universitatis irena lazar Pogled skozi steklo A Look through the Glas hereditati libri Znanstvena monografija Pogled skozi steklo / A Look Through the Glass Irena Lazar Libri universitatis hereditati, 1 Urednica zbirke: Zrinka Mileusnić Recenzentki / Reviewers: Caroline M. Jackson, Tina Milavec Prevodi / Translations: Sophie Burton, Neva Čebron, Margaret Davis, Irena Lazar, Andreja Maver, Vesna Pintarič, Gregor Pobežin, Barbara Smith Demo Lektoriranje / Proof reading: Davorin Dukič (slo. jezik/Slovene), Sophie Burton, Neva Čebron, Gregor Pobežin (angl. jezik/English) Fotografije / Photos: Caroline Jackson, Igor Krajcar,Tomaž Lauko, Irena Lazar, Aleš Ogorelec, Arhiv Arheološki muzej Zagreb, Hrvaška, Arhiv Muzeji i galerije Budve, Črna gora. Risbe / Drawings: Anđelka Fortuna Saje, Miljenka Galić, Andreja Izlakar, Jerneja Kobe, Janja Tratnik Šumi Slikovno gradivo / Graphic material: Aleš Ogorelec, Andrej Preložnik Oblikovaje in prelom / Graphic design and Typesetting: Jonatan Vinkler, Tajda Senica Izdajatelj / Publisher Univerza na Primorskem – Založba Univerze na Primorskem University of Primorska – University of Primorska Press Titov trg 4, SI-6000 Koper Glavni urednik /Editor in Chief: Jonatan Vinkler Vodja založbe / Managing Editor: Alen Ježovnik Koper, 2022 ISBN 978-961-293-203-9 (pdf) http://www.hippocampus.si/ISBN/978-961-293-203-9.pdf ISBN 978-961-293-204-6 (html) http://www.hippocampus.si/ISBN/978-961-293-204-6/index.html DOI: https://doi.org/10.26493/978-961-293-203-9 Elektronska izdaja © 2022 Založba Univerze na Primorskem / University of Primorska Press Izdaja je sofinancirana po pogodbi ARRS za sofinanciranje izdajanja znanstvenih monografij v letu 2022. Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani COBISS.SI-ID 146706691 ISBN 978-961-293-203-9 (PDF) ISBN 978-961-293-204-6 (HTML) pogled skozi steklo a look through the glas universitatis irena lazar Pogled skozi steklo A Look through the Glas hereditati libri Vsebina Contents Zrinka Mileusnić 9 Predgovor Zrinka Mileusnić 11 Foreword Razvoj steklarstva na območju jugovzhodnih Alp in sosedstva Development of Glassmaking in the South-east Alpine Area and its Vicinity 7 15 Antična steklarska proizvodnja na območju jugovzhodnih Alp in vzhodnega Jadrana Ancient Glass Production in the South-east Alpine Area and Eastern Adriatic 29 Glass Finds in Slovenia and Neighbouring Areas Steklene najdbe iz Slovenije in njenega sosedstva 47 Roman Oil Lamp from Slovenia Depicting a Glass Furnace Rimska oljenka iz Slovenije z upodobitvijo steklarske peči 53 Roman Glass Production in Celeia (Noricum) – New Evidence Rimska proizvodnja stekla v Celeji (Norik) – novi dokazi Najdišča in gradivo Sites and Finds 61 Coloured Monochrome Glass of the Early Imperial Period in Romula (Pannonia) Intenzivno obarvano stekleno posodje iz zgodnje cesarskega obdobja iz Romule (Panonija) 71 Finds of Roman Colourless Glass from Romula Najdbe dekoloriranega rimskega stekla iz Romule 81 Ennion Beaker and other Fragments of Mould-Blown Glass Čaša mojstra Enniona in druge najdbe v kalup pihanega stekla 87 Čaša za posebne priložnosti: odlomka čaše bogov iz Celeje A Beaker for Special Occasions: Two Fragments of a Mythological Beaker from Celeia 95 Črno steklo, da ali ne?: nove najdbe posod iz na pogled črnega stekla Black Glass, yes or no?: New Finds of Vessels from Black-Appearing Glass 107 Glass Material from the Roman Necropolis of Budva in the Social and Economic Context of the Empire Stekleno gradivo z rimske nekropole Budva v socialnem in ekonomskem kontekstu imperija Steklo kot muzejski predmet Glass as a Museum Object 121 The Engraved Glass Bowl from Bakar – A Vessel for Honourable Guests S teklena skodela z graviranim okrasom iz Bakra – posoda za cenjene goste 129 Dragoceno darilo iz Egipta – rimska steklenica s Ptuja, izdelek graverjev iz Aleksandrije A Precious Gift from Egypt – The Bottle from Ptuj, a Product of Engravers from Alexandria 141 The Glass from the Gnalić Wreck Steklo s potopljene ladje pri Gnaliću 153 Viri in literatura Bibliography Recenziji Reviews 8 Tina Milavec 169 Pogled skozi steklo ss Recenzija la e g Caroline M. Jackson h 171 A Look through the Glass h t Review ug roh k too lo • a l ekti szok led sgo r ■ paza a l enir Predgovor Zrinka Mileusnić skavah antičnega stekla v Sloveniji in njenem so- 9 Generalna skupščina Združenih narodov je na pobudo Mednarodne komisije za sedstvu, ki so plod njenega raziskovalnega dela steklo (ICG), združenj ICOM Glass in v zadnjem desetletju. Zbrani so v treh glavnim Community of Glass Associations (CGA), 18. sklopih oz. poglavjih. maja 2021 leto 2022 razglasila za mednarodno Prvo poglavje, naslovljeno »Razvoj ste- leto stekla (International Year of Glass 2022 – klarstva na območju jugovzhodnih alp in so-IYOG 2022).1 Med več kot 1.100 podporniki iz sedstva«/»Development of Glassmaking in the 74 držav je bila tudi Slovenija, med njimi Fakul-South-East Alpine Area and Its Vicinity«, pred- teta za humanistične študije Univerze na Primor- stavlja razvoj antične steklarske obrti in zadnje skem. Leto z organizacijo različnih dogodkov po rezultate raziskav na območju Slovenije ter nje-vsem svetu poudarja pomembno vlogo stekla v nega sosedstva v dveh preglednih člankih. Med današnjem življenju in posebej izpostavlja znan-drugim predstavlja dokaze o lokalni proizvodnji stveni, tehnološki in gospodarski pomen tega rimskega stekla v Celeji in Petovioni ter o novih pogosto spregledanega prosojnega materiala. najdbah v sosednjih državah in izjemno najdbo Steklo je prav tako izjemno pomemben medij v oljenke z upodobitvijo rimske steklarske peči z umetnosti in njegov zgodovinski razvoj je nede-najdišča Križišče pri Spodnjih Škofijah v bliži- ljiv del napredka ter razvoja človeštva. ni Kopra, ki v svetovnem merilu predstavlja eno Vizija mednarodnega leta stekla 2022 je pra- najpomembnejših odkritij 21. stol. znovati preteklost, sedanjost in bodočnost tega Drugo poglavje z naslovom »Najdišča in izjemnega ter spremenljivega materiala in sledi- gradivo«/»Sites and Finds« prinaša pogloblje-ti ciljem Agende 2030 Združenih narodov. Z že- ne študije uvodoma izpostavljenega gradiva, ki ljo poudariti vlogo stekla v napredku in razvo- so v veliki meri plod raziskav antičnega stekla, ju človeštva skozi zgodovino ter predstaviti vlogo odkritega med obsežnimi arheološkimi raziska-in pomen znanstvenih raziskav o antičnem stek- vami med gradnjo avtocestnega križa v Sloveni- lu tako v raziskovalnih kot v muzejskih instituci- ji. Izpostavljeni so predvsem tisti sklopi najdb, jah, smo pripravili monografijo z naslovom Pog- ki predstavljajo zaokrožene celote in imajo izje-led skozi steklo/ A Look through the Glass. men pomen tudi v svetovnem merilu. Omenimo Avtorica in mednarodno uveljavljena raz- najdbe zgodnje imperialnega stekla intenzivnih iskovalka antičnega stekla, ki je med drugim barv, bogat sklop luksuznega dekoloriranega oz. organizirala tudi 19. svetovno konferenco raz- razbarvanega stekla z vrezanim okrasom z naj- iskovalcev stekla leta 2012 v Sloveniji (AIHV – dišča Ribnica pri Brežicah ( Romula), importe v Association Internationale pour l’histoire du kalupu narejenih posod, med katerimi velja iz-verre), v njej predstavlja nabor člankov o razi- postaviti čašo s podpisom steklarskega mojstra 1 https://www.iyog2022.org/ Enniona, ki je zaenkrat prva taka najdba pri nas, ter nove odlomke čaše z upodobitvami bogov iz najdbe antičnega stekla z območja današnje Slo-Celja ( Celeia). Poglavje zaključuje pregled stekle- venije in se hkrati seznanijo z zadnjimi rezultati nega gradiva rimskega grobišča iz Budve v Črni raziskovalnega dela na področju tega sklopa ma-gori, ki ga je avtorica kot specialistka obdelala na terialne kulture. povabilo kolegov iz Črne gore. O pomenu interpretacije in posredovanja raziskovalnih rezultatov javnosti govori tretje poglavje z naslovom »Steklo kot muzejski pred- met«/»Glass as a Museum Object«. Steklene najdbe so po opravljenih analizah ter raziskavah predane v muzeje in tam nadaljujejo svoje živ- ljenje kot muzejski predmeti, ki z ustrezno in- 10 terpretacijo o sebi lahko pripovedujejo različne zgodbe in na ta način približajo raziskovalne re- ss zultate ter našo kulturno dediščino najširši pu- la bliki. Rimska steklenica s Ptuja, z upodobitvijo e gh aleksandrijskega svetilnika, je izdelek s kakovo- h t stnim brušenim okrasom, ki je nastal po naro- ug čilu v aleksandrijskih delavnicah. S svojim moti- ro vom nam na eni strani govori o bogastvu in moči h antične Aleksandrije, na drugi pa o premožnih k to prebivalcih Petovione, ki so si lahko privošči- o li vrhunske umetniške dosežke rimske steklar- ske obrti. Več stoletij mlajše gradivo brodoloma lo • a l pri Gnaliću na Hrvaškem nam priča o usodi be- ekt neške trgovske ladje z izjemnim steklenim tovo- i sz rom, ki s svojim bogastvom in raznolikostjo ni ok samo dokaz bogate beneške proizvodnje stekla, ampak tudi trgovskih povezav med Evropo in led sg Osmanskim cesarstvom. o Posamezni predmeti, ki so obravnavani in r ■ pa objavljeni v tej monografiji, so bili v teku med- za narodnega leta stekla 2022, ki smo ga obeležili a l v sklopu vseslovenskega muzejskega projekta Po en stekleni poti/Along the Glass Trail, predstavlje- ir ni tudi v vitrinah meseca po številnih slovenskih muzejih. Pričujoča monografija je tako rezultat dol- goletnega arheološkega raziskovalnega dela na področju materialne kulture antike, ki hkra- ti odpira pot promociji znanosti in znanstve- nih dosežkov, namenjeni javnosti. Monografija je kot e-publikacija in prva v monografski seri- ji Libri Universitatis Hereditati prosto dostop- na vsem raziskovalcem doma in po svetu, štu- dentom in ostali javnosti, da spoznajo najnovejše Foreword Zrinka Mileusnić The author of the monograph, an interna- 11 On the initiative of the International Commission on Glass (ICG), ICOM tionally renowned researcher of ancient glass, Glass and the Community of Glass who also organized the 19th World Conference Associations (CGA), the United Nations Ge-of Glass Researchers in 2012 in Slovenia (AIHV neral Assembly declared the International Year – Association Internationale pour l‘histoire du of Glass 2022 – IYOG 2022 on 18 May 2021.1 verre), introduces the research on ancient glass Among the 1.100 supporters plus of the initia-in Slovenia and its surrounding area through a tive from 74 countries, were also Slovenia and set of articles, which are the fruit of her resear-the Faculty of Humanities of the University of ch during the past decade. The articles are ar-Primorska. ranged into three main sections. The first secti- Various events throughout the world, or- on, entitled “The Development of Glassmaking ganized within the remit of the International in the South-East Alpine Area and Its Vicini-Year of Glass, have drawn attention to the sig- ty”, consists of two review articles on the deve- nificant role that glass occupies in today‘s life, lopment of ancient glassmaking, and presents as well as highlighting the scientific, technolo-the results of the latest research endeavours in gical and economic importance of this transpa- the territory. Among other points of discussi- rent material, which has often been overlooked. on, the section highlights evidence of the local Glass is also an extremely important medium in production of Roman glass in Celeia, and Poe-the art and its historical evolvement forms an in- tovio, along with new finds in neighbouring co- separable part of the progress and development untries. An exceptional find of an oil lamp depicting a Roman glass furnace from the Križišče of humanity. site near Spodnje Škofije and Koper in Slovenia The aim of the International Year of Glass represents one of the most important discoveries 2022 was to celebrate the past, present and futu-of the 21st century on a global scale. re of such an extraordinary and adaptable mate- The second section, entitled “Sites and Fin- rial, while also following the goals of the United ds”, brings forth in-depth studies of the materi-Nations’ 2030 Agenda. The monograph entitled als presented in the introduction. These studies Pogled skozi steklo/A Look through the Glass wi- are the result of extensive research into ancient shes to emphasize the role of glass in the progress glass discovered while investigating the archae-and development of humankind throughout ological finds retrieved during the constructi-history, as well as to present the role and impor- on of the highway cross in Slovenia. The focus is tance of scientific research on ancient glass, both principally on sets of findings, which represent within research institutions and museums. coherent wholes, thus highlighting their excep- 1 https://www.iyog2022.org/ tional worldwide significance. Special attenti- on is drawn to the finds of mould-made early part of the all-Slovenian museum project Along imperial monochrome glass, a rich set of luxu-the Glass Trail. rious decoloured glass with incised decoration The present monograph is thus the result of from the site of Ribnica near Brežice ( Romula), many years of archaeological research in the fi-and imports of mould-made vessels, particularly eld of the material culture of antiquity, and also a beaker signed by Master Ennion, notably the wishes to pave the way for the promotion of sci-first such find in Slovenia so far, as well as new ence and scientific achievements aimed at the fragments of a mythological beaker from Celje public. As an e-publication and the first mono- ( Celeia). The chapter concludes with an exami- graph in the series Libri Universitatis Heredita-nation of the glass material from the Roman bu- ti it is freely accessible to all researchers at home rial site from Budva in Montenegro, which the and around the world, as well as to students and author processed as an expert guest, at the invi-the wider public. We hope that they can gain an 12 tation of her Montenegrin colleagues. insight into the latest finds of antique glass from The third chapter, entitled “Glass as a Mu- the area of present-day Slovenia and at the same ss seum Object”, discusses the importance of inter- time, learn about the results of the latest research la preting and communicating research results to work in this field of material culture. e gh the public. Once analyzed and researched, the h t glass findings are handed over to museums, whe- ug re they continue their lives as museum objects. ro Provided with an appropriate interpretation, h they can tell different stories about themselves k to and thus bring research results closer to the wi- o dest audiences as part of our cultural heritage. Such a case is the Roman bottle from Ptuj ( Poe- lo • a l tovio) with the representation of the Alexandri- ekt an lighthouse, a product with high-quality en- i sz graved decoration, which was made to order in ok the Alexandrian workshops. On the one hand, its motif tells us about the wealth and power led sg of ancient Alexandria, and on the other, about o the wealthy residents of Poetovio, who could af- r ■ pa ford to order top artistic achievements from Ro- za man glassmaking workshops. Another example a l comes from material retrieved from a shipwreck en near Gnalić in Croatia, dated several centuries ir later, and testifying to the fate of the Venetian merchant ship with its extraordinary glass car- go. Its wealth and diversity are not only proof of rich Venetian glass production but also eviden- ce of the trade connections between Europe and the Ottoman Empire. The individual objects discussed and pre- sented in this monograph were also displayed in showcases as exhibits of the month in vario- us Slovenian museums during the celebrations of the International Year of Glass 2022, which was Razvoj steklarstva na območju jugovzhodnih Alp in sosedstva Development of Glassmaking in the South-east Alpine Area and its Vicinity Antična steklarska proizvodnja na območju jugovzhodnih Alp in vzhodnega Jadrana Ancient Glass Production in the South-east Alpine Area and Eastern Adriatic Izvleček 15 Intenzivne in specialistične raziskave antičnega stekla samostojno ali v sklopu novih arheoloških odkritij prinašajo vedno nove rezultate. Primerjave novih izsledkov v mednarodnem prostoru s stanjem raziskav pri nas omogočajo drugačno ali natančnejše ovrednotenje nekaterih do sedaj znanih dejstev ali hipotez. V tem kontekstu članek na novo osvetljuje stanje raziskav antične steklarske proizvodnje našega območja in bližnjega sosedstva. Ključne besede: rimsko steklo, steklarske delavnice, lokalna proizvodnja, JV Alpe, Jadran Abstract Intensive and specialized research on ancient glass by itself or in the frame of new archaeological discoveries constantly brings new results. Comparisons of new research results within the international area with the state of research in our area enable new or more precise evaluations of some of the so-far-known facts or hypotheses. In this context, the article newly evaluated the state of research on ancient glass production in the SE Alpine area and its vicinity. Keyword s: Roman glass, glass workshops, local production, SE Alps, Adriatic Intenzivne in specialistične raziskave antič- znano stekleno jagodo (Stare 1975, tab. 41: 3). V nega stekla tako samostojno ali v sklopu mlajših grobovih kulture žarnih grobišč, v času novih arheoloških odkritij prinašajo ved-9. in 8. stol. pr. n. št., postanejo steklene najdbe no nove rezultate (Nenna 2008; Fünfschil- pogostejše in v grobovih večkrat najdemo prilo- ling 2015). Primerjave izsledkov mednarodnega žene steklene jagode oz. ogrlice. Priložene jagode prostora s stanjem raziskav pri nas omogoča-v teh grobovih so najprej zelo majhne (pr. 0,4– jo drugačno in natančnejše ovrednotenje neka- 0,6 cm), večinoma modre in bele barve. Sčaso- terih do sedaj znanih dejstev. V tem kontekstu ma pa se v številnih grobovih iz obdobja preho-na novo osvetljujemo stanje raziskav antične ste- da bronaste v železno dobo na najdišču Mestne klarske proizvodnje našega območja in bližnje- njive v Novem mestu pojavljajo tudi večje mod- ga sosedstva. re jagode, okrašene z belimi ali rumenimi očesci (Križ 1995, tab. 57: 113; Križ in Turk 2003, 89). Prazgodovina V starejši železni dobi doživi stekleno okras- Najstarejše najdbe steklenih predmetov z obmo- je v slovenskem in evropskem prostoru izreden čja jugovzhodnih Alp poznamo iz obdobja kul- razcvet v barvah in oblikah, prav tako pa se v tem ture žarnih grobišč. Grob 289 iz Dobove, datiran času pri nas pojavijo prve steklene posode. Stev 11. stol. pr. n. št., vsebuje najstarejšo pri nas po- klene jagode so običajno nanizane v dolge ogr- lice, najdemo jih tudi našite na oblačilih. Jago-nick 1958, Taf. 2: 3–6). Nekateri avtorji so dom- de so okrogle, sodčaste, cevaste, oblikovane kot nevali, da so bile skodelice namenjene shranjeva-košarice, ovnove glavice ali ptice, nekatere ima- nju kozmetičnih proizvodov; glede na velikost in jo celo železne zanke za obešanje (Križ 1997, 38 izdelavo ustja lahko potrdimo, da niso bile pri-spodaj). Barvne kombinacije so zelo pestre, ok- pravne za pitje, prej za zajemanje tekočin. rasni motivi obsegajo valovnice, pike, cik-cak li- Razvejani trgovski stiki kultur starejše že- nije, očesca in aplike drugobarvnega stekla (Ha- lezne dobe jugovzhodno alpskega prostora s evernick 1974, 61; Križ in Turk 2003, 91, št. 19, svetom zahodnih in sredozemskih kultur se ne 98–99). V gomili I iz Stične je bilo npr. najdenih odražajo le v izbranih importih kovinskih ter ke-20.500 steklenih jagod, prav tako bogat pa je bil ramičnih izdelkov, ampak tudi v steklenem gra-grob z Magdalenske gore, v katerem pa so našte- divu. Mednje sodijo posodice, izdelane na jedru, li le 7.310 steklenih jagod (Haevernick 1974, 62). izdelki steklarskih delavnic v Sredozemlju. Sko-16 S steklom so bile okrašene in olepšane tudi neka- raj v celoti ohranjena posodica je bila najdena v tere okrasne zaponke – fibule. Med njimi so še Stični (Kastelic 1960, tab. 3: 2). Dvoročajna mo-ss posebej zanimive fibule ježevke, najdene npr. na dra steklenička ( amforiskos) je po ostenju okraše-la Magdalenski gori, v Vačah, na Brezju in v Šmar- na z večbarvnimi nitmi stekla v cik-cak motivu, e gh jeti (Haevernick 1959, Taf. 1: 1–8). Lok teh fibul ki ga dopolnjujejo linije po vratu in ramenu. Od-h t ima na bronastem žičnatem jedru obloge, obli- lomke enakih izdelkov poznamo tudi iz gomile ug kovane iz naravno prozornega modro-zelenkas- v Šmarjeti (Dular 1991, tab. 29: 26–28). V obeh ro tega stekla z ježastimi aplikacijami. Oblogi iz primerih gre po analogijah za izdelke sredozem-h temno modro obarvanega stekla, ki krasita fi- skih delavnic iz obdobja 5. stol. pr. n. št. (Harden k to buli iz Boštanja, sta okrašeni s steklenimi nitmi 1981, 77, pl. 11: 175–190). o v kontrastni rumeni barvi, raztegnjenimi v cik- -cak motiv, in z jagodami v obliki očesc (Haever- Vprašanje lokalne proizvodnje lo • a l nick 1959, Taf. 2: 8–9). Spet drugače sta izdelana Izredno pestra paleta steklenih jagod in osta-ekt loka fibul iz Rovišča, kjer je steklo jantarne bar- lih okrasnih predmetov v starejši železni dobi, i sz ve v obliki spirale ovito okrog jedra, na sredini s številnimi izvirnimi oblikami, barvami in ok-ok pa okras dopolnjujejo še steklene bunčice (Hae- rasi, najdenimi samo na tem prostoru, ponu- vernick 1959, Taf. 2: 5–7). Fibule s stekleno oblo- ja domnevo, da so tu morda delovale steklarske led sg go se pojavljajo predvsem v 6. st. pr. n. št (Gabro- delavnice. Na to možnost je prva opozorila Eli- o vec 1987, 49). sabeth Haevernick, ki je preučevala jagode s slo- r ■ pa Izjemen pojav v grobovih jugovzhodnoalp- venskih najdišč (1974, 65), in njena hipoteza je za skega prostora so tudi majhne posodice z verti- bila nato večkrat povzeta. Nove in številne najd- a l kalnimi rebri na ostenju. Gre za izdelke, narejene be, predvsem iz gomil na Kapiteljski njivi v No-en v kalupu, ki so jim nato naknadno narebrili oste- vem mestu (Križ 1997; Križ in Turk 2003), so v ir nje (Haevernick 1958a, 14; 1974, 65). V Sloveniji zadnjih desetletjih paleto barv in oblik steklenih jih poznamo v 5. stol. pr. n. št. v Mostu na Soči in jagod iz starejše železne dobe še obogatile. Črnolici pod Rifnikom (Haevernick 1958, Taf. 1: Prav zaradi tega bi se zdela domneva o lo- 4–5, 2, 3: 1, 2; Lazar 2004b, 49, kat. št. 4). Izde- kalni proizvodnji toliko verjetnejša. Žal pa ima- lane so iz naravno obarvanega, rahlo zelenkaste- mo zaenkrat v celoti raziskanih predvsem veliko ga stekla, obarvanega stekla jantarno rjave bar- grobišč. Raziskanost prazgodovinskih naselbin, ve ali iz modro obarvanega stekla v različnih kjer bi lahko odkrili sledove steklarske obrti, je odtenkih. Predvsem modre skodelice so pogos-precej skromnejša. Poleg tega za izdelavo jagod to okrašene z nitmi drugobarvnega stekla v rav- zadošča že peč majhnih dimenzij, odpadkov je nih ali cik-cak linijah. Posodice iz Mosta na Soči malo, zato je verjetnost, da bi odkrili ostanke imajo tudi presegajoč, narebren ročaj (Haever-take peči, majhna. Poznavanje značilnosti steklarske proizvo- Še več pa nam o izvoru surovin in izdelkov dnje, postopkov taljenja surovin za pridobivanje povedo arheometrične analize. Te je v okviru surovega stekla in trgovine s steklenimi ingoti že svoje doktorske disertacije opravila Ana Franjić od bronaste dobe dalje (Bass 1986, 289), pa po-in prve izsledke predstavila na kongresu v Ca- nuja še nekaj prepričljivejših odgovorov. Najver- rigradu leta 2018 (Franjić idr. 2022) in najnovejše jetneje je, da je steklo kot surovina prišlo v naše spomladi 2020 na simpoziju v Kopru.1 Rezulta-kraje oz. halštatska središča kot import ali rezul- ti analiz so pokazali več skupin glede na sestavo tat trgovske izmenjave in je tu potekala le pro- stekla; kobaltno modro lahko vzporejamo z iz- izvodnja jagod. Druga možnost so tudi potujo- delki iz Nimruda v Mezopotamiji in iz Franci- či obrtniki, ki so se selili iz kraja v kraj, postavili je, skupina stekla, narejena z egipčanskim natro-peč in v času bivanja na izbrani lokaciji zadosti- nom, pa ustreza t.i. skupini levantinskega stekla li potrebam, željam ter okusu prebivalcev posa- (Franjić idr. 2022, 27). Ti rezultati kažejo, da je meznih naselbin in morda tudi njenih sosed. Ka- steklo v starejši železni dobi v te kraje prihajalo 17 kovost izdelave steklenih jagod iz Novega mesta, kot import in rezultat trgovine na dolge razdalje, a kot surovo steklo in/ali kot izdelki. Če so slednje n bogastvo okrasa in posebne oblike brez dvoma ar pričajo o izkušenih mojstrih, ki so odlično ob- deloma izdelovali tudi na Dolenjskem, pa ostaja da vladali svojo obrt. Jagode bi bile lahko izdela- še odprto vprašanje. a j ne tudi v delavnicah izven našega ozemlja, ven- Dokler nimamo neposrednih dokazov za egn dar po naročilu in okusu odjemalcev oz. kupcev. izdelavo jagod v prazgodovinskih naselbinah, do Morda so ponekod služile celo kot neke vrste ostaja ideja o lokalni proizvodnji le hipoteza. Vse hz plačilno sredstvo. Taki primeri so poznani v sre- več pa je dokazov, da so surovine in izdelki pri- n v dnjeveški steklarski industriji (Calvi di Coenzo hajali k nam v okviru trgovine ter tudi kot izme-lp i 1996, 10). njava daril med elito. ih a V zadnjem času je analiza nekaterih oblik n Rimska doba d steklenih jagod, značilnih za negovski horizont, oh npr. amforic iz brezbarvnega stekla, pokazala, Rimska doba in razširitev rimske oblasti na zv obravnavano območje je skupaj z vsemi drugimi o da gre brez dvoma za uvožene izdelke z območja ug Makedonije (Blečić Kavur in Kavur 2017, 101); dosežki rimske civilizacije prinesla tudi novosti ju j tam so steklarske delavnice proizvajale raznoli- ter napredek v steklarski obrti, ki je v heleniz- čo ke in izjemno kakovostne izdelke iz brezbarvne- mu in obdobju republike razvila številne novo- bm ga stekla za elito po postopku, ki so ga pozna- sti in tudi nove tehnike. Nobenih dokazov ni, da a o li že stari Asirci, nato pa se je preko Male Azije bi se prazgodovinska tradicija, povezana z upora-ja n razširil in uveljavil tudi v Makedoniji (Ignatia- bo stekla, nadaljevala v rimski čas. V teku 1. stol. nd dou 2016, 132, 136, slika 4). Razprostranjenost pr. n. št. in 1. stol. n. št. so trgovske poti stekle-ov teh miniaturnih amforic, ki niso imele le okra- nih izdelkov do naših krajev pretežno vodile pre- iz snega, ampak tudi apotropejski pomen, odraža ko severne Italije (Lazar 2006b, 331; Horvat idr. ro 2020). Glavni trgovski center oz. emporij za po- a p široko razvejane stike sredozemskih središč tudi sk s prazgodovinskim svetom JV evropskih ter bal- dročje JV Alp, Panonije in Balkana je bila Akvi- r leja; tu so se zbirali izdelki iz severno italskih de- la kanskih kultur tekom 4. stol. pr. n. št. (Blečić ek Kavur in Kavur 2017, 107, slika 4; Rustoiu 2015, lavnic pa tudi iz drugih centrov osrednje Italije. t Redki dragoceni izdelki so prihajali tudi iz de- a s 367, slika 3). Te izmenjave odražajo na eni strani n lavnic vzhodnega Sredozemlja in Egipta. ič trgovino na dolge razdalje in na drugi socialne tn stike vrhnjega sloja, ki je z izmenjavo daril in ek- 1 Simpozij ARTE-FACTUM – Study Days on Ancient a sogamijo potrdil politične, socialne in gospodar- Glass je potekal med 6. in 8. marcem 2020 na UP FHŠ v Kopru, prispevki s konference so objavljeni v reviji SUH ske zveze oz. zaveze (Rustoiu 2015, 372). 2022, 10 (1). 18 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too lo • a l ekti szok led s Slika 1: Karta področja JV Alp in Jadrana z obravnavanimi najdišči (pripravil Andrej Preložnik). go Figure 1: Map of the SE Alpine and Adriatic area with sites mentioned in the text (elaborated by Andrej Preložnik). r ■ pa Neposredne povezave s severno-italski- je«. Na osnovi primerjave lahko potrdimo, da je za mi in akvilejskimi delavnicami dokazujejo tudi odlomek dna iz Romule prav tako pripadal dvo-a l na naših najdiščih odkriti izdelki, ki izvirajo iz ročajni steklenici, ki je nosila napis steklarke ali en teh delavnic (slika/figure 1). Odlomek dna več- lastnice steklarske delavnice Sentie Sekunde iz ir je pravokotne steklenice z odtisom oz. napisom Akvileje. Prvotno so napis oz. odtis interpretira-Sentia Secunda iz Akvileje je bil najden v nase- li kot ime lastnice steklarske delavnice, saj naj bi lju oz. obcestni in carinski postaji Romula (Rib- bilo pihanje stekla prezahtevno, da bi ga lahko nica pri Jesenicah na Dolenjskem) (Lazar 2005c, obvladala ženska (Calvi 1968, 12–13). Danes seve-41; 2020a). Delno ohranjen napis lahko primer- da vemo, da to ne drži, po drugi strani Marianne jamo z dvema v celoti ohranjenima steklenica- Stern (1997, 130) ugotavlja, da okrajšava VITR ma iz groba v Linzu (Schwanzar 2003, 333, sli- pomeni vitrearius/ria (lat. steklopihalec/-ka) in ka 2). Napis oz. odtis na dnu v treh vrsticah je se torej nanaša na steklarja ali steklarko, med-odlično ohranjen (SENTIA SECVNDA FA- tem ko beseda facit (izdelal) neposredno kaže CIT AQ(vileia) VITR(earia)) in ga lahko preve- na mojstra, ki je posodo izdelal in ne na lastnika demo kot »izdelala Sentija Sekunda iz Akvile- steklarske delavnice. Sodeč po obliki ohranjenih steklenic iz Linza lahko sklepamo, da je Sentia Secunda delovala v drugi polovici 1. stol., njeni izdelki pa postali razširjeni in široko uporabni kot posode za shranjevanje ter transport. Nova tehnika – nova odkritja Najzgodnejši in najneposrednejši dokaz o piha- nju stekla ter morda celo o širitvi novoodkri- te steklarske tehnike na območju Jadrana brez dvoma predstavljajo oljenke z upodobitvijo ste- klarske peči in steklarjev ob njej (Lazar 2004b, 28, slika 15; 2006a, 227). Do sedaj poznamo le tri take najdbe in vse izvirajo z najdišč ob obalah Ja- 19 drana. Prva oljenka je bila najdena v prvi polovi- a ci 20. stol. v Benkovcu (rimska Asseria na Hrva- na škem (Abramić 1959, 149), druga je bila odkrita v rd drugi polovici 20. stol. v bližini Ferrare ( Voghen- a a j za) v Italiji (Baldoni 1987, 22), najnovejša in naj-eg bolje ohranjena najdba pa je oljenka iz Slovenije nd (Lazar 2006a 230, sliki 2–3). Primerjava velikos- ohz ti oljenk in diskov kaže, da sta oljenki iz Ferrare n v in Spodnjih Škofij (dl. 11,5 in 11,3 cm) zelo verje- tno nastali v istem kalupu, medtem ko je bil ka- lp i lup za oljenko iz Aserije drugačen, saj je imel nad ih an motivom vrezani imeni Athenio in Tre(a)llus Slika 2: Oljenka z upodobitvijo rimske steklarske peči, do (Abramič 1959, 151; dl. oljenke 10,5 cm). Za raz- Križišče pri Spodnjih Škofijah, Pokrajinski muzej Koper hz liko od prvih dveh, ki sta najdbi izven zaključe- (risba Anđelka Fortuna Saje). vo nih oz. iz uničenih kontektov, zadnja oljenka iz- Figure 2: Oil lamp with the representation of a Roman ug vira iz groba (gr. 3, grobna parcela 1, Križišče pri glass furnace, Križišče near Spodnje Škofije, Regional ju j Museum Koper (drawing Anđelka Fortuna Saje). č Spodnjih Škofijah, nekaj km od Kopra), datira- o nega v čas med 40 do 60 n. št. (Novšak, Bekl- bm janov Zidanšek in Žerjal 2019, 166–175). kem stolčku ob peči, oblečen je v kratko tuniko a o Oljenka iz sivo žgane gline sodi v skupino in bos, kar poudarjajo poševni vrezi na nogi. Na ja n t. i. reliefnih oljenk in pripada tipu Loeschke IV tleh ležijo trije predmeti, ki jih lahko interpre-nd tiramo kot odpadke, nastale med delom. Oseba o z zaokroženim noskom ter volutama ob straneh. v ima glavo dvignjeno, usta našobljena in priprav- iz Relief (slika/figure 2) predstavlja steklarsko peč ljena za pihanje v cev, ki jo drži pred seboj. Pipa ro ter ob njej levo in desno steklarja pri delu. Upo- je, če upoštevamo sorazmerja med osebo in orod- a p dobitev je odlično izdelana in oljenka zelo dobro sk jem, dolga manj kot meter in na pogled precej ro- r ohranjena, zato na njej prepoznamo mnoge po- bustna. Morda ni kovinska, ampak glinena, kot la drobnosti (Lazar 2006a, 229). Desna figura piha ek predlaga Marianne Stern2 na osnovi svojih šte- t v steklarsko pipo, leva pa mu pomaga ob peči. 2 Prvi pihani izdelki so verjetno nastali z uporabo glinenih a s Osrednji del tvori peč, deljena v dva dela, spodnji n pip in so šele kasneje razvili kovinske. Nekateri raziskovalič služi kot kurišče. V gornjem delu peči je vidna ci, kot npr. Marianne Stern, menijo, da je bil steklarjem tn večja, polkrožno zaključena odprtina. Služila je najlaže dostopen material prav glina. Njene lastnosti so a za zajemanje staljenega stekla iz talilnikov in kot dobro poznali, na zalogi je bila v vsaki delavnici. Glina precej slabše prevaja toploto kot kovina, zato je z njo laže dela-delovna odprtina steklarja. Steklar sedi na niz- ti, posebej če je pipa kratka, dolga npr. 30–60 cm. Izdelava vilnih eksperimentov (Stern 1999, 446; 2005, ske pipe neposredni dokazi, da so na tem mestu 15–18, slike 1–5). Pod pipo je okrogla odprtina pihali steklo oz. izdelovali stekleno posodje (La-oljenke za zrak. Figura na levi čepi ob peči, ver- zar 2003a, 214, slika 57). Količina odpada je bila jetno je mojstrov pomočnik. V rokah ima kraj- precejšnja, amorfni koščki surovega stekla so bili ši predmet, ki je postavljen navpično, morda pre- pretežno zelenkastega odtenka. Značilni odpad- verja ohlajeno posodo. ki za dokaz steklarske proizvodnje so kaplje ste- V tem trenutku nimamo dokazov za obstoj kla, ki dokazujejo preverjanje viskoznosti, ste-lokalne proizvodnje rimskega stekla na obalnem klene niti, ki nastanejo med delom steklopihača območju ali v zahodni Sloveniji, nedaleč stran pa in izdelavo posode, ter odpadki z ustja steklar-leži Akvileja, kjer je, kot kažejo najdbe, steklar- ske pipe. Ti so na pogled kot slabo narejeno ustje ska delavnica delovala že v 1. stol. (Mandruzza- posode, a so najneposrednejši dokaz o uporabi to in Marcante 2007, 16). Proizvodnja steklenih steklarske pipe in pihanju posod. Prav tako po-20 izdelkov oz. pihanje stekla se je na področju da- membni so odpadki slabo izdelanih posod, kot našnje Slovenije razvila v drugi polovici 1. oz. na npr. uničeno ustje posode, trakovi, iz katerih so ss začetku 2. stol. Najverjetneje so delavnice pred- vlekli ročaje, staljeni fragmenti zavrženih delov la vsem pokrivale lokalne potrebe za vsakdanjo itd.; nenazadnje je bil v enega od grobov sever-e gh rabo. Razvoj obrti je brez dvoma povezan s širit- ne nekropole priložen polizdelek skodelice (La- h t vijo rimske države na ozemlje današnje Slovenije zar 2008a, 137, sliki 2–3). Ostanki tanke plasti ali ug in z romanizacijo tega prostora. prstana staljenega stekla na dnu balzamarijev in ro čaš poleg steklarske pipe dokazujejo tudi upora- h Rimska steklarska proizvodnja v Celeji bo prijemalke oz. kovinske palice. k to in Petovioni Omeniti velja tudi lego celejske delavnice. o Najdbe steklarskih peči, talilnikov, staljenega Zadnja izkopavanja v obdobju 2002 do 2005 so stekla in odpadkov proizvodnje, ki jih poznamo v Celju odkrila ostanke večjega obrtnega obmo-lo • a l iz Celeje in Petovione, kažejo, da je bila prav v čja na severnem delu mesta oz. na njegovem robu. ekt teh mestih v 1. oz. 2. stol. osnovana lokalna proi- Tudi steklarji so si svoj prostor poiskali v tem delu i sz zvodnja stekla. Ostanki peči, kosov surovega ste- mesta – zaradi uporabe ognja stran od gosto nase- ok kla, odpadki pihanja in uničeni izdelki so tiste ljenega mestnega središča, neposredno ob glavni najdbe, ki dokazujejo obstoj sekundarne proi-cesti, ki je vodila iz mesta in je bila v bližini reke, led sg zvodnje stekla, to je izdelave steklenih posod, v prav tako pomembne transportne poti, za dosta-o obeh mestih. Obrt je bila odvisna od uvoza su- vo tako surovin in kurjave kot za prevoz izdel- r ■ pa rovega stekla, ki so ga pripravili in talili v sredo- kov. Prav zadnje raziskave v severnem delu mesta, za zemskih središčih primarne proizvodnje in nato v neposredni bližini ostankov delavnice, so pria l transportirali do delavnic po imperiju (Nenna nesle tudi nove dokaze o delovanju steklarjev. V en 2008, 61; 2021, 21). enem od pozno rimskih grobov severne celejske ir Dokazi o proizvodnji stekla v Celeji ( Mu- nekropole so bile pridane steklene cevčice in po-nicipium Claudium Celeia, danes Celje) so bili lizdelek, ki dajejo nove podatke o možnih začet-odkriti pri izkopavanjih leta 1991. Žal ostanki kih in času delovanja steklarske delavnice. Upo-steklarske peči niso bili odkriti, saj so bila izko- števajoč male steklene cevke in koščke surovega pavanja omejena na območje gradbenega posega, dekoloriranega stekla ter nedokončano polkrog-vendar pa so ostanki steklenih kapelj, niti, košč- lasto skodelico (Isings 96b) (slika/figure 3), lahko kov staljenega stekla in odpadki z ustja steklar- domnevamo, da se je proizvodnja stekla v mestu kovinske cevi ni enostavna, glineno pa si lahko izdela ste-začela že v drugi polovici 1. stol. in je delovala še klar sam. Zato ni bilo treba investirati v drage kovinske pri-konec 3. oz. v začetku 4. stol. (Lazar 2008a, 138). pomočke, ampak so si lahko orodje izdelali po svojih že- ljah in potrebah. Enostavna izdelava orodja je bila morda Sodeč po do sedaj znanih najdbah je bila tudi eden od vzrokov za bliskovito razširitev nove tehnike. steklarska obrt najbolj razvita oz. najobsežnejša v Petovioni ( Colonia Ulpia Traiana Poetovio, da- peči (slika/figure 4). Kuriščni del je bil nekoli-nes Ptuj). Šest steklarskih peči, ostanki talilni- ko večji od delovnega prostora in se je polkrožno kov in steklarski odpad so neposredni dokazi o zaključil (vel. 0,60 x 0,40 cm). Delovni prostor steklarski proizvodnji v mestu (Lazar 2003a, 219, je bil kvadratnega tlorisa. Kako je izgledal gornji slike 61–64; Korošec 2004, 67). Leta 1978 je eki-del peči, lahko samo ugibamo. Zaradi zaščitne- pa ptujskega muzeja v okviru zaščitnih izkopa- ga posega je bil raziskan le majhen del okrog peči vanja na parceli Hameršek odkrila dve steklar- in na osnovi tega ne moremo sklepati, ali odkri- ski peči in ostanke tretje. Istega leta so na parceli ti ostanki predstavljajo celotno delavnico ali pa Preložnik odkrili ostanke še treh peči (Lazar, del večjega obrtnega kompleksa steklarjev. Potr-2003a, 219). dimo lahko samo to, da so peči ležale v obrtnem predelu Petovione na Spodnji Hajdini, kjer so med drugim obratovale tudi peči za keramiko in opeko (Jevremov 1985, 419; Horvat idr. 2003, 21 160). Številne druge posamične najdbe pa hkra- a ti kažejo, da steklarji niso delovali le v tem delu na mesta (Lazar 2003a, 221). Med njimi velja izpo- rd staviti predvsem kose talilnikov z ostanki stalje- a a j nega stekla na notranji strani in robovih ustja. eg Njihove oblike kažejo, da so za taljenje uporabili nd na vretenu izdelane posode, nizke lonce enakih ohz oblik, kot jih poznamo med ptujsko kuhinjsko n v keramiko (Istenič 1999, 137, slika 130). Trenutno še ne obstaja natančna opredeli- lp i tev steklarskih peči s kvadratno obliko delovne- ih an Slika 3: Celje ( Celeia) – polizdelek skodelice iz poznorim-ga prostora, kot jih poznamo na Ptuju. Lepri in do skega groba in odpadki iz delavnice, Pokrajinski muzej Lucia Saguí (2017, 170) domnevata, da so podol- hz Celje (foto: Irena Lazar). govate strukture (2 m dolžine in 1 m širine) upo- vo Figure 3: Celje ( Celeia) – unfinished bowl from a late Ro-rabljali le za ponovno taljenje surovine in mor- ug man grave and waste from the workshop, Regional Mu- da še za dodajanje novega surovega stekla; bolj ju j seum Celje (photo: Irena Lazar). č razširjene peči okroglega tlorisa pa naj bi bile v o uporabi predvsem za pihanje oz. izdelovanje ste- bm Najbolje ohranjeni ostanki peči so bili odkriti na parcel Hameršek in na osnovi tega klenih posod. Primerjava tovrstnih struktur z a o lahko podamo rekonstrukcijo njihovega izgle- nekaterimi drugimi primeri na najdiščih, kot so ja n npr. Besançon (Munier 2003; Munier in Brko- n da.3 Peči so bile podolgovato ovalnega tlorisa, z do zunanjimi merami 2,05 m x 1,00 m in notranji- jewitsch 2003), Plaudren (Triste 2008), Augst viz mi 0,70 m x 1,30 m. Zidovi so bili iz opek raz- (datirano 130 do 160 n. š.) (Fischer 2009), Ulpia ro ličnih oblik in na notranji strani zamazani z več Oescus (Bolgarija, zadnja četrtina 3. in prva pol. a p plastmi gline, posebej debel je bil sloj na notranji 4. stol.) (Kabakčieva 1987), kompleksi steklar-skr strani (Lazar 2003b, 79, slika 1). Notranjost peči skih peči v Nemčiji (Köln, 1.