovene national sport associations) as volunteer. He is very much involved into international Fair Play organization. Science of Gymnastics Journal 355 Science of Gymnastics Journal GAJDOŠ A. SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES XVI Vol. 11 Issue 3: 357-557 At World Championship in Prague 1962 he won gold on pommel horse. Later in finals on parallel bars, Boris Sahlin (Ukraina, ex Soviet Union) was better evaluated by judges than Cerar. Crowd in the gym hall disagreed and they made such a noise for more than a half hour and stopped competition. FIG officials changed score for Cerar and he was by this decision the first. When preparing exhibition into his honor of 80th birthday we found in archive he has two gold medals and two diplomas, the first diploma is for the first place on pommel horse, while the second diploma states he was the third on parallel bars. Probably this is something worth for Guinness book of records. MEZINÀRODNÎ FEDERACE GYMNASTIK Y MEZINÄBODN! FEDERACE GYMNAST1KY 1 XV. M ISTRO VSTVl SVÈTA VE SPORTOVNÎ G V M N AST J CE DIPLOM Airt'mii1 Cerar ttafmf ! mu fa /V Ci'tff//' fia 4&tf f.fr ff /trJfem /9 faffa tTm i C._-, fc**" J I W , MISTROVSTYl SVtTA 1 E SPOR FOV Sf(.iMS ASTIC8 DIPLOM Cerar 7 fuvtr ¡>0 Ci'tCfrjl t JO WWMffi —^ Mcefom JbtcOi w ČESKOSLOVEftSKf 5VAZ Tfcl ESÏ*É VÎCflÔyY PRAftÀ.1962 ČES K 0 S LOV ENS K i S VAZ Tfc 1 ESN t VtC H OV Y PR AIIA 1 0,092). Čas stika s ponjavo je bil pri skokih s pasom in gumijastimi vrvmi 65% nižji (p <0,001). Varnostni pas z gumijastimi vrvmi je dober pripomoček za zmanjšanje težav pri doskoku. Ključne besede: varni skoki, podatki biomehanike, čas, najvišje vrednosti. Miha Marinšek, Ivan Čuk VPLIV NESKLADNE OBREMENITVE NOG PRI ODRIVU NA OBREMENITVE PRI DOSKOKU PRI SALTIH Z OBRATI Namen študije je bil ugotoviti, ali neskladnost obremenitve nog pri odrivu vpliva na neskladnost pri doskoku pri saltih z obrati. Enajst telovadcev je izvedlo salto naprej in nazaj ter le-ta z 1/2, 1/1 in 3/2 obratom. Vodilna noga za vsakega je bila določena glede na smer obrata. Sile na podlago na vsaki nogo so bile izmerjene s vložki Parotec. Kot odvisne spremenljivke so bile uporabljene spremenljivke absolutnih in relativnih razlik med levo in desno stranjo. Za določitev glavnih učinkov med odrivom in doskokom smo uporabili tristransko ANOVA in vrsto enosmernih ANOVA. Za ugotavljanje razlik med vodilno in nevodilno nogo smo uporabili vrsto parnih t-testov s Bonferronijevimi popravki. Največje sile na podlago so pokazale, da je bila vodilna noga pri odrivu bolj obremenjena kot nevodilna. Ni bilo statistično pomembnih razlik v največji sili na podlago med nogami pri doskoku. Vendar pa so bile največje razlike med silami na podlago pri saltu z 3/2 obratom višje v primerjavi z drugimi skoki. Ni bilo nobenih dokazov, ki bi potrjevali, da neskladnost ob odrivu vpliva na neskladnost pri doskoku. Ključne besede: akrobatika, skoki, sile na podlago, obrati. Science of Gymnastics Journal 358 Science of Gymnastics Journal SLOVENSKI IZVLEČKI / SLOVENE ABSTRACTS Vol. 11 Issue 3: 359 - 360 George Dallas, Stelliou Charis, Theodorou Apostolos, Costas Dallas TESNOBA PRED TEKMOVANJEM PRI MLADIH TELOVADCIH Namen raziskave je bil ugotoviti, kako vplivata tesnobo pred tekmovanjem in samozavest telovadcev na uspeh na državnem tekmovanju. Skupaj 84 telovadcev, starih 9 - 11 let, je eno uro pred tekmovanjem odgovorilo na vprašalnik Predtekmovalna tesnoba 2. Telovadci so se glede na skupni rezultat, ki so ga prejeli v tekmovanju po mnogoboju, razdelili na uspešne in neuspešne ter na tri kategorije: razumska tesnoba, telesna tesnoba in samozavest. Rezultati so pokazali, da je med uspešnimi in