–2. stol.) (van Gees-la je bila z zidom deljena v dva dela, eden je bil na- bergen 1999, 108–109, 120) in kompleks Hamba- ekt menjen kurišču, drugi pa je bil delovni prostor. cher Forst (Gaitzsch idr. 2000, 105–106, 162–163, a s 168; 4. stol.), potrjujejo njune domneve in inter- n Neposredno ob kuriščnem delu je ležal kanal, ki ič pretacijo (Lepri in Saguí 2017, 172). t je služil kot manipulativen prostor za kurjenje n Ostanki izdelkov, ki bi lahko nastali v ptuj- a 3 Natančnega tlorisa in izgleda peči na parceli Preložnik zaradi preskromne ohranjenosti ni bilo mogoče rekon- skih delavnicah, niso prav številni. Glede na oh- struirati. ranjene odlomke in odpad lahko domnevamo, likost oblik močno porasteta konec 1. stol., in sicer za 300% (Lazar 2001, 34). Gre pretežno za izdelke za vsakdanjo uporabo. Večina oblik je v uporabi še v naslednjem stoletju, ko se jim prid- ružijo še nove oblike, nove tehnike krašenja ter kakovostni importirani izdelki. Do velike spre- membe pride v 3. stol., ko se razpon oblik močno skrči, nato pa se v 4. stol. oblike stekla pretežno omejijo na posode za pitje. Zanimivo pa je, da kljub majhnemu številu oblik in količini stekle- nega posodja slednjega še vedno redno in v pre- cejšnji količini prilagajo v petovionske grobove, 22 kar na nek način odraža in potrjuje še vedno ži- vahen utrip mesta v pozni antiki. ss la Problem interpretacije najdb v Emoni e g in Kranju h h t Izpostaviti velja še dve najdišči, za kateri se je ug domnevala proizvodnja rimskega stekla, a je ro na osnovi najdb in sodobnega poznavanja obrti h ne moremo potrditi (podrobneje Lazar (2003a, k to 216)). Zaradi velikega števila steklenih pridat- o kov v emonskih grobovih je bila ideja o mogo- či lokalni proizvodnji v Emoni zapisana že pred lo • a l Slika 4: Ptuj ( Poetovio) – tloris steklarske peči na parceli pol stoletja (Plesničar-Gec 1976, 35). Nato so iz-ekt Hameršek (po Lazar 2003b). kopavanja v insuli XXXI v SZ delu mesta odkri- i sz Figure 4: Ptuj ( Poetovio) – ground plan of a glass furnace la ostanke, ki so jih interpretirali kot steklarsko ok on the Hameršek plot (after Lazar 2003b). delavnico (Plesničar-Gec 1981, 136). V prostoru velikosti 4,1 x 4,7 m, ki je bil s slabo ohranjeni- led sg da so izdelovali kvadratne in cilindrične stekle- mi zidovi deljen v tri dele, so naleteli na ostanke, o nice v več velikostih, cilindrične čaše in balza- ki naj bi pripadali steklarski delavnici (odlomki r ■ pa marije s stopničasto razširjenim vratom, posebej opek, posod, okenskega stekla, staljenega stekla). za pogost pa je bil tudi okras nataljenih niti po vra- Žal je bila ta najmlajša faza arhitekturnega kom- a l tu in ostenju (Lazar 2003a, 230). pleksa najslabše ohranjena in pokrita samo z os- en Spremljevalno keramično gradivo in stekle- tanki ruševine. Verjetno je bil ta del stavbe uni- ir ne najdbe, odkrite ob steklarskih pečeh, kaže- čen in nato zravnan (str. 139). jo, da so steklarske delavnice obratovale v 2. in 3. Ob natančnejšem pregledu objavljenega stol. Najdbe iz 1. stol. so preskromne, da bi lahko gradiva z izkopavanj v insuli XXXI moramo iz-v tem trenutku razmišljali o zgodnejšem razvoju raziti dvom, ali je na odkritem mestu res delovala te obrti v Petovioni. steklarska delavnica. Skromnost ostankov arhi- Lahko pa na osnovi dokaj obsežnega nasel- tekture peči ni presenetljiva. Zanimivo pa je, da binskega in grobnega sklopa steklenih najdb oce- na opekah ni ostankov steklene žlindre oz. sta- njujemo, kako se je uporaba stekla in steklenega ljenega stekla, ampak se opek držijo koščki stekla posodja v mestu razvijala ter spreminjala. Stekle-in odlomki posod. Do tega lahko pride tudi pri nih izdelkov iz prve polovice 1. stol. je med gra- požaru, in zatorej ti ostanki niso nujno del uni- divom relativno malo, njihovo število in razno- čene steklarske peči. Ostalo gradivo so bili prete- žno odlomki steklenih posod in okenskega ste- Čeprav kompleks v Kranju še ni bil v celoti kla, nič pa ne govori v prid obdelavi stekla. Med objavljen, želimo ponovno opozoriti na problem odlomki posod prevladujejo čaše oblike Isings njegove interpretacije (Lazar 2003a, 217). Na naj-96, ki so gladke ali okrašene z modrimi kaplja- dišču in ob t. i. pečeh ni bilo najdb, značilnih za mi, plitve skodele z gubami (Isings 117) in stekle- obdelavo stekla, deformirane posode so bile uni- ne svetilke s čepki (Lazar 2003a, 198, obl. 9.3.1.). čene zaradi izpostavljenosti ognju in niso ka-Plast je bila na osnovi novčnih najdb in stekla da- zale, da gre za zavržene izdelke delavnice. Jame tirana na konec 4. in začetek 5. stol. (Plesničar- so bile na notranji strani ometane, enako je bil -Gec 1981, 142). ometan manipulativni prostor. Pri sedaj pozna- Ostanke uničenih posod in okenskega ste- nih steklarskih pečeh te podrobnosti ni nikjer, kla lahko interpretiramo na več načinov. Mor- povsod so premazane z več plastmi gline. Prav da gre za zbiranje odpadnega stekla za ponov- tako je vprašljiva različna raven manipulativne- no uporabo, navado, ki je bila uveljavljena in jo ga prostora in osrednjega dela peči. Pri steklar-23 poznamo z več rimskih najdišč (Price 1991b, 23). skih pečeh je to navadno izenačeno, da upravlja-a nje s pečjo teče nemoteno. n Gradivo kaže časovno enotnost in majhno ra- a Razlaga, da je ena peč služila za proizvo- r znolikost, zato lahko pomislimo tudi na pro- d dnjo, druga pa za ohlajanje posod, je vprašljiva. a dajalno stekla. V neposredni bližini so delovale a j tudi terme (insula XXXII) in morda so bile prav Razdalja med njima je namreč več kot meter ali eg dva. Rimske peči so imele prostor za ohlajanje v n te glavni odjemalec. S tem izpostavljamo več mo- d sklopu same peči ali pa v peči v neposredni bliži- o žnih interpretacij najdb iz insule XXXI, nepo- hz sredne dokaze o delovanju steklarjev pa moramo ni. Tako se je posoda lahko takoj oz. samo s zasu-n v še odkriti. kom steklarja odložila za ohlajanje, da je proces tekel počasi in nemoteno (Foy in Nenna 2001, lp i Med zaščitnimi izkopavanji v Kranju ob 48–55). Prenos pravkar izdelane posode v nekaj ih a gradu Kieselstein leta 1998 so arheologi nalete- n metrov oddaljeno peč za ohlajanje bi povzročil d li na zanimive strukture, ki so jih interpretira- o prehitro hlajenje stekla na površini, napetosti za- h li kot ostanke poznoantične steklarske delavni- z radi temperaturne razlike bi povzročilo pokanje vo ce oz. dveh steklarskih peči (Sagadin 2004, 107). in lomljenje izdelkov (Price 1991b, 25). ug Na površini 7 x 13 m so odkrili dve okrogli jami. Glede na ogled terena med izkopavanji in ju j Premer prve je bil 1,9–2,1 m (gl. 1 m), druge pa č opisane strukture lahko brez dvoma ugotovi- o 2–2,2 m (gl. 0,6 m). Vkopani sta bili v glino in na mo, da na tem najdišču ne gre za ostanke steklar-bm notranji strani ometani. Večja jama je imela na skih peči. Glede na velikost in gradnjo bi jih bilo a o Z strani razširitev za kurišče, zapolnjeno s pla- prej mogoče interpretirati kot apnenice oz. peči ja n stjo žganine. Večja jama je bila zapolnjena s kam- za žganje apna; kar nekaj jih poznamo tudi pri nd ni, na nekaterih je bila na površini plast steklas- o nas (Tušek 1984; Novšak, Bekljanov Zidanšek v tega sloja, zaradi izpostavljenosti veliki vročini. iz in Žerjal 2019, 81). Med jamama je bila ploščad premera 1 m utrjena ro a p z malto in zamejena s kamenjem. Približno me- Hrvaška – lokalna proizvodnja v Panoniji sk ter od prve jame je ležal plitev bazen (vel. 2,1 x 1,2 in Dalmaciji r la m), ki je bil delno zapolnjen z apnencem in os- V sosednjih pokrajinah je bila glede na trenu- ek tanki školjk. t tno stanje raziskav rimska steklarska obrt razvi- a s Med drobnimi najdbami je bilo veliko od- ta v Gleisdorfu v Avstriji (Fuchs 1980), na obmo- nič lomkov stekla, pretežno ustja in dna čaš na nogi, čju severne Italije (Buora 1997, 23; Maccabruni tn mnoge so bile poškodovane v ognju. Na osnovi 2004, 33; Mandruzzato in Marcante 2007, 16) a keramičnega gradiva in stekla so kompleks dati- ter v Siskiji ( Siscia, Sisak) (Burkowsky 1999; Fa- rali v 6. stol. (Sagadin 2004, 110; 2008). dić 2004, 96, sliki 1–2; Leljak in Lazar 2013, 117) 24 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too lo • a l ek Slika 5: Solin ( Salona, Hrvaška) – marmorni kalup za odtis dna steklenice z napisom Miscenius Ampliatus facit Salonas, t Arheološki muzej Split (po Buljević 2004a). i szo Figure 5: Solin ( Salona, Croatia) – marble mould for bottle base with the inscription Miscenius Ampliatus facit Salonas, k Archaeological Museum Split (after Bujević 2004a). led s in Saloni (Solin, Dalmacija) (Buljević 2005, 93) mnenju še vedno nekoliko vprašljiva. Samo tloris go na Hrvaškem. Prav tako je z arheološkimi odkri- peči, brez kakršnih koli spremljajočih najdb in r ■ p tji na Jadranu potrjena trgovina s surovim stek- situ, povezanih s proizvodnjo stekla, še ne more aza lom; na rimski potopljeni ladji z Mljeta je tovor biti nedvoumen dokaz, da gre za steklarsko peč. a l poleg ostalega vseboval veliko količino surovega Neposredni arheološki dokazi o obdelavi en stekla (Radić in Jurišić 1993, 113). stekla (Leljak in Lazar 2013, 130 in op. 36) na naj- ir Za območje hrvaškega dela province Pano- dišču niso bili odkriti; dokler teh dokazov ni, ne nije ugotavljamo, da so na več najdiščih ohra- moremo nedvoumno govoriti o steklarski proi- njeni elementi, ki odpirajo vprašanje možne- zvodnji na področju južnega dela province Pano- ga obstoja lokalne proizvodnje (Leljak in Lazar nije. Verjetnost obstaja, ni pa nedvoumno doka-2013, 115), to so npr. Sisak, Vinkovci in Štrbin- zana z najdbami. ci. Najdbe vključujejo surovo steklo, odkrito v Na drugi strani arheološke najdbe iz Dal- reki, tlorise peči in verjetne lokalne oblike iz- macije obstoj lokalne proizvodnje stekla potr- delkov. Vendar ostaja še veliko vprašanj, poveza- jujejo ne samo z ostanki verjetne steklarske peči nih z lokalno steklarsko proizvodnjo v severnem (Auth 1975), ampak tudi z epigrafskimi podat-delu Hrvaške. Opredelitev temeljev peči, ki so ki oz. najdbami (Buljević 2005, 9, slika 6). V Sa-bile odkrite v Sisku, kot steklarskih, je po našem loni so ostanke steklarske peči odkrili v sedem- desetih letih prejšnjega stoletja, ležala je severno stavbe podrli in predel očistili ter na tem mes-od kurije. Toda začetek obratovanja oz. delova- tu zgradili steklarsko delavnico, ki jo datirajo na nja peči žal ni natančno časovno opredeljen; da- konec 4. in začetek 5. stol. (Živanović 2014, 130). tiran je v obdobje od 1. do 3. stol. (Auth 1975, 147; Odkriti so bili trije prostori s posamičnimi peč- Clairmont in von Gonzenbach 1975, 58–63, 230, mi (3/IX, 15/IX, 12/IX) (slika/figure 6) in do-pl. 4. 8. 63). Najdbo pa dopolnjujejo drugi doka- mnevajo, da so nastale oz. delovale v časovnem zi o delovanju steklarjev. Na odlomku sarkofaga zaporedju. s salonitanske nekropole Manastirine je ohranje- no ime steklarja Paschasius oz. Pascasius (Egger 1926, 99; Šašel 1986, 285, št. 2487). Z jugovzhodne nekropole v Saloni pa je od leta 1884 znan marmorni kalup z imenom Miscenius Ampliatus (Buljević 2004a, 194, sliki 1, 2). Najdbo so dol- 25 go časa interpretirali kot kalup za izdelavo slav- nostnih kruhkov, Zrinka Buljević pa jo je nazad- an nje pravilno opredelila kot kalup za dno večje ard kvadratne steklenice (str. 193). Poleg imena moj- a stra ali lastnika, ki sporoča, da je izdelek Misce- a j nius Ampliatus facit Salonas, je v reliefu tudi po-egnd doba gladiatorjev (slika/figure 5). oh Številne najdbe steklenega posodja z obmo- Slika 6: Duklja ( Doclea, Črna gora) – steklarska peč z čja Zadra ( Iader) in nekatere poseben oblike, ki v prostoru 15/IX med izkopavanji (foto: Miloš Živanović) n v se pojavljajo predvsem na tem področju oz. na (po Živanović 2014). lp i predelu Liburnije, so podlaga za hipotezo, da je Figure 6: Duklja ( Doclea, Montenegro) – glass furnace ih a tudi v Zadru delovala steklarska delavnica (Fa- in Room 15/IX during excavation (photo: Miloš Živano- nd dić 2004, 101). Žal obrat ali drugi dokazi o se- vić) (after Živanović 2014). oh kundarni steklarski proizvodnji na tem podro- zv čju do sedaj niso bili odkriti in številne najdbe Peči so bile zgrajene v kotu prostora, ob njih o steklenega posodja so za sedaj bolj odraz stanja so odkrili številne odpadke obdelave stekla, ta-ug raziskav nekropol antične Liburnije. lilnike in fragmente stekla. Prostori so bili dokaj ju jč veliki, kar kaže na dobro organiziran obrat, mor- o Nova odkritja v Črni gori da so bili nekateri namenjeni posebej shranjeva- bm nju in celo okraševanju (Živanović 2014, 101, 130, a o Za konec velja omeniti še zadnja pomembna odkritja iz rimske Dokleje ( Doclea, Duklja) v pl. 42, 49). ja nn Črni gori, ki jih je objavil kolega Miloš Živano- Odkrite oblike posod so bile pretežno na- do vić (2014, 47). V teku izkopavanj v letih 2002 do menjene pitju in shranjevanju tekočin, najštevil-viz 2013 je bil odkrit obrtni predel v poznoantičnem nejše med njimi pa so polkroglaste čaše oblike ro mestu, ki je nastal na opuščenem in zapuščenem Isings 96, pretežno datirane v 4. in 5. stol. (Isin-a p predelu mestnega kapitolija. Središče rimske- gs 1957; Živanović 2014, 130). V enem od prosto- skr ga mesta Doclea je v poznorimski dobi izgubilo rov so naleteli na veliko število odlomkov ste-la svoj pomen in zato so ta predel zasedli obrtniki klenih zapestnic in jagod, zato domnevajo, da je ekt ter tu postavili delavnice za predelavo železa in tu obstajala tudi proizvodnja t. i. črnega stekla4 a s obdelavo stekla. Mestne komunikacije so obmo- (soba IX, Živanović 2014, 131). Trenutne najdbe nič čje še vedno povezovale z mestoma Dyrrhachium kažejo, da je steklarski obrat v prvih desetletjih 5. tn (Drač, Albanija) in Salona (Solin, Hrvaška). stol. prenehal delovati, izdelkov, ki bi bili značil- a Steklarski obrat je obsegal večje območje, ki 4 Izraz črno steklo uporabljamo kot terminus technicus; več o še ni v celoti raziskano. V teku 4. stol. so stare tem gl. v Lazar (2019b z dodatno literaturo). ni za 6. in 7. stol., na najdišču niso odkrili (Živa-Summary nović 2014, 98, 131). In the southeastern Alpine region, the first known glass Podobni obrtni centri poznorimske dobe, finds are from the Urnfield Culture period. In the Ear-ki govorijo o preobrazbi urbanih centrov števil- ly Iron Age, the area witnessed an extraordinary diver- nih rimskih mest, so znani tudi iz mest Romuli- sification of glass decoration in colour and form as wel ana in Ulpiana v provinci Meziji in sodijo v čas as the appearance of the first glass vessels. New analy-4. in 5. stol. (Janković 1983, 102–103; Parović Pe- ses of the material give evidence about the long-distance šikan 1991, 33–60). Osnovani so bili znotraj zapr- trade with glass and glass products from the Mediterra- tega mestnega predela in izkoristili nekdanjo oz. nean. The Roman period brought innovations that had ohranjeno infrastrukturo. Poznorimske steklar-developed in glass craft in the Hel enistic and Early Ro- ske delavnice so bile v tem delu imperija odkri- man periods. The earliest evidence of glass-blowing in te tudi v Sirmiju ( Sirmium, Sremska Mitrovica), the Adriatic area is represented by oil lamps depicting 26 v Caričin Gradu ( Iustiniana Prima), posamične a glass furnace. The best-preserved lamp was found late-najdbe so znane tudi iz Skadra ( Skodra) (Miloš- ly in Slovenia in a Roman grave in Križišče near Spodnje ss ević 1976, 102–108; Ivanišević and Stamenković la 2010, 39–52; Hoxha 2003, 99). Škofije in the vicinity of Koper. Roman glass production e g developed in Celeia (Celje) and Poetovio (Ptuj) as early as h Sklep the end of the 1st or the beginning of the 2nd century. h t Glass production in neighbouring areas is confirmed to ug Arheološke raziskave in analize steklarske proi- have existed in Gleisdorf (Austria) and at Siscia (Sisak) ro zvodnje v antiki prinašajo vedno nove podatke, h tako glede proizvodnje stekla kot surovine kot and Salona (Solin, Dalmatia) in Croatia. The archaeolog-k to sekundarne proizvodnje širom imperija (Nenna ical finds from Dalmatia consist also of epigraphic evio 2007). Pregled znanih in novih najdb območja dence. A sarcophagus fragment from the necropolis at JV Alp in Jadrana, povezanih z rimsko steklarsko Manastirine in Salona revealed the name of a glassmak-lo • a l proizvodnjo, prav tako odkriva nova dejstva; ta er Paschasius or Pascasius, while the southeastern necrop-ekt odražajo živahne in tesne trgovske stike, ki so se v olis yielded a marble mould with the inscription Misce-i sz času pozne republike in zgodnjega imperija razvi- nius Ampliatus facit Salonas. The latest discoveries in the ok li med jadranskim območjem in njegovim zaled- area are known from the Roman town of Doclea (Dukljem ( Aquileia–Emona–Celeia–Poetovio; Aqui- ja, Montenegro), where three Late Roman glass furnac-led sg leia–Emona–Siscia; Aquileia–Pula–Iader), prav es were discovered. o tako pa s področjem vzhodnega Sredoze- r ■ p Povzetek a mlja, središčem razvoja in napredka antičnega za steklarstva. Na območju JV Alp so najstarejše steklene najdbe zna- a l Dediščina proizvodnje stekla na območju ne iz obdobja culture žarnih grobišč. V starejši železni en današnje Slovenije in njenega sosedstva je izje- dobi pride do izjemnega porasta steklenega gradiva, ki ir mno bogata in raznolika, vendar v mnogih pri- se odraža v raznolikosti okrasa barv in tudi prvem po- merih še ne v celoti ovrednotena, zato raziskave javu steklenih posod. Nove raziskave gradiva prinaša-in obdelava novo odkritega gradiva tečejo dalje. jo dokaze o trgovini na dolge razdalje s steklom in ste-Poudariti pa velja, da po propadu rimskega im- klenimi izdelki iz Sredozemlja. Rimsko obdobje prinese perija nimamo dokazov o neposrednem nadalje- napredek, ki je rezultat razvoja steklarske obrti v heleniz-vanju steklarske proizvodnje v mlajša obdobja. V mu in času rimske republike. Najstarejši dokazi o pozna-samostanu Žiče, ustanovljenem ok. leta 1160, so vanju pihanja stekla so na območju Jadrana med drugim v bogati knjižnici med drugim hranili tudi knji-izpričani z upodobitvijo steklarskih peči na oljenkah. ge o obdelavi in proizvodnji stekla (Lazar 2003b, Najbolje ohranjena oljenka je bila nedavno odkrita v 81). Kdaj in kako pa se je obrt v srednjem veku Sloveniji, in sicer v rimskem grobu na najdišču Križišče ponovno vzpostavila in razvila, ostaja odprto. pri Spodnjih Škofijah blizu Kopra. Steklarska proizvodnja rimske dobe se je na našem ob-močju razvila v Celju ( Celeia) in na Ptuju ( Poetovio) na koncu 1. oz. najkasneje na začetku 2. stol. V sosedstvu je obstoj steklarske obrti potrjen v Gleis- dorfu v Avstriji ter v Sisku ( Siscia) in Saloni (Solin, Dalmacija) na Hrvaškem. V Dalmaciji so arheološke najdbe potrjene tudi z epigrafskimi dokazi. Odlomek sarkofa- ga z nekropole Manastirine v Saloni priča o steklarju z imenom Paschasius ali Pascasius, z jugovzhodne nekropole pa izvira marmorni kalup za dno steklenice z na- pisom Miscenius Ampliatus facit Salonas. Zadnja odkritja s tega območja izvirajo iz rimske Duklje ( Doclea, Črna gora), kjer so odkrili tri steklarske peči iz poznorimske 27 dobe. anarda a j egndohz n v lp i ih andohzvo ug ju jčo bm a o ja nndoviz ro a pskr la ekt a sničtna Glass Finds in Slovenia and Neighbouring Areas Steklene najdbe iz Slovenije in njenega sosedstva Abstract 29 In Slovenia, the first glass finds are known from the Urnfield Culture period, from the 11th century BC. In the early Iron Age, the area witnessed an extraordinary diversification of glass products in colour and form as well as the appearance of the first glass vessels. The Roman period brought innovations that had developed in glass craft in the Hellenistic and early Roman periods. The glass products trade routes led mostly through northern Italy during the first century AD. Local glass production developed on the territory of present-day Slovenia at the latest from the beginning 2nd century. Keywords: prehistoric glass, Novo Mesto, Roman glass, local production, Celeia, Poetovio Izvleček V Sloveniji poznamo najstarejše steklene izdelke iz 11. stol. pr. n. št., iz obdobja kulture žarnih grobišč. V starejši železni dobi pride do velike raznolikosti izdelkov v okrasu in barvah, pojavijo se prve steklene posode. Rimsko obdobje prinese novosti in inovacije, ki so se razvile v času helenizma in zgodnje rimskega obdobja. Trgovske poti steklenih izdelkov so v 1. stol. do nas večinoma vodile preko severne Italije. Lokalna proizvodnja stekla se je na našem območju razvila najkasneje na začetku 2. stol. Ključne besede: prazgodovinsko steklo, Novo mesto, rimsko steklo, lokalna proizvodnja, Celeia, Poetovio In Slovenia, the first glass finds are known form as well as the appearance of the first glass from the Urnfield Culture period. The oldest vessels. Glass beads were usually strung on long grave with a glass bead is a grave from Dobo-necklaces, and they are also found sewn onto va, from the 11th century BC (Stare 1975, pl. 41: 3). clothing. The beads are round, barrel-shaped, tu-In later graves of the Urnfield Culture, from the bular, shaped like baskets, ram heads, or birds, 9th and 8th centuries BC, glass necklaces become and several have iron loops for hanging (Križ more common. The beads were at first very small 1997, 38 below). The colour combinations are (diam. 0.4–0.6 cm), and white or blue in col-highly varied and the decorative motifs include our. There are, however, several graves at the site wavy lines, dots, zigzags, eyes and applied ele-of Mestne njive in Novo Mesto dating from the ments of differently coloured glass (Haevernick Bronze Age–Iron Age transition that contained 1974, 61; Križ and Turk 2003, 91, no. 19, 98–9). large blue beads with white or yellow “eyes” (Križ Several decorative brooches–fibulae were 1995, pl. 57: 113; Križ and Turk 2003, 89). also adorned with glass. The so-called “porcu- In the early Iron Age of the European (and pine” fibulae are particularly interesting, found Slovenian) area witnessed an extraordinary di-at Magdalenska gora, Vače, Brezje, and Šmarje- versification of glass decoration in colour and ta (Haevernick 1959, Taf. 1: 1–8) (figure/slika 7). 30 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too lo • a l Figure 7: Map of Slovenia with sites mentioned in the text (elaborated by Andrej Preložnik). ekt Slika 7: Karta Slovenije z najdišči omenjenimi v besedilu (pripravil Andrej Preložnik). i szo The bow of these fibulae has a bronze wire core venia from the 5th century BC from Most na k surrounded by a coating of naturally transpar- Soči (Haevernick 1958a, Taf. 1: 4–5, 2, 3: 1, 2) and led s ent blue-green glass with spiky applied glass. The Črnolica beneath Rifnik (Pirkmajer 1994, fig. go coating of dark blue glass that ornaments the fib- 40; Lazar 2004b, 49, cat. no. 4). They were made ula from Boštanj is decorated with glass threads from naturally coloured, slightly greenish glass, r ■ pa in a contrasting yellow colour, drawn out in a and from a coloured glass of amber brown or za zigzag design, and with eye beads (Haevernick blue in various shades. Primarily blue cups were a l 1959, Taf. 2: 8, 9). The bow of the fibulae from frequently decorated with threads of differently enir Rovišče was also made in a specific manner: am- coloured glass in straight or zigzag lines. Some ber glass was wound in a spiral around the wire cups from Most na Soči also had an extended, core, and the decoration was completed with ribbed handle (Haevernick 1958a, Taf. 2: 3–6). small glass projections (Haevernick 1959, Taf. 2: The extensive trading contacts of the Early 5, 7). Fibulae with a glass coating appear primari- Iron Age Culture of the southeastern Alpine re- ly in the 6th century BC (Gabrovec 1987, 49). gion with those of the Mediterranean world are An exceptional element in the graves of the reflected also in the glass material. This includes southeastern Alpine region is represented by vessels made on a core, which had the widest small vessels with vertical ribbing on the walls. distribution among products of the Hellenistic These were probably products made in a mould, glassworks in the Mediterranean. the walls of which were subsequently ribbed An almost entirely preserved core-made (Haevernick 1958a, 14). They are known in Slo- vessel was found at Stična (Kastelic 1960, Pl. 3: 2; Lazar 2004b, 16, fig. 4). The double-han- The glass material of the late Iron Age ex- dled blue flask ( amforiskos) was decorated with hibits traits that distinguish it from the prod-multicoloured glass threads in a zigzag-motif, ucts of the early Iron Age. Bead necklaces are complemented by simple lines on the neck and very rare in this period and often represent the shoulders. Fragments of identical products are inheritance of the indigenous inhabitants. The also known from the barrows at Šmarjeta (Du-La Tène graves at Kapiteljske njive in Novo mes- lar 1991, pl. 29: 26–8). One of them contained a to contain numerous forms of beads that were small dark blue vessel with a handle and a rim in use in the Early Iron Age (Križ 2001, 61). bordered with a yellow glass thread. Based on New types appear in the Middle La Tène peri-analogies, both vessels can be classified as prod- od and have different decorations (Križ 2001, ucts of Mediterranean workshops, dating from 125: gr. 471, 126: gr. 491), while the quality of the the end of the 6th to the beginning of the 4th cen-products also differs from the Early Iron Age tury (Harden 1981, 77, pl. 11: 175–90). examples. 31 The exceptionally varied selection of glass The glass bracelet was by far the widest dis- s beads and other decorative objects found in ear- tributed form in the Late Iron Age, particular- ear ly Iron Age sites in the southeastern Alpine re- ly in the Middle La Tène Period. Its variants ap- g a gion, with forms, colours, and decorations that pear in transparent, yellowish, and dark blue in are specific to this area, leads to the conclusion r colours, often decorated with bands of different- u that glass workshops must have been active in ly coloured glass on the inner side, while the ex-boh this region. terior bears geometrical decorations in numer- eig This possibility was first noted by Elisabeth ous variants (Gebhard 1989, 73; Križ 2001, 60). d n Haevernick, who studied the glass beads from The bows of several fibulae were also dec- n Slovenian sites (1974, 65). New finds, primari- orated with glass, such as a fibula from Vinica ia a ly from the tumuli at Kapiteljske njive in Novo decorated with a fragment of a glass bracelet that env Mesto (Križ 1997, 37; Križ and Turk 2003) have had been pierced and threaded onto the bow lo further enriched the palette of colours and forms (Haevernick 1960, Abb. 1: 1–4). The rare glass n s of early Iron Age glass beads. rings from Brstje should also be mentioned here s id The hypothesis of local production thereby (Pahič 1966, pl. 1: 4, 5). Interestingly, no glass in seems all the more likely. Unfortunately, exhaus- vessels are known from this period either in Slo- ss f tive excavations have been undertaken primarily venia or in general in the La Tène Culture. lag on large cemeteries, while research into prehis- toric settlements, where traces of glass-working could be discovered, has as yet been quite lim- ited. Furthermore, bead production requires only a furnace of small dimensions and produc- es little waste, whereby the likelihood that the remains of such a furnace would be discovered is minimal. However, the latest results of spec- trometric analysis of Iron Age glass from Novo Mesto offered new information. Several differ- ent glass types were detected in the assemblage. The results indicate that raw glass was imported to Novo Mesto from eastern Mediterranean cen- Figure 8: Ribbed bowls, Emona, graves 95 and 335, tres and corroborate the existence of long-dis- City Museum Ljubljana (photo: Tomaž Lauko). tance trade during the first millennium BCE Slika 8: Rebrasti skodelici, Emona, groba 95 in 335, (Franjić et al. 2022, 25). Mestni muzej Ljubljana (foto: Tomaž Lauko). The Roman period brought, together with tion on the Aquileia–Emona–Siscia road, show all the civilisational progress in the area, also in-their distribution also in the south-eastern Al- novations that had developed in glass craft in pine area (figure/slika 9). the Hellenistic and early Roman periods. There is, however, no proof of the continuation of glass-making from the prehistoric period to the Roman era. The trade routes of glass products towards Slovenia led mostly through northern Italy dur- ing the first centuries AD. The main trade cen- tre for trade in the eastern Alps, Pannonia, and the Balkans was Aquileia, where the products of 32 the northern Italian and partly the central Ital- ian workshops gathered. Rare valuable products ss also arrived from the eastern Mediterranean and la Egypt. e gh Mosaic vessels were rare and valuable items h t and only a few of them are known from the grave ug contexts (Lazar, 2003a, fig. 9), while only frag- ro ments have survived from the settlements (Lazar h 2004b, 51, fig. 12). The same is true of gold-band k to glass (p. 50, fig. 7). o The earliest mosaic vessels at Magdalensberg (Austria) are known from the Augustean con- lo • a l texts (Czurda-Ruth 1979, 19). At Celeia (Celje), ekt they date from the Tiberian period, as revealed i sz by the latest excavation conducted in 2003–04. ok Both Norican towns, on the basis of their glass material thus, confirm these early and extensive led sg trading contacts with the Roman state from the o late Republican and early Imperial periods. Figure 9: Small mould-made bowls of opaque turquoise r ■ pa The group of mould-made products from glass, Emona, grave 578 (photo: Tomaž Lauko). za the first half of the 1st century is predominantly Slika 9: Skodelici iz neprosojnega turkiznega stekla, a l composed of ribbed bowls (figure/slika 8). These izdelani v kalupu, Emona, grob 578 (foto: Tomaž Lauko). en are found in various versions as grave and settle- ir ment finds. This group of products also includes Ribnica near Jesenice in Dolenjska, a Ro- some luxurious pieces of mosaic glass (Lazar man road and customs station known as Romu-2003a, 32, fig. 9), which were imported from the la, is one of the most extensive sites investigat-northern Italian production centres. ed along the new motorway route in 2001–2004 The group of moulded monochrome vessels (Breščak 2005, 39). The name of the station is with ceramic profiles can be considered a typical known from Tabula Peutingeriana. With its product of the northern Italian workshops. They control and supply role, the station’s location on appear in large quantities in the second quarter the route of the main Roman road ( via publica of the 1st century and are known predominantly Aquleia– Emona– Neviodunum– Siscia) was an on western sites. However, new finds from Rib-act of careful strategic planning. Due to its posi- nica ( Romula) in Slovenia, a Roman custom sta- tion on the route from the valley of the Krka and Sava rivers to the Pannonian plain, it also super-a Semitic population. His workshops probably vised the river traffic along the Sava ( Savus). The operated in Sidon. Ennion‘s products stand out settlement grew up along the Roman road on the in the mould-blown objects group on account of narrowest part of the terrace between two small their precision and clear design, modelled on the hills that certainly served as observation points. products of Roman toreutics of that time. How-Furthermore, crammed between the Sava Riv- ever, the decorations and moulds were special- er and the northernmost slopes of the Gorjanci ly adapted for working in glass. As asserted by Hills, it occupied the narrowest point of transi-Marianne Stern, his work was innovative and tion between the hilly area of Dolenjska and the technically refined (1995, 69). flatland of Pannonia. On the basis of finds, his production is con- New excavations were conducted at the site sidered to have started in the first quarter of the under the aegis of ZVKDS (Institute for the 1st century, while during the second quarter, his Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia), the products became widespread even in the west-33 Novo Mesto Regional Unit (Breščak 2005, 40). ern part of the Roman Empire. Beakers pres They uncovered an extensive settlement and ne- dominate among the finds from Italy; in Hard- ear cropolis area. The structures date from the late en‘s opinion, these are later examples of Ennion‘s g a 1st century BC to the 4th century AD. The heart production. The increase in the number of prod-in of the settlement was located on a terrace of the ucts in the west also gave rise to ideas about the ru Sava to the east of a brook, where an official master‘s workshop being moved from the Near boh building of the post, strengthened by buttress- East to Italy (Harden 1935, 165; Price 1991a, 72). eig es, was unearthed within the foundations. Ex- However, recent finds prove that his products d n cavations also uncovered foundations of sever- were also distributed in Spain, Greece, France n al production buildings, a local temple (?), traces (McClellan 1983, 76), Slovenia and Croatia (La-ia a of shed-like structures on the east bank of the zar 2005b; Buljević 2004b; 2015). env brook, several segments of the Roman road and To return to Ribnica ( Romula), a partly pre- lo the station’s western necropolis with over 120 served one-handled beaker made from yellow-n s graves (Lazar 2020a). ish glass, blown into a mould was found among s id It is, therefore, not surprising that the site the site’s glass material. The decoration con-in yielded rich and variegated glass material, con- sists of pillars, palmettos, concentric circles and ss f firming thus the lively trade route leading a part of a star (?), while in the centre, inside a lag through this station from the north to the south. partially preserved square frame, there is the in-Besides the already mentioned group of scription in Greek MNHΘH O AΓO PAZΩN mould-made vessels, mould-blown products are ( mnesthe ho agorazon – Let the buyer be remem-also present, albeit in smaller quantities. Some bered!). The inscription on the other side ENNI finds, however, are worth a particular mention. / ΩNEΠ / OIHCE N (Ennion made me) is not One such is a one-handled beaker signed by En- preserved (Lazar 2005b, 40, figs. 1, 2).1 On the nion (Lazar 2004b, 53, fig. 17; 2005b, 40). wall, the remains can be seen of the fixing of the Among the names of Roman glass masters handle, which is now missing. preserved on their products, the best-known The two most suitable comparisons with name is certainly Ennion. He worked in the the find from Ribnica are a beaker of greenish Near East and his products include jugs, ampho-glass found at Tremithus (Cyprus) (Price 1991a, ras, small angular bottles and several types of 66, fig. 9, Pl. XVIb) and a beaker of dark blue beakers. Ennion is not a common Greek name glass from Vid ( Narona) in Croatia (Buljević and is probably a Hellenized Semitic one as stat-2004b, 188, 203, fig. 7). These completely pre- ed by Marianne Stern (1995, 69). Perhaps he was a 1 For more detail see the chapter ‘Ennion Beaker and Other Jew, Phoenician or from some other region with Fragments of Mould-Blown Glass’ in this volume. served one-handled beakers were blown into a Narona (Vid, Croatia) (Buljević 2004b, 186, cat. mould with the same pattern as the one from no. 8). Ribnica, since the decoration, inscription and For the time being, the question of whether other details are absolutely identical. The differ- the workshops and their branches moved to oth- ence between them is in size, or more precisely, er places (perhaps in Italy as supposed by Hard-in the size of the rim, as the Cyprian beaker is en 1935, 65) or whether moulds were exchanged somewhat smaller, and the Narona beaker has a between individual workshops will have to re-bigger diameter than the Ribnica one. Accord- main unanswered. In spite of this, the finds can ing to Harden‘s classification, the beakers all be- serve as proof, of this area early included in the long to the A 1 type (1935, 168) or to type A ac- long-distance glass trade from early on. cording to Lehrer (Lehrer 1979; Price 1991a, 66). The Ribnica fragment has a different arrange- 34 ment of the inscription within a square frame: MNE.. / OAOΓOP / AZΩN. The letter ‚N‘ is ss positioned above the letter ‚Ω‘ (ω) in the third la e g line and not in the fourth as in the other two h beakers. They belong therefore the same type h t of beaker with the same decoration but were ug blown into moulds with a differently arranged roh inscription within the square frame. This points k t to slight differences in the moulds for the same oo beaker type and shows that certainly more of them existed since these differences could have lo • a l come about during the renewal of a mould or the ek production of a new one. ti s Chronologically, one-handled beakers be- zok long to the second quarter of the 1st century. The rare finds from dated contexts occur in the late led sg Tiberian or Claudian strata (Price 1991a, 65). o Unfortunately, the Ribnica find comes from r ■ p mixed strata, without any exact historical con- aza texts. The accompanying archaeological materi- a l al is dated throughout the 1st century. en Another fragment of an Ennion beaker ir made of dark blue glass is known from the le- gionary camp at Tilurium (Gardun, Croatia). Unfortunately, its small size prevents the de- Figure 10: Polygonal bottle with Dyonisiac symbols, termination of the exact beaker type (Buljević Emona, grave 427 (87), City Museum Ljubljana 2005, 95, fig. 1). (photo Tomaž Lauko). The first find of this product in Slovenia and Slika 10: Šestkotna steklenička s simboli čaščenja the recent finds from the sites in Croatia show Dioniza, Emona, grob 427(87), Mestni muzej Ljubljana how developed the trade in master Ennion‘s (foto: Tomaž Lauko). products was. But there was also trading with Other mould-blown products from the 1st other masters’ products; for example, a beaker century are preserved in a relatively small quan-signed by Aristeas is known from Augusteum in tity (Lazar 2003a, 50–5). Here, a mythological beaker from Črnelo near Stična should be men- tioned, found in a grave from the second half of the 1st century (Lazar 2003a, 49, fig. 17), as well as fragments of another beaker found in a set- tlement stratum in Celje (Celeia) (Lazar 2006b; 2011).2 A small fragment of a circus cup is known from an insula in Emona (Ljubljana) (Petru 1980, 446, fig. 1; Lazar 2003a, 48, fig. 16), a small polygonal bottle with symbols connected with Dyonisos cult jug, patera, shield buckle, ampho- ra, laurel wreath, shepherd’s crook was found in one of the graves of the northern necropolis (Plesničar-Gec 1972, 85, pl. 205: 3; Lazar 2004b, 35 54, cat. no. 20) (figure/slika 10), while one of the s graves in Poetovio (Ptuj) contained a pyxis made ea of opaque, milk white glass (Istenič 1999, 76, fig. r 61; Lazar 2003a, 46, fig. 13). g ain The comparisons among individual glass ru working techniques in the 1st century in the area bo of present-day Slovenia indicate that blown ves- h sels predominate (Lazar 2003b, 233, fig. 66). Only eig in the first half of the 1st century were all three d nn manufacturing techniques more or less equally represented, while the quantity of products in- ia a en dicates a relative equality between them. The v new technique of free-blowing supplanted more lo complicated and expensive manufacturing pro- n ss i cesses. Its development coincided with the Ro- d Figure 11: Small globular ribbed bowls from the necro- in man state‘s extension into the territory of Slove- polis in Polhov Gradec, National Museum of Slovenia nia and the complete Romanization of this area. ss f (photo: Tomaž Lauko). la The glass material from the Roman peri- Slika 11: Kroglaste rebraste skodelice z grobišča g od found on the territory of Slovenia has also v Polhovem Gradcu, Narodni muzej Slovenije been classified into ten groups of vessels (plates, (foto: Tomaž Lauko). bowls, beakers, ladles, jars, bottles, jugs, cosmetic vessels, lamps, miscellaneous), with 154 different jars that served for the storage of provisions (La-variants distinguished so far (Lazar 2003a, 24). zar 2003a, 234, fig. 67). The remaining products The classification into variants was based only were various small vessels for cosmetics and med-on fragments preserved to the extent that suffi- ical preparations as well as a small group of oth- ciently distinctive characteristics could be noted. er forms that appear only as individual examples. The representation of individual groups of products in relation to their use showed a great A review of the number of variants per indi- predominance in tableware (70%). Storage and vidual form also shows that products that served transport were the purpose of 21% of the ves-as part of table service (groups 1–3) were best sels, primarily represented by various bottles and represented. Bowls and beakers (groups 2 and 3) stand out from the remaining glass products 2 See also the chapter ‘A Beaker for Special Occasions’ in this volume. in terms of quantity and the number of variants. Their representation and interrelation are com- Small globular bowls with ribs and deco- parable throughout several centuries. Although ration of horizontal trails (so-called zarte Rip-beakers exceed bowls in number, growth in the penschalen) were also very popular till the mid-number of variants was noted for both forms 1st century. They were discovered in grave units from the end of the 1st century and in the 2nd cenas well as settlement strata (figure/slika 11). The tury, with a considerable decline in subsequent early use of this form in Slovenia is indicated by centuries. the grave finds from the Augustan period from The comparison of the number of forms Mihovo (Haevernick 1958b, 80). Some bowls and their variants through the centuries showed are known also in later grave units from the sec-the increase in the number of variants in the 1st ond half of the 1st century (for Dobova see Petru century and the decline in the number of forms 1969; for Trebnje see Slabe 1993, 25; Lazar 2004a, and variants in the 4th and 5th centuries. This re-61, cat. nos. 42, 43). 36 flects the development and representation of Many products from the second half of the glass products in the material culture of the Ro- 1st century were blown from glass with an intense ss man period in Slovenia as well as the economic blue shade, as can be noted on artefacts from la graves in Celeia (Celje) and in Emona (Ljublja-e g conditions in the area. h There is, even during the 1st century, an ev- na). This special feature indicates related or iden- h t ident difference between its first and its second tical sources for products that reached Slovenia ug half. In the second half of the 1st century, the during the 1st century primarily through Aqui-roh number of glass forms increased by more than leia as the main trade centre for this area. k t 100%, indicating the spread of the use of glass oo among all population strata and the complete Romanization of the region of present-day Slo- lo • a l venia. At the end of the century, all large settle- ek ments were awarded the status of a t municipium i s or colonia, received citizenship rights and, with zok the establishment of the road network and pro- vincial administration, the entire territory of led sg Slovenia became romanised. o The products of blown blue-green glass pre- r ■ p dominated in the second half of the 1st century. aza The characteristic forms had fold-back and flat- a l tened rims, triangularly shaped or tubular rolled en rims, while the bases were often simply formed ir and concave in the centre, sometimes with the standing surface drawn out on the edge and formed or pressed into a low ring base. Some forms imitate products made from precious ma- Figure 12: Base fragment of a rectangular bottle with re- terials, such as two-handled beakers and footed mains of a stamp of Sentia Secunda from Aquileia, Romula, goblets with a characteristic stepped rim. Such settlement find (photo: Tomaž Lauko). forms are no longer found in the following cen- Slika 12: Odlomek dna pravokotne steklenice z delom turies, except as individual pieces. Small ladles žiga Sentie Sekunde iz Akvileje, Romula, naselbinska with vertical handles (Lazar 2003a, 123) and najdba (foto: Tomaž Lauko). shallow dishes and jugs of coloured glass are also The connections with North Italian or Aq- special features of this period. uileian workshops can be proved also directly through the products of glass-workers operat- workshop. In her opinion we should reckon with ing in the town. A fragment of the base of a large a female glass worker, proving that women also rectangular bottle with an inscription of Sen- mastered this craft. tia Secunda from Aquileia was found at Romula (Ribnica near Brežice), already mentioned post station lying at the main road Aquilei–Emona –Siscia (Lazar 2005c, 41) (figure/slika 12). The partly preserved inscription can be compared to a bottle from Linz (Schwanzar 2003, 333, Abb. 2) which is completely preserved and has an in- scription in three lines impressed on the base (SENTIA SECVNDA FACIT AQ( uileia) VITR( earia) – Sentia Secunda makes [it] in Aq- 37 uileia. The Ribnica fragment could probably be s filled in the same way. Comparisons allow the ear conclusion that this fragment belonged to a g a two-handled bottle with the name of the glass in worker or the owner of the glassworks, Sentia ru Secunda of Aquileia, impressed on its base. The boh connection between Roman settlements from eig the Slovene territory and Aquileia is not unusu- d n al, since the latter acted as the main trade centre n for the south-eastern Alpine region from its very ia a foundation onwards. env However, the fragment’s particular val- lo ue lies in the fact that there have been only two Figure 13: Glass ladles from Emona, graves 408, 526 n s other vessels bearing the signature of Sentia Se- and 973, City Museum Ljubljana (photo: Tomaž Lauko). s id cunda from Aquileia discovered as of yet; those Slika 13: Steklene zajemalke iz Emone, grobovi 408, 626 in in the grave at Linz (Schwanzar 2003). Female in 973, Mestni muzej Ljubljana (foto: Tomaž Lauko). ss f names occur only rarely as signatures or imprints la A significant group among the 1st-century g on glass products. Judging by the form of the ex- tant bottles from Linz, we can conclude that glass material in the Slovene area are also small Sentia Secunda was active in the second half of ladles known from Emona graves (Plesničar-Gec the 1st century when her products became wide-1976, 35; Demaine 1987, 135; 1990, 129). Ladles are spread and commonly used as storage and trans- only rarely found on other Roman sites in Slove- port vessels. nia (Lazar 2003a, 124, fig. 36) and are not known Originally, the name was interpreted as from the sites in Pannonia and Dalmatia (figure/ that of the female owner of the workshop, since slika 13). Ladles appear as grave goods slightly be-glass-making was considered too difficult for fore the middle of the 1st century and they con-a woman (Calvi 1968, 1213). However, Mari- tinue in use until the middle of the 2nd century anne Stern argues (1997, 130) that the abbrevia- (Demaine 1987, 136). The earlier examples have tion VITR stands for vitrearius (glass worker) mostly ring bases, while in the late 1st century this and therefore refers to a glass worker (male or is eliminated and ladles with simple concave bas-female), while the word facit (produced) would es continued to be in use (Demaine 1987, 137, figs. also directly point to the master craftsman who 1, 2; Lazar 2004b, figs. 33–5). Several analogies to made the vessel and not to the owner of the the ladles from Emona are known from Pompei and Herculaneum (Scattozza Höricht 1986, form 17b) from the mid-1st century, while the examples from Vitudurum are dated to the 1st and the be- ginning of the 2nd century (Rütti 1988, 63). Perhaps this form, rather specific for Emo- na can be connected with the founding of Emo- na at the end of the 1st century BC and with the new incomers from Italy (Šašel Kos 2000, 277; 2002, 373). The settlers from the Italian penin- sula brought with them also the taste and habits from the motherland which are reflected in the Emona burials from the middle of the 1st till the 38 mid-2nd century in Emona. The Aquileian influence in the southeastern ss Alpine region continued into the first half of the la 2nd century, as the majority of products still came e gh from Italic workshops. This is particularly true h t for the high-quality vessels of decolourised glass. ug Various forms of conical facet-cut beakers appear ro as settlement finds in Celeia (Celje) and Romu-h la (Ribnica) and belongs to the groups I and II k to Figure 14: Beakers with facet-cut decoration were copied o according to the Oliver classification (1984, 36; Lazar 2003a, forms 3.3.4 and 3.3.5); new forms of in ceramic, Verdun, grave 12, Dolenjska Museum Novo beakers with facetted decoration can be added to Mesto (photo: Irena Lazar). lo • a l this group, which are obviously imitating vessels Slika 14: Čaše z vrezanim facetiranim okrasom so pos- ek nemali tudi v keramiki, Verdun, grob 12, Dolenjski muzej t made of other materials (figure/slika 14).3 There i s Novo mesto (foto: Irena Lazar). z are also some ceramic imitations of the facet-cut ok beakers known. These were found in burials in The above-mentioned forms of vessels were Emona (Petru 1972, pl. 44: 12), Celeia (unpub- most probably all imported from the established led sg glass workshop that employed skilled masters. o lished) and Verdun (Breščak 2002, 138, cat. no. 72/3) in Slovenia and also at Andautonia (Ščitar- But a group of free-blown oviform beakers made r ■ pa jevo), the later now kept at the Archaeological of greenish glass (Lazar 2003a, 97) are known za Museum in Zagreb (Croatia) (Nemeth Ehrlich primarily from the sites in Noricum and Panno-a l 1994, 121, fig. ‘a’ on p. 122). nia. Vessels with the characteristic form of the en walls, an everted rim, a fold beneath it and a ring ir A wide range of forms and vessels can be observed also in a group of cast colourless glass base appear in plain and indented variants (La-from the Flavian period. Numerous plates and zar 2003a, 96, forms 3.4.1. and 3.4.2.). They were dishes, together with shallow bowls, some be-first called ‘the Emona beakers’ as the greatest ing plain and others having facet-cut decoration, quantity was primarily known from Emona (Is-are known from Logatec (Longaticum), Ptuj ( Po- tenič 1994, 94). Judging from the recent research, etovio) and again from Ribnica (forms AR 16.2; however, numerous new finds show their distri-AR 75) (Rütti 1991). Their use is dated from the bution in the wider Pannonian and Norican re-Flavian period and through the 2nd century (La- gion; from the sites in Slovenia, Austria, Croatia zar 2003a, 44). and Hungary (Fuchs 1980, pl. 41: 3; Šavel 1990, 3 For more detail see the chapter ‘Finds of Roman Colour- pl. 2: 4; Gregl 1997, 38; Lazar 2003a, 96; Guštin less Glass from Romula’ in this volume. 2004, 72, fig. 3). Beakers of both forms appear in graves from the second half of the 1st centu-on the walls, neck, and even all over the vessels, ry to the middle of the 2nd century. According to and wheel-cut geometric decoration. their distribution, we may suggest that these ves- Most products, and particularly those of sels are very probably the products of one of the better quality, still came from the northern Ital-earliest glass workshops operating in Noricum ic workshops (Lazar 2003a, 72, 75, 100) and were or Pannonia that was not yet identified. joined, at the end of the 2nd and in the 3rd cen- The influence of the glass production cen- tury, by the products of the centres from the tres in the Rhine valley, particularly the Köln Rhine valley (p. 83). The applied decoration on workshops, developed and spread in the middle high-quality vessels copied floral and figural mo-of the 2nd century. Their production began to re- tifs. These products were imported from east- place the influence of the Italic workshops and ern workshops, and they were characterized by to satisfy the demand even in that part of the the deliberately decoloured glass with trail dec-Empire (Lazar 2003a, 109, 115). In this period, if oration. Two footed goblets from Poetovio are a 39 not earlier, the first local glass production cen- good example of such vessels (Lazar 2003a, 115, s tres were organized. The demand for glass ves- fig. 34: 3.8.4; Mikl Curk 1976). Products of the ear sels for everyday use in the 2nd century was, to western, mostly Köln workshops, where the ves-g a some extent, certainly satisfied by the products sels were decorated with multicoloured glass in from local workshops. The finds from Ptuj ( Po- threads, are at present not represented to a great ru etovio) and Celje ( Celeia) prove the existence of extent in Slovenia, as only a few small fragments boh glass production from the 2nd century onwards have been preserved (Lazar 1993, 9, pl. 2: 4). eig (Lazar 2003b, 224). A considerable decline in the quantity of d n The second century witnessed a continu- glass products can also be perceived in the 3rd cen- n ation of exceptional growth in the use of glass tury in the eastern Alpine region. Some forms go ia a products. Many forms that appeared already in out of use and the variety of forms as well as the env the 1st century were still in use. These were pri- number of vessels was also reduced. lo marily bottles with a handle, collared bowls and The various simple wheel-cut decorations n s some forms of indented beakers (Lazar 2003a, that appeared on products in the 2nd centu-s id 98–100), which were joined by some new var- ry evolved into intricate geometric and figural in iants (Lazar 2003a, 98, fig. 32: 3.5.1.–4., 3.5.7.). motifs in the 3rd century. Simple hemispherical ss f The high-quality thinly blown beakers as well forms of bowls and beakers became ever more lag as indented beakers of milky white glass were widespread and the details of the manufacture also popular. Simple cylindrical beakers (Lazar also changed, most notably in the forming of the 2003a, 102, fig. 33: 3.6.1.–2.) were very widespread vessel rims. There were increasing numbers of and appeared in many sizes and variants. They products with cut rims, which were sometimes were often made of decoloured glass. ground, but not on the simpler products. Certain special features and changes in pro- Characteristic products of the 3rd century duction can be noted as characteristic of this and were hemispherical bowls with somewhat thick-the following century: the forming of the rim ened walls of colourless or sometimes milky was simpler, the edge was fire-rounded or thick-white glass, decorated with wheel-cut geometric ened, rims of bottles were simply turned out, decorations of circles, almond-shaped hollows sometimes funnel-like, the base most often had and rhombs. The most valuable products of this an applied single or double ring foot. The em-period are vessels with cut figural decoration and phasis was on simple forms; the decoration was decoration in high relief (Lazar and Tomanič Je-reduced, and indentations predominating. Two vremov 2000, 201, pl. 1, 2). new decorative techniques appeared during the The number of forms was drastically re- century: the application of glass threads or trails duced in the 4th century, as was the number of individual variants. Conical glasses predominate tury, the demand was in great decline and most (Lazar 2003a, 117–20) and hemispherical bowls of it could be supplied by local and nearby Pan-with cut, curved rims (fig. 35: 3.8.6.–3.10.3.) and nonian production centres, while imports from flat, slightly concave and ring bases also appear. the Rhine valley declined. Expensive objects ap-The rare decoration consisted only of horizon- peared only exceptionally. tal wheel-cut lines, later joined by applied drops The regression continued in the 4th and 5th of glass in contrasting colours and indentations. centuries. It is difficult to establish to what ex-New forms of the late Roman period were con- tent trade was still extant, and to what extent ical lamps and lamps with a handle, although local industry was active in supplying at least it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the immediate vicinity. The quality of the glass beakers and lamps (p. 198). products was poorer: the walls were full of glass There are few storage vessels from this peri- bubbles, and an olive green colour predominat- 40 od. Jugs were widespread in the first two centu- ed. Conditions in larger towns at that time cer- ries, and their use extended up to the first half tainly enabled the continuation of tradition and ss of the 3rd century, after which their quantity de- the use of glass vessels, which in the smaller set- la clined drastically. Comparisons with bottles tlements had almost died out because of poor e gh show quite well that the relationship between economic conditions. h t these forms was fairly balanced sometime in Glass production or more precisely ug the mid-3rd century, after which bottles became glass-blowing was present on the territory of ro predominant. present-day Slovenia from the 2nd century on- h Bottles exhibited a relatively uniform rep- wards. It probably did not extend beyond a local k to resentation from the second half of the 1st centu- o framework, and the products primarily met the ry onwards and continued to the end of the 4th demand for objects of everyday use such as balsa-century. The comparison of the two sub-groups maria, beakers, bottles, and window glass. lo • a l has shown a predominance of bottles with han- The earliest evidence of glass-blowing or ekt dles in the first two centuries and their marked perhaps of interest for a newly developed tech-i sz decline in the 3rd and 4th centuries. In later cen- nique in glass-working in the Adriatic area is ok turies bottles without handles predominate. represented by oil lamps depicting a glass fur- Valuable vessels of the late Roman period, nace, the latest and best-preserved lamp was led sg such as bowls with wheel-cut figural decoration, found lately in Slovenia (Lazar 2004b, 27, fig. 15). o diatreta products, and those with gold medal- The lamp (see figure/slika 18) was found in r ■ pa lions, are relatively rare in Slovenia. Those that a grave at the site Križišče near Spodnje Škofije, za are known are preserved only as modest frag- a few kilometres from Koper (Lazar 2005a, 17; a l ments (Mikl Curk 1963, 492), while there were 2006a).4 The relief on an excellently preserved en some important objects of gold glass found ir clay oil lamp represents a glass furnace and in Croatia. The finds of the gold glasses from glass-workers beside it (Lazar 2004b, 28, fig. 15; Štrbinci should be mentioned (Migotti 2003). 2005a, 17). The motif is the same as that on the One fragment represents a married couple and only two other oil lamps depicting a glass fur-is dated to the second third of the 4th century (p. nace – from Asseria (modern Benkovac in Croa-36) while the second one with a family scene and tia) (Abramić 1959, 149) and Ferrara (Italy) (Balan inscription VIVATIS FELICIS IN DEO is doni 1987, 22). from the second half of the 4th century (p. 61). The decorated disk of the lamp shows re- Political conflicts aggravated economic con- lief with a glass furnace flanked by a pair of ditions in the 3rd century and caused considera- glass-workers, one of whom is engaged in blow- ble changes, which were soon reflected in the 4 See also the chapter ‘Roman Oil Lamp from Slovenia De-glass industry. From the second half of the cen- picting a Glass Furnace’ in this volume. ing while the other assists at the furnace. The ning of the 2nd century. Remains of raw glass, representation is excellent and the oil lamp itself glass-blowing waste, and destroyed products at is very well preserved so that many details which Celeia and Poetovio prove the existence of the are blurred in the other two lamps can be seen secondary production of glass, that is the man-clearly. In the centre is the furnace, divided into ufacture of glass vessels. The craft depended on two sections. The lower one obviously serves as a the use of imported raw glass, which was melt-stokehole. The upper section of the furnace has a ed and prepared in larger glass production cen-larger aperture, of a semi-circular form, that was tres. According to the present state of research, used for scooping molten glass out of the melt-primary glass production (melting of raw glass ing pot and served as the glass-blowers working from the basic ingredients), is thought not to port. Inside the relief line surrounding the up-have existed in the region of Slovenia (Lazar per opening or door appears a V-shaped object 2003b, 224). turned upside down. On the left and right in the The proof of glass production in Celeia was 41 upper part, two small shelves or working surfac- first obtained during the excavations in 1991. s es are shown, the right-hand one rests on a leg The excavated area did not reveal the remains of ear or stand. The right one can be interpreted as the a glass furnace, however, the remains of raw glass g a working surface or slab on which the glassblower and glass waste weighed several kilograms. The in varied glass waste in the form of drops, threads, r rolled a glass post before blowing and marvered u chips of melted glass and moils provide evidence bo the glass during his work. h The right-hand figure sits on a low stool be- that glass was melted, tested and worked at the eig side the furnace, dressed in a short tunic. He is site (Lazar 2003a, 214, fig. 57). The latest exca-d n vations at the immediate vicinity brought new n barefoot, his head is raised, his lips pushed for- ward and ready to blow into the pipe which he evidence concerning the glass production in ia a holds inclined in front of him. The figure on the town. Fragments of small glass tubes and env the left side of the furnace, probably the master semi-finished products give additional informa-lo craftsman‘s assistant, is less precisely drawn. He tion about the time span and the possible be-n s ginning of glass production. Considering the s i seems to be squatting next to the furnace. He d remains of small glass tubes and waste of decol- in has a short object in his hands, placed upright. ourized glass, we may suppose that glass produc-There is no inscription or name on the upper ss f tion began in Celeia before the beginning of the la part of the disk, as on the oil lamp from Asseria g 2nd century as thought previously.5 (Abramić 1959, 150, Taf. 27). Judging from the finds known to date, glass The oil lamp from the grave in Slovenia is by manufacture was best developed at Poetovio. The far the best preserved of all three lamps. The re-discovered glass furnaces and remains of cru- lief is very well executed, crisp and not damaged. cibles and glass waste directly prove the pro-The relief scenes on the lamps differ only in the duction of glass and the developed glass work-placement of the air vent, which is on the lower ing craft (Lazar 2003a, 219, figs. 61, 64; Korošec side of the disk in the find from Benkovac, while 2004, 67). The remains of products created in on the lamps from Italy and Slovenia, it is below these workshops are not very numerous among the blowpipe. the excavated material. On the basis of several At present, there is no evidence of local glass fragments, it can at least be hypothesized that the production from the rather limited coastal re-Ptuj glass workers manufactured square bottles gion of present-day Slovenia. with the decoration of a rosette on the base, cy- Finds of furnaces, raw glass, and glass-work- lindrical beakers, and balsamaria (Lazar 2003a, ing waste from Celje and Ptuj prove that a glass 5 See also the chapter ‘Roman Glass Production in Celeia industry developed here as early as the begin- (Noricum)’ in this volume.’ 230). Chemical analysis of the raw glass and frag- of globular form on a high-ringed base (Lazar ments of bottles has shown that the glass had the 2003a, fig. 2: 3.6.5.), which has no analogies. It same composition, further evidence in support was found in a grave from the 2nd century, and of the hypothesis. its unique nature leads to the assumption that this was a local product. The last group of hy- pothesized local products is composed of small bottles and jugs with globular bodies and an applied decoration of glass trails, which are nu- merous among the material from Ptuj. Their common characteristic is an almost uniform manner of forming the applied decoration (fig- ure/slika 15). 42 On the basis of the glass and pottery finds discovered next to the glass furnaces, it can be ss established that the workshops were active in la the 2nd and 3rd centuries, more specifically at least e gh in the first half of the latter. The finds from the h t end of the 1st century are too minimal for the be- ug ginning of glass manufacture in Poetovio to be ro placed in an earlier period. h The numerous settlement and grave finds k to from Poetovio enable analysis and comparison of o the development of the town and the reflection of this in the material culture and, in this case, lo • a l the glass products. Poetovio received the status ekt of a colonia during the reign of the emperor Tra- i sz jan and experienced, in the following two centu- ok ries, a period of the greatest development in both the economic and political sense, since the town led sg functioned as the seat of the Illyrian customs o service (Horvat et al. 2003, 153). r ■ pa Figure 15: Jug with trail decoration on the neck, Ptuj, The material from Poetovio includes a few za individual find, Regional Museum Ptuj Ormož (photo: glass products from the first half of the 1st cen- a l Tomaž Lauko). tury. The glass vessels then increased by almost en Slika 15: Vrček z nataljenim okrasom niti na vratu, Ptuj, 300% from the second half of the 1st century on- ir posamična najdba, Pokrajinski muzej Ptuj Ormož wards (Lazar 2001, 34). These were simple and (foto: Tomaž Lauko). mostly undecorated products for everyday use. The typological analysis of the glass from The majority of forms remained in use in the fol-the sites at Ptuj has pointed to some products lowing century, when the spectrum of shapes was that stand out in terms of form and could have supplemented and new decorations appeared. been produced in local workshops. The larg- The range of forms shrunk in the 3rd century, un- est group consists of balsamaria with a stepped til in the 4th century they were limited primarily widened neck at the juncture with the rim. The to forms intended for drinking. It is interesting form does not appear at other sites however it that despite the limited spectrum of glass vessels is a characteristic offering in the graves of Po- in use in the 4th century, the cemeteries of Poetovio. The second interesting form is a goblet etovio still show regular use of glass objects and their placement in graves. This reflects the still All these objects came from distant produc- lively pulse of the town, and perhaps the char- tion centres that specialized in particular types acteristic conical beakers and lamps can be con- of products and often made them by order. The nected to a powerful Christian community and presence of such finds was a reflection of the the religious life of the city. great economic power of the town. Poetovio’s archaeological heritage stands out Glass production in neighbouring areas is in Slovenia since its glass material includes certain confirmed to exist in Gleisdorf (Austria), north-exceptional objects, which were available only to ern Italy (Buora 1997, 23; 2004b, 12; Maccabruni the wealthiest stratum due to their rarity and 2004, 33) and Croatia (S iscia; Burkowsky 1999; high price (Lazar and Tomanič Jevremov 2000; Fadić 2004, 96, figs. 1, 2; Salona, Dalmatia; Bul-Mikl Curk 1963). Such objects are, for example, jević 2005). The trade with raw glass, on the oth-a bottle with a depiction of the lighthouse from er hand, is confirmed by an underwater find Alexandria, a kantharos with decoration cut in from Mljet in Croatia (Kisić 2000, 5), where a 43 high relief (figure/slika 16) and vessels with col- shipwreck with a considerable amount of raw s ourless snake-thread decoration (Lazar and To- glass was discovered near the Dalmatian coast, ear manič Jevremov 2000; Lazar 2003a, 62, fig. 26). thus indirectly proving the existence of local g a glass production in the Adriatic area during the inr Roman period. u bo The archaeological finds from Dalmatia h that testify of a glass production consist not only eig of excavated remains of a ‘possible’ glass furnace d nn (Auth 1975; Cambi 1976) but also of epigraphic evidence (Buljević 2005, 98, fig. 6). A sarcopha- ia a gus fragment from the necropolis at Manastirine env in Salona revealed the name of a glassmaker Pas-lo chasius or Pascasius (Šašel 1986, 285, no. 2487), n ss i while the south-eastern Salona necropolis yield- din ed a marble mould with the name of Misceni- ss f us Ampliatus, known since 1884 (Buljević 2005, la 194, figs. 1, 2). It was long thought to be a mould g for festive bread but, as attested by Zrinka Bulje- vić (2005, 193), it is a mould for the base of large rectangular bottles with an image of a gladiator. The mould bears the inscription Miscenius Am- pliatus facit Salonas. Several base marks from bottles and balsa- maria give the names of glass-blowers or work- shop owners, operating in the area. The most widely spread name is that of Gaius Salvius Gra- Figure 16: Kantharos made of decolourised glass tus, known for its products in Dalmatia, Slove- with decoration cut in high relief, Ptuj, grave 11/1982, nia, Italy and further to the north (Buora 2004a, Regional Museum Ptuj Ormož (photo: Tomaž Lauko). 