neuspešnimi telovadci značilna razlika v samozavesti. Vendar pa pri teh telovadcih ni bilo ugotovljenih bistvenih razlik v razumski ali telesni tesnobi. Pearsonov koeficient povezanosti je pokazal statistično pomembno povezavo med razumsko in telesno tesnobo. Regresijska analiza ni uspela razkriti nobenega pomembnega napovedovalca uspešnosti teh mladih telovadcev. Ugotovitve študije poudarjajo pomen preverjanja tesnobe pred tekmovanjem in samozavesti pri telovadcih, predvsem pa naj razvijajo strategije za izboljšanje samozavesti, da se športniki bolje pripravijo na prihodnja tekmovanja. Ključne besede: tesnoba, samozavest, predstava, telovadba. Elina Virkki, Teppo Kalaja POVEZANOST MED TEHNIČNIM ZNANJEM, GIBALNIMI SPOSOBNOSTMI IN USPEŠNOSTJO NA TEKMOVANJU PRI FINSKIH ORODNIH TELOVADKAH Namen raziskave je bil ugotoviti, kakšen je zmožnost mladih nadarjenih telovadk, ki bi se lahko pridružile vadbi državne članske vrste na Finskem. Študija je preučila razmerje med telovadkami (N = 215, starost 10-13), ko so bile merjene v letih (2006-2010) in uspehom na tekmovanjih do konca leta 2016. Rezultati tekmovanja so bili primerjani tudi med telovadkami, ki so sodelovale pri meritvah in naključno število (N = 180) telovadk, ki niso. Večina (92%) najboljših telovadk na tekmovanjih je sodelovala na meritvah v mlajši dobi. 39% najboljših na tekmovanjih je bilo med najboljšimi 10 na meritvah v mlajši dobi. Rezultati preskusov tehničnih znanj so pokazali pomembno povezavo s povprečnimi tekmovalnimi rezultati v vseh starostnih skupinah in s povprečno stopnjo tekmovanja pri 10-12-letnicah. Rezultati preskusov v gibljivosti niso bili povezani s kasnejšim uspehom. Rezultati preskusov v moči so pokazali pomembno povezavo s tekmovalnimi rezultati in ravnjo tekmovanja pri desetletnicah. Rezultati preskusov moči so pri 12-13-letnicah povezani z ravnijo tekmovanja. Sodelovanje pri meritvah v mladosti je pozitivno povezano s prihodnjim tekmovalnim uspehom. Vendar pa povezanosti ni mogoče obravnavati nedvoumno. Rezultati meritev moči se lahko štejejo za pomemben del za 10-11 letnice, ki napovedujejo, da bodo tekmovalno uspešne. Ključne besede: prepoznavanje nadarjenih, meritve, tekmovalni uspeh. Science of Gymnastics Journal 358 Science of Gymnastics Journal SLOVENSKI IZVLEČKI / SLOVENE ABSTRACTS Vol. 11 Issue 3: 360 - 360 Lionela da Silva Correa, Michele Viviene Carbinatto, Evandro Jorge Souza Ribeiro Cabo Verde DOBROBITI PODALJŠANJA UNIVERZITETNEGA PROGRAMA RITMIKE NA ŠTUDENTE TELESNE VZGOJE IN ŠPORTA PRVE STOPNJE Razširitev univerz je temeljna dejavnost visokega šolstva, ki se pridružuje izobraževalnim, kulturnim in znanstvenim procesom, ki razvijajo in hranijo izobraževanje in raziskave. Namen je prenos znanja s pomočjo njegovih programov in dogodkov; univerzitetno delo lahko poteka na različnih področjih, kot so športne in telesne dejavnosti. Namen raziskave je bil razčleniti izkušnje študentov dodiplomskega študija, ki sodelujejo v univerzitetnem predmetu ritmike (R), ki je bil zasnovan za izboljšanje njihovega poklicnega razvoja. Polstrukturirani pogovori so bili opravljeni z dvanajstimi študenti, ki so bili del dodiplomskega programa telesne vzgoje in / ali so diplomirali pri telesni vzgoji. pogovori so bili opravljeni skladno etičnimi pogoji raziskovalnih ciljev, da bi odgovorili na vprašanja študentov in zagotovili njihovo zasebnost. Za razčlenitev podatkov sta bila uporabljena tehnika izvedbe in razčlenitev vadbenih enot. Iz pridobljenih podatkov smo preverili osem kategorij, ki so sprožile razprave o predmetu Ritmike. Štirje najbolj citirani so bili: a) izkušnja je bila pozitivna; b) so se učili skozi vadbo; c) čutili so, kako je biti