152; Lazar 2006d). Others, for example, L. Ae-Slika 16: Kantaros iz dekoloriranega stekla z okrasom milius Blasius and Gn. Pompeius Cassianus, are v visokem relief, Ptuj, grob 11/1982, Pokrajinski muzej known so far only from northern Italy and Dal- Ptuj Ormož (foto: Tomaž Lauko). matia (Fadić 1997, 87; Buljević 2005, 100). The above-mentioned finds with inscrip- vessels predominate. Only in the first half of the 1st centions and base marks provide a rich source of tury were all three manufacturing techniques more or knowledge on the trade contacts and the extent less equal y represented, while the quantity of prod-of the trade with glass products, of the outstand- ucts indicates relative equality between them. The ing and innovative individuals that outgrew the glass material from the Roman period has been classi-boundaries of their regions and used the func- fied into ten groups of vessels (plates, bowls, beakers, lationing of the Empire to their advantage in order dles, jars, bottles, jugs, cosmetic vessels, and lamps). The to rise and develop their creativity and initiative. representation of individual groups of products in rela-The new finds from the south-eastern Al- tion to their use showed a great predominance in table- pine region as well as from the Adriatic coast re- ware (70%). Storage and transport were the purposes of veal intense trade contacts, during the Repub- 21% of the vessels. A review of the number of variants per lican and early Imperial periods, between the individual form also shows that products that served as 44 Adriatic region and its hinterland ( Aquileia– part of table service were best represented. Bowls and Emona–Celeia–Poetovio; Aquileia–Emona–Sis- beakers stand out from the remaining glass products in ss cia; Aquileia–Pula–Iader) as well as with the terms of quantity and the number of variants. Their repla eastern Mediterranean as the centre of develop- resentation and interrelation are comparable through- e gh ment for the craft of glass-making. out several centuries. Although beakers exceed bowls h t The legacy of glass vessels in Slovenia and in number, growth in the number of variants was noted ug the wider Adriatic region with several important for both forms from the end of the 1st century and in the ro Roman sites is extensive and further studies will 2nd century, with a considerable decline in subsequent h certainly enable numerous comparisons, analy- centuries. The comparison of the number of forms and k to ses, as well as interdisciplinary research. their variants through the centuries showed a high in- o crease in the number of variants in the 1st century, the Summary second century witnessed a continuation of exceptional lo • a l In Slovenia, the first glass finds are known from the Urn- growth in the use of glass products. At the end of the 3rd ekt field Culture period. In the early Iron Age, the area wit- and during the 4th and 5th centuries there is a significant i sz nessed an extraordinary diversification of glass decora- decline in the number of forms. Valuable vessels of the ok tion in colour and form as well as the appearance of the late Roman period, such as bowls with wheel-cut figural first glass vessels. An exceptional element in the graves decoration, diatreta products, and those with gold meled sg dal ions, are relatively rare in Slovenia. All these reflect o of the south-eastern Alpine region is represented by small vessels with vertical ribbing. The glass bracelet was the development and representation of glass products in r ■ pa by far the widest distributed form in the Late Iron Age the material culture of the Roman period in Slovenia as za Period. well as the economic conditions in the area. a l The Roman period brought innovations that had devel- en Povzetek ir oped in glass craft in the Hel enistic and early Roman periods. The main trade centre for trade in the eastern V Sloveniji so najstarejše steklene najdbe znane iz časa Alps was Aquileia, valuable products also arrived from kulture žarnih grobišč. V starejši železni dobi smo pri-the eastern Mediterranean and Egypt. The group of ča izjemni raznolikosti steklenih jagod v okrasu, barvi in mould-made products is predominantly composed oblikah, pojavijo se tudi prve steklene posode. Izjemen of ribbed bowls. The monochrome-coloured ware ap-pojav v grobovih JV alpskega prostora so male posode s pears in the second quarter of the 1st century. Mould- pokončnimi rebri. V latenskem obdobju so najbolj raz- blown products are present in smal er quantities, but a širjene steklene zapestnice. one-handled beaker signed by Ennion and a mythologi-Rimska doba je prinesla ves napredek, ki ga je steklar- cal beaker from Črnelo should be mentioned. stvo doživelo v času helenizma in zgodnje rimske dobe. The comparisons among individual glass-working tech- Glavno središče za trgovino z JV Alpami je bila Akvi- niques in the 1st century in the area indicate that blown leja, dragoceni predmeti so prihajali tudi iz vzhodnega Sredozemlja in Egipta. V skupini v kalupu izdelanega posodja prevladujejo rebraste skodelice, od druge četrtine 1. stol. se pojavljajo tudi izdelki iz intenzivno obarvanega stekla. V kalup pihani izdelki niso zelo številni, omenimo pa čašo s podpisom Enniona in čašo bogov iz Črnelega. Primerjava med posameznimi steklarskimi tehnikami je pokazala, da v 1. stol. na našem območju prevladuje pi- hano posodje. Samo v prvi polovici 1. stol. so vse tehni- ke bolj ali manj enakovredno zastopane in enako lahko rečemo za količina posodja glede na tehnike. Stekleno gradivo rimske dobe smo uvrstili v deset skupin posod- ja (krožniki, skodelice, čaše, zajemalke, vrči, steklenice, 45 lonci, kozmetično posodje, svetilke). Zastopanost po- s sameznih skupin posodja glede na uporabo je pokaza- ea la prevlado namiznega posodja (70 %), shranjevanju in r transportu pa je bilo namenjeno 21 % posodja. Tudi pre- g ain gled različic glede na skupino je pokazal, da so najbolje ru zastopani namizni izdelki. Skodele in čaše med ostalim bo gradivom posebej izstopajo, tako po količini kot števi- h lu različic. Njihova zastopanost je primerljiva tudi skozi eig stoletja. Čeprav čaše po količini presegajo skodele, opa- d nn zimo porast različic pri obeh oblikah od druge polovi- ce 1. in skozi vse 2. stol., z opaznim upadom v naslednjih ia a en stoletjih. v Primerjava števila oblik in njihovih različic skozi stole- lo tja je pokazala veliko porast števila različic v 1. stol., po-n ss i rast uporabe stekla pa se nadaljuje še skozi 2. stol. Konec d 3. stol. in tekom 4. in 5. stol. opazimo izjemen upad v šte-in vilu oblik. Dragocene steklene posode pozno rimske ss f dobe, kot so izdelki diatreta, steklo z zlato folijo in poso-lag de s figuralnim brušenim okrasom, so pri nas redke. Vse to odraža razvoj in zastopanost steklenih izdelkov v ma- terialni kulturi rimske dobe na Slovenskem ter tudi go- spodarske razmere v tistem času. Roman Oil Lamp from Slovenia Depicting a Glass Furnace Rimska oljenka iz Slovenije z upodobitvijo steklarske peči Izvleček 47 Med arheološkimi raziskavami na najdišču Križišče v Spodnjih Škofijah pri Kopru so v letih 2002 in 2003 raziskali del večje grobne parcele ob rimski cesti ( via Flavia Tergeste–Pola). Eden od žganih grobov na parceli je imel priloženo oljenko z upodobitvijo rimske steklarske peči. Relief prikazuje peč in ob njej dva steklarja. Oljenka in relief sta najbolje ohranjena med trenutno poznanimi tremi oljenkami s tem motivom (Benkovac, Ferrara, Spodnje Škofije). Grob z oljenko iz Spodnjih Škofij lahko glede na pridatke umestimo v sredino 1. stol. Ključne besede: rimska doba, Slovenija, steklarstvo, oljenka, steklarska peč, pihanje stekla Abstract In 2002 and 2003 at Spodnje Škofije near Koper (Slovenia) at the archaeological site named Križišče (‘ Crossroad’), part of a Roman burial ground beside the Roman road ( via Flavia Tergeste–Pola) was investigated. One of the cremation graves included an oil lamp with a representation of a glass furnace. The relief shows a glass furnace and a glass worker to the left and right of it. The oil lamp from the grave in Slovenia is by far the best preserved of all three lamps known so far (Benkovac, Ferrara, Spodnje Škofije). The grave with the oil lamp from Slovenia can be placed in the middle of the 1st century. Keywords: Roman period, Slovenia, glass-working, oil lamp, glass furnace, glass blowing In 2002 and 2003, a rescue excavation along (figure/slika 17). The main road was still in use in the route of the future motorway was car-the late Roman period. ried out at Spodnje Škofije near Koper (Slo- The necropolis was investigated along the venia), at an archaeological site named Križišče eastern edge of the road. It had paved grave plots (‘ Crossroad’). Part of a Roman burial ground be- and was bordered on the eastern side by a 2-me-side the Roman road ( via Flavia Aquileia–Terg- tre-high well-built wall of sandstone. Three grave este–Pola), which ran in a north-south direction, plots were investigated. The most northerly one was investigated (Novšak 2003, 165; Novšak, had a square shape (16 x 16 m) and lay exact-Bekljanov Zidanšek, and Žerjal 2019, 28). In ly where the side road branched off towards the nearby Školarice villa (Novšak 2003, 258; Novšak, the northern part of the necropolis two roads Bekljanov Zidanšek, and Žerjal 2019). The graves connected with the above-mentioned road, one on these plots differ in the manner of burial and leading towards a Roman villa in the immediate in their form. On the three plots, 27 cremated vicinity (Školarice on the hill Bečajevec), and the and 16 skeleton burials and 6 graves of newborn other towards the Roman settlement of Sermin babies were researched. They were dated to the 48 ss la e gh h t ug roh Figure 17: Map of the northern Adriatic with the sites mentioned in the text (elaborated by Andrej Preložnik). k t Slika 17: Karta severnega Jadrana z najdišči obravnavanimi v besedilu (pripravil Andrej Preložnik). oo period from the 1st to the 5th century. The ground- The new oil lamp, of grey burnt clay, is 11.3 plan arrangement could not be observed, but the cm long, 8.1 cm wide and 2.6 cm high. It belongs lo • a l majority of the graves were of the cremation type. to the group of so-called relief oil lamps of the ekt The predominant form was the so-called bustum Loeschke type IV, with a rounded nozzle and vo-i sz type of burial – the cremation of the deceased was lutes on either side (figure/slika 19). The disk is ok made directly above the burial pit. decorated with a relief showing a glass furnace and to the left and right of it a glass worker, one of led s Judging by the quality of the grave goods, g whom is engaged in blowing (a glass vessel) while o some socially well-situated individuals were bur- ied here. The position of the northern grave plot the other assists at the furnace. The representation r ■ pa is excellent and the oil lamp itself is very well pre- z beside the road turning off towards the villa indi- a cates that it was possibly the property of the own- served so that many details which are blurred in a l the other two lamps can be seen clearly 6.1 In the en er of the villa in the earlier phase (1st century). One centre is the furnace, divided into two sections. ir of the cremation graves in the above-mentioned grave plot (grave no. 3) is particularly interesting. The lower one obviously serves as a stoke hole (or stoking compartment); the opening is hatched di-The grave goods included an excellently preserved agonally. The upper section of the furnace has a clay oil lamp (figure/slika 18) with a representa-larger aperture, of semi-circular form. This was tion of a glass furnace and glass workers beside it used for scooping molten glass out of the melting (Lazar 2004b, 28, fig. 15, cat. no. 25; 2005a, 17–9. pot and served as the glassblower’s working port. The motif is the same as that on the only two oth- Inside the relief line surrounding the upper open- er oil lamps depicting a glass furnace known so ing or door appears a V-shaped object turned up-far – from Asseria (modern Podgrađe near Benk- side down. Probably we should not interpret this ovac, in Croatia) and the vicinity of Ferrara in It-1 For discussion and remarks about the relief on the lamp aly (Abramić 1959, 149–51; Baldoni 1987, 22–9). I’m indebted to Dr. Marianne E. Stern. upper part two small shelves or working surfac- es are shown, the righthand one rests on a leg or stand. The right one can be interpreted as the working surface or slab on which the glassblow- er rolled a glass post before blowing and marv- ered the glass during his work above the furnace. Undulating lines incised in the upper left part above the furnace indicate the heat emanating from the furnace. The right-hand figure sits on a low stool be- side the furnace, dressed in a short tunic, the folds of which are emphasized with deep in- cisions. He is barefoot, as can be seen by the 49 short-slanting incisions at the front of his foot. On the floor by his foot lie three objects, which eca can probably be interpreted as raw glass and/or nr waste material formed during his work. The per- u son’s head is raised, his lips pushed forward and ss f ready to blow into the pipe which he holds in- la clined in front of him. This is elliptically broad- g a g ened at the end and draws attention to the ob- in long, a rather big object that the glass worker t is blowing. Considering the proportions of the epic glassblower and his tool, the blowpipe is less ia d than a metre long and looks quite robust. We en can also observe that something is attached to v Figure 18: Photo of the oil lamp from Spodnje Škofije lo the underside of the pipe. If the blowpipe is not near Koper, site Križišče, grave 3, Regional Museum m s made of metal, but of clay, as Marianne Stern Koper (photo: Tomaž Lauko). ro suggests (1999, 446), the long narrow strip tied Slika 18: Fotografija oljenke iz Spodnjih Škofij pri Kopru, p f to it may have served to reinforce the pipe while m najdišče Križišče, grob 3, Pokrajinski muzej Koper a the glassblower blew a large, heavy object (pers. (foto: Tomaž Lauko). il l com. Marianne E. Stern). The round hole below n o the pipe is the oil lamp’ air vent. a as the melting pot for glass. Possibly this sche- m matic sketch draws attention to the working The figure on the left side of the furnace, ro probably the master craftsman’s assistant is less port’s small door or fireguard (perhaps no more precisely drawn. He seems to be squatting next than a pot shard, as suggested by Marianne to the furnace. He has a short object in his hands, Stern (2004, 83) which closed the working port placed upright. It is not a blowpipe. Could it be while work was in progress, so as to maintain the a “pointed” bellows of the vertical type depicted temperature inside the furnace and at the same on several Roman monuments depicting a smith time protect the glassblower while he was work-at work? (Weisgerber and Roden 1985, 6–10, figs. ing at the furnace.2 On the left and right in the 10–3). In that case, the triangular shelf seen on the left side of the furnace probably represents 2 At some medieval furnaces remains of pottery frames have been excavated; according to the excavator they ser- the support for the bellows (suggested by E. M. ved to change the size of the working port (information Stern; Weisgerber and Roden 1985, 9). Howev- Marianne E. Stern; Steppuhn 2001, 40, Abb. 4). They can be compared to pottery frames discovered at Avenches er, according to the last experiments on Roman (Amrein 2001, 88, pl. 20: 74). glass blowing by Mark Taylor and David Hill, 50 ss la e gh h t Figure 19: Drawing of the oil lamp from gr. 3 (drawing Jerneja Kobe). ug Slika 19: Risba oljenke iz groba 3 (risba Jerneja Kobe). roh the bellows are not necessary. The desired heat placement of the air vent ( infundibulum), which k t in the furnace for melting and blowing can be is on the lower side of the disk in the find from oo achieved with proper stocking.3 Therefore it is Benkovac, more precisely on the lower part of also possible, that the assistant on the left side of the furnace (figure/slika 20), while on the lamps lo • a l the furnace is only checking the finished object, from Ferrara and Slovenia, the small hole is be-ek which he took out of the annealing oven. low the blowpipe, on the right upper side of the ti s There is no inscription or name on the up- relief. Probably we may assume that at least the zo per part of the disk, as on the oil lamp from As- two lamps from Italy and Spodnje Škofije were k seria (Abramić 1959, 150, Taf. 27; Buljević 2005, made in the same mould since their individual led s 100, sl. 8) where we read the names of ATHE- details are identical as well as their length (Fer-go NIO and TRE(A?)LLUS above the furnace. The rara 11.5 cm, Spodnje Škofije 11.3 cm; Benkovac 10.5 cm). The relief on the lamp from Ferrara (fig-r ■ p names were part of the mould and not added af- az ter the firing.4 On the lamp from Slovenia a letter ure/slika 21) is too worn and the right side is not a ‘A’ is scratched on the underside of the lamp. The preserved for all other details to be compared. a l The grave in which the lamp was found pro- en same letter is scratched also on the remains of ir the second lamp in the grave (Novšak, Bekljanov duced also some glass objects. Fragments of four Zidanšek, and Žerjal 2019, 171, no. 26). It would balsamaria were discovered (Lazar 2005a, 18, be too bold even to think to associate this letter fig. 4; Novšak, Bekljanov Zidanšek, and Žerjal with the name on the oil lamp from Benkovac. 2019, 166–75). They were blown from the glass The oil lamp from the grave in Slovenia is by of a slightly bluish hue, well produced, without far the best preserved of all three lamps. The re-air bubbles, and with relatively thick walls. Of lief is very well executed, crisp and not damaged. three balsamaria only slightly rounded bases are The relief scenes on the lamps differ only in the preserved. Their forms agree with those of tubular-shaped balsamaria (the form 8.6.1.; Lazar 3 Pers. comm. David Hill and Mark Taylor; www.roman- 2003a, 175) that were characteristic of the 1st and glassmakers.co.uk 4 Pers. information by Zrinka Buljević from the Archaeolo- the first half of the 2nd century. One balsamarium gical Museum Split. was preserved up to half its height. It is a tubu- lar balsamarium with a constriction at the base expression of interest in craft which in the course of the neck, a type which can be classified among of the 1st century spread like wildfire throughout the Slovenian material as the 8.6.2. form. These the whole empire due to the newly discovered occur from the middle or from the second half technique of free blowing. of the 1st century onwards (Lazar 2003a, 176, 195). 51 ecanru ss f Figure 20: Oil lamp from Croatia ( Asseria, Benkovac; la after Abramić 1959). g a g Slika 20: Oljenka iz Hrvaške ( Asseria, Benkovac, int Hrvaška; po Abramić 1959). epic There were very few other grave goods in this ia d grave (Novšak, Bekljanov Zidanšek, and Žerjal Figure 21: Oil lamp from Italy (Voghenza, Ferrara; en 2019, 168–70), though we should mention some after Baldoni 1987). v iron fragments, amphora Dressel 2–4 remains, lo Slika 21: Oljenka iz Italije (Voghenza, Ferrara; m s and two coins; one from the period of Tiberius po Baldoni 1987). ro and was badly damaged and the other a rather At present, there is no evidence of local Ro- p f worn bronze coin of Claudius (41–54).5 The bone m man glass production from the rather limit- a remains of this ash grave were unfortunately too ed coastal region of present-day Slovenia (Lazar il l scanty for analysis. Considering the composition 2003b, 78). But not far away lies Aquileia, where– n o of grave goods, this grave can be placed in the pe- a to judge by the finds–glass workshops did oper- m riod between 40 to 60 AD (p. 166). ate as early as the 1st century (Stern 2004, 116, ro To whom can the grave be connected? Was note 56; Calvi 1968; Mandruzatto 2008). More-the deceased in some way linked with the glass- over, the town was a strong commercial cen- work trade (a glass-blower, perhaps a glassware tre and played an important role in trade links merchant) or is the representation on the oil between the northern Adriatic region and the lamp purely coincidental? Is it possible that in south-eastern Alps in the first centuries AD, in-the nearby villa (Školarice) a glass workshop op- cluding trade in glass and glass products. erated as well as other branches of business? The excavations carried out so far have not provid- Summary ed data which would support such a hypothesis. Maybe the oil lamp laid in the grave was only an In 2002 and 2003, a rescue excavation was carried out at Spodnje Škofije near Koper, at an archaeological site 5 The coins were determined by Alenka Miškec from the Numismatic Cabinet of the National Museum of Slove- named Križišče (‘ Crossroad’). Part of a Roman burial nia, Ljubljana. ground beside the Roman road ( via Flavia Tergeste–Pola) was investigated. One of the cremation graves included oljenkah z upodobitvijo rimskih steklarskih peči iz Hr-an excel ently preserved clay oil lamp with a representa- vaške (Benkovac) in Italije (Ferrara). tion of a glass furnace. The motif is the same as that on Novo odkrita oljenka ima disk okrašen z reliefom, ki the only two other oil lamps depicting a glass furnace prikazuje steklarsko peč, desno in levo od nje pa sta ste-known so far, from Asseria (modern Benkovac, Croatia) klarja, eden piha v steklarsko pipo, drugi mu pomaga ob and Ferrara (in Italy). peči. Upodobitev je zelo dobro ohranjena, številni detaj- The new oil lamp has a disc decorated with a relief show- li, ki na ostalih dveh oljenkah niso natančno prepoznav- ing a glass furnace and to the left and right of it a glass ni, so na njej jasno vidni. V središču je peč, deljena na dva worker, one of whom is engaged in blowing while the dela. Spodnji služi kot kurišče, odprtina je poudarjena other assists at the furnace. The representation is excel-s poševnimi linijami. Gornji del peči ima večjo odprti- lent and very well preserved so that many details which no polkrožne oblike. Uporabljali so jo za zajemanje sta-are blurred in the other two lamps can be seen clearly. ljenega stekla iz talilnikov v peči. Sredi odprtine je upo-52 In the centre is the furnace, divided into two sections. dobljen narobe obrnjen predmet oblike V. Morda gre za The lower one obviously serves as a stoke hole; the open-shematičen prikaz zaslona odprtine v peči, ki so ga upo- ss ing is hatched diagonal y. The upper section of the fur- rabljali med delom oz. pihanjem. Na levi in desni strani la gornjega dela sta dve polički oz. delovni površini. Desna nace has a larger aperture, of semi-circular form. This e g bi lahko bila namenjena valjanju stekla na pipi v proce- h was used for scooping molten glass out of the melting su dela. h t pot. Inside the relief line surrounding the upper open- Desna figura sedi na nizkem stolčku ob peči, oblečena je ug ing or door appears a V-shaped object turned upside ro v kratko tuniko. Glavo ima dvignjeno in pripravljeno za h down. Possibly this schematic sketch draws attention to pihanje v pipo, ki jo drži pred seboj. Figura na levi strani k t the working port’s small door or fireguard which closed o peči verjetno ob slednji čepi. V roki ima predmet, obr- o the working port while work was in progress. On the left njen navpično. Morda preverja izdelano posodo, ki jo je and right in the upper part, two small shelves or work- vzela iz prostora za ohlajanje. lo • a l ing surfaces are shown. The right one can be interpreted Oljenka iz Slovenije, ki je bila najdena v grobu, je naj- ek as the working surface or slab on which the glassblow- t bolje ohranjena med tremi do sedaj poznanimi najdba- i s er rol ed a glass post. The right-hand figure sits on a low mi. Glede na sestavo groba in priložene pridatke, lahko zo stool beside the furnace, dressed in a short tunic. The k grob z oljenko umestimo v sredino 1. stol. person‘s head is raised and ready to blow into the pipe led s which he holds inclined in front of him. The figure on go the left side of the furnace seems to be squatting next to r ■ p the furnace. He has a short object in his hands, placed az upright. Perhaps he is checking the finished object that a a l he took out of the annealing oven. en The oil lamp from the grave in Slovenia is by far the best ir preserved of all three lamps. Considering the compo- sition and extent of the grave goods, this grave can be placed in the mid-1st century. Povzetek V letih 2002 in 2003 so v Spodnjih Škofijah pri Kopru potekale arheološke raziskave na najdišču Križišče. Ob rimski cesti ( via Flavia Tergeste–Pola) so odkrili del rimskega grobišča. V enem od grobov je bila priložena od- lično ohranjena oljenka z reliefom steklarske peči. Mo- tiv je povsem enak kot na ostalih dveh do sedaj poznanih Roman Glass Production in Celeia (Noricum) – New Evidence Rimska proizvodnja stekla v Celeji (Norik) – novi dokazi Izvleček 53 Dokazi o steklarski proizvodnji v Celeji so bili prvič odkriti med izkopavanji v letih 1991–1992. Količina steklenega gradiva je bila precejšnja, med njimi so bili kosi surovega stekla. Različni odpadki v obliki kapelj, niti, staljenega stekla in zavrženih slabo izdelanih posod so dokazovali, da so na najdišču steklo talili, preverjali njegovo kakovost in izdelovali posode. Nova izkopavanja v letih 2003–2004 so potrdila delovanje steklarske delavnice. V poznorimski grob je bil priložen polizdelek polkroglaste skodelice, kar dokazuje, da so bile steklarske delavnice v mestu aktivne še v celotnem 3. stol. Ključne besede: steklarska delavnica, surovo steklo, odpadki stekla, proizvodnja stekla, polizdelek Abstract Evidence of glass production in Celeia was first discovered during excavations in 1991–92. The quantity of the glass material was considerable. Raw blue-green glass predominated and the largest pieces were 2 to 3 cm thick. Various waste in the form of drops, threads, chips of melted glass and poorly worked vessels shows that glass was melted, tested and worked. New excavations in 2003–2004 confirmed the existence of a glass workshop. The unfinished bowl was added to a late Roman grave. This proves that the glass workshops in Celeia were still in operation in the 3rd century. Keywords: glass workshop, raw glass, glass waste, glass production, glass bowl Proof of the production of glass in Celeia of the excavated area was limited to the dimen-was first discovered during excavations in sions of the construction pit, it is considered that Levstikova Street in 1991–92 (Lazar 1997, it will be possible to excavate the site complete-7; 2003a, 214, fig. 57; 2008a). A major concen- ly in the future. tration of fragments of raw amorphous glass and The study of the excavated material con- a large quantity of glass waste and broken ves- firmed that glass workers were active in this sels were found in an area of some 30 square me- part of the city. The quantity of the excavated ters just along the northern edge of the late Ro- glass material was considerable, and the rema- man town wall (figure/slika 22). Despite careful ins of raw glass and glass waste weighed several work, no elements were discovered in the exca-kilograms. vated area that could be determined as the re- The discovered pieces of raw glass were blue- mains of glass furnaces. Only a few fragments green and decolourised. The amount of blue-of clay or brick with a thick layer of melted glass green raw glass fragments predominated and the gave evidence of the existence of a glass furnace. largest were from 2 to 3 cm thick, which confirms As these were rescue excavations, where the size that in the workshop larger pieces of raw glass or 54 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too lo • a l ekti s Figure 22: Fragments of raw glass, glass waste and glass fragments for recycling, Celje, Levstikova Street zo (photo: Irena Lazar). k Slika 22: Odlomki surovega stekla, steklarskih odpadkov in stekla za reciklažo, Celje, Levstikova ulica led s (foto: Irena Lazar). go glass ingots were used for melting and blowing. eral beakers confirm the use of metal rods – pon-r ■ p The pieces of decolourised raw glass were smaller tils – in addition to the blowing pipe. aza and some of them have a yellowish tinge. The waste of deformed glass products on a l Some fragments of raw glass had the re- the site included many fragments of cylindri- en mains of clay on the surface which led us to the cal beakers of decolourised glass (Lazar 2003a, ir conclusion that these are the rest of the melting forms 3.6.1.–2.), which were almost certainly pots. produced in this workshop. Comparative mate- Various waste in the form of drops, threads, rial was excavated in 1995 at the site of a Roman and chips of melted glass show that at this site tile factory operating in the second half of the glass was melted, its viscosity was tested, and it 2nd century (Lazar 2006c, 70, 75, nos. 8–11). The was worked. Direct evidence for blowing and the market of the glass makers from Celeia thus ex-manufacture of glass vessels are the remains of tended all over the municipal territory. poorly worked and rejected vessels, handles, and Fragments of violet-coloured vessels are also rods of bent glass (Lazar 2003a, fig. 57: 4, 5, 7) very interesting (PMC, inv. no. R 21562–65). from which the handles of vessels were formed. This colour is created by adding manganese ox-Pontil marks on the bases of balsamaria and sev- ides to the glass. Roman glass workers also used manganese for decolouring glass, neutralizing The bowl was put in a grave together with the iron oxides to acquire an entirely decoloured an iron nail, there were no other grave goods. glass (Velde and Hochuli-Gysel 1996, 185). Frag- The upper part of the vessel, a hemispherical ments of violet-coloured glass were rare, some bowl, was not yet cut off. The product is rath-even showing a combination of decolourised and er thick and we may assume that it was part of violet colour glass on one vessel. a vessel form Isings 96b (Isings 1957, 113; Rütti The other fragments of glass vessels that 1991, 95, AR 6; Lazar 2003a, 83, form 2.6.2.). The were discovered in Levstikova Street belonged to base of the vessel is flat and slightly concave in various forms, including pieces of mosaic glass, the centre, the rim was probably slightly stepped. ribbed bowls, square bottles with base marks, The form is dated to the 3rd century and on- and glass with applied snake-thread decoration ward although some individual finds are known (Lazar 1997, pl. 1–3), so far rather rare amongst also from the end of the 2nd century (Rütti 1991, our glass material. If the earliest forms are con-95). In Slovenia, these vessels appear in the 3rd 55 sidered to represent glass for recycling, produc- and 4th centuries (Lazar 2003b, 84). The unfin- tion at this workshop can be assigned to the 2nd ished bowl was added to a grave that can be dat-ec as well as to the 3rd century. Such a dating is also ed according to other graves of the necropolis to enid based on the depth of the stratum in which the the 3rd or beginning of the 4th century. v remains were discovered, as it lay beneath the The product proves the glass workshops in ew e level of the late Roman walls, dated to the end of Celeia operated in the 3rd century and with some the 3rd century. speculation perhaps also at the beginning of the ) – nm 4th century. uic Two glass rods (figure/slika 24) from the ro settlement area in Mariborska cesta are particu- n larly intriguing because they don’t belong to a glass vessel. They are straight, small and quite eleia ( thinly blown. Similar glass rods are known from n c two other sites in Slovenia. One was excavated in n i Ptuj ( Poetovio) (Korošec 2004, 68, fig. 1) where iot the glass workshops operated in the 2nd and 3rd ucd centuries (Lazar 2003b, 79) and the second one ro in Slovenj Gradec ( Colatio) (Djura Jelenko 2004, ss p 106, pl. 38: 286). Is it possible that these glass la tubes are part of a glass-working process or even n g Figure 23: Unfinished glass bowl was added to a late Ro- glassblowing? If we could answer to this it would am man grave (photo: Irena Lazar). mean that the glass-blowing experiments began ro Slika 23: Nedokončana steklena skodelica je bila prilože- in the Roman provinces much earlier than so far na v pozno rimskem grobu (foto: Irena Lazar). known. But at the moment, despite intriguing New excavations in 2003–2004, some- finds, these questions remain unanswered. what to the north of the area excavated in 1992, The position of the Celje glass workshop brought to light new elements, that confirm the should be mentioned in the conclusion. In Ro-existence of a glass working site in this part of man towns, all crafts that involved the use of the town. An unfinished glass bowl in a late Ro-fires and kilns or furnaces were usually located man grave (gr. 35) (figure/slika 23), glass rods and on the outskirts, as far as possible from the res-fragments of glassworking waste from the settle- idential buildings. The glass workers of Celeia ment area should be singled out. also sought their place on the northern edge of the town, somewhat away from the densely set- 56 ss la e gh h t ug roh Figure 24: Drawing of the bowl, glassworking waste and two glass tubes from Celeia (drawing Jerneja Kobe). k to Slika 24: Risba polizdelka, steklarskega odpada in steklenih cevk iz Celeje (risba Jerneja Kobe). o tled centre, and near both the roads and the riv- process or even glass-blowing? The unfinished bowl was lo • a l er, which then represented important transpor- added to a grave dated to the 3rd or beginning of the 4th ek tation routes. century. It is part of a vessel form Isings 96b. The prod- ti s uct proves that the glass workshops in Celeia were still in zo Summary k operation in the 3rd and perhaps even at the beginning Evidence of glass production in Celeia was first discov-of the 4th century. The position of the Celje glass work- led s shop should be singled out in the conclusion. In Roman g ered during excavations in 1991–92. The quantity of the o glass material was considerable. Raw blue-green glass towns, all crafts that involved the use of fires and kilns or r ■ p predominated and the largest pieces were 2 to 3 cm furnaces were usual y located on the outskirts, as far as az possible from the residential buildings. The risk of fires a thick. Various waste in the form of drops, threads, chips a l of melted glass and poorly worked vessels shows that was reduced in this manner. The glass workers of Celeia en glass was melted, tested and worked. The waste of cylin- also sought their space on the northern edge of town, ir drical beakers of decolourised glass prove they were pro- somewhat away from the densely settled centre, and duced in this workshop. Comparative material was ex- near both the roads and the river, which then represent- cavated at the site of a tile factory from the 2nd century. ed an important transportation route. The market of the glass makers from Celeia thus extended all over the municipal territory. Povzetek New excavations in 2003–2004 confirmed the exist- Dokazi o steklarski proizvodnji v Celeji so bili prvič ence of a glass workshop, in particular findings of an un- odkriti med izkopavanji v letih 1991–92. Količina stekle- finished glass bowl, glass rods and fragments of waste. nega gradiva je bila precejšnja, prevladovali so kosi suro-Similar glass rods are known from other sites in Slo- vega stekla, največji odlomki so bili debeli med 2 in 3 cm. venia: Ptuj ( Poetovio) and Slovenj Gradec ( Colatio). Is it Številni odpadki v obliki kaplj, niti, staljenega stekla in possible that these glass tubes are part of a glass-making slabo izdelanih posod so dokaz o taljenju, preverjanju vi- skoznosti in obdelavi stekla. Številni odlomki cilindrič- nih čaš iz brezbarvnega stekla dokazujejo, da so sled- nje izdelovali v tej delavnici. Primerjalno gradivo izvira z najdišča opekarske delavnice, datirane v drugo polovico 2. stol. Trg te steklarske delavnice je očitno obsegal celotno mestno območje Celeje. Nova izkopavanja v letih 2003 in 2004 so potrdila delo- vanje steklarske delavnice, posebej še najdbe polizdelka skodelice, steklenih cevk in odpadkov stekla. Podobne steklene cevke poznamo tudi z drugih najdišč po Slove- niji: Ptuja ( Poetovio) in Slovenj Gradca ( Colatio). Vprašanje je, ali gre za steklene cevke, ki so del steklarske proizvodnje ali celo pihanja stekla. Nedokončana skodelica 57 je bila pridana v poznorimski grob, ki je datiran v 3. oz. na začetek 4. stol. Pripada obliki Isings 96b. Izdelek bi lah-ec ko bil dokaz, da so delavnice v Celeji delovale še vse 3. enid stol., morda celo do začetka 4. stol. v Na koncu velja izpostaviti še položaj steklarske delavni- ew e ce v Celeji. Obrti, ki so bile povezane z ognjem, so bile v rimskih mestih navadno locirane na robu mesta, čim ) – nm dlje od stanovanjskih poslopij, da so zmanjšali nevarnost uic požarov. Tudi celejski steklarji so svoje mesto poiskali na ro severnem robu mesta, nekoliko izven gosto poseljenega n središča, blizu glavnih prometnic in reke, ki je bila prav tako pomembna transportna pot. eleia ( n c n iiot ucd ro ss p la n gam ro Najdišča in gradivo Sites and Finds Coloured Monochrome Glass of the Early Imperial Period in Romula ( Pannonia) Intenzivno obarvano stekleno posodje iz zgodnje cesarskega obdobja iz Romule (Panonija) Izvleček 61 Članek predstavlja pomembno skupino intenzivno obarvanega stekla iz zgodnjeimperialnega obdobja, ki je bilo v tem obsegu prvič odkrito med raziskavami na najdišču Romula. Celostna obdelava gradiva je v teku, vendar želimo izpostaviti nekaj preliminarnih rezultatov. Enobarvno stekleno posodje intenzivnih barv, značilno za prva desetletja 1. stol., opredeljujejo oglate forme in ostri profili, odlikuje pa ga tudi izjemno kakovostna izdelava. Med gradivom pa je tudi pomembna skupina t. i. črnega stekla. Ključne besede: rimsko steklo, izdelava v kalupih, obarvano steklo, neprosojno steklo, črno steklo Abstract The article presents an interesting glass assemblage of early imperial coloured mould-made fine ware discovered in Roman road and custom station Romula, the largest group of coloured glass discovered so far in Slovenia. The complete study of the material is in progress but we would like to point out preliminary results. Monochrome translucent coloured fine ware, characteristic for the first quarter of the 1st century AD, have distinguished angular and carinated profiles and are further characterized by strong colours and high standards of craftsmanship. There is also a significant group of black-appearing glass vessels. Keywords: Roman glass, mould-made glass, coloured fine ware, opaque glass, black glass During the 2nd and 1st centuries BC the the old and newly discovered production tech-Hellenistic states were incorporated niques (Grose 1986, 66; 1989, 242). into the Roman Empire. As stated by But in the years of development and growth, Grose this furnished the impetus for the cre- the Roman glass-making and glass industry ation of the Roman Glass industry that flour- faced several significant and important chang- ished from the Augustan time to the end of the es in the course of the 1st century BC and AD. Empire (1989, 241). The glass craft developed During the Roman imperial period, glass objects quickly and spread all over the Roman Empire. were manufactured in secondary glass work-It became a strong and independent Roman en- shops all over the Empire (Stern 1999) by the use terprise which achieved maturity within less of imported raw glass. Archaeological findings than a century. This was possible on one side be-identified the Syro-Palestinian coast as the main cause of the expansion of trade during the ear- area for primary glass production (Nenna 2007; ly imperial period, the rapid spread of the glass Gorin-Rosen 2012). factories and of the knowledge how to make raw Free blowing slowly replaced the time-con- glass and glass products and the combination of suming moulding techniques, glassware sudden- 62 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too lo • a l Figure 25: Map with the site of Romula and Roman communication routes (elaborated by Andrej Preložnik). ekt Slika 25: Karta z lokacijo najdišča Romula in rimskimi komunikacijskimi potmi (pripravil Andrej Preložnik). i szo ly became a commodity available to all classes like to point out some preliminary results and k in their everyday life. Numerous manufactur- observations. led s ing centres operated in the Mediterranean and The extensive rescue excavations started go in the western part of the Empire, some special- during the motorway construction on the route ized in mass production while others developed Ljubljana–Novo Mesto–Brežice, which correr ■ paz in more specialized workshops for high-quality sponds also with the former Roman via publi-a products (Stern 1999). ca (in early development also via militaris) Em-a l en We would focus on the products of the lat- ona–Neviodunum–Siscia. Ribnica near Brežice ir ter, recently excavated in Slovenia, since not in Lower Carniola (Slovenia), a Roman post and many archaeological excavations and settlement customs station known as Romula is one of the research in the area give an opportunity to study most extensive sites investigated along the new high-quality early imperial glass. The article pre-motorway route in the recent period (Breščak sents and gives preliminary information about 2004; Lazar 2020a). The name of the station the very rich glass assemblage of early imperial is known from Tabula Peutingeriana. With its coloured mould-made fine ware discovered in control and supply role, the station’s location on Roman road and custom station Romula in the the route of the main Roman road ( via publica period from 2001 to 2005. The complete study of Aquileia–Emona–Neviodunum–Siscia) was an the material is in progress but due to the inter-act of careful strategic planning (figure/slika 25) esting and large amount of glass finds we would (Lazar 2020a). 63 ) /ianonnpa la (umo n r Figure 26: The excavated area of Romula (elaborated by Aleš Ogorelec, after Lazar 2020a). d iio Slika 26: Raziskano območje najdišča Romula (pripravil Aleš Ogorelec, po Lazar 2020a). er l p New excavations uncovered the exten- When publishing the impressive collection ia sive settlement and necropolis area. The struc- of early ancient glass from the Toledo Muse- per tures date from the late 1st century BC to the 4th um of Art, Grose defined six families of mould-m AD. The heart of the settlement was located on made vessels within the group of Early Roman ly ir Glass (1989, 244 – 61). Monochrome translucent a a terrace of the river Sava and archaeologists re- coloured fine ware and monochrome opaque e e searched official and production buildings, sev- h eral segments of the Roman road and the western coloured fine ware were defined as family III– f t and eastern necropolis (Lazar 2020a) (figure/sli- Roman cast monochrome vessels (Grose 1989, ss o ka 26). It is, therefore, not surprising that the site 254). Due to the angular and carinated ceram-la yielded rich and variegated glass material from ic-like profiles, the group was also known as the e g so-called glass with ceramic profiles, as it was de- m the settlement and necropolis, confirming thus ro fined by Berger (1960, 24 – 30) in his study of the h the lively trade connections and routes leading c glass from Vindonissa. o through the station. n This group of fine wares is characterized by o The largest group of materials we are now angular lathe-turned forms, strong colours and working on is the early imperial mould-made ed m very high standards of craftsmanship. The group ru glass. We are talking about two distinctive has no stylistic ties with the production of glass lo groups of fine wares in early Imperial contexts o in the late Hellenistic period. It was observed, c (Grose 1991, 2). Group one consists of colour- that several of the colours, like emerald green, ed fine wares, made by mould-pressing and the are the inventions of the newly established Ro-Group two of colourless fine wares, made by man Glass industry (Grose 1991, 2). The angular casting or mould-pressing (Lierke 2009). and carinated forms reveal the influence of con- 64 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too lo • a l ekti szok led sgo r ■ paza a l enir Figure 27: Forms of mould-made coloured translucent glasses – plates; M = 1 : 2, drawings Andreja Izlakar. Slika 27: Oblike posod iz intenzivno obravanega stekla izdelane v kalupih – krožniki; M = 1 : 2, risbe Andreja Izlakar. temporary metalware, bronze or even silverware Plates (15 vessel fragments; figure/slika 27: of the Julio-Claudian era (Grose 1989, 254). The 1 – 7) with constricted, straight or convex walls distribution of these products is western since are made predominantly of translucent dark the majority of the examples were discovered on green (various shadows of emerald green) glass Italian and other European archaeological sites; and only two of them are made of dark blue or that’s why this group is understood as a distinc-cobalt blue glass. Some of the plate fragments tive product of the early Roman glass industry in have shallow grooves on the base and several of the west and the Italian production centre is as-them have a small circle in the centre where they sumed or more precisely the factory or a cluster were affixed to the lathe. of workshops of Roman Italy. Cups (17 vessel fragments) (figure/slika 28: These glasses first appeared in the first quar- 1 – 6) vary in size and form; they are hemispher- ter of the 1st century AD, perhaps ongoing to ical, with convex walls or have carinated walls. about 60 AD (Grose 1989; 1991; 2017). Only Some of the fragments have shallow grooves on 65 a generation or two after its appearance the the walls or the inner side of the base, but none of the bases shows attachment remains on the base ) / coloured fine ware obviously fell from fashion. ia on the outside. They are again made predomi- n The group of monochrome-coloured vessels is o nantly of translucent deep or emerald green glass, n very homogeneous and Grose defined ten prin- n only two fragments belong to a dark blue cup. pa cipal forms: plates, cups or bowls (hemispheri- cal, concave and carinated), pyxis and less com- Five fragments of pyxides (5 individual ves- la (u mon large plates or trays (1989, 260, fig. 135; 1991, sels) (figure/slika 28: 9 – 10) in the group of transm lucent coloured ware are made of deep green o 2), but today some additional individual forms n r can be added. In Romula the finds of this group glass. Their diameter and height vary, from 5.6 to d i 11 cm in diameter and from 4 to 4.5 cm in their io of glass are surprisingly numerous and forms do height. Some examples have a distinct circle on er not appear only as the individual finds but in the base, where the vessel was attached to the l p numbers. We have recognized eight of ten prin- ia lathe. cipal forms: cups and plates in various forms and per The presented group of glass has some indi- m pyxis with subtypes (figures/sliki 27, 28) and we vidual comparisons on Slovenian sites from Em-ly i would single out the main characteristics of the r ona (insula 32; Plesničar-Gec 1983, pl. 23: 12, 16, a assemblage. 19, 22, 25), Celeia and Poetovio (unpublished) but e eh Monochrome translucent coloured fine ware so far nowhere have these glasses appeared in f t such quantity as in Romula. It is also significant For the group of translucent monochrome fine ss o that in Romula these are all settlement finds and la ware, the colours of translucent emerald green, those vessels were not used or added as grave e g cobalt and dark blue, and peacock blue are very goods, although graves from the mid-1st century m distinctive. Emerald green and peacock blue are ro and on were excavated on the western necropolis h the colours developed by the Roman glass indus- c of the site and some of them include high-quali- o try and used almost exclusively for this class of n ty mould-blown glass and amber objects. o glass vessels. Among the Romula material, em- The comparisons to the material from ed m erald green glass is predominant for all forms of well-dated sites or strata are known from Mag-ru fine wares. The green glasses from Ribnica were dalensberg (Czurda-Ruth 1979, 65 – 91), where all lo analysed by Caroline Jackson and more about o fragments presumably date before 45 AD, when c the glass colouring and analyses of the green the site was abandoned, with few examples at-glasses can be read in the published works (Jack- tributed to late Augustan levels (1979, 70 – 1). In son, Lazar, and Cottam 2015; Cottam and Jack-Vindonissa dated examples are concentrated in son 2018, 93). Tiberian and early Claudian contexts, some con- 66 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too lo • a l ekti szok led sgo r ■ paza a l enir Figure 28: Forms of mould-made coloured translucent and opaque glasses – cups and pyxides; M = 1 : 2, drawings Andreja Izlakar. Slika 28: Oblike posod iz intenzivno obravanega stekla izdelane v kalupih – čaše in pikside; M = 1 : 2, risbe Andreja Izlakar. tinuing into the Neronian period (Berger 1960, in white and light blue opaque glass (Grose 2017, 24 – 30). Some fragments are also known from 82). Salona (Buljević 2016, 64, dark green and blue glass vessels). Black (appearing) glass vessels At Cosa, dated examples of translucent (figure/slika 29) and opaque fines wares come from five deposits Although black glass vessels, the term is used as a (Grose 2017, 81). The earliest is deposit IV (be- “terminus technicus” accepted by glass specialists fore 25 – 15 BC) associated with the reoccupation (Cosyns 2015), are often studied separately from of the town in Augustan times. Significantly, other glasses, I have included it in this chapter the opaque ware in light blue and white is rep-since several fragments of mould-made vessels resented in this deposit. As Grose argues, they were recorded among the glass assemblage. can represent some of the earliest products of the But what is black glass and how do we de- Roman glass industry or they were products im- fine it? Thanks to the research of Cosyns in the 67 ported from the eastern Mediterranean (2017, past decades the Roman black glass from Britannia, Gallia Belgica and Germania Inferi- ) / 81 – 2). ia or was studied within several projects (Cosyns n Deposits V and VI are dated to the period o 2011; Cosyns and Hanut 2005; Cosyns and- n of cca 25 – 15 BC to cca 40 – 45 AD, and forms of n Fontaine 2009). It is known that black glass pa carinated bowls, pyxides and a bowl with an out- turned rim are represented in these strata (Grose vessels are present in the 1st century AD and la (u 2017, 81, pl. 8: 134, 136, 137, 139; pl. 9: 154), some again from the middle of the 2nd to the middle m of the 3rd century (Cosyns 2015, 190). Black glass o of them come from a shop storeroom destroyed n r in ca 40 – 45 AD. Vessels of this group presented jewellery is introduced later and is in use well d i into the 5th century AD (Cosyns 2006; Jelinčić io in deposits VII and VIII (before approx. 50 – 55 2009). In addition to the chronological, geo-er AD) prove the production of this group of glass graphical and typological distribution analy-l p vessels until the mid. 1st century or even later, but ia sis of these products, also the archaeometry and not after the last quarter of the 1st century (Grose per study of the glass compositions are extremely m 2017, 82). valuable (Cagno et al. 2014). ly ir The black glass vessels were produced with a Monochrome opaque-coloured fine wares various techniques. In the 1st century (from Ti- e e Glasses of this group are made of opaque li- h berian to the Flavian period) they were mould- f t ght blue glass. There is also one very deteriora- made and free-blown, but in the second period ted base fragment of red glass, but it is questi- ss o (mid-2nd to the last quarter of the 3rd century) la onable if it can be included in this group. The these glasses were free-blown, with very few ex-e g opaque glass vessels are represented only with ceptions (Cosyns 2015, 191). m one form, a bowl, with two variants: they have ro As written by J. Bayley (1999, 90, 92), black h hemispherical or carinated walls (figure/slika c glass is glass that is so densely coloured that it is o 28: 7–8). n opaque and appears black. Only with the assis- o The dating of the opaque vessels is the first tance of strong transmitted illumination in this ed m half of the 1st century AD. Judging from the glass black glass, one colour will become visible (Co-ru products found in Cosa (Grose 2017, 81) in the syns 2015, 191). lo deposit dated before 25 – 15 BC their production o The vessels from Romula are made of deep c may have begun already in the last decades of the violet or deep brown glass that looks like black. 1st century BC. Prototypes for the Roman mon- All the vessels belong to mould-made products ochrome opaque vessels may have been the Hel- and several of them have distinctive angular lenistic products of the 1st century BC also made lathe-turned forms (Lazar 2019b, 30). The pro- 68 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too Figure 29: Fragments of mould-made glass vessels and jewel ery made of black glass, Romula (photo: Aleš Ogorelec). Slika 29: Odlomki v kalupu izdelnih posod in nakita iz črnega stekla, Romula (foto: Aleš Ogorelec). lo • a l duction of the black-appearing glass vessels in appearing glass vessels from the 1st century into ekt the 1st century AD reflects the popularity of the several groups and forms; further on Cosyns de-i sz coloured mould-made fine wares produced in fined 14 principal forms with subgroups for the ok the period of the Julio-Claudian dynasty (Grose mould-made glass (2011, 48, fig. 33), and 19 forms 1991, 3; Cosyns and Fontaine 2009, 83). for the free blown vessels (2011, 52, fig. 34). It is led sg Among the forms, we have recorded plates, possible that this group will develop with new o bowls and pyxides (see figures/sliki 27 and 28). finds and publications. Within the glass material r ■ p Plates are presented in various types, they have from Slovenia, we can already define new types aza straight or convex walls, and slightly profiled of the so far defined individual forms. a l rims and their base is often decorated with shal- en low grooves of concentric circles on the inner Conclusion remarks ir side (figure/slika 27: 1–5). The bowls have out- The presented group of glass has some individ- turned walls and slightly profiled or out-turned ual comparisons on Slovenian sites from Emo-rims (figure/slika 28: 6, 7). The group of pyxides na (insula 32) (Plesničar-Gec 1983, pl. 23), Celeia or vessels with cylindrical walls are represented and Poetovio, but so far nowhere have these glass-by several individual products that vary mostly es appeared in such quantity as in Romula. It is in size. Their diameter measures from 5 to 10 cm also significant that these are all settlement finds and the outside of their base is often decorated and those vessels were not used or added as grave with shallow grooves of concentric circles (fig-goods, although graves from the mid-1st century ure/slika 28: 8–10). and on were excavated on the western necropolis Cosyns and Fontaine (2009, 80, tabs. 1, 2) of the site and some of them include high-quali-have divided the forms of the mould-made black ty mould-blown glass and amber objects. Although the majority of the presented These glasses first appeared in the first quarter of the coloured wares come from destroyed strata, their 1st century AD, perhaps ongoing to about 60 AD. The period of use in Romula is confirmed with coin group is very homogeneous with ten principal forms: finds, two-thirds of them ranging from the Au-plates, cups or bowls (hemispherical, concave and car- gustan period to the mid-2nd century. But com- inated), pyxis and less common large plates or trays. In parisons with the individual finds from dated Romula we have recognized eight of ten principal forms: deposits in Roman Empire confirm the use of cups and plates in various forms and pyxis with sub-the coloured translucent and opaque ware simi- types. The emerald green glass is predominant for al lar to the finds from Romula in the period of the forms of fine wares on the site. first three-quarters of the 1st century. Plates with constricted, straight or convex wal s are Our preliminary observation could be that made of translucent dark green (various shadows of the whole group of these coloured fine wares in emerald green) glass and dark blue or cobalt blue glass. Romula reflects the Roman glass market taste of Cups are hemispherical, with convex wal s or have cari-69 the 1st century. The individual demand and taste nated wal s. Some of the fragments have shal ow grooves for luxury glasses in the Empire soon offered and on the wal s or on the inner side of the base. They are ) /ia produced a new group of fine glass tableware – made of deep green glass, few fragments belong to dark no colourless instead of deep, strong colours. In blue and opaque turquoise cups. Five fragments of pyx-nn Romula the demand for luxury ware continues ides are made of deep green glass. Several of the frag-pa and colourless glass overtook the households and ments have shal ow grooves on the base and several of la ( tables in the second half of the 1st and 2nd centu- them have a small circle in the centre where they were af- um ries (Lazar 2020b). fixed to the lathe. There is also a group of black-appear- o The study of the material is in progress, to- ing glasses, made of deep violet or deep brown glass that n r d i gether with other small finds, the necropolis and looks like black. Among the forms, we have recorded io the site architecture. We hope to add significant plates, bowls and pyxides. er new information about the presented glass ma- The presented group of glass has some individual com- l pia terial and its use by the end of the research of the parisons on Slovenian sites from Emona, Celeia and Posite. per etovio, but so far nowhere have these glasses appeared m in such quantity. It is also significant that these are al ly i Summary 1st-century settlement finds and those vessels were not ra The article presents the glass assemblage of early impe- used or added as grave goods, although graves from the e eh rial coloured mould-made fine ware discovered in Ro- mid-and second half of the 1st century were excavated on f t man road and custom station Romula (Slovenia), the the western necropolis of the site. ss o largest group of coloured glass discovered so far in Slo- la venia. Monochrome translucent coloured fine ware, Povzetek e g characteristic for the first quarter of the 1st century AD, Poglavje obravnava skupino zgodnjeimperialnega stem ro have distinguished angular and carinated profiles and klenega posodja intenzivnih barv, izdelanega v kalupih, hc are characterized by strong colours and high standards ki je bilo odkrito na najdišču rimske obcestne in carin-on of craftsmanship. Due to the ceramic-like profiles, the ske postaje Romula. Ta skupina finega namiznega posodo group was also known as glass with ceramic profiles, as it ja, značilna za prvo četrtino 1. stol., ima poudarjene in ke-ed m was defined by L. Berger. The group has no stylistic ties ramiki podobne profile, odlikuje jo izjemna kakovost ru with the production in the late Hel enistic period, sever- izdelave in je narejena iz stekla intenzivnih barv. Zaradi loo al of the colours, like emerald green, are the inventions značilnih profilov je bila ta skupina posodja dolgo znana c of the newly established Roman Glass industry. The dis- kot steklo s keramičnimi profili. Obravnavana skupina tribution of these products is western since the majori- izdelkov nima stilističnih povezav z izdelki helenistične- ty of the examples were discovered on Italian and other ga čaša, številne barve, posebej smaragdno zelena, naj bi European archaeological sites. bile odkritje novo osnovane rimske steklarske industri- je. Razprostranjenost teh izdelkov je vezana na zahod imperija, večina posod je bila odkritih na italijanskih in ostalih evropskih najdiščih. Tovrstno posodje se prvič pojavi v prvi četrtini 1. stol. in je v uporabi do približno leta 60. Skupina je zelo homogena, predstavlja jo deset glavnih oblik z različicami: npr. krožniki, čaše oz. skodelice, pikside in redko tudi pladnji. Na najdišču Romula so zastopane vse oblike z več različicami. Med barvami pri vseh prevladuje smaragdno zelena v različnih odtenkih. Krožniki s profiliranim, z ravnim ali s konveksnim os- tenjem so izdelani iz temnozelenega in temnomodre- 70 ga (kobaltnega) stekla. Skodelice imajo profilirano, pol- kroglasto ali navzven nagnjeno ostenje, notranja stran ss je pri nekaterih okrašena s plitvimi kanelurami. Izde- la lane so iz temnozelenega, temnomodrega in neprosoj- e g nega turkiznega stekla. Pikside so pretežno izdelane iz h temnozelenega stekla. Poleg plitvih kanelur je na več iz- h t delkih ohranjen majhen krog na sredini dna, ki kaže na ug ro mesto pritrditve posode na stružnico. Med najdbami je h tudi skupina na pogled črnega stekla, izdelana iz temno- k to vijoličnega ali temnorjavega stekla, ki izgleda kot črno. o V tej skupini se pojavljajo krožniki, skodelice in pikside. Obravnavana skupina posodja ima primerjave med gra- lo • a l divom Emone, Celeje in Petovione, vendar na nobe- ek nem od najdišč to gradivo ni tako obsežno in raznoliko. ti s Prav tako velja poudariti, da vse najdbe izvirajo iz nasel-zok binskih plasti 1. stol. Med grobnimi pridatki ne najde- mo teh oblik, čeprav so bili na zahodni nekropoli odkri- led s ti tudi grobovi iz sredine in druge polovice 1. stol. go r ■ paza a l enir Finds of Roman Colourless Glass from Romula Najdbe dekoloriranega rimskega stekla iz Romule Izvleček 71 Poglavje prinaša prve rezultate obdelave večje skupine kakovostnega rimskega dekoloriranega stekla. Odkrito je bilo med izkopavanji v letih 2001 do 2004 na najdišču rimske obcestne in carinske postaje Romula v Sloveniji. Ker gre za izjemno obsežno in kakovostno skupino steklenega posodja, okrašenega z vrezanim okrasom, ki je bilo posebej priljubljeno od druge polovice 1. stol. dalje, želimo predstaviti prve rezultate raziskav tega gradiva. Ključne besede: rimsko steklo, izdelano v kalupu, dekolorirano steklo, vrezovanje, Romula Abstract The chapter presents and gives preliminary information about the very rich glass assemblage of mould-made colourless glass. It was discovered between 2001 and 2004 on the site of a Roman road and custom station Romula in modern Slovenia. Due to this interesting and large amount of glass finds with cut decoration, popular from the second half of the 1st century on, we would like to communicate some preliminary results and observations. Keywords: Roman glass, mould-made glass, colourless glass, cutting, Romula The extensive rescue excavations start- It is, therefore, not surprising that the site ed during the motorway construction yielded rich and variegated glass material from on the route Ljubljana–Novo Mesto– the settlement and necropolis, confirming thus Brežice, which corresponds also with the former the lively trade connections and routes leading Roman via publica (in its early development also through the station. via militaris) Emona– Neviodunum– Siscia un-The largest group of materials we are work- covered an extensive settlement and necropolis ing on is the early Imperial mould-made glass. area of the Roman station Romula. The struc- We are talking about two distinctive groups of tures date from the late 1st century BC to the end fine wares in early Imperial contexts (Grose 1998; of the 4th or even the first years of the 5th century 1991). Group 1 consists of coloured fine wares of AD. The heart of the settlement was located on monochrome glass, made by mould-pressing1 a terrace of the river Sava to the east of a brook and Group 2 of colourless fine wares, made by and the excavations uncovered official and pro-casting or mould-pressing. The latter will be pre- duction buildings, several segments of the Ro- sented here. man road and a western and eastern necropolis 1 See chapter Coloured monochrome glass of the early imperi- (Lazar 2020a, 387–402). al period in Romula in this volume. Colourless glass is known from the early pe-were excavated as settlement and grave finds on riods of ancient glass-making. In the pre-Roman various sites from the Roman period in Slove-periods, the manufacture of colourless glass can nia. They appear in archaeological contexts from be seen as an attempt to imitate rock-crystal (Ig-the Flavian period onwards and are a very good natiadou 2010, 419). The first peak period in the chronological marker for the late 1st and early 2nd production of colourless glass products is the 8th centuries. and 7th centuries in Assyria and the production Figure 30 shows new settlement finds of col- lasted for about less than two centuries. The next ourless beakers with facet-cut honeycomb deco-renowned group of colourless glass comes from ration from Romula and Celeia which belong to the Achaemenid period in Persia, which was also groups I and II according to the first classifica-linked several times with ancient written sourc- tion made by Oliver (1984, 39).2 The facets can es, i.e. a passage from the Acharnians of Aristo- be cut like rhombs/diamonds or more round- phanes (Ignatiadou 201, 421; Trowbridge 1930). ed, on some fragments we observe even elongat-72 Today we know that this group of colourless ed facets, and set in several lines over the body. ss glass is distributed on both sides of the Aegean The group can be compared with colourless glass la and the Black Sea coast and that most of the ves- beakers from France, defined as a group IN 10, e gh sels have been found in contexts of the 4th centu- dated to the last decades of the 1st century with h t ry BC (Ignatiadou 2010, 425). some finds known also in the first third of the 2nd ug The popularity of colourless glass increased century (Foy et al. 2018, 18) More precisely frag-ro again in the Roman period. During the late 1st ments fig. 30: 1, 3 can be defined in comparison h century and 2nd century, it was produced for with the finds from Augst ( Augusta Raurica) as k to high-quality tableware. Pliny the Elder also men- a form AR 45.1 or Lazar 3.3.4. (variant Isings 21; o tions these products and suggests that “the most Fünfschilling 2015, 313) while fig. 30: 2 can be de-highly valued glass is colourless and transpar- fined as a form AR 45.1B – a type with a ridge lo • a l ent, as closely as possible resembling rock-crys- between the foot and the decorated body. The ekt tal” ( NH 36,200). form is already known from the grave no. 289 in i sz More about colourless glass and the differ- Poetovio, which is dated to the Flavian–Hadri- ok ent qualities of its production was researched by anic period according to the grave goods (Istenič C. Jackson and S. Paynter, where they discuss the 2000, 99). Several small fragments of this type led sg compositional analysis of Roman colourless glass of beaker are also known from the site of custom o and explore it in the light of the organization of station Trojane ( Atrans) and Roman villa rusti-r ■ pa the Roman glass production (Jackson 2005, 763; ca in Mošnje (PN 2959, 5408).3 This form is dat-za Paynter and Jackson 2019, 1533). ed in Augst (Fünfschilling 2015, 313) in the pe- a l Working on Roman glassware in Slovenia riod between 70 and 120 AD and in Avenches en two decades ago, only a few rare examples of col- ( ir Aventicum) between 100 and 150 AD (Bonnet ourless facet-cut vessels were recorded; a beak- Borel 1997, 30). er from the grave in Poetovio and two shallow Two beakers (fig. 30: 4–5) and several more bowls (Lazar 2003a, 93, 43), one from a grave in fragments have more straight walls and can be Poetovio and the other excavated as a settlement defined as a form AR 45.2 (Fünfschilling 2015, find in mansio Longaticum (Logatec). 314) or a group IN 11 defined in France (Foy et al. Due to vast excavations in the past decades 2018, 19). The facets on the beakers are elongat-and a new evaluation of the finds we can observe 2 Celeia – 1: S 212, 2: S 175, 3: S 184 (Regional Museum Cel-that the number of facet-cut and plain colourless je); Romula – 4: S 1315, 5: 1316, 6: S 724, 7: S 1072 (Institu-tableware has increased considerably and sev- te for the Protection of Cultural Heritage in Slovenia, unit Novo Mesto) (Lazar 2021). eral new forms were recognized. Various forms 3 The material is being prepared for the publication by the of beakers and bowls with facet-cut decorations author. 73 laumo m r ro ss f la less gru loo n camo f r s od fin Figure 30: Finds of colourless facet-cut beakers from Celeia (Celje, nos. 1–3) and Romula (Ribnica, nos. 4–7). M = 1 : 2, drawings Jerneja Kobe, Janja Tratnik Šumi. Slika 30: Najdbe čaš iz dekoloriranega stekla z vrezanim facetiranim okrasom iz Celeje (Celje, št. 1–3) in Romule (Ribnica pri Brežicah, št. 4–7). M = 1 : 2, risbe Jerneja Kobe, Janja Tratnik Šumi. ed and angular and there is no ridge on the wall grain cuts (fig. 31: 3, 4). The finds from Romula below the decoration. It is important to men-are decorated on the rim (fig. 31: 1, 3) and on the tion, that both beakers have a visible roundel on base (fig. 31: 4). the base, where the vessel was attached to the Comparisons to these new finds are known lathe-turned mould. A beaker of the same form, in Slovenia from Poetovio (Ptuj; gr. 615; Istenič with straight walls and no ridge on the walls, is 2000, pl. 134: 4) and from Longaticum (Logatec; also known from the grave 166 in Nova Tabla Lazar 2004a, 59, fig. 2: 1). While the bowl from in north-eastern Slovenia (Guštin 2004, 75, fig. Ptuj is decorated only on the rim and the base, 10; Lazar 2020b, 343, fig. 3a, b). The grave from the bowl from Logatec shows a rich and more Nova Tabla is dated to the beginning of the 2nd elaborate decoration. The rim is decorated on century AD (Guštin 2004, 77). the edge, on the upper side with the ridge and on Two finds from Romula (fig. 30: 6, 7) show the lower side with oval facet cuts, and the same 74 a more rounded belly form of a beaker, one with decoration appears in two lines on the body. The rhomboid and the other with elongated ovoid base is decorated with elongated honeycomb-like ss facets on the wall. They can be compared with facets and the edge of the foot is also decorated la the beaker from Nijmegen in the Netherlands with small rice grain cuts. The bowl was found e g (Oliver 1984, 42, fig. 15), the group IN 18 of the h during excavations at the mansio Longaticum in colourless glass from France dated to the end of h t a stratum featuring a coin of Emperor Domitian the 1st and beginning of the 2nd century (Foy et ug (81–96 AD) (Lazar 2003a, 44). ro al. 2018, 26), and with the finds from Augusta This form of the bowl can be compared with h Raurica where this type of beaker is defined as finds from Augusta Raurica (form AR 16.2; Fün-k to a form AR 45.4 and is dated between 30 and 130 fschilling 2015, 281), dated to the period from 80 o AD (Fünfschilling 2015, 315). to 150/60 AD. The forms Trier 23 and Aventic- It is worth mentioning that there are metal4 um 25/26 give similar dating and the main peri-lo • a l and ceramic imitations of the facet-cut beakers od of use for these bowls can be set between the ekt known. The ceramic ones, to mention a few ex- late 1st and mid-2nd century AD (Goethert-Po- i s amples, were found in burials in Emona and Ver- z laschek 1977, 36; Bonnet Borel 1997, 24; Fün- ok dun and among settlement finds in Celeia (Petru fschilling 2015, 282). Some finds of these bowls 1972, pl. 44: 12; Breščak 2002, 138, cat. no. 72/3). from Milan prove their appearance and use also led s The second group of finds (figure/slika 31) g in younger contexts at the end of the 2nd century o are colourless shallow bowls with facet cut deco- (Uboldi 2017, 185, fig. 1: 1, 2). r ■ p ration that appear on the rim, the walls and even a Another bowl fragment from Romula is z on the base. The presented fragments were all a discovered as settlement finds in Romula.5 Nos. decorated on the body, but with elongated fac-a l ets and the preserved fragment can be compared en 1, 3 and 4 can be defined as a form 2.1.8. (Lazar with the form IN 142 (Foy et al. 2018, 148) or ir 2003a, 43, fig. 12). The form is characterized by a sharp profilation and high quality of the cut more precisely the find from Spain (Price 1987, decoration. The rim is wide, highly out-turned, fig. 3: 1) regarding the decoration, since the rim with an overhanging edge; it is decorated with is not completely preserved. We may assume it is facet-cut on both sides and on the edge. The cir-similar to the form AR 13.2 (Fünfschilling 2015, cular or oval facets can be combined with rice 279).Find no. 2 (Fig. 31: 2) has a rim widened into 4 Berthouville treasure, Chaourse treasure – end of 2nd–early 3rd century (Baratte and Painter 1989, figs. 26 (Berthouvi-a kind of handle, but the dimensions are small le), 58–61 (Chaourse). I would like to thank you to Anne and therefore it cannot be defined as a large De Pury-Gysel for the information. plate-like AR 16.1. (Fünfschilling 2015, 281), or 5 Romula – 1: S 1212, 2: 1201, 3: 1253, 4: 1046 (Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage in Slovenia, unit Novo even an oval plate-like AR 26 and Aventicum 35 mesto). (Fünfschilling 2015, 289; Bonnet Borel 1997, 26). 75 laumo m r ro ss f la less gru loo n camo f r s od fin Figure 31: Fragments of colourless bowls with facet-cut decoration from Romula. M = 1 : 2, drawings Jerneja Kobe. Slika 31: Odlomki skodel iz dekoloriranega stekla z vrezanim facetiranim okrasom iz Romule. M = 1 : 2, risbe Jerneja Kobe. 76 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too lo • a l ekti szok led sgo r ■ paza a l enir Figure 32: Selected forms of undecorated mould-made colourless glass from Romula. M = 1 : 2, drawings Jerneja Kobe, Janja Tratnik Šumi. Slika 32: Izbrane oblike v kalupu izdelanih neokašenih posod iz brezbarvnega stekla iz Romule. M = 1 : 2, risbe Jerneja Kobe, Janja Tratnik Šumi. 77 laumo m r ro ss f la less gru loo n camo f r s o Figure 33: Colourless beakers with various decorations, Romula (photo: Aleš Ogorelec). d Slika 33: Čaše iz dekoloriranega stekla z različnimi okrasi, Romula (foto: Aleš Ogorelec). fin The facet-cut dish with handles from the Ernes- the examples do not have any grooves on the in- to Wolf collection in Stuttgart shows how elab- side of the vessel. They are dated to the late 1st to orate these dishes (AR 16) were, and perhaps our 2nd century in Augst and the late 1st to 3rd centu-find from Romula can be defined as a smaller ry in France (Fünfschilling 2015, 278–79; Foy et version of such a dish, similar to the finds from al . 2018, 140). Nin or Asseria ( Fadić 1997, 174, nos. 152, 153) and The next forms are small and large bowls dated to the end of the 1st century. with a distinctive wide rim and overhanging The last group of colourless glass we would edge (AR 15; in German Kragenrand) on a wide like to mention (figure/slika 32) are also various base ring (figure/slika 32: 3, 4) (Fünfschilling forms of bowls and plates without decoration. 