učitelj; d) imeli so neposreden stik z začetniki. Večina sodelujočih študentov dodiplomskega študija se je strinjala, da jim razširitev predmetnika omogoča, da razmišljajo o R in drugih telovadnih disciplinah kot morebitnem bodočem poklicu, mentorski proces pa kot pomemben način razvoja izobraževanja učiteljev in / ali učiteljev telesne vzgoje za ukvarjanje s telovadbo. Ključne besede: ritmika, telesna vzgoja in šport, izobraževanje vaditeljev, izobraževanje učiteljev telesne vzgoje (PETE). Christina Ioannidou, Fotini Venetsanou DRUŽBENO TELESNA TESNOBA, MOTNJE HRANJENJA IN VEDENJA TER SPREJEMANJE PRITISKA ZA VITKIM TELESOM PRI RITMIKI IN TELOVADNIH PLESIH V tej raziskavi se je so preučevala družbeno telesna tesnoba (SPA), motnje hranjenja in vedenja (DEAB) in pritisk na vitko telo s strani "pomembnih drugih" (vaditelja, staršev, vrstnikov, strokovnjakov) pri 41 tekmovalkah ritmiki (RG) in 49 tekmovalkah telovadnih plesov (AG). Poleg tega se je preučil in nadziral zmošnost vpliva na razmerje telesne mase BMI. Rezultati so pokazali, da je bilo razmerje telesne mase povezano z SPA, v prehodnem obdobju in zaznanimi pritiski, zato je bil učinek na BMI nadzorovan. Med SPA in DEAB ni bilo bistvenih razlik med RG in AG, medtem ko so imele tekmovalke AG višji starševski pritisk na vitko telo kot tekmovalke RG. Ko so se podatki o RG in AG združili, je bil razkrit visok odstotek (40%) tekmovalk, ki so imele DEAB. Tekmovalke z DEAB so imele občutno višji SPA in zaznaven pritisk na vitko telo kot tiste z običajnimi prehranjevalnimi navadami in vedenjem. Ti rezultati poudarjajo potrebo po ukrepih, ki vključujejo „pomembne druge" in katerih cilj je preprečevanje DEAB pri tekmovalkah. Ključne besede: motnje prehranjevanja, športnice, "pomembni drugi", zdravje. Science of Gymnastics Journal 358 Science of Gymnastics Journal SLOVENSKI IZVLEČKI / SLOVENE ABSTRACTS Vol. 11 Issue 3: 361 - 360 Michele Viviene Carbinatto, Lorena Nabanete Reis Furtado KOREGRAFSKO DELOVANJE PRI TELOVADBI ZA VSE Da bi presegli idejo o stvarnosti telesa in njegovih gibanj v športu ter na vadbi in / ali tečajih, ki temeljijo na tehniki, predlagamo nekaj razmišljanj o vadbi, ki je napolnjena z umetniškimi in lepotnimi vidiki, zlasti zato, ker je eden od njenih končnih ciljev koreografska predstava: Telovadba za vse (GfA). FIG (Mednarodna telovadna zveza), ki uradno vodi Telovadbo za vse, zahteva da sestava GfA vključuje skupinske nastope na festivalih, ne glede na to, ali so tekmovalni ali ne. Z vzpostavljanjem vzporednic med nalogami GfA in ustvarjalnim, sodelovalnim koreografskim procesom v umetnosti (ples in gledališče) in podprtimi obdobji ustvarjalnosti, ki jih je predlagal Kneller (1973), opisujemo potovanja dveh skupin GfA, ki sta se razvila v središču, ki je usmerjen v prakso, in ne koreografije, osredotočene na vaditelja. Bolj kot učenje / početje ali celo učenje / pomnjenje kodiranih standardnih zaporedij je bistveno, da raziščemo možnosti dialoga med posameznikom in različnimi prvinami, ki ga obkrožajo. Na nek način je egocentrizem vaditelja na novo opredeljen in mu je odvzeta vloga koreografa. Koreografijo je treba obravnavati kot skico, saj tisto, kar razkrije, navdihuje nenehne spremembe. Vplivalo bo na to, kaj si bodo gledalci omislili, kako lahko navdihuje druge umetnike in kako se bodo udeleženci počutili izpolnjene. Zato je neskončnih priložnosti. Oblikovanje gibanja in povezovanje dejanj postopoma razkrivata predlagano temo in sprožata tehniko in lepoto: to je glavni izziv koreografskega procesa. Ključne besede: telovadba za vse; sodelovalni koreografski postopek; ustvarjalni proces. Science of Gymnastics Journal 358 Science of Gymnastics Journal