2015, 280; IN 133; Foy et al. 2018, 139), and a bowl fragment similar to the form AR 186 in a larg-Plates and bowls with funnel rims on low ring er, colourless variation (figure/slika 32: 5) (Fün-foot (forms AR 13.1. and 13.2; IN 134; Fünfschil- fschilling 2015, 280). The forms were dated in ling 2015, 279; Foy et al. 2018, 140; fig. 32: 1, 2) are Augst from Flavian to Severan periods by Rüt-documented by fragments of rims and bodies of ti, and lately from 80/90 to 170/180 (Rütti 1991; these vessels and several base fragments, most of Fünfschilling 2015, 280). There are also several fragments of bowls finds the number of facet-cut and plain colourless table-with a wide, highly out-turned rim and an over- ware has increased considerably and several new forms hanging edge (fig. 32: 6) in smaller and larger were recognized. Various forms of beakers and bowls variants (AR 16.1; IN 142; AR 16.2; IN 143; AR with facet-cut decorations were excavated on various 16.1: Fünfschilling 2015, 281; IN 142; Foy et al. sites from the Roman period in Slovenia. They appear 2018, 148 and AR 16.2; Fünfschilling 2015, 281; in archaeological contexts from the Flavian period on-IN 143; Foy et al. 2018, 150). wards and are a very good chronological marker for the Another larger group of colourless glass are late 1st and early 2nd centuries. Colourless beakers with bowls with out-turned walls on low foot, the facet-cut honeycomb decoration from Romula (Ribnica rim is rounded and several of them have a simple near Brežice) and Celeia (Celje) belong to groups I and II horizontal groove on the walls (figure/slika 32: according to the first classification made by Oliver. The 7–9) (AR 20.2; IN 129; Fünfschilling 2015, 284; facets can be cut like rhombs/diamonds or more round-78 Foy et al. 2018, 135). ed, on some fragments we observe even elongated fac- The strata of the presented forms and their ets, and set in several lines over the body. The group can ss use in Romula are confirmed with coin finds be compared with colourless glass beakers from France la two-thirds of them ranging from the Augustan (IN 10). Two beakers and several more fragments have e gh period to the period of Marcus Aurelius (161– more straight wal s (form AR 45.2 or a group IN 11), and h t 180). Only a few of them (6 coins) comes from two finds show a more rounded bel y form of a beaker ug the 3rd century. (IN 18), one with rhomboid and the other with elongat- ro Other forms of colourless glass (figure/sli- ed ovoid facets on the wal s. h ka 33), some of them mould-made, like min- The colourless shal ow bowls with facet cut decoration k to iature shallow bowls (AR 24.2; Fünfschilling are characterized by a sharp profilation and high qual-o 2015, 287), beakers with narrow, slightly swirl- ity of the cut decoration. The rim is wide, highly out- ing flutes on the walls (IN 12; Foy et al. 2018, turned, with an overhanging edge; it is decorated with lo • a l 21; von Boeselager 2012, 102–4), and several free facet-cut on both sides and on the edge. The circular or ekt blown forms such as cylindrical beakers with oval facets can be combined with rice grain cuts, and the i sz a simple decoration of horizontal lines or ridg- finds are decorated on the rim and on the base. They can ok es (IN 32; Foy et al. 2018, 41), beakers with ar- be compared with the forms AR 16.2, AR 13.2, AR 16,1 or cade decoration (AR 48; Fünfschilling 2015, 316) AR 26 from Augusta Raurica. led sg etc. will be presented in detail in the forthcom- There is also a group of bowls and plates without deco- o ing publication. ration. They can be compared to the finds from Augst r ■ pa The study of the material is in process, to- dated to the late 1st to 2nd century and finds in France za gether with other small finds, the necropolis and from the late 1st to 3rd century. The small and large bowls a l the site architecture. In the course of this re- with a distinctive wide rim and overhanging edge, are en search, we hope to add significant new informa- dated in Augst from 80/90 to 170/180. Several frag- ir tion about the presented glass material and its ments of bowls with a wide, highly out-turned rim and use. an overhanging edge in smal er and larger variants were also defined. The strata of the presented forms and their Summary use in Romula are confirmed with coin finds two-thirds The chapter presents preliminary information about of them ranging from the Augustan period to the peri-the glass assemblage of mould-made colourless fine od of Marcus Aurelius (161–180). wares discovered between 2001 and 2004 on the site of Romula in modern Slovenia. The popularity of colour-Povzetek less glass increased during the late 1st and 2nd centuries, it Poglavje obravnava skupino kakovostnega, v kalupu iz-was produced for high-quality tableware. Due to vast ex- delanega dekoloriranega stekla, ki je bilo odkrito tekom cavations in the past decades and a new evaluation of the raziskave na najdišču Romula, v letih med 2002 in 2004. Priljubljenost brezbarvnega stekla je v rimski dobi zras-la v drugi polovici 1. stol. in v 2. stol., namenjeno je bilo predvsem izdelavi kakovostnega namiznega posodja. Glede na obsežne terenske raziskave v zadnjih desetle- tjih in novi interpretaciji gradiva je obseg poznanega gradiva precej obsežnejši, prepoznane so bile tudi številne nove oblike. Na številnih najdiščih rimske dobe v Sloveniji se pojav- ljajo različne oblike čaš in skodel z vrezanim facetiranim okrasom. Najdemo jih v arheoloških kontekstih od fla-vijskega obdobja dalje in so pomembna kronološka zna- čilnost za pozno 1. ter zgodnje 2. stol. Dekolorirane čaše s facetiranim okrasom satovja iz Romule in Celeje sodi-79 jo v skupini I in II, kot ju je opredelil Oliver. Facete na okrasu imajo obliko rombov, nekatere so bolj zaokrožene, lau druge pa podolgovate in postavljene v več vodoravnih mo vrst po ostenju. Primerjamo jih lahko s skupino dekolo- riranega posodja iz Francije (IN 10). Nekatere čaše ima- m r ro jo ožje in višje ostenje (obl. AR 45.2 ali IN 11), druge so bolj kroglaste oblike (IN 18), z romboidnimi in podaljša-ss f la nimi facetami okrasa. Plitve dekolorirane skodelice s facetiranim okrasom less g opredeljujejo ostre profilacije in visoka kakovost izdela- ru ve ter vrezanega okrasa. Ustje je široko in močno izvi- lo hano, rob je zapognjen navzdol, z vrezanim okrasom je o okrašeno na gornji in spodnji strani. Okras facet je kom- n ca biniran z okrasom riževega zrna in ga najdemo tako na mo ustju kot dnu. Skodelice lahko primerjamo z oblikami f r AR 16.2, AR 13.2, AR 16,1 or AR 26 iz Avguste Raurike s od – Augst. fin V skupini so tudi večje skodele in krožniki brez okrasa. Sorodne oblike najdemo v Augstu, datirane so v pozno 1. in 2. stol., najdbe iz Francije pa v pozno 1. do 3. stol. Oblike, prepoznavne po široko izvihanem ustju in navzdol zapognjenem robu ustja, so v Augstu datirane med l. 80–90 do 170–180. Večje sklede s širokim ravnim in iz- vihanim ter zapognjenim robom ustja se prav tako po- javljajo med gradivom. Naselbinske plasti, v katerih se predstavljeni izdelki po- javljajo v Romuli, kjer so najštevilčnejši, opredeljujejo novčne najdbe, ki segajo od avgustejskega časa do vlade Marka Avrelija (161–180). Ennion Beaker and other Fragments of Mould-Blown Glass Čaša mojstra Enniona in druge najdbe v kalup pihanega stekla Abstract 81 Glass vessels constitute a source of inscriptions of various types and groups. The names of artisans or workshop owners, for example, are known from mould-blown vessels and even more so from the base marks on free-blown vessels that appear in great numbers. All these allow us then to gain important information on the workshops and the distribution of their products, on the names of the glass-blowers and their social or national origin. The article presents new finds of mould-blown beakers from Slovenia. The most interesting one is a partly preserved one-handled beaker signed by Ennion. Keywords: Roman glass, mould-blowing, inscriptions, Ennion, workshops, trade routes Izvleček Na steklenih posodah prepoznamo različne vrste napisov. Imena mojstrov ali lastnikov delavnic so najbolj znana na v kalup pihanih izdelkih, različne znake in okrajšave imen najdemo tudi na prostopiha-nem posodju. Vsi ti podatki nam omogočajo zbrati številne podatke o imenih mojstrov in njihovem izvoru, lokalnih delavnicah, razprostranjenosti njihovih izdelkov itd. Članek predstavlja nove najdbe v kalup pihanih čaš iz Slovenije. Med njimi posebej izstopa delno ohranjena enoročajna čaša s podpisom mojstra Enniona. Ključne besede: rimsko steklo, pihanje v kalup, napisi, Ennion, delavnice, trgovina Glass vessels, in addition to other sourc- er with the ability to handle the blowpipe dur-es, provide various sorts of inscrip- ing the production procedure. The inscriptions tions. Based on their production tech- on these products speak of artisans that pro- nique, they are divided into two separate groups. duced the richly decorated and exceptionally The first is constituted by mould-blown vessels well-made vessels and wished to emphasize their and the second by free-blown vessels with base mastery of the craft of glass-making, the qual-marks, made in one-part moulds. The various types of mould-blown vessels from the 1 ity of the moulds and also their artistic talent. st century AD give the names of the artisans or workshop The distribution of these products allows us to owners, expressly stating and proving the maker trace the trading areas of particular workshops of the object. This group is formed by early prod-and their craftsmen, the extensive trade routes, ucts, predominantly from the 1st century, that running from East to West and from South to were made by mould-blowing. It is a technique North, as well as the rapid development and developed after the invention of free-blowing spread of the new glass-making techniques dur-and it required a particularly skilled glass-blow- ing the 1st century. On the other hand, it is also known that the served also in literary sources (for example Sue-demanding production procedure caused these tonius, Cassius Dio, see Stern 1995, 60), tying products to be of higher price ranges and not the thus, in the best possible way, an archaeological cheapest on the market and that they could also find to the reality of the Roman daily life. be custom-made which indirectly implies that The names of Roman glass masters, pre- they were not commonly accessible. Their ap- served on their products, include one that is pearance within a grave or a settlement, there- surely known best, which is Ennion. This is fore, indicates the status of the owner and in- not a common Greek name and it is, therefore, directly also a presence of a class of well-to-do likely to be a Hellenized Semitic one, as sug-individuals in Roman settlements, either strong gested by E. M. Stern (1995, 69), perhaps Jew-or poor, depending on the importance and size ish, Phoenician or originating from another re-of the town. gion with a Semitic population. He worked in the Near East, with his workshops probably op- 82 erating in Sidon. The range of his products in- ss cludes jugs, amphoras, small angular bottles and la several types of beakers (Lightfoot 2015). With- e gh in the group of mould-blown products, his work h t stands out due to its precision and clear design, ug modelled on the contemporary products of Ro- ro man toreutics. It was innovative and technically h refined (Stern 1995, 69). k to Based on finds, his production is consid- o ered to have started in the first quarter of the 1st century, while during the second quarter, its lo • a l products became widespread even in the west- ekt ern parts of the Empire. Beakers predominate i sz amongst the finds from Italy; in Harden‘s opin- o Figure 34: Fragment of circus beaker from k Emona ion, these are later examples of Ennion‘s produc- (Ljubljana) (drawing after Petru 1980 by Janja Tratnik tion. The increase in the number of products in led s Šumi). g the West also encouraged ideas about the mas- o Slika 34: Odlomek cirkuške čaše iz Emone (Ljubljana) ter‘s workshop being moved from the Near East (risba Janja Tratnik Šumi, po Petru 1980). r ■ pa to Italy (Harden 1935, 165; Price 1991a, 72). How- za The first example of this group of vessels that ever, recent finds prove that, apart from Italy, his a l will be mentioned here is the cups with names products were also distributed in Spain, Greece, en of winners or competitors in sporting events – France (McClellan 1983, 76), Croatia (Buljević ir known also as gladiator or circus cups (Senne- 2012) and Slovenia. As for the latter, the site of quier et al. 1998). They are widely distributed in Ribnica near Brežice yielded (during the 2002– the western part of the Roman Empire. One was 2004 excavations) new finds of imported mould-also found in Ljubljana, in an insula of Emona. blown beakers (Lazar 2005b, 41; 2022, 31). It is a fragment of a circus cup with a depiction of Some finds are worth a particular mention a quadriga (figure/slika 34) (Petru 1980, 445, fig. and one such is a partly preserved one-handled 1). Unfortunately, the small fragment preserved beaker signed by Ennion (Lazar 2004b, 53, fig. does not include the frieze which usually bears 17; 2005b, 40), made from yellowish glass (fig-inscriptions such as Vale Cresces or Vale Pinius ure/slika 35). On the wall, the remains of the fix- – Long live Cresces. The names of certain com- ing of the handle can be seen. The decoration petitors known from these cups are, in fact, pre- consists of pillars, palmettos, concentric cir- 83 ss la n gwo -bl lduo f m s ot en Figure 35: Fragment of a beaker signed by Ennion, drawing Anđelka Fortuna Saje. mg Slika 35: Odlomek čaše s podpisom Enniona, risba Anđelka Fortuna Saje. ar cles and a part of a star (?) and can be defined decoration, the inscription within the square er fh as a Near Eastern style of decoration (Light- frame, and other details are absolutely identical. t foot 2015, 36, fig. 26; Lehrer 1979, Pl. VI: 2). In This can be concluded from the position of d on the centre, inside a square frame, there is the in- the letters on the inscription MNE…/ OAΓOP / scription in Greek MNHΘH OAΓO PAZΩN AZΩN; we can observe that the letter ‚N‘ is po-er aka ( mnesthe ho agorazon – Let the buyer be remem- sitioned above the letter ‚Ω‘ (ω) in the third line bered!). The second inscription panel ENNI / and not in the fourth as on other beakers from n beio ΩNEΠ / OIHCE N (Ennion made me), which this group, like the one from Narona in Croatia n we can presuppose on the basis of the analogies, (Buljević 2015, 61, fig. 50: 1). This points to slight en is not preserved. differences in the moulds for the same beak- The preserved inscription is of type J, to- er type and shows that certainly several moulds gether with the decoration (Lightfoot 2015, 28), existed since these differences could have come allows comparing this beaker with a beaker of about during the renewing or remodelling of a greenish glass found in Soluntum (Solanto) It- mould or the production of a new one. Chron-aly (now Palermo Museum in Sicily) (De Bellis ologically, one-handled beakers belong to the 2004, 129–33, figs. 6, 8) and with a beaker from second quarter of the 1st century. The rare finds The Shlomo Moussaieff Collection (Lightfoot from dated contexts occur in the late Tiberian or 2015, 92). These completely preserved one-han-Claudian strata (Lightfoot 2015, 26; Price 1991a, dled beakers were blown into a mould with the 65). The Romula find comes from the strata with same pattern as the one from Ribnica, since the archaeological material dated around the mid- and second half of the 1st century. The recent oped the trade in master Ennion‘s products was. finds prove that Ennion products were widely The question of whether the workshops and distributed in the west, including Spain, Greece, their branches moved to other places or wheth-France (Buljević 2015; McClellan 1983, 76), Slo- er moulds were exchanged between individual venia and Croatia (Buljević 2015, 61, fig. 50: 1). workshops, on the other hand, still remains to be answered. However, the possibility of migrat- ing glass workers should not be neglected. It is known that glass-blowers from the eastern Med- iterranean migrated to Italy and other provinc- es of Europe and could also have travelled with their trade. Interestingly, this group of products has a 84 special feature that stands out: the vessels, the styles of which became multiregional and pop- ss ular in many parts of the Roman world, are al- la most all tableware and fine glass tableware may e g have been valued primarily as status symbols h (Stern 1995, 94). The finds suggest that the chief h t Figure 36: Fragment of a mould-blown beaker with vege- attraction of the mould-blown tableware may ug ro tal decoration, Romula, drawing Anđelka Fortuna Saje. have been to give the impression of culture and h Slika 36: Odlomek v kalup pihane čaše z rastlinskim erudition. k t okrasom, o Romula, risba Anđelka Fortuna Saje. o Another find is a fragment with mould- blown decoration similar to Ennion products lo • a l (figure/slika 36). This is a fragment of a conical ekt beaker made of bluish, naturally coloured glass i sz of high quality. There is no inscription field on ok it, but the decoration shows similarities with glasses signed by Ennion, and with other signed led sg beakers. We can recognize four registers of deco- o ration divided with horizontal lines of pearls or r ■ pa small dots. Two registers with floral decoration za show in lower line elements of a Dionysiac style a l decoration known on two-handled Ennion cups en (Lightfoot 2015, 36, fig. 27), and the upper line Figure 37: Ennion beaker from Ribnica near Brežice ir decoration consists of columns with garlands. ( Romula), Slovenia (photo: Tomaž Lauko). The fragment ends with vertical flutes on the up- Slika 37: Ennionova čaša iz Ribnice pri Brežicah per part and a net pattern on the lower part, dec- ( Romula), Slovenija (foto: Tomaž Lauko). oration typical for mould-blown products made by Ennion and/or Aristeas. Summary Chronologically, one-handled Ennion Glass vessels, in addition to other sources, provide var-beakers belong to the second quarter of the ious sorts of inscriptions. The various types of mould-1st century. As for their distribution, the first blown vessels from the 1st century AD give the names of find of this product in Slovenia and the finds the artisans or workshop owners, expressly stating and from sites in Croatia published by Zrinka Bul-proving the maker of the object. This group is formed jević (2004b, 188; 2012; 2015) prove how devel- by early products, predominantly from the 1st century, that were made by mould-blowing. The names of Ro-ca je bila najverjetneje locirana v Sidonu. Med njegovi- man glass masters are preserved on their products, in- mi izdelki najdemo vrče, amfore, majhne stekleničke in cluding one indeed known best, Ennion. He worked in več vrst čaš. V skupini v kalup pihanih izdelkov njegovo the Near East, with his workshops probably operating delo posebej izstopa zaradi natančnosti in kakovostnega in Sidon. His products include jugs, amphoras, small an-oblikovanja, ki se je vzoroval po sočasnih izdelkih rim- gular bottles and several types of beakers. Within the ske torevtike. Bil je inovativen in tehnično dovršen. group of mould-blown products, his work stands out Novejše najdbe širom Evrope kažejo, da so bili njego-due to its precision and clear design, model ed on the vi izdelki razširjeni ne samo v Italiji, ampak tudi v Špa-contemporary products of Roman toreutics. It was in- niji, Grčiji, Franciji, na Hrvaškem in v Sloveniji. Članek novative and technical y refined. se posveča prav čaši iz Slovenije, iz Ribnice pri Brežicah, Recent finds in Europe prove that, apart from Italy, his kjer je bila odkrita prva najdbe te vrste. Deloma ohra-products were also distributed in Spain, Greece, France, njena enoročajna čaša iz rumenkasto obarvanega ste- Croatia and Slovenia. As for the latter, the site of Ribnikla s podpisom Enniona je bila odkrita leta 2003. Ok- 85 ca near Brežice yielded new finds of imported mould- ras sestavljajo stebri, palmete, koncentrični krogi in del blown beakers. A partly preserved one-handled beak-zvezde ter ga lahko opredelimo kot bližnjevzhodni slog ss okrasa. V osrednjem delu je znotraj kvadratnega okvir- la er signed by Ennion discovered in 2003 was made from ja napis v grščini MNHΘH OAΓO PAZΩN ( mnesthe n g yel owish glass. The decoration consists of pil ars, pal- w mettos, concentric circles and a part of a star (?) and can ho agorazon; »Naj se ohrani ime kupca«). Napis na drugi o strani, kot ga poznamo iz primerjav (ENNI / ΩNEΠ / -bl be defined as a Near Eastern style of decoration. In the OIHCE N; »Ennion me je izdelal«), pa ni ohranjen. Na ld centre, inside a square frame, there is the inscription in uo Greek MNHΘHOAΓO PAZΩN (mnesthe ho ag- osnovi ohranjenega napisa lahko f m orazon – Let the buyer be remembered!). The second čašo primerjamo z najdbo iz Solunta v Italiji in čašo iz s o zbirke The Shlomo Moussaieff Col ection. Vse tri eno- t inscription panel ENNI / ΩNEΠ / OIHCE N (En- ročajne čaše so bile pihane v enak kalup, saj so okras, na-en nion made me), which we can presuppose based on the m pis in razporeditev črk v okviru ter druge podrobnosti g analogies, is not preserved. The preserved inscription al- a povsem enaki. r lows comparing this beaker with a beaker found in Sol- Kronološko lahko enoročajne čaše umestimo v drugo er f untum (Solanto), Italy and with a beaker from The Shlo- h četrtino 1. stol. Redke najdbe iz datiranih kontekstov t mo Moussaieff Col ection. These one-handled beakers se pojavljajo v plasteh poznotiberijskega in klavdijskega d o were blown into a mould with the same pattern as the n one from Ribnica since the decoration, the inscription obdobja. er a within the square frame, and other details are identical. ka Chronological y, one-handled beakers belong to the n be second quarter of the 1st century. The rare finds from io dated contexts occur in the late Tiberian or Claudian n en strata. Povzetek Na steklenih posodah lahko tekom analize zasledimo, ne glede na tehniko ali čas izdelave, tudi različne vrste napisov. Na številnih izdelkih iz 1. stol., ki so nastali s pihanjem v večdelne kalupe, beremo imena mojstrov ali morda lastnikov delavnic, ki z napisom neposredno spo- ročajo, kdo je posodo izdelal. Med imeni rimskih moj- strov, ki so se ohranila na njihovih izdelkih, najdemo tudi ime Enniona, ki je brez dvoma najbolj poznan med vsemi. Deloval je na Bližnjem vzhodu, njegova delavni- Čaša za posebne priložnosti: odlomka čaše bogov iz Celeje A Beaker for Special Occasions: Two Fragments of a Mythological Beaker from Celeia Izvleček 87 Članek govori o novi najdbi v kalup pihane steklene čaše, ki je bila odkrita med naselbinskimi izkopavanji rimske Celeje. Sodi med t. i. čaše bogov, redke in zanimive izdelke za posebne priložnosti, ki so bili priljubljene predvsem v drugi polovici 1. stol. Ohranjena je figura Bakha in del stebra, ki je ločeval figure bo- žanstev, upodobljene na ostenju, ter skrival šiv večdelnega kalupa. Sodi v II. skupino čaš po opredelitvi Gladys Weinberg. Ključne besede: steklo, pihanje v kalup, čaše bogov, Celeia, Črnelo Abstract The paper discusses a new find of a mould-blown glass beaker discovered during settlement excavations in Roman Celeia. It belongs to the so-called mythological beakers, rare and interesting objects for special occasions, which were especially popular during the second half of the 1st century AD. The figure of Bacchus and part of the column that separates the deities depicted on the walls and hides a seam of the multi-part mould are preserved. The find belongs to group II, according to Gladys Weinberg. Keywords: glass, mould-blowing, mythological beakers , Celeia, Črnelo Potem ko je pihanje stekla izpodrinilo dra- vanjem prostega pihanja in da gre pravzaprav za ge in zamudne tehnike izdelave steklenih fazo v razvoju prostega pihanja. Eksperimenti in posod z uporabo kalupov ter drugih pri-preverjanje teorij v praksi pa so pokazali, da je pi- pomočkov (Lierke 2009), se je za kratek čas zde- hanje v kalup zahtevna tehnika, ki jo lahko ob- lo, da bo steklo postalo najbolj vsakdanji del rim- vlada le tisti, ki je že osvojil skrivnosti prostega pi- ske kulture. Pa vendar steklo kot material s svojo hanja. Staljeno steklo je namreč kot živa snov, ki krhkostjo in prosojnostjo vedno znova vsaj pri jo moraš imeti ves čas pod nadzorom, sicer se v posameznih izdelkih poudarja lastnosti, ki poso-trenutku spremeni v deformirano ali brezoblično do zaradi estetike okrasa povzdignejo s preproste kepo. Šele potem ko steklar obvlada prosto piha-obrtne na umetniško raven. Mednje prav goto- nje in rokovanje z mehko in polzečo kroglico ste- vo sodi v kalup pihano stekleno posodje, pri ka- klene mase na pipi, ki jo mora ves čas vrteti, da terem so v 1. stol. steklarji kar tekmovali, kdo bo nastajajoči predmet morebiti ne konča v prahu ob oblikoval novo, še drugačno obliko ali pa s svoji-steklarski peči, lahko preveri svoje mojstrstvo še s mi izdelki počastil dogodke iz rimskega vsakda- pihanjem v kalupe (več o tem Stern 1995, 20–30). na in nam jih na ta način ohranil vse do danes. V kalup pihane posode različnih oblik in Kar nekaj časa je bilo uveljavljeno prepriča- vzorcev so bile v rimskem obdobju zelo razširje- nje, da se je pihanje v kalup razvilo še pred pozna- ne, še posebej pa so bile priljubljene v 1. stol. Z uporabo kalupov so omogočili hitrejšo in obsež- odlomka t. i. čaše bogov. Tovrstni, v kalup piha- nejšo proizvodnjo skupin enakih izdelkov, ki so ni izdelki niso zelo številni, v Sloveniji smo do bili namenjeni uporabi v vsakdanjem življenju, sedaj poznali samo najdbo iz Črnelega, in zara- številni od njih pa so služili tudi samo okrasne- di vsebine svojega okrasa še vedno zbujajo pre- mu ali celo propagandnemu namenu. cej pozornosti ter vprašanj glede svojega name- Steklarji so za svoje delo uporabljali večdel- na, uporabe in izvora. ne keramične kalupe, za najzahtevnejše izdelke so bili kalupi tudi petdelni (Stern 1995, 28). Ker se steklo, za razliko od keramike, po ohlajanju ne skrči, je bil to edini način, da so izdelano poso- do nepoškodovano vzeli iz kalupa. Le-te so verje- tno izdelali tako, da so oblikovali vzorec, okrog njena vtisnili glino in nato previdno, po posame- 88 znih delih, odstranili tako narejeni kalup. Nanje ss so seveda dodali posebne oznake, ki so omogo- la čale popolno prileganje in spajanje posameznih e g delov kalupa med pihanjem in izdelavo posode. h Kalupi so bili nato žgani in s tem pripravljeni za h t uporabo. Ko je bil kalup enkrat izrabljen, so na ug osnovi arhetipa oz. vzorca brez težav izdelali nov, roh identičen kalup. k t Kakovostna proizvodnja v kalup pihanih oo posod različnih oblik ali vzorcev je bila tako od- visna na eni strani od sposobnosti oz. umetni- lo • a l ške žilice izdelovalca vzorca oz. kalupa in na dru- Slika 38: Odlomka v kalup pihane čaše iz Celja ek gi strani od spretnosti ter izkušenj steklopihača. (Mariborska cesta), Pokrajinski muzej Celje. M = 1 : 1, ti s Malo verjetno je, da bi celoten proces izvedla risba Jerneja Kobe. zo samo ena oseba, saj postopek vključuje različne Figure 38: Fragments of a mould-blown beaker from k spretnosti na številnih področjih. Celje (Mariborska cesta), Regional Museum Celje. led s Z rimskodobnih najdišč po Sloveniji ima- M = 1 : 1, drawing Jerneja Kobe. go mo ohranjenih kar nekaj odličnih v kalup piha- nih izdelkov (Lazar 2004b, 22, kat. št. 16–24), Prve čaše s podobami bogov (angl. mytholo- r ■ paz še več pa se jih verjetno v obliki neopredeljenih gical beakers, Seasons beakers; nem. Götterbecher; a odlomkov skriva po depojih. Med številnimi ste- iz slednjega je nastal tudi slov. prevod »čaša« oz. a l klenimi najdbami, ki so bile v zadnjih letih v Slo- »čaše bogov«) so bile prepoznane konec 19. stol. enir veniji izkopane v okviru avtocestnih projektov, (ok. 1870) (gl. Weinberg 1972). Številne so bile je bilo prav tako odkritega veliko novega in do kot posamične najdbe pridobljene s strani zbiral-sedaj pri nas po oblikah nepoznanega steklene- cev ali muzejev in glede na dokaj dobro ohranje- ga gradiva (Lazar 2004b, 78, kat. št. 92, 93). Po- nost večina verjetno izhaja iz grobnih celot. Čaše samezni predmeti ali odlomki prav gotovo sodi- so bile izdelane oz. pihane v petdelen kalup: štir- jo med najdbe, vredne širše pozornosti, in to ne je deli za ostenje in poseben del kalupa za dno samo v slovenskem merilu (Lazar 2005b; 2005c). čaše. Stiki oz. šivi med posameznimi deli kalupa Ob tej priložnosti želim predstaviti odlom-so na ostenju čaše skriti v stebrih, ki ločujejo po- ka steklene čaše, ki sta bila najdena med izkopa- lja, na katerih so upodobljena božanstva. vanji na Mariborski cesti v Celju (slika/figure 38) Prvo obsežno študijo o čašah bogov je v (Novšak idr. 2004). Najdba sama po sebi se bo sedemdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja objavila marsikomu zdela sicer skromna, vendar gre za Gladys Weinberg (1972, 26–47). V svojo raziska- 35), v skupini III pa na ostenju prepoznamo For- tuno, Apolona, Bakha in Merkurja (str. 50); četr- ta skupina, ki se ikonografsko razlikuje od osta- lih skupin, pa v glavnem obsega le odlomke čaš. Na nekaterih je bilo mogoče do sedaj prepoznati samo upodobitev Vulkana, na drugih pa odlom- ke figur Bakhovih spremljevalcev in morda tudi samega Bakha. Poudariti je treba, da se tipi upo- dobitev posameznih božanstev (npr. Bakh, Mer- kur) razlikujejo od skupine do skupine, kar jasno kaže, da so izdelovalci kalupov črpali iz različnih ikonografskih virov oz. predlog (str. 48). Prav tako je opazna razlika v kakovosti izvedbe figur 89 in detajlov, npr. atributov božanstev, pri čemer po kakovosti izstopata I. in III. skupina. eleje Čaša iz Črnelega (slika/figure 39) po svoji z c obliki in ikonografiji po opredelitvi Gladys We- v io inberg sodi v skupino II (1972, 38). Že v prvi ob- go javi groba iz Črnelega je Ložar (1935, 97) upodo- še b bljene figure na čaši prepoznal kot božanstva in a jih opredelil kot Dioniza, Hermesa, Pozejdona a čk ter neznano božanstvo. V skupni študiji o čašah m bogov pa jih je kasneje Gladys Weinberg na novo lod opredelila kot dve božanstvi in dve personifika- i: o ciji letnih časov – in sicer kot Pozejdona in Di- sto oniza ter jesen in poletje. Če pogledamo na ris- nž Slika 39: Čaša bogov iz Črnelega, grob 1; Narodni muzej bo (slika/figure 40), si po njeni interpretaciji z Slovenije, Ljubljana (foto: Tomaž Lauko). ilo leve proti desni sledijo Dioniz, poletje, Pozejdon r Figure 39: Mythological beaker from Črnelo, grave 1; Na- e p in jesen. Svojo razlago je med drugim utemelji- tional Museum of Slovenia, Ljubljana (photo: Tomaž la z dejstvom, da sta obe božanstvi pogosto upo- sebn Lauko). o dobljeni skupaj s personifikacijami letnih časov a p vo je zajela 24 čaš in odlomkov ter izdelke raz- (Weinberg 1972, 43). poredila v štiri skupine glede na ikonografijo. ša z Nove najdbe so najbolj razširile prav II. sku- ač Njena študija je spodbudila nadaljnje raziskave, pino čaš (18 novih čaš), zato je Karol Wight lah- številna izkopavanja pa so odkrivala tudi vedno ko revidirala in na novo utemeljila opredelitev nove najdb. Tako je lahko že v devetdesetih letih božanstev v tej skupini (1994, 35). Na čaši iz Čr-sledila nova raziskava te skupine izdelkov, ki jo je nelega lahko tako od leve proti desni prepoznav obliki doktorske disertacije in člankov predsta- mo naslednje figure oz. boštva: Bakh (Dioniz), vila Karol Wight (1990; 1994) in v kateri je zaje- Himenaj (prej poletje), Neptun (Pozejdon), Bo- la že preko 40 čaš. Na tej osnovi je lahko tudi de- nus Eventus (prej jesen). loma korigirala ikonografske opredelitve Gladys Bakh – mladeniška figura Bakha stoji fron- Weinberg. V skupini I so na čašah upodoblje- talno in je oblečena v kratek, tesno prepasan hi- ni Herkul, Himenaj, Merkur in personifikaci- ton. V levi roki drži pokonci tirsovo palico, v ja jeseni (Wight 1994, 25), na čašah II. skupine desni roki pa posodo (krater ali kantaros) in iz Bakh, Himenaj, Neptun in Bonus Eventus (str. nje izliva (vino) v odprta usta mladega panterja, 90 ss la e gh h t ug Slika 40: Razvit plašč čaše iz Črnelega s podobami božanstev (po Petru 1976). ro Figure 40: Drawing of a beaker from Črnelo with a representation of deities (after Petru 1976). h k too lo • a l ekti szok led sgo r ■ paza a l enir Slika 41: Rekonstrukcija odlomkov iz Celja na plašču čaše iz Črnelega, risba Jerneja Kobe. Figure 41: Reconstruction of the fragments from Celje on the beaker from Črnelo, drawing Jerneja Kobe. ki mu sedi ob desni nogi. Glava je obrnjena v des-poznati ostanke telesa oz. figure v kratkem pre- no oz. nam kaže levi profil. pasanem oblačilu, v drugem pa del stebra. Sle- Himenaj – bog svatbe; tričetrtine telesa je dnji so ločevali posamezne figure na obodu čaše prikazano v frontalni drži, tudi on je oblečen v in skrivali robove oz. šive večdelnega kalupa. S hitonisk, ki pa mu v draperiji pada po telesu in svojim modrikastim odtenkom stekla odlomka razkriva desni del prsnega koša. Preko leve rame izstopata od večine ostalih najdb, primerjamo pa nosi baklo, v spuščeni desnici pa drži posodo ju lahko z delno ohranjeno čašo enakega modri- (morda svatbeni leutrofor). Njegovi lasje so zaviti kastega odtenka iz zaliva Fos v Franciji (Foy in navzgor. Himenaja je Gladys Weinberg interpre-Nenna 2001, 82, št. 79). tirala kot poletje (1972, 43). Božanstvo je upodo- Primerjava risbe z risbo v celoti ohranjene bljeno tudi na čašah I. skupine, in sicer v iden- čaše iz Črnelega pokaže, da v prvem odlomku tični pozi, atributi pa so tu težje prepoznavni in lahko identificiramo ostanek figure Bakha, po-precej zabrisani. polnoma identične figuri na prvi čaši (slika/fi- 91 Neptun – bog morja; božanstvo je prika- gure 41). Tudi drugi odlomek, del stebra, se po zano frontalno, bradata glava ponuja pogled v svojih detajlih lepo prilega enemu od stebrov. levi profil. Oblačilo je bogato draperirano in mu Primerjava odlomka z božanstvi, ki so upodo-eleje bljena še na ostalih treh skupinah čaš z bogovi, je z c pada z levega ramena po telesu ter odkriva des- v i ni del torza. Figura ima dvignjeno levo roko, v potrdila, da gre torej tudi v tem primeru za od-og kateri drži trizob, desna roka je iztegnjena in v lomek čaše, ki sodi v II. skupino. Nobeno od bo-o njej stoji delfin, z nosom/rilcem navzdol. Figu- žanstev, upodobljenih na ostalih skupinah čaš, še ba ra Neptuna je jasna in prepoznavna z njegovimi namreč ni prikazano v kratki prepasani tuniki. a č atributi. Primerjave za ta tip upodobitve, ki se je Figura Bakha, ki je upodobljena tudi na čašah km razvil v pozno republikanskem obdobju, najde- III. skupine, se tam kaže kot gola figura s tirso- lo mo na gemah in novcih (Sena Chiesa 1966, 105, vo palico in z grozdom v roki (Wight 1994, 47). d št. 48). Detajli izdelave in prileganje obeh risb nam i: ost Bonus Eventus – figura stoji frontalno in je torej potrjujejo, da imamo opraviti tako rekoč s on oblečena v hlamido. V desni roki, spuščeni ob te- čašo dvojčico. To seveda pomeni, da sta obe čaši ž lesu, ima vejice cvetja ali žita, v pred seboj izteg- nastali v enakem, ali morda celo v istem kalupu. ilor njeni levi roki pa predmet, ki spominja na ptico. Seveda se nam takoj porodi naslednje vpra- e p Atributi tega božanstva so najbolj nejasni, zato šanje: kje so bili proizvodni centri teh izdelkov sebn ga je bilo od vseh upodobitev najteže prepozna- in po kakšnih poteh so prispeli do nas? Najdišča o ti oz. določiti. Bonus Eventus, ki je bil prvotno I. skupine čaš, ki je umetniško najbolj homogena a p opredeljen kot personifikacija jeseni, je rimska in najkakovostnejša, so bila večinoma koncentri- ša z personifikacija, povezana z žetvijo oz. s spravi- rana v vzhodnem Sredozemlju, zato je bila pos- ač lom pridelkov, kasneje pa tudi simbol blaginje in tavljena teza, da so tudi delavnice obstajale nekje sreče. Njegova podoba je velikokrat upodobljena na tem območju, morda v enem od umetniških samostojno na gemah (npr. Nestorović 2005, 28, središč, kot sta bila Rodos in Pergamon (Wight tab. 2: 18, 19) in novcih, datiranih v 1. in 2. stol. 1990, 72). Skupina II je zaradi zelo razpršenih (Arias 1986, 123–124). najdišč, posejanih tako rekoč po celotnem impe- Odlomka čaše iz Celja (gl. sliko/figure 38) riju (gl. seznam v Wight 1994, 35), v tem smislu sta velika 2,5 x 3 in 1,7 x 5,4 cm.1 Posoda je bila na-bolj problematična. Zaradi tega so kakršni koli rejena iz kakovostnega stekla modrikastega od- zaključki o proizvodnih središčih samo hipote- tenka in izredno tanko pihana. Natančen ogled tični. Razlika v detajlih ikonografije in kakovo-odlomkov nam v enem odlomku omogoča pre- sti izvedbe motivov nakazuje, da je morda druga 1 Inv. št. PMC 24458a, b (H 8/9; SE 7285, S 314; obd. št. skupina čaš nastala po vzoru prve, vendar v de- 9335). lavnicah, ki s prejšnjimi nimajo povezave. Seznam dokumentiranih čaš iz leta 1994 ma s praznovanji v čast Bakhu. Žal pa ohranjeni (Wight 1994) se je seveda dopolnil z novimi konteksti do sedaj znanih najdb niso dovolj iz-najdbami, predvsem iz zahodnega dela imperija povedni, da bi lahko v celoti potrdili takšne do- (Foy in Nenna 2003, 250, slika 69; Hochuli-Gy- mneve. Za libacije ob slavnostih in žrtvovanjih sel 2003, 181, sliki 4.29–30). Med slednjimi gre za so npr. največkrat uporabljali fialo, plitvo skode-najdbe s točnim najdiščem in z datiranim konte- lo, in ne visokih čaš. kstom. Ideja, da so čaše širili predvsem pripadni- Nov podatek, ki nam ga za naš prostor daje ki vojske, ki jo je oblikovala Karol Wight (1990, čaša iz Celja, je ta, da je bila odkrita v naselbin-73), je preživeta. Taka interpretacija ni več aktu- skem kontekstu; z nekaj drznosti lahko celo do- alna zaradi novoodkritih najdb, npr. iz Francije. damo, da v neposredni bližini tempeljskega Poleg tega nova razprostranjenost čaš druge sku-kompleksa, ki je s serijo zgodnjerimskih svetišč pine kaže dobro zastopanost v zahodnem delu doživel svoj višek prav sredi 1. stol. Za konec lah-92 imperija. To pod vprašaj postavlja celotno idejo ko samo dodamo, da so bile čaše bogov brez dvo-o vzhodnih delavnicah ali siro-palestinskem iz- ma izdelki, ki so jih uporabljali ali podarjali ob ss voru teh izdelkov. Verjetneje je, da lahko v tem posebnih priložnostih; božanstva, ki se družijo la kontekstu razmišljamo o potujočih steklarskih na čašah II. skupine, govorijo, da so bili to naje gh mojstrih (Stern 1995, 46). Tako izdelovalci kalu- verjetneje dogodki, povezani s prijaznimi in z le- h t pov kot mojstri steklopihači so bili visoko cenje- pimi platmi življenja, ki so jih Rimljani pogosto ug ni obrtniki, ki so svoje znanje znali unovčiti in so označevali s skupno besedo – otium. ro ga ponujali od delavnice do delavnice. V slednjih h so bili lahko le zunanji izvajalci, najeti za določen Summary k to čas, da je steklarna v določenem obdobju pokri- o The chapter discusses a new find of a mould-blown glass la potrebe na tržišču. Le-te so bile tako kot danes beaker discovered during settlement excavations in Ro-odsev trenutne mode in skladno s tem se je zado- man Celeia. The fragments belong to the so-cal ed myth-lo • a l voljilo povpraševanje na trgu. ological beakers, especial y popular during the second ekt Kako, za kaj in ob kakšnih priložnostih so half of the 1st century. Such mould-blown objects are not i sz te čaše uporabljali? Visoka, prisekano konična very numerous, until now only the find from Črnelo is ok oblika z ravno odrezanim ustjem kaže, da je šlo being known from Slovenia. za pivske posode, torej kozarce oz. čaše za pitje. The first comprehensive study of mythological beak-led sg Kot priljubljena oblika so te posode razširjene v o ers was published by Gladys Weinberg, who organized julijsko-klavdijskem obdobju, še posebej med v them into four groups according to their iconography. r ■ pa kalup pihanimi izdelki jih poznamo precej, npr. Already in the 1990s a new study from Karol Wight za čaše z motivi lotosa, mandljev ipd. (Lazar 2004b, partly amended the iconographic determinations of a l 55, kat. št. 24; Celje, inv. št. 24593f – neobjavlje- Weinberg. en no; Foy in Nenna 2003, 249, slike 70–74). Dob- ir The beaker from Črnelo belongs to group II accord- ra ohranjenost čaš in prilaganje v grobove kot da- ing to Weinberg, based on its form and iconography. rilo pokojniku pa kažejo tudi na poseben status, Rajko Ložar already recognized the figures depicted ki so ga imeli ti izdelki. Zaradi bogatega okra-on the beaker as deities and identified them as Diony- sa in izpovednosti motivov je zelo verjetno, da so sus, Hermes, Poseidon and an unknown deity. Later jih uporabljali ob določenih ritualih ali kot da-Weinberg described the figures as two deities and two rila za posebne priložnosti. Posamezne skupine personifications of the seasons. According to her inter-nam že s svojo ikonografijo in skupino upodo- pretation, the figures in the drawing fol ow from left to bljenih božanstev nakazujejo, ob kakšnih prilo- right: Dionysus, Summer, Poseidon and Autumn. žnostih bi jih lahko uporabljali. Skupina I je npr. New finds greatly added to group II of these beakers. povezana s poroko in poročnimi slavji, skupina Thus, Wight could revise and newly establish the defini-IV (Bakh in njegovi spremljevalci) pa brez dvo- tion of the deities in this group. In the beaker from Čr- nelo, the fol owing deities can be identified from left to za, Hermesa, Pozejdona in neznano božanstvo. Gladys right: Bacchus (Dionysus), Hymen (previously Sum-Weinberg jih je opisala kot dve božanstvi in dve personi- mer), Neptune (Poseidon) and Bonus Eventus (previous-fikaciji letnih časov, in sicer kot Dioniza, poletje, Pozej-ly Autumn). dona in jesen. The two beaker fragments from Celje are 2.5 x 3 and 1.7 Nove najdbe so povečale opredeljeno skupino II in Ka-x 5.4 cm in size. The vessel was made from quality blu- rol Wight je revidirala ter na novo opredelila božanstva ish glass and extremely thinly blown. A meticulous ex- v tej skupini. Na čaši iz Črnelega tako lahko od leve pro- amination of the fragments enables us to identify the re- ti desni opredelimo naslednje figure: Bakh (Dioniz), mains of a body, i.e. a figure in a short girded garment Himenaj (prej poletje), Neptun (Pozejdon) in Bonus on one and part of a column on the other fragment. A Eventus (prej jesen). comparison between this drawing and the drawing of Odlomka čaše iz Celja nista prav velika (2,5 x 3 in 1,7 x the ful y preserved beaker from Črnelo shows that the 5,4 cm). Izdelana je bila iz stekla modrikastega odten-figure of Bacchus can be identified on the first fragment, ka in zelo tanko pihana. Natančen pregled odlomkov je 93 completely identical to the figure on the first beaker. omogočil prepoznati ostanke telesa osebe v kratki pre-Furthermore, the second fragment, part of a column, pasani tuniki in del stebra na drugem odlomku. also matches one of the columns in its details. A com- Primerjava te risbe z risbo plašča iz Črnelega je pokazala, eleje parison of the fragment with the deities has confirmed da lahko figuro opredelimo kot Bakha in je povsem enaz c ka kot na ohranjeni čaši. Drugi odlomek, del stebra, se je v i that the fragments belong to a beaker from group II. o prav tako prilegal enemu od stebrov. Primerjava odlom- g The details of the making confirm that both beakers are o to be seen as twins. This of course means that both were kov in opredeljenih upodobitev je pokazala, da odlom- še b ka sodita v II. skupino čaš. Glede na detajle izdelave lah-a made in an identical, perhaps even the same mould. ko zaključimo, da imamo opraviti s čašama dvojčicama. a č Due to the rich decoration and expressiveness of the k To pomeni, da sta bili veretno izdelani v enakem, če ne m motifs it is very likely that they were used at particular celo v istem kalupu. lo rituals or as gifts for special occasions. The new infor- d mation offered by the beaker from Celje is that it was Glede na bogat okras in pomen upodobljenih motivov i: o je zelo verjetno, da so bile čaše v uporabi ob posebnih st found in a settlement context. Mythological beakers o ali določenih praznovanjih ali pa podarjene za posebne n were without doubt objects used on special occasions; ž the divinities on the beakers of group II probably attest priložnosti. ilo Zanimiv podatek je, da sta bila odlomka čaše iz Celja r to events relating to kind and pleasant aspects of life, najdena v naselbinskih slojih. Čaše bogov so bile brez e p which the Romans encompassed with one word – otium. dvoma izdelki, namenjeni posebnim priložnostim; bo- sebn žanstva na čašah II. skupine pričajo o dogodkih, poveza- o Povzetek a p nih s prijaznimi in z lepimi platmi življenja, ki so jih Ri-Razprava predstavlja novo najdbo v kalup pihane čaše, mljani poimenovali z eno besedo – otium. ša z ki je bila odkrita med naselbinskimi izkopavanji rimske ač Celeje. Odlomka pripadata t. i. čaši bogov, izdelkom, ki so bili priljubljeni v drugi polovici 1. stol. Izdelki te vrste niso prav številni, do sedaj smo iz Slovenije poznali samo čašo bogov iz Črnelega. Prvo celovito študijo o čašah bogov je objavila Gladys Weinberg, ki jih je glede na ikonografijo razdelila v štiri skupine. Že l. 1990 je sledila nova študija Karol Wight, ki je delno korigirala predhodnje ikonografske opredelitve. Čaša iz Črnelega glede na obliko in ikonografijo sodi v skupino II po Gladys Weinberg. Že Ložar je figure na čaši prepoznal kot božanstva in jih opredelil kot Dioni- Črno steklo, da ali ne?: nove najdbe posod iz na pogled črnega stekla Black Glass, yes or no?: New Finds of Vessels from Black-Appearing Glass Izvleček 95 Leta 1993 je bil v rimskem grobu na Ptuju priložen ovalen vrč, narejen iz na pogled črnega stekla. Kaj pomeni izraz »črno steklo« v rimski materialni kulturi? Kako opisati te izdelke, da bo to strokovno ustrezno in splošno sprejeto? Črno steklo je steklo, ki je tako intenzivno obarvano, da je neprosojno in na pogled črno. V članku želimo zato opozoriti na omenjeno problematiko ter stanje raziskav: predstavljamo tudi nove najdbe posod iz črnega stekla iz našega prostora, še posebej, ker je bilo območje JV Alp in tudi Jadrana do sedaj s tovrstnimi izdelki skromno zastopano. Ključne besede: rimsko steklo, črno steklo, izdelava v kalupih, pihano steklo, Romula, Poetovio, steklen nakit Abstract In 1993, an oval jug made of black-appearing glass was attached to a Roman grave in Ptuj. What does the term “black glass” mean in Roman material culture? How to describe these products to be professionally relevant and generally accepted? Black glass is glass that is so intensely coloured that it is opaque and black to the eye. In the article, we, therefore, want to draw attention to the mentioned problem and the state of the research. We are also presenting new finds of black glass vessels from our area, especially since the area of the SE Alps and also the Adriatic was so far modestly represented by such products. Keywords: Roman glass, black glass, mould-made, blown glass, Romula, Poetovio, glass jewellery Uvod li že prej –, zato je prav, da tej problematiki pos- V vetimo nekaj besed in zadnje stanje raziskav na Ptujskem arheološkem zborniku leta tem področju osvetlimo v širšem kontekstu rim-1993 je kolega Ivan Tušek objavil izsled- skega imperija. ke raziskav na ptujski obvoznici. V eni od sond je bil v rimskem grobu 4 priložen vi- Stanje raziskav sok ovalen vrč, narejen iz na pogled črnega ste- Že dolgo nazaj je Elisabeth Haevernick zapisa- kla (Tušek 1993, 390, tab. 8–9; Lazar 2003a, 130– la (1963, 123), da črnega stekla v rimski dobi ni 131, obl. 5.1.7.). Kakšno steklo je to in ali je izraz oz. ga Rimljani niso poznali oz. izdelovali. Pri »črno steklo« pravilen oz. upravičen? V zad- tem se je opirala na Plinija Starejšega, ki je v svo- njem času se je zaradi številnih in obsežnih razi- jem pisanju pravzaprav pomešal izdelke iz obsi- skav tudi pri nas povečalo število posod, izdela- diana in neprosojnega, na pogled črnega stekla nih iz na pogled črnega stekla – poleg žetonov in ( NH 36,196–197). To seveda tudi kaže, da Ri-okrasnih izdelkov, ki smo jih v večji meri beleži- mljani očitno niso ločevali (ali znali ločiti?) med naravnim obsidianom in izdelanim črnim stek-pogled črnega stekla uporabljali dva recepta. Pre- lom, še posebej, ker je bilo teh izdelkov v primer- vladovalo je t. i. steklo siro-levantinskega tipa iz javi z drugim steklenim gradivom malo (Cosyns relativno čistega peska in natrona, obarvano z 2015, 191). manganom, druga vrsta stekla pa je bila izdela- V raziskavah antičnega stekla se je zato na iz manj čistega peska z visoko vsebnostjo že-v zadnjih letih pojavil problem, kako pravza- leza in brez dodanih barvil (Cagno idr. 2014, prav opredeliti izdelke iz neprosojnega, na pog- 128). Črno steklo v poznorimskem obdobju je led črnega stekla.1 Kako torej opisati in določi- bilo izdelano iz sode in barvano z visoko količi- ti te posode in druge izdelke, da bo to strokovno no železa, verjetno celo s tako čistim virom, kot ustrezno in splošno sprejeto? Kaj pomeni izraz je magnetit (str. 137). Odgovor, ali je bilo steklo »črno steklo« v rimski materialni kulturi, ali barvano lokalno ali pa v primarnih delavnicah, je prav, da ga uporabljamo, in kako ga natančno še ni jasen. opredelimo? Pregled in raziskave črnega stekla2 na osno- 96 S problematiko se je v zadnjih letih, od svo- vi objavljenega gradiva so večkrat oteženi in pro- ss je doktorske disertacije dalje, največ ukvarjal blematični, saj avtorji v objavah ne opišejo na-la Cosyns (2011) in prav njegovim raziskavam gre tančno barve stekla oz. ne ločijo med na pogled e g zahvala, da se tem izdelkom v okviru študij an- h črnim steklom in njegovo pravo osnovno bar- tičnega stekla posveča več pozornosti in je termi- h t vo. Pogosto je izdelek tudi le preprosto opisan nologija na tem področju v zadnjem desetletju ug kot npr. iz neprosojnega stekla, kot temno stek- ro enotnejša, če ne v celoti poenotena. lo, pri nakitu pa se večkrat pojavi tudi zamenja- h Oko raziskovalca in arheologa bo v pra- va z gagatom.3 k to ksi ugotovilo, da imata tako črno kot belo nep- V članku želimo zato opozoriti na omenje- o rosojno steklo, oz. izdelki iz tako obarvanega no problematiko ter stanje raziskav in ob tem stekla, še dodaten odtenek – belo je lahko ra-na nekatere nove najdbe posod iz črnega stekla lo • a l hlo rumenkasto, modrikasto in tudi črno od- iz našega prostora (izdelanih v kalupu ali pros- ekt seva različne nianse. Črno steklo je torej steklo, to pihanih), še posebej, ker je bilo območje JV i s ki je tako intenzivno obarvano, da je neprosoj- z Alp in tudi Jadrana do zdaj s tovrstnimi izdel- ok no in na pogled črno (Bayley 1999, 90, 92). Šele ki zelo skromno zastopano, z izjemo nakita (Co-z močno lučjo, ki presvetli izdelek, lahko raz- syns 2015, 192, slika 18.1). led s iskovalec ugotovi, katera barva je v tem t. i. čr- go nem steklu prevladujoča. Največkrat je to rjava, Predstavitev gradiva in razprava r ■ p vijoličasta, zelena pa tudi modra in celo rdeča. a Raziskave črnega stekla na območju zahodnih z Za natančnejšo opredelitev kronološke in pred- a provinc rimskega imperija so pokazale, da so bili vsem geografske razprostranjenosti teh izdelkov a l ti izdelki priljubljeni in modni v dveh obdob- en pa je zelo pomembno ugotoviti, katera barvila so jih, izdelovali pa so jih z različnimi steklarski-ir bila dodana steklu, da je na pogled črno (Cosyns mi tehnikami. Prvi vrh priljubljenosti sodi v 1. 2015, 191; Cagno idr. 2014), kar seveda zahteva stol., natančneje v obdobje med vlado cesarja Ti-arheometrične analize. berija in flavijske dinastije (30–80 n. št.) (Cosyns Arheometrične analize več sto vzorcev črnega stekla so pokazale, da se je sestava ste- in Fontaine 2009). V tem času so bile te poso- kla zgodnjerimskega obdobja razlikovala od ste- 2 V nadaljevanju bomo za »na pogled črno steklo« uporab- ljali izraz »črno steklo« kot terminus technicus. kla v poznorimskem obdobju, prav tako barvila 3 Gagat je vrsta črnega lignita, nastalega z razgradnjo dreves, oz. minerali za obarvanje surovega stekla (Cagno starih več milijonov let, ki so pod visokim tlakom fosilizi-idr. 2014). Do sredine 2. stol. so za pripravo na rala. Že v antiki so ga cenili kot okrasni kamen, saj se zelo lahko obdeluje (trdota po Mohsovi lestvici med 2,5 in 4). 1 Angleži uporabljajo izraz black-appearing glass, black look-Rimljani so ga največ porabljali za nakit. Zaradi svoje teming glass, v zadnjem času pa tudi kar preprosto black glass ne barve je dobil tudi oznako žalni nakit, ki je bil cenjen in kot tehnični izraz za posebno vrsto stekla oz. izdelkov. dragocen. de izdelane tako z uporabo kalupov kot s pro-1. stol. (Grose 1991, 3; Cosyns in Fontaine 2009, stim pihanjem. Čeprav v majhnih količinah, je 83). razprostranjenost posod iz črnega stekla v tem Med oblikami v Ribnici se pojavljajo kro- obdobju značilna za celotno območje rimskega žniki različnih oblik, z ravnim ali poševnim os-imperija (Cosyns 2015, 191). tenjem, z rahlo profiliranim ustjem, njihovo Tu velja posebej izpostaviti Veliko Britani- dno je na notranji strani večkrat okrašeno s pli- jo, kjer so tovrstni izdelki znani s številnih najdi- tvimi kanelurami v obliki koncentričnih kro- šč, kot so npr. Colchester, Fishbourne, Carlysle, gov (Lazar 2019b, tab. 1: 1–5), skodelice z nav-in so bili najdeni v kontekstih pretežno civilne- zven nagnjenim ostenjem in rahlo profiliranim ga značaja, toda razpon najdenih oblik ni prav ali izvihanim ustjem (tab. 1: 6, 7) ter posode s ci- širok (Cosyns in Fontaine 2009). Na evropskih lindričnim ostenjem oz. pikside. Slednje so za-najdiščih na celini je kontekst najdišč z izdelki stopane z več posamičnimi izdelki, ki v svoji ve-iz črnega stekla bogatejši in bolj raznolik, pa tudi likosti variirajo, njihov premer znaša med 5 in 10 97 razpon oblik je pestrejši (Cosyns in Hanut 2005, cm (tab. 1: 8–10). Enako kot krožniki so na zuna-117, tab. 1). Posode se pojavljajo v bogatih žganih nji strani dna pogosto okrašene s plitvimi kane-la lurami v obliki koncentričnih krogov. ek pokopih, včasih tudi tumulih, in sodijo v skupi- t no t. i. luksuznega posodja. Večinoma so bile v Oblike posod iz 1. stol., izdelanih v kalupu, a s grob pridane po sežigu pokojnika, zato so dob- sta Cosyns in Souen Fontaine (2009, 80, tab. 1, egn 2) najprej razdelila v več skupin in oblik, v nada- r ro ohranjene in je bilo definiranih več oblik oz. skupin pretežno namiznega posodja: krožniki, ljevanju pa je Cosyns predlagal 14 osnovnih oblik s podskupinami za steklo, izdelano v kalupu led č skodelice, cilindrične posode (pikside), čaše na go nogi (skifosi), pladnji, ki se dalje delijo na posa- (2011, 48, slika 33), ter 19 oblik za prosto pihano a p mične različice oblik (Cosyns in Fontaine 2009, posodje tega časa (2011, 52, slika 34). Verjetno se z n 83, tab. 1, 2). Na zahodnoevropskih najdiščih je bo ta razpon počasi razširil, glede na nove najd-d i bilo na posodju mogoče dokumentirati tudi raz- be in objave, saj že med predstavljenim gradivom so iz Slovenije prepoznamo nove različice posamič- o lične vrste okrasa, ki sega od apliciranega in vtis- nih oblik. be p njenega drugobarvnega stekla (npr. belega ali jd Čeprav večji del najdb iz Ribnice izvira z ob- a modrega), plitvih kanelur do gub na ostenju, na močja Petričev grič, kjer so bile plasti večinoma e n britanskih najdiščih pa je črno steklo praviloma v uničene, nam novčne najdbe s tega območja ven- o neokrašeno. To je še posebej zanimivo, saj je npr. prav angleški Colchester najdišče z največ pre- darle kažejo, da je na tem delu naselja pretežni e? : n poznanimi posodami oz. odlomki posod črne- del dejavnosti potekal v 1. stol. in prvi polovici 2. stol. Dve tretjini novčnih najdb namreč izvira li n ga stekla, raznolikih oblik in širokega časovne- iz obdobja med vlado cesarjev Avgusta (27 pr. n. a a ga razpona (Cool in Price 1995, 32, 35, 100, 103). , d Med gradivom s slovenskih rimskodobnih št. do 14 n. št.) in Marka Avrelija (161–180). Prelo ostalo spremljajoče in časovno ožje opredeljivo ek najdišč so zgodnje oblike posod iz črnega ste- t kla dokumentirane v Romuli (Ribnica pri Bre- gradivo v veliki meri predstavlja v kalupu izdela-o s no posodje iz intenzivno obarvanega stekla (dru- n žicah), in sicer v naselbinskem kontekstu. V vseh r ga četrtina 1. stol. do pribl. leta 60) (Grose 1989; č primerih gre za v kalupu izdelane posode, mno- 1991) ter posodje iz dekoloriranega stekla s faceti- ge oblike s svojimi izrazitimi profili spominjajo ranim okrasom (Lazar 2020c), ki časovno pokri-na kovinsko oz. sigilatno posodje zgodnjeimpe- va obdobje druge polovice 1. stol.4 rialnega časa. Proizvodnja posod iz črnega ste- Drugo obdobje priljubljenosti in proizvo- kla v 1. stol. je namreč v celoti odražala priljublje- dnje steklenih posod iz črnega stekla sodi v čas nost in razširjenost enobarvnih steklenih posod intenzivnih barv, ki so jih izdelovali v času julij- 4 Gradivo najdišča Romula je v obdelavi Inštituta za arheologijo in dediščino UP FHŠ in bo pripravljeno za objavo v sko-klavdijske dinastije, od začetka do sredine letu 2023 in dalje. 98 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too lo • a l ekti szok led sgo r ■ paza a l enir Slika 42: Grobna celota groba 4/1988 z vrčem (po Tušek 1993). Figure 42: Grave assemblage from the gr. 4/1988 with a jug (after Tušek 1993). od sredine 2. do zadnje četrtine 3. stol. (Cosyns sna igla, glinen lonček z barbotinskim okrasom, in Hanut 2005; Cosyns 2006). V tem času je po-pet žebljev, v ognju deformirana steklenička in sodje iz črnega stekla ponovno v modi predvsem močno izrabljen bronast novec. V premešani plav severozahodnih provincah rimskega imperija, sti severnega roba groba so našli še oljenko s po-ko nastajajo pretežno prosto pihani izdelki. Med dobo satira in z žigom CDESS. Na osnovi grob-oblikami prepoznamo večinoma namizno po- nih pridatkov grob sodi v 2. stol. Med drugim sodje, kot so skodelice, čaše, vrči, in posamične gradivom iz črnega stekla oblika za zdaj nima oblike kozmetičnega posodja (Cosyns 2011, 56, primerjav (Cosyns 2011, 56, slika 35). slika 35). Posode iz črnega stekla izginejo iz upo- Za razliko od posod so nakit iz črnega ste- rabe nekje med letoma 250 in 280, le izjemoma kla izdelovali v precej večjih količinah in sko-se najde kasnejši izdelek. Cosyns prekinitev pro- zi celotno imperialno obdobje, še posebej je bil izvodnje povezuje z burnimi političnimi dogod- priljubljen in razširjen od druge polovice 2. stol. ki v galskih in germanskih provincah, saj je tam (Cosyns 2011). Med izdelki najdemo zapestnice, 99 delovala večina delavnic (2015, 191). Razprostra- prstane, obeske, jagode različnih oblik, razdelil- njenost druge skupine izdelkov je namreč sko- ce za ogrlice, lasne igle in seveda številne igral- la ne žetone. Najstarejše jagode iz črnega stekla so ek raj povsem omejena na provinci Gallia Belgica in t Germania Inferior, le posamične najdbe so bile znane iz sredine 1. stol., njihova priljubljenost a s dokumentirane na območju provinc Britannia, in številčnost pa porasteta od druge polovice 2. egn stol., ko je na zahodu imperija posebej razširjen r Germania Superior in Gallia Lugdunenis (str. 193, slika. 18.1). Izjemo med najdbami pomeni in v modi tudi nakit iz gagata. Vse to drobno graled č vrč iz groba na Ptuju, ki kot najdba v provinci Pa- divo v zahodnem delu rimskega imperija v 5. stol. go noniji dokazuje, da je izjema, ki potrjuje pravilo. počasi izgine iz uporabe, medtem ko je na vzho- a p Elegantni enoročajni vrč iz ptujskega gro- du še naprej opaziti uporabo širokega spektra na- z n ba 4/1988 iz neprosojnega, na pogled črnega ste- kita iz črnega stekla tudi v mlajših stoletjih, še d i kla (Tušek 1993, tab. 6: 3) izstopa tudi med ob- do vključno zgodnje bizantinskega časa (Cosyns soo javljenim steklenim gradivom iz Slovenije. Sodi 2011). be p med redke prosto pihane izdelke iz črnega ste- Kot omenjeno, je tega drobnega gradiva jd med arheološkimi najdbami tudi na naših najdi- a kla z našega območja in iz drugih panonskih ter e n podonavskih provinc. Grob 4 sodi v sklop izko- ščih precej več kot posod; posebno obravnavo in vo pavanj ptujske obvoznice v letih 1987 in 1988, ki študijo bi si prav gotovo zaslužile zapestnice. Na jih je v okviru takratnega ZVKD Maribor vodil tem mestu pa omenjamo le zanimivejše najdbe e? : n Ivan Tušek. Ležal je v sondi I, v kateri so odko- iz Ribnice ter izpostavljamo dva tipa jagod – va- li n pali 11 žganih in štiri skeletne grobove, ki so bili ljaste jagode z nataljenim okrasom iz drugobarv-a a del večinoma že uničenega vzhodnega grobišča, nega stekla in t. i. Trilobitenperlen 5 oz. ploščate , d potekajočega ob južni strani rimske ceste Poeto- narebrene jagode, lahko bi jih poimenovali tudi lo ek vio–Savaria (str. 387). Grobišče je bilo uničeno razdelilci za ogrlice. t ob gradnji železniške proge Ptuj–Ormož ter s ši- Med steklenimi jagodami večkrat izstopajo o sn ritvijo Potrčeve ceste in novogradenj ob njej. daljše valjaste jagode iz neprosojnega črnega ste- rč Grob 4 s konstrukcijo iz tegul je bil ob od- kla, ki se pojavljajo tudi med gradivom v Ribni- kritju že deloma uničen, poškodoval ga je iz- ci. Temne, neprosojne jagode so okrašene z nitmi kop za vodovodno napeljavo, ohranjena velikost iz kontrastnega belega neprosojnega stekla. Belo grobne jame je bila tako 106 x 65 cm, globina pa steklo je bilo ovito okrog jagode in še toplo raz-do 25 cm. V grobu so bili poleg vrča pridani (sli- 5 Izraz Trilobitenperlen (nem.) je prva uporabila Elisabeth ki/figures 42, 43) še steklena dvoročajna posodi-Haevernick (1975), ko je objavila članek o teh značilno ca za olje (Lazar 2003a, 171, obl. 8.3.2.), odlomki oblikovanih in okrašenih jagodah. Narebrena površina jo je spomnila na izumrle členonožce, in zato je za te jagode kadilnice, nosek pečatne oljenke, koščena okra-izbrala tako posebno poimenovanje. 100 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too lo • a l ekti szok led sgo r ■ paza a l enir Slika 43: Grobna celota groba 4/1988 (po Tušek 1993). Figure 43: Grave assemblage from the gr. 4/1988 with a jug (after Tušek 1993). 101 la ekt a s egnr led čgo Slika 44: Ploščate jagode z dvema luknjicama oz. razdelilci za ogrlice iz na pogled črnega stekla, Romula. a p Risbe Andreja Izlakar, računalniška priprava in foto: Aleš Ogorelec. Figure 44: Flat beads or spacers with two perforations from a black-appearing glass, z n Romula. d i Drawings Andreja Izlakar, computer design and photo: Aleš Ogorelec. soo potegnjeno v peresast okras, pri nekaterih jago- jagoda najdena v tiberijskih plasteh (Gaspari be p dah pa so nataljeno nit samo vtisnili v ostenje z 2010, 112, slika 65). Hipoteza Gasparija o lokal-jda valjanjem po ravni podlagi. ni emonski proizvodnji (2010, 113) pa je, glede e n Podobne jagode z vtisnjenim okrasom v ob- na njihovo razprostranjenost in trenutne arheo- vo liki črt, cik-caka ali peres najdemo že v prazgodo- loške dokaze, nekoliko preveč velikopotezna ali vinskih in helenističnih kontekstih arheoloških vsaj preuranjena. e? : n najdišč v Sredozemlju (Spaer 2001, 99). Njiho- Ploščate ovalne jagode, ki so na spodnji stra- li n va proizvodnja se nadaljuje v rimski in tudi bi- ni ravne, na gornji pa izbočene in okrašene, ima- a a zantinski čas, ko poznamo številne lokalne raz- jo v sredini navadno dve luknjici ( Romula, PN , d ličice okrasa (str. 102, slika 47). Muzej Louvre 3128, 3166, S 492). Prva jih je zbrala in obravnava-lo ek hrani podobne jagode, nanizane v ogrlici iz čr- la Elisabeth Haevernick (1975, 105), ki jih je tudi t nomorskega Kerča (Arveiller-Dulong in Nenna poimenovala Trilobitenperlen, kajti okras na gor-o sn 2011, 106, 164–165, št. 166, 182, 207 in 208). Da- nji strani tvorijo podolžni vrezi, pogosto pa je rč tirane so v 1. do 2. stol. in opredeljene kot proi- osrednji del še horizontalno narebren, da nasta- zvod vzhodnosredozemskih delavnic (Arveiller- ne vtis šahovnice (slika/figure 44). Ploščate jago- -Dulong in Nenna 2011, 143), čeprav je mogoče, de naj bi enako kot navadne jagode izdelovali z da so nastajale še kje, če sklepamo po raznoliko-navijanjem na palico in jih nato dooblikovali ter sti njihovega okrasa in nihajoči kakovosti izdela- okrasili v še toplem stanju, lahko ročno ali z od- ve (Spaer 2001, 103). tisom v kalupu (Spaer 2001, 66). Po natančnem Pri nas poznamo podobne jagode, npr. iz pregledu najdb, kjer je bilo opazno prepogibanje Ribnice, Petovione in Emone, kjer je bila taka stekla, pa je Cosyns predlagal drugačno rešitev Slika 45: Rekonstrukcija verjetne izdelave ploščatih jagod (po Cosyns 2011, slika 16). 102 Figure 45: Reconstruction of a possible production of flat beads (after Cosyns 2011, fig. 16). ss (2011): črno steklo je bilo naneseno na ravno po- rane v drugo polovico 3. stol., v grobu iz Sopianae la vršino, nanj so položili dve palici, steklo prepog- pa v 4. stol. (Arveiller-Dulong in Nenna 2011, e gh nili, okrasili in nato odstranili palici za luknjice 49–50, št. 57). Na konec 3. stol. bi po prilože-h t (str. 29, sl. 16) (slika/figure 45). Okras vedno teče nih balzamarijih sodil tudi grob iz Budve. Najd-ug vzporedno z luknjicami v jagodi. be opisanih jagod so pretežno razprostranjene ro Med novimi najdbami so tudi številne ja- v osrednji in vzhodni Evropi, le malo je znanih h gode s figuralnim okrasom, ki pa jih med našim iz Sredozemlja. Zaradi tega je že Elisabeth Ha-k to gradivom za zdaj ne poznamo (Arveiller-Dul- evernick domnevala, da so bile izdelane v Evro- o long in Nenna 2011, 49). V Akvileji so npr. zasto- pi, nove hipoteze pa delavnico postavljajo tudi v pane jagode z okrasom Meduzine glave, moške Brago na Portugalskem, kjer so izdelovali nakit lo • a l ali ženske glave v profilu, maske in par v por- iz črnega stekla (Cosyns 2011, 228; Arveiller-Du- ekt tretu, obrnjen drug proti drugemu (Mandruz- long in Nenna 2011, 49). i sz zato 2008, 29). Slednji naj bi prikazoval zakon- ok ski ali po mnenju nekaterih morda celo cesarski Sklep par (Spaer 2001, 66; Arveiller-Dullong in Nenna Ob koncu velja omeniti še poznane in domne-led sg 2011, 49). vane delavnice črnega stekla. Na osnovi gradiva o V arheoloških kontekstih so bile narebrene jih je opredeljenih kar nekaj, čeprav je to števi-r ■ pa jagode najdene kot del ogrlice, ki je služil kot za- lo v primerjavi z drugimi steklarskimi delavnica- za ključek (npr. ogrlica v Akvileji) (Mandruzzato mi majhno. Večinoma te delavnice niso proizva-a l 2008, 63, slika 80) ali kot razdelilec, skozi kate- jale samo izdelkov iz črnega stekla, ampak so bili en rega so napeljali trakove z nanizanimi jagodami; ti del širše proizvodnje obrata. Delavnica zgo-ir ti so prosto viseli kot podaljšek ogrlice. Primer dnjeimperialnih izdelkov črnega stekla je goto-ogrlice z dvema jagodama te oblike, na vsakem vo delovala v francoskem Lyonu, domnevana pa koncu ogrlice ena, je ohranjen npr. iz Nevioduna je tudi delavnica v Švici, v mestu Avenches (Co- (Petru in Petru 1978, 65, tab. 17: 2). V skeletnem syns 2015, 228, tab. 110 in slika 118). Tri delavnice grobu v Budvi so bile priložene samo tri jagode, so potrjene za obdobje srednjega cesarstva in po-poleg steklenih balzamarijev (Marković 2012, gr. zno rimsko dobo ( Augusta Raurica – Kaiserau-201, tab. 80). gst v Švici in dve delavnici v Franciji), na osnovi Jagode so poznane s številnih rimskodob- številnih odpadkov slabo izdelanih zapestnic pa nih najdišč pa Evropi in izven nje, pojavile naj bi je domnevana tudi delavnica nakita v Orešcu na se nekje v 3. stol., najbolj pa so razširjene v konte-sosednjem Hrvaškem ( Bolentio) (Jelinčić 2009, kstih 4. stol., v grobu iz Emilije-Romanje so dati- 108). V pozni rimski dobi pa naj bi delovale de- 103 la ekt a s egnr led čgo a p z n d isoo be pjda e nvo e? : n li n a a, d lo ekt o snrč Tabla 1: Oblike posod iz na pogled črnega stekla, vse izdelano v kalupu, Romula. M = 1 : 2, risbe Andreja Izlakar. Plate 1: Forms of black-appearing glass, all mould-made, Romula. M = 1 : 2, drawings Andreja Izlakar. lavnice v Akvileji, Trierju in Bragi na Portugal-5. Odlomek dna posode, verjetno krožnik, iz skem (Cosyns 2011, 229, tab. 111). Če pogledamo neprosojnega, na pogled črnega stekla (tem- karto razprostranjenosti teh najdišč, vidimo, da norjavo), vidna kanelura na notranji strani, so delavnice pretežno locirane v zahodnih pro- izdelano v kalupu. Vel. 3,4 x 1,9 cm (S 925). vincah, le Portugalska in Hrvaška izstopata iz 6. Del ustja in navzven nagnjenega ostenja tega kroga. skodelice, ustje izvihano in profilirano, nep- V članku smo želeli opozoriti na skupino t. rosojno, na pogled črno steklo (temnorjavo i. črnega stekla v rimski dobi in na nove najdbe do vijoličasto), izdelano v kalupu. Pr. ustja posod ter nakita z območja Slovenije; te so v zad- 11,2 cm (S 1001). njem desetletju obogatile nabor tega gradiva in 7. Dva odlomka čaše z izvihanim ustjem, nep- še posebej oblik namiznega posodja tako pri nas rosojno, na pogled črno steklo (temno rja- kot v celotnem kontekstu rimskega imperija. To vo), izdelano v kalupu. Zunanja stran groba, 104 dokazuje, da se stanje raziskav na področju spe- notranja gladka. Pr. ustja 10 cm (S 295–PN cialističnih študij stalno spreminja in seveda do- 2477). ss polnjuje. Upamo, da bo članek kolege spodbudil, la da pobrskajo po svojih depojih ali med novimi 8. Del dna posode, najverjetneje skodelice z e g ravnim ostenjem – piksida, neprosojno, na h najdbami, in tako obogatijo trenutno znani na- pogled črno steklo (temnorjavo), izdelano v h t bor gradiva. Še bolj razveseljivo pa bi bilo, da to kalupu, vidni koncentrični krogi. Vel. 4,5 x ug preraste v celovito študijo izdelkov iz na pogled 3,2 cm (S 1061). ro črnega stekla na območju JV Alp. h 9. Del dna skodelice z ravnim ostenjem – pi- k to Katalog obravnavanih posod ksida, neprosojno, na pogled črno steklo o (temnorjavo), izdelano v kalupu. Pr. dna 5,8 Prva skupina: 1. stol., v kalupu izdelano posodje cm (S 1004). lo • a l (tabla/plate 1) 10. Del dna skodelice z ravnim ostenjem – pi- ekt ksida, neprosojno, na pogled črno steklo i s 1. Del dna in ostenja krožnika z ravnim, ra- z (temnorjavo), izdelano v kalupu. Pr. dna 10 o hlo vboklim dnom in navzven nagnjenim k ostenjem iz neprosojnega, na pogled črne- cm (S 1272). led s ga stekla (temnorjavo do vijoličasto), na dnu go plitva kanelura pred prehodom v ostenje, iz- Druga skupina: 2.–3. stol., prosto pihano posodje (slika/figure 43) r ■ p delano v kalupu. Pr. ustja 12 cm (S 298–PN az 2377). a 1. Vrč iz neprosojnega črnega stekla s prese- a l 2. Del ustja in ostenja krožnika oz. plitve sko- gajočim ročajem, pritrjenim na ustje, z iz- en delice iz neprosojnega, na pogled črnega ste- rastkom kot oporo za palec, ročaj je po vsej ir kla (temnorjavo), izdelano v kalupu, ustje dolžini okrašen s horizontalno narebrenim izvihano in profilirano. Pr. ustja 19 cm (S apliciranim steklenim trakom. Ustje izvi- 913). hano, dno z izvlečeno prstanasto nogo. Viš. 3. Odlomek dna posode iz neprosojnega, na 23,4 cm, pr. ustja 6,4 cm, pr. dna 6,2 cm. pogled črnega stekla (temnorjavo do vijoli- často), izdelano v kalupu. Vel. 3,8 x 3 cm (S Summary 924). In 1993, a col eague, Ivan Tušek, published his research 4. Del dna krožnika na nizki nogi, neprosoj- findings from the Ptuj Bypass site in the publication no, na pogled črno steklo (temnorjavo). Na Ptuj ski arheološki zbornik. At one of the sites an oval jug zunanji in notranji strani ob nogi plitve ka-of opaque, black-appearing glass was placed into Roman nelure. Pr. dna 13 cm (S 380–PN 3508). grave No. 4. What does the term black glass mean with- in the Roman material culture? Is it right to use it, and raziskav in na nove najdbe posod iz črnega stekla z na-how to accurately define it? How to describe these ves- šega prostora, še posebej, ker je bilo območje JV Alp in sels and other products so that it will be professional y tudi Jadrana za zdaj s tovrstnimi izdelki zelo skromno appropriate and widely accepted? zastopano. Black glass is glass that is so intensely coloured that it is Raziskave črnega stekla na območju zahodnih provinc opaque and seemingly black. Only by using strong light rimskega imperija so pokazale, da so bili ti izdelki pri-that goes through the product, it can be determined ljubljeni v dveh obdobjih. Prvo sodi v 1. stol. n. št., na-which colour is dominant. In this article, we would like tančneje v obdobje med vlado cesarja Tiberija in dina-to draw attention to the aforementioned issue, the state stije Flavijcev, posode pa so bile izdelane tako z uporabo of research and new findings of black glass vessels from kalupov kot s prostim pihanjem. Drugo obdobje proi-our region; especial y since the southeastern Alpine zvodnje posod iz črnega stekla sodi v čas od sredine 2. area, as well as the Adriatic, has been only modestly rep- do zadnje četrtine 3. stol., ko nastajajo pretežno prosto resented by such products. pihani izdelki. Za razliko od posod so nakit iz črnega 105 Research on black glass from the western provinces of stekla izdelovali v večjih količinah in skozi celotno im-the Roman Empire showed that these products were perialno obdobje, še posebej je bilo razširjeno od druge la popular over two periods. The first belongs to the 1st polovice 2. stol. ekt century AD more specifical y, during the period be- V članku poleg vrča s Ptuja predstavljamo nove najdbe a s tween the reign of Emperor Tiberius and the Flavian posod iz črnega stekla z našega prostora (izdelanih v ka-egn dynasty, and the vessels were made using both moulds lupu) in izbrane oblike nakitnih predmetov. Upamo, da r and free blowing. The second period of production of bo predstavitev te problematike spodbudila nadaljnje študije tovrstnega gradiva. led č black glass bowls dates from the middle of the 2nd to the go last quarter of the 3rd century when mainly free-blown a p products were made. z n Unlike bowls, black glass jewel ery was made in large d i quantities and throughout the imperial period, par- soo ticularly since the second half of the 2nd century, when be p it expanded. jd In addition to the jug from Ptuj, the article presents new a finds of black glass vessels from our area (mould-made) e nvo and selected forms of jewel ery items. It is hoped that the presentation of this issue and the state of research e? : n will encourage further studies of this kind of material. li n a a Povzetek , d V Ptujskem arheološkem zborniku je kolega Tušek leta 1993 lo ek objavil izsledke raziskav na ptujski obvoznici. V eni od t sond je bil v rimskem grobu 4 priložen ovalen vrč, nare- o sn jen iz na pogled črnega stekla. Kaj pomeni izraz »črno rč steklo« v rimski materialni kulturi? Ali je prav, da ga uporabljamo, in kako ga natančno opredelimo? Kako opisati te posode in druge izdelke, da bo strokovno ustrezno in splošno sprejeto? Črno steklo je steklo, ki je tako intenzivno obarvano, da je neprosojno in na pogled črno. Šele z močno lučjo, ki presvetli izdelek, lahko ugotovimo, katera barva je prevladujoča. V članku želi- mo zato opozoriti na omenjeno problematiko ter stanje Glass Material from the Roman Necropolis of Budva in the Social and Economic Context of the Empire Stekleno gradivo z rimske nekropole Budva v socialnem in ekonomskem kontekstu imperija Abstract 107 The publication of the Hellenistic and Roman necropolis of Budva gave the scientific public and various specialists an opportunity for the detailed study of the material in the wider context of the Roman Empire. The preliminary study of the glass assemblage in the necropolis has shown that the import of glass vessels from the eastern Mediterranean is represented through the period from the 1st to the 4th centuries, while the glass vessels from Italian or western workshops are less numerous and were imported predominantly during the 1st and 2nd centuries. In a grave ritual of Budva necropolis the glass vessels were abundantly added as grave goods and several graves comprise only glass as a grave good in a burial. Keywords: Budua, Adriatic, Roman glass, mould-blown glass, coloured glass, Mediterranean workshops Izvleček Objava grobov helenistične in rimske nekropole v Budvi je znansteni javnosti in številnim specialistom ponudila priložnost za podrobne študije gradiva v širšem kontekstu rimskega imperija. Predhodne raziskave steklenega gradiva rimske nekropole so pokazale, da je gradivo iz vzhodnih sredozemskih delavnic zastopano od 1. do 4. stol., medtem ko so izdelki italskih oz. zahodnih delavnic manj številni in so bili uvažani predvsem tekom 1. in 2. stol. V grobnem ritualu budvanske nekropole opažamo prilaganje stekla v veliki količini in v številnih grobovih so pridani samo stekleni predmeti. Ključne besede: Budva, Jadran, rimsko steklo, pihanje v kalup, obarvano steklo, sredozemske delavnice The town of Budua lies on the Roman The publication of the Hellenistic and Ro-coastal road – via publica Epidaurus– man necropolis of Budva gave the scientific pub-Scodra (Cavtat–Skadar) and is men- lic and various specialists an opportunity for the tioned in the Tabula Peutingeriana (Mar- detailed study of the material in the wider con-tinović 2011, 23). The Roman town was a text of the Mediterranean and the Roman Em-successor of an important Iron Age and Greek pire (Marković 2012). The preliminary study of settlement and the variety of glass goods from the glass assemblage in the necropolis has shown the Mediterranean workshops in the Budva that the import of glass vessels from the eastern necropolis gives valuable insight into the live-Mediterranean is represented through the peri- ly trade city on the Adriatic coast (figure/slika od from the 1st to the 4th centuries (Lazar 2016, 46). The town was, nevertheless, included in in-21), while the glass vessels from Italian or west- tensive trade with the Mediterranean along the ern workshops are less numerous and were im-ancient trade routes already from the Hellenis- ported predominantly during the 1st and 2nd cen- tic period on. turies. Based on the published material it can 108 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too lo • a l ekti szok led s Figure 46: Map of the Adriatic with the site of Budva in Montenegro (elaborated by Andrej Preložnik). go Slika 46: Karta Jadrana z lokacijo najdišča Budva v Črni gori (pripravil Andrej Preložnik). r ■ pa be assumed that trade was much more intensive ed in 1938 is now part of the Roman collection za with the eastern Mediterranean; in the 1st and at the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb (Croa l 2nd centuries vessels from Syro-Palestinian work- atia)1 and of the National Museum in Belgrade en shops were most popular (mould-blown vessels) (Serbia) (Veličković 1976, 165). The collection in ir and from the second half of the 2nd century on- Zagreb includes 65 almost completely preserved wards products from Cypriot and Asia Minor glass vessels, without the exact or known con-workshops are rather numerous. text, all of them purchased in the period from In 1936 and 1938, several graves from the the 1940s to the1950s from several dealers or col-Hellenistic and Roman periods were discov- lectors (Bertol Stipetić and Gostinski 2021, 274). ered during the construction works for a hotel The research of the Budva necropolis (gr. in Budva (gr. Βουθόη, lat. Budua). Unfortunate- Βουθόη, lat. Budua) (Martinović 2011, 36) con-ly, the material was split and sold, ending in var- 1 I would like to express my sincere thanks to the late Dr. ious museums of former Yugoslavia (Belgrade, Zoran Gregl, curator of the Roman archaeological collecti- Cetinje, Split, Zagreb) as well as private collec- on in the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, who offered me the Budva material for study and so initiated my inte- tions. One part of the material that was separat- rest for the glass assemblage from Budva necropolis. tinued about twenty years later, between 1951 and be individual graves or graves within the family 1957, and in the years 1980–1981. The necropolis plots. Grave construction no. IV with a cippus in has two parts, the older one belongs to the Hel-front of the built grave (pl. 93–95 and 122) con- lenistic period (between the 4th and 1st centuries tained nine individual burials and seven of them BC), while the Roman necropolis can be dated contained only glass goods. Additionally, 13 glass to the period from the 1st to the 4th centuries AD vessels, mostly for cosmetic purposes, were add- (Marković 2012, 11, 115). The excavated material ed individually and put on the grave floor and was not completely studied until recently when between the urns; they probably represent the the excavations from the period 1981–1982 were remains of libation, annual celebration or other published by Čedomir Marković in 2012. grave cult practices for the deceased. The grave The published material of the Roman ne- construction and grave goods represent a fairly cropolis comprises 218 simple individual graves limited period of burials, ranging from the sec-and 63 larger grave constructions or burial plots ond half of the 1st (cup Is 12 – pl. 93: 13; plate Is 49 109 built of stone with several individual burials in – pl. 94: 10; mould-blown glass items) to the end e stone or glass urns. The necropolis includes cre- of the 2nd century (beaker made of decolourised pir mation and also skeleton burials, the latest being glass (pl. 94: 5), large one-handled cylindrical me e only 36 or 15% of 256 graves in total. The peak of bottles with a wide neck (pl. 93: 17; 94: 1, 11) and h the necropolis and flourish of the town was, ac- a square bottle Is 50 (pl. 94: 9), glass jars Isings 63 f t t o cording to the Roman graves assemblages, the 1st with M-shaped handles (pl. 93: 15) and globular and 2nd century AD. jars with folded rims Isings 67 (pl. 94: 4, 14, 16). texno It is surprising how important were glass All the above-mentioned types of larger ic c vessels in the grave ritual of Budva, glass pre- transport glass vessels can be used also as glass mo dominates all other materials and many graves urns in individual burials. Therefore, for the no comprise only glass as a grave good in a buri- purpose of ash and grave good container in indi- c al. Very few graves contain no glass items. And vidual burials not only globular glass urns with d en that does not mean only one modest balsamari- or without the handles are used (forms Isings 63, l aia um but several glass vessels, some of them repre- 63, 67; Isings 1957, 81–3, 86) but also larger cylin-co senting the highest level of craftsmanship from drical bottles with a wide neck (figure/slika 47) e sh the established Mediterranean workshops. The and square or cylindrical jars are often used as an n t latest discoveries and publications give the pos- urn, the same practice as it was observed in fami- va i sibility to study the graves assemblages with ly grave plots. These glass urns are covered or put du varied and numerous glass items, ranging from under half an amphora or some other large lower f b diverse glass vessels representing various produc- part of the ceramic vessel for protection. lis o tion techniques, colours and decoration, to jew- In this context, it is worth mentioning a po ellery like glass rings, spacers etc., as well as the group of large one-handled bottles with a dec-roec patterns of use of the glass vessels and the social oration of horizontal grooves on the body (plot n n structure of the deceased. IV a: pl. 93: 12; plot XXVIIb: pl. 105: 14; A-I/12: am Mould-blown glass bottles and balsamaria PL. 115: 6) and typically folded rim–down, up oe r of various colours and decorations, glass urns of and out to form a collar rim (see fig. 47 left). h several types, cylindrical, polygonal and square This type of rim is very specific and is mostly m t bottles and various other glass tableware were linked with the workshops of the eastern Med-rol f abundantly added as grave goods. There are nu- iterranean in the region of Asia Minor or even ia merous graves with several glass objects in a the Black Sea region, but not yet precisely locat-ater grave as well as graves with only glass vessels add- ed (Stern 2001, 40; Biaggio Simona 1991, 188, ss m ed as grave goods (gr. nos. 4, 61, 66, 81, 82, 94, nos. 163.1.001, 176.1.001; Lazar 2008b, 49–100, la 14, 105, 106 etc., in total over 40%) and these can 73, fig. 11). The decoration is a combination of g 110 ss la e gh h t ug Figure 47: A selection of large cylindrical bottles from Budva necropolis. Museums and Gal eries of Budva, roh Montenegro (photo: Irena Lazar). k t Slika 47: Izbor večjih cilindričnih steklenic iz budvanske nekropole. Muzeji in galerije Budve, Črna gora oo (foto: Irena Lazar). grooves and shallow incisions and appears on in the town who brought with them the Italic lo • a l various forms of bottles, jugs etc.; it can be com- habits, together with their taste for more luxury ekt pared to the products of the 1st and 2nd centuries and imported goods they used in their everyday i sz (Stern 2001, 37–9). life and later added in graves as grave goods for ok The forms of the individual graves and grave the deceased. In both above-mentioned types of plots further show a distinct Italic influence graves, the glass items are very often used as ash led sg with the use of Roman customs or more pre- containers and always as part of the grave goods o cisely a significant level of Romanisation in the if not only as such. r ■ pa town already from the beginning of the 1st centu- Another important sign of the early Ro- za ry. Regarding and observing the grave types and man presence and the appearance of the Italic a l forms, the graves in a simple grave pit contain no and Roman military population are graves with en glass items. It may be assumed that these simple ir graves with only a few grave goods like ceramic Aucissa fibulae. They appear in graves with a dol-bowls and plates of local production (gr. nos. 8, lium or stone urns, in graves nos. 106, 107, 133, 11, 15, 17, 19, 21, 24, 31 etc.) represent the average 134, 153, 207, etc. The fibulae are made of bronze, inhabitants of the town as well as the indigenous with the exception of gr. no. 134 with a silver one population. The two most numerous types of and none of them bear any inscription (type Feu-burials, with a dollium (gr. nos. 14, 47, 56, 61, 62, gère 22b2 and Riha 5.2.1.) (Riha 1979, 114). They 89 etc.) and a stone urn (gr. nos. 66, 106, 112, 164, can be accompanied by glass goods (mould-165, 179, some graves in plots V, XVII etc.) reflect blown flasks, balsamaria) and ceramics, accord-the Italic influence in a town and the presence of ing to the comparisons the grave assemblages Italic incomers. A large number of these graves can be dated to the Flavian period, with some prove the early settling of the Italic population exceptions even at the end of the century. 111 e pirme ehf t t o Figure 48: Mould-blown glass bottles exhibited at the Budva Museum. Museums and Gal eries of Budva, tex Montenegro (photo: Irena Lazar). no Slika 48: V kalup pihane stekleničke razstavljene v Muzeju v Budvi. Muzeji in galerije Budve, Črna gora ic c (foto: Irena Lazar). mon In several examples, apart from the bur- glass use and glass trade in the town and the area oc ied stone and glass urns, glass and other objects in the Imperial period (figure/slika 48). These d en were also put on the ground of an ossuarium in vessels were part of the grave goods assemblage l a a grave plot (nos. IV, V, XLIX; Marković 2012, in the burials of the 1st and 2nd centuries, only a iac 164, pl. 95–7). It is worth mentioning the group few of them are younger/later and can be dated oe s of finds in plot No. V (pl. 95: 16–36). It consists also to the 3rd century (Lazar 2016, 25). h n t of a bronze box divided into five small compart- One such large group is a mould-blown va i ments with lids for medicine drugs, a stone mar- glass and it comprises bulbous bottles or ovular du ver, three scalpels, two clasp knives, a knife, three amphorisks with one or two handles (Stern 1995, f b bronze spatulae and a bronze instrument case. 152), spherical bottles with vertical ribs, minia-lis o We may assume there was a doctor related to the ture transport amphorae (id. 157), date-shaped po family of Iulia Politta and Octavia Celerina, the and almond-shaped bottles, hexagonal juglets, roec names of the mother and a daughter we know juglets with a flattened hexagonal body, one n n from a titulus built in a construction of this plot head flask and one bottle with honey-comb dec-am (Martinović 2011, 89, no. 71; Lazar 2019a, 81). orated body (or with a stylised grape pattern?). oe r It is important to single out a few groups These vessels are made of translucent coloured h of glass vessels or some specific forms since they glass of violet, blue, yellow, brown and bluish col-m t present the most numerous group of grave goods our; sometimes a second colour is combined on rol f on the necropolis. We have selected the number handles (figure/slika 49). The latest is also true ia of high-quality mould-blown vessels and some of only a few examples of mould-blown vessels ater imported forms of the vessels significant for dat- made of colourless glass. ss m ing of the assemblages to point out the impor- The most numerous among mould-blown la tance of the Roman necropolis for the study of glasses are bulbous bottles or ovular amphorisks g the Zagreb collection also two-handled vessels made of dark blue, yellow and decolourised glass are preserved. The latter has coil handles made of naturally coloured glass, as another two am- phorisks in the Budva museum, which are made of violet and decolourised glass. The bottles ap- pear in graves individually or in pairs and also in combination with other forms of mould-blown vessels like miniature amphorae (Marković 2012, gr. 66), juglets with a flattened hexagonal body (gr. 177), spherical bottles with vertical ribs (gr. 180, 28/2, Ve). 112 Excavated finds in Greece and Crimea sug- gested a 1st-century date of the finds and numer- ss ous find spots point to production in the Eastern la Mediterranean (Athens, Damascus, Thessaloni- e g ki, Georgia, etc.) (Stern 1995, 152). The suggested h Italian or Western Mediterranean production h t on the basis of finds from Cumae, Zadar and ug Benkovac is in my opinion not likely. The finds roh from these sites may well have been traded by the k to Mediterranean routes from the East. o The graves with amphorisks from Budva necropolis are dated mostly to the first century lo • a l but some of them were found also in graves from ek the beginning or the first half of the 2nd centu- t Figure 49: Ovular amphorisk made of colourless glass i s ry, where this type of mould-blown bottles ap- z with handles of natural y coloured glass. Archaeological o pear together with a bowl Isings 43 with applied k Museum Zagreb, Croatia (photo: Archive of AMZ). ribbed or corrugated bands on the everted rim Slika 49: Ovalni amforisk iz dekolororanega stekla led s (Marković 2012, gr. 66). g z ročaji iz naravno obarvanega stekla. Archeološki muzej o Spherical bottles with vertical ribs (Stern Zagreb, Hrvaška (foto: arhiv AMZ). 1995, 149) are represented with only two exam- r ■ paz (Stern 1995, 152) with one or two handles, 37 bot- ples (gr. 180, gr. AI-9). They are supposed to be a tles are represented within the published grave produced in the second half of the 1st century a l contexts and another 3 examples in Zagreb (fig- in the Eastern Mediterranean, probably in the enir ure/slika 49) and 3 in the Belgrade collection Syro-Palestinian area. There are several finds (Veličković 1976, 170, figs. 16–8). The body of of one-handled bottles known from Armenia, these bottles which is globular or ovoid was Georgia, and Panticapaeum, most probably im-blown in a two-part mould of two vertical sec- ported from Syria (Stern 1995, 150; Kunina 1997, tions (Stern 1995, 152) and is decorated with a 280, cat. no. 139, fig. 84). The two-handled bottle band of scrolls or a tendril, flanked by vertical made of manganese-coloured glass was put in a petals or flutes above and below. Handles are ap-grave together with a Hofheim cup or a beaker of plied to the shoulder and attached to the neck, Is 12 form (Marković 2012, pl. 114: 13; Isings 1957, while the handle of one-handled bottles with 28), while the one-handled vessel made of yellow projecting thumb-rest is attached to the rim. coloured glass was in a grave with an above de-Vessels of this type were predominantly made of scribed bulbous bottle, a balsamarium with a translucent manganese-coloured glass, while in constriction on the neck (Lazar 2003a, 180, form 8.6.5.) and a bell-shaped beaker with a ring base 90 AD, according to the grave assemblage (Fadić (104, form 3.6.3.). The graves can be dated from and Štefanac 2010, 300, cat. nos. 21–2). the mid to the second half or the end of the 1st The bodies of miniature transport ampho- century. rae (Stern 1995, 157) are decorated with concen- tric mould-blown ridges and are again more nu- merously represented, 19 were found in graves during the 1980–81 excavation, and one is kept in Zagreb collection (figure/slika 50) and 2 vessels in the National Museum in Belgrade (Veličković 1976, 71, figs. 19–20). This type of vessel imitates large clay transport amphorae. The tall slender body is an imitation of Greco-Italic amphorae of the late Hellenistic Period. The miniature glass 113 amphorae are made of translucent coloured glass of violet, blue, yellow and greenish colour. Two e examples have coloured handles, one is dark blue pirm with greenish handles and another in the Zagreb e eh collection is made of manganese-coloured glass f t with dark blue handles. t o In graves, they appear individually or in texn pairs (Marković 2012, gr. 107, 144, XLVIe) and o in combinations with bulbous bottles (gr. 65, 66, ic cm 28/2, Ve). The form is dated to the second half of on the 1st century and the finds spread all over the oc Mediterranean, including Pavia, Pompei and d e Aquileia (Stern 1995, 158). It is possible that some nl a of these amphorae might have been produced iac also in one of the western workshops. In Mon- o tenegro, similar finds are known from e s Doclea, h where one of them was found in a grave with n t the coin of the emperor Hadrian (117–138 AD), va i Figure 50: Miniature transport amphora of translucent d which shows the popularity of these vessels that u manganese-coloured glass with handles of dark blue f b were obviously in use also some decades after the glass. Archaeological Museum Zagreb, Croatia 1st century (Cermanović-Kuzmanović 1976, 178, lis o (photo: Archive of AMZ). tab. III: 16). Other comparisons can be men- po Slika 50: Miniaturna amfora iz prosojnega vijoličnega ro stekla in z ročaji iz temno modrega stekla. Archeološki tioned to be found in Scupi (Skoplje, FYRM), ec muzej Zagreb, Hrvaška (foto: arhiv AMZ). grave No. 137, which is dated to the Flavian pe- n na riod (Mikulčić 1976, 194, tab. IV: 382), while the mo Similar finds from the graves in Zadar ( Ia- finds from Zadar, kept at the Murano Museum, e r der) and Liburnia can be determined to belong have no dated context (Ravagnan 1994, 34, cat. h to two series of production (Fadić and Štefanac nos. 26–7). m t ro 2010, 298, cat. nos. 18–20). Three finds from Two hexagonal juglets (figure/slika 51) with l f the grave No. 367 of Relja necropolis (Zadar) Dionysiac symbols (Stern 1995, 160), one from ia are dated to the period of the emperor Claudi- grave 81 (Marković 2012, pl. 61: 2) and another ater us (41–54 AD), while the one from grave no. 310 kept at the National Museum collection in Bel-ss m and the find kept at the Murano Museum be- grade in Serbia (Veličković 1976, 171, tab. II: 3), la long to another series and are dated from 40 to are identical in decoration but the first one is g made of manganese coloured glass and the other Another one-handled juglet of the Syro-Pal- of yellowish glass. The hexagonal body is divid- estinian production with a lenticular and hex- ed into six panels and each of them shows an ob- agonally designed body (gr. 177) is decorated ject in high relief: crossed double-ended thyrsoi, only with four concentric circles on each side a footed jug with a spout to the left and a high and made of manganese-coloured glass. Com-handle, a footed amphora with high handles, a parisons are known from the collection of the syrinx or pan pipe, a phiale and a footed crater. Louvre museum (Arveiller-Dulong and Nenna The juglet was put in a grave (Marković 2012, pl. 2005, 224, cat. nos. 653–5), with the provenance 61: 2–4) with another two glass vessels, a carinat-from Phoenicia and ancient Tortoise. The single ed cup made of greenish glass with a high kick find of this type of vessel in Budva was part of a at the base probably of a Cypriot production grave that can be dated to the middle or to the (Arveiller-Dulong and Nenna 2005, 192, no. 531) second half of the 1st century (Marković 2012, 114 and an elongated balsamarium with simple cut- 370, nos. 12–18). Two graves from the Zadar ne- off rim (Isings 8) and can therefore be dated to cropolis, where similar flasks were discovered, ss offer evidence for more precise chronology and la the first half of the 1st century or even beginning are dated to the mid of the 1st century (Fadić and e g of the 2nd century. In Thessaloniki, the same type h of bottle was found in the public bathhouse of Štefanac 2010, 285). h t Rather numerous (11) is a group of al- the agora and is dated to the last two decades of ug mond-shaped and date-shaped flasks, decorat- ro the 1st century (Antonaras 2010, 246). ed with a pattern of vertical ridges imitating al- h mond-shell and only a few of them resemble k to the wrinkled skin of a date. They are made pre- o dominantly of manganese-coloured glass, one is brownish yellow while two are made of transpar- lo • a l ent greenish glass (like an example from Nice; ekt Fontaine and Roussel-Ode 2010, 190, no. 96). i sz Comparison in form and colour can be found ok in the Hermitage collection (Kunina 1997, 280, cat. no. 146, fig. 91, left). In grave groups, they led sg are rarely combined with other mould-blown o vessels, and most frequently are added in pairs r ■ pa (Marković 2012, gr. 39, 27/2, A-I/11) or in com- za bination with free-blown balsamarium (174, a l A-I/8). Graves with these flasks in Budva date to en the 1st and 2nd centuries. ir In plot construction No. V a grave with three mould-blown vessels in a stone urn was excavated (Marković 2012, 168, pl. 97). A double-head flask, a bottle with a honey-comb decorated body and a miniature transport amphora were all made of Figure 51: The juglet with Dionysiac symbols made manganese-coloured glass. A double-head flask of violet-coloured glass, grave 81. Museums and Gal eries has a body in the shape of two heads of Medusa. of Budva, Montenegro (photo: Irena Lazar). The tubular neck has a constriction in the low- Slika 51: Vrček z dionizičnimi simboli iz vijolično obarva-er part and widens towards the head. The flask nega stekla, grob 81. Muzeji in galerije Budve, Črna gora can be compared with a find published by E. M. (foto: Irena Lazar). Stern dated to the late 1st or 2nd century (1995, 22, no. 142). The second flask was blown in a mould hibited in the collection of the Budva museum. with a sunken honey-comb pattern and also has These are the finds from the first rescue excava-a pattern on the base – two diamonds with con- tion and campaigns in the years 1936, 1938, and cave sides in raised outline surrounding an um- 1951 to 1957. There is another double-head flask bilicus. An identical bottle was found in a grave of manganese glass with Medusa heads (figure/ in Zadar which is dated to the end of the 1st cen- slika 52) and a bottle with a chubby face; the lat- tury (Fadić and Štefanac 2014, 400). est seems to be of a younger generation of these products, i.e. from the 3rd century or even later (Stern 1995, 209, nos. 74–5; Foy 2010, 264). The publication and review of these finds would give additional important information regarding mould-blown glass and grave assemblages. From the Flavian period on there is a shift 115 away in the taste from coloured wares and e mould-blown glass to decolourised glass which pir resembles the precious and luxury items made me e of rock-crystal (Grose 1991, 2–5; Lazar 2020c, h 340). The colourless products which were more f t t o or less perfectly decolourized with manganese or antimony remain in fashion and production texno through the whole 2nd and the 3rd century. It is as- ic c tonishing how widespread the use of colourless mo glass was, as according to Pliny ( NH 34,199), it no appeared as the most valued variety of glass in c d e the last quarter of the 1st century and at the be- n ginning of the 4th century apparently remained l aia the most expensive (Diocletian’s Price Edict – co PE, see Stern 1999, 460–3; Whitehouse 2004, e sh 189–91). n t Vessel glass was sold by weight and the PE va i uses the word pondo for vessel glass (Stern 2007, du 374), and they reflect the amount of raw material f b for the vessel’s production, not the amount of la- lis o bour or its degree of aesthetic perfection. In the po PE’s price of thirty denarii per Roman pound is roec set for the vessels made of Alexandrian colour- n n less glass, the highest price for the listed glass amo Figure 52: Double head flask from old excavations, simi- products (p. 375).2 If we compare the price with e r lar to the flask from the grave V. Museums and Gal eries the minimum daily wage for unskilled labour h (25 denarii) and skilled labour (50 to 60 denarii) m t of Budva, Montenegro. ro Slika 52: Steklenička z dvojnim obrazom iz starejših izko- (p. 384) we could imagine, to whom these prod- l f pavanj, sorodna steklenički iz groba V. Muzeji in galerije ucts were available. ia Budve, Črna gora. No colourless products made in moulds and ater decorated with facets, most typical for the Flavi- In this context, we have to mention that ss m 2 The average weight of a late Roman glass vessel is approx. la several unpublished mould-blown vessels are ex- 150–350 g. g 116 ss la e gh h t ug Figure 53: Beakers and bowls made of decolourised glass exhibited with other free-blown glasses from the Budva necro-roh polis. Museums and Gal eries of Budva, Montenegro (photo: Irena Lazar). Slika 53: Čaše in skodele iz dekoloriranega stekla razstavljene z ostalim steklenim posodjem z budvanske nekropole. k to Muzeji in galerije Budve, Črna gora (foto: Irena Lazar). o an period, are known from the graves in Budva. 67: 7–IN 51), etc. are all forms representing the lo • a l But the free-blown vessels made of decolourised 2nd and 3rd-century glass production all over the ek glass are quite well represented in this necrop- Empire and are even called inter regional styles ti s olis (figure/slika 53). Several parallels for these (Grose 1991, 18). They were produced in several zok glasses can be found in the vicinity, on the Ro- workshops in the West and in the East. man necropolis in Bakar, another Adriatic site Talking about the provenance of some of led sg (Lazar 2008b, 54, pl. 3). For the presented forms the glass vessels and the possible workshops we o we have used the recently proposed typology by will benefit from the mentioning of some forms r ■ p Foy et al. (2018) when working on the glass from with specific details of craftsmanship and high aza Gaul. quality of production. There are rather numer- a l The ring-footed bowls with a wide out- ous jugs with accented biconical body and han- en turned rim (gr. 104: pl. 64: 4; gr. XLVId, f: dle with thumb rest; profiled handle is formed in ir pl. 109: 20; 110: 6 – form IN 142) (figure/slika an accented angular form and set on the shoul-54), shallow and deep bowls with a double fold der and the neck of the vessel (gr. nos. 39/II, IVg: on the wide rim (gr. 176: pl. 77: 10; IN 154; gr. pl. 92: 2 and 94: 12). Similar details of the han-XVIIc, pl. 100: 14 – IN 155), bowls with corru- dle forms can be observed on globular jugs with gated rib on the rim (gr. 66: pl. 59: 16; IN 150), the ridge on the shoulder (gr. nos. 152, 39/II, 41/ cylindrical beakers with a ring foot (gr. 73, 87; II: pl. 72: 16; 92: 3, 8, 9).3 Jugs with ridges on the IN 124), beakers with the decoration of horizon-shoulder are known from several sites in Europe tal grooves (gr. 50, IVe–IN 32), biconical beak- (Biaggio Simona 1991, fig. 14; Arveiller-Dulo- ers with horizontal grooves (var. IN 89), various ng and Nenna 2005, nos. 46–49), but other deforms of indented beakers (gr. 65, 130: pl. 59: 3, 3 Jugs are made of blue-green and coloured transparent 68: 2 – IN 45; gr. 142: pl. 69: 3–IN 46; gr. 123: pl. glass–jellow, green. 117 e pirme ehf t t o texno ic cmono Figure 54: A shal ow ring-footed bowl with a wide out-turned rim, made of decolourised glass. Archaeological Muse-c d e um Zagreb, Croatia (photo: Archive of AMZ). n Slika 54: Plitva skodela s prstanansto nogo in široko izvihanim ustjem iz dekoloriranega stekla. Arheološki muzej Za-l aia greb, Hrvaška (foto: arhiv AMZ). coe s tails of these vessels have no exact comparisons. er numerous. It also seems that from Italian and h It could be a speculation to suppose, that the ves- some other western workshops mostly the vessels n t sels must have come from one single workshop? for everyday use were imported, like tubular and va idu conical toilet bottles or square transport bottles. f b Conclusion On the other side more luxurious vessels, like lis o It is surprising how important glass vessels in a numerous mould-blown flasks made of transpo grave ritual of Budva were; glass is prevalent over lucent coloured glass, were imported from the ro other materials and many graves comprise only East i.e. the Syro-Palestinian workshops. Based ec n n glass as a grave good in a burial. And that does on the published material from 1980–1981 exca-am not mean only one modest balsamarium but se- vations it can be concluded that trade was much o veral glass vessels, some of them representing the more intensive with the eastern Mediterranean e rh highest level of craftsmanship from the Mediter- since the material is represented through the pe- m t ranean workshops. riod from the 1st to the 4th centuries, although in rol f In the 1st and 2nd centuries, vessels from the the 3rd and 4th centuries to a slightly lesser extent. ia Syro-Palestinian workshops presented above There are still numerous open questions ater were most popular and from the second half of about the glass assemblage from Budva necrop-ss m the 2nd century onwards, products from Cypri- olis. It would be extremely important to pub- la ot and other Mediterranean workshops are rath- lish also the material from older excavations to g get a more complete picture of the glass collec-cropolis, so it would be important to publish also the tion in context. There are not many sites where material from the older excavations to get a complete glass material and grave goods are present to picture of the glass col ection and of the necropolis as such a great extent and also in such an excellent a whole. state of preservation. Therefore, the complete study of the glass material from Budva would Povzetek be a desideratum for the future, to put the site Objava gradiva helenistične in rimske nekropole iz on the pedestal it deserves due to its abundant Budve je znanstveni javnosti ter različnim specialistom amount of the presented translucent, yet frag-dala možnost za nadaljnje specialistične objave gradiva ile heritage. v kontekstu Sredozemlja in rimskega imperija kot celo- te. Predhodne študije antičnega stekla z nekropole so Summary pokazale, da so uvoženi izdelki z območja vzhodne- 118 The publication of the Hel enistic and Roman necrop- ga Sredozemlja zastopani v obdobju med 1. in 4. stol., olis of Budva gave the scientific public and various spe- medtem ko je posodje iz italskih in zahodnih delavnic ss cialists an opportunity for the detailed study of the ma- manj številno ter je v Budvo prihajalo pretežno tekom la terial in the wider context of the Mediterranean and 1. in 2. stol. Steklo je na budvanski nekropoli igralo po-e gh the Roman Empire. The preliminary study of the glass membno vlogo v grobnem ritualu, saj so ga prilagali v h t assemblage in the necropolis has shown that the import grobove v velikem obsegu, v več primerih steklo celo ug of glass vessels from the eastern Mediterranean is rep- prevlada nad ostalimi pridatki v grobu. Zelo malo je ro grobov, ki ne bi vsebovali niti enega steklenega predme- h resented through the period from the 1st to the 4th cen- ta. Pri tem ne gre le za skromne balzamarije, ampak za k t turies, while the glass vessels from Italian or western o posodje, ki predstavlja visokokakovostne izdelke iz sre- o workshops are less numerous and were imported pre- dominantly during the 1st and 2nd centuries. In a grave dozemskih delavnic. ritual of Budva necropolis the glass vessels were abun- Grobna arhitektura in parcele odražajo značilen italski lo • a l dantly added as grave goods, the glass predominates all vpliv in visoko raven romanizacije že od začetka 1. stol. ekt other materials and many graves comprise only glass as dalje. Velik del steklenega gradiva predstavlja v kalup pi-i sz a grave good in a burial. Very few graves contain no glass hano posodje, kot so amforiski, stekleničke s pokončni-ok items. And that does not mean only modest balsamaria mi rebri, miniaturne amfore, balzamariji v obliki datljev but several glass vessels representing the highest level in mandljev, heksagonalne stekleničke, vrčki s sploščeled sg nim večkotnim ostenjem, stekleničke s podobami ob- o of craftsmanship from the Mediterranean workshops. The forms of the individual graves and grave plots show razov ipd. V 2. in 3. stol. prevladajo prosto pihani izdelki, r ■ p med njimi skodele, čaše in vrči, ki so bili izdelani v različ- a a distinct Italic influence and a high level of Roman- z nih delavnicah širom imperija. Nekateri izdelki s svojimi a isation already from the beginning of the 1st century. a l A large group of glass represent mould-blown vessels, posebnostmi v oblikah in okrasu ter z visoko kakovostjo en izdelave odpirajo vprašanja izbranih delavnic, ki so me- ir like ovular amphorisks, spherical bottles with vertical ribs, miniature transport amphorae, date-shaped and ščane Budve oskrbovale s svojimi izdelki. Še vedno ostajajo odprta številna vprašanja o steklenem almond-shaped bottles, hexagonal juglets, juglets with gradivu z nekropole v Budvi, zato bi bilo pomembno flattened hexagonal body, double-head flasks etc. The pripraviti celovito objavo nekropole, vključno s starejši-2nd and 3rd-century material is wel represented by free- mi izkopavanji, da bi dobili celovito sliko o steklenih iz-blown colourless products, like bowls, beakers and jugs, delkih in nekropoli kot celoti. made in various workshops all over the Empire. Some of the glass vessels with specific details of craftsman- ship and high quality of production also open the ques- tion of a specific workshop that provided the citizens of Budua with its products. There are still numerous open questions about the glass assemblage from Budva ne- Steklo kot muzejski predmet Glass as a Museum Object The Engraved Glass Bowl from Bakar – A Vessel for Honourable Guests Steklena skodela z graviranim okrasom iz Bakra – posoda za cenjene goste Abstract 121 The chapter introduces a glass bowl with an engraved decoration that had been discovered in one of the burials of the Bakar necropolis (probably Roman Volcera). The bowl stands out from the rest of the glass artefacts because of its quality and can be attributed to the so-called ‘contour groove group’ based on the decoration technique. The decorative motif, representing a medallion with a bust and a frieze of larger salt-water fish, matches the vessel to a group of products from a specialized Egyptian workshop from the end of the 2nd century. Keywords: Roman glass, bowl, engraving, Bakar, Adriatic, Egypt, contour groove Izvleček Poglavje predstavlja stekleno skodelo z graviranim okrasom, ki je bila odkrita v enem od grobov bakarske nekropole (verjetno rimska Volcera). Skodela po svoji kakovosti odstopa od ostalega steklenega gradiva in jo glede na tehniko okrasa uvrščamo med steklene izdelke iz t. i. skupine ‘ contour groove’. Okrasni motiv, ki predstavlja medaljon z doprsno figuro in friz večjih morskih rib, posodo vzporeja s skupino izdelkov, ki so nastali v specializirani delavnici v Egiptu konec 2. stol. Ključne besede: rimsko steklo, skodela, graviranje, Bakar, Jadran, contour groove The craft of glass-making was developed damage the glass during his work was clearly de-to such an extent in the Roman period fined and he was held responsible for the damage that the Romans differentiated between by the owner of the vessel he was engraving (pp. glass-blowers ( vitrearii) and glass engravers and 28–9). The quality and high value of glass with grinders ( diatretarii) already by name. Ancient engraved or ground decoration were first men-sources also attest to their autonomy, speaking tioned by the Roman poet Martial in his Epi-of specialized trades and also mentioning the grams; this is where we first find mention of the diatretarii aside from architects, painters and term diatreta and the poet compares the value sculptors (Paolucci 1997, 28). Just like painters of this glass with the price of five young slaves and sculptors, glass engravers in the Roman pe- (Mart. Epigr. XII, 70). riod worked on the basis of patterns and models. Engraving, cutting and faceting are decora- The work was challenging and demanded spe- tive techniques that were implemented only af- cial caution apart from the craftsmanship and ter the vessel had cooled. It mostly meant work-artistic knowledge and skills due to the fragili- ing in a different workshop; the glass-blowing ty of the material. This is precisely why the ma- workshops would have only produced very sim- terial responsibility of the engraver who would ple horizontal line engravings. With engraved 212 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too Figure 55: The bowl from Bakar with figural decoration, Archaeological Museum Zagreb (photo: Igor Krajcar). lo • a l Slika 55: Skodela iz Bakra s figuralnim okrasom, Arheološki muzej Zagreb (foto: Igor Krajcar). ekti s lines made with small metal wheel grinders of the most renowned and quality products com-zo various forms and hardness, they shaped the ba- ing from ateliers in Rome, the Rhineland and k sic outlines, adding detail by hand with a hard- Egypt. led s tipped, perhaps diamond (?) tool, and etched In the last few years, researchers have recog- go and opaque sections created a play of light and nized and determined a new group of products, r ■ p shadow in place of colours. The differences in made in Egypt, probably in a workshop in Al-az the quality of workmanship of the preserved ex- exandria (Stern 2001; Nenna 2003; 2007). Their a amples indicate that individual production cen- distinct characteristic is the use of engravings a l en tres brilliantly mastered their trade and were ca- for the contours, i.e. the borders, combined with ir pable of creating a three-dimensional effect on hand-made incisions for the details. Among the the vessel. The arduousness of the decorating few products belonging to this group is also a and work soon lifted these master craftsmen to a vessel that was transported from the African higher, more prestigious level, compared to oth-coast to the northern Adriatic (Gregl and Lazar er glass-workers. 2008, 110, tab. 5: 3). Based on preserved objects with engraved Since the end of the 19th century, the Ar- figural and geometric decoration it has been pos- chaeological Museum in Zagreb has kept the sible to recognize and define several groups of partially examined material from the Roman products that belonged to individual workshops necropolis in Bakar (Roman Volcera) (Gre-in the period of the Roman Empire. Such work- gl and Lazar 2008, 110, tab. 5: 3). The individu- shops probably operated for several generations, al grave inventories were not preserved after be- 123 s estu e gblaruono r ho essel f r – a vaka m b ro l fwo ss b la Figure 56: Drawing of the Bakar bowl. M = 1 : 2, drawing Miljenka Galić. ed g Slika 56: Risba skodele iz Bakra. M = 1 : 2, risba Miljenka Galić. avr ing handed over to the museum; therefore, the ti and Alfano 1998). In 2008, during a revision gn material could only be determined typological- and repeated examination of the Bakar material, e eh ly (Ljubić 1881; 1882). Among the Bakar glass, a the vessel was newly cleaned, glued and restored.1 t quality hemispherical bowl with engraved deco- The quality of the procedure meant that new de- ration (figure/slika 55) was also preserved. This tails of the decoration were now visible that had is the only example of a figural decorated vessel not been visible or clearly recognizable before. in this group of glass. The glass was made from The vessel has an everted, cut-off and ground decolourised glass. It was first published by V. rim; the walls are somewhat convex, while the Damevski (including a drawing) in her survey 1 The restoration of the bowl was conducted by Zrinka Zni-of glass from Croatia (1976, 86, tab. 14; Strina- darčić. base is rounded. The exterior side has an en- emphasized the hospitality of the house, giving graved ornament that is well visible also on the honour at the same time to the guests and the interior of the bowl. The decoration that can be hosts, who could show off such a valuable object. seen and observed from the exterior (figure/slika 56) has a medallion in the middle, encircled by two double lines of concentric circles. The space between them is filled by short incisions shaped like elongated rice grains. Because of the restora- tion, the figure in the centre of the medallion is not entirely preserved but is clearly recognizable. Given the analogies, it can be concluded that a 4 bust was depicted here of a male figure, turned 12 to the left, with a conical head covering or cap. The curly hair extends below the edge of the cap. ss The edges of the clothing, cap and face were de- la lineated by a wavy wheel-ground line (groove), e gh while the structure of the mantle or clothing h t was marked with individual double dashes. In ug front of the face are a still wavy upright line and ro a curved engraved line. This was probably a fish- h ing rod (?), which can be recognized on other k to preserved vessels with similar decoration (Stern o 2001, cat. no. 56). The outlines of the cap, cloth- ing, and partly the face, were grooved with broad lo • a l oblong lines, while individual details, such as the ekt decoration of the cap, the clothing, the locks of i s Figure 57: Bowl from the Ernesto Wolf collection z hair, and the face, were engraved by hand. ok Beyond the medallion and its frame was an (after Stern 2001). area encircled by a single double line, filled with Slika 57: Skodela iz zbirke Ernesta Wolfa (po Stern 2001). led sg engravings of four large fish, while one could o Details of the workmanship of the vessel argue that one of the fish (the figure under the r ■ p from Bakar enable confirmation that this was a a bust) actually represents a cephalopod. All the z product belonging to the group Marianne Stern a fish are swimming clockwise, one after the other. a l The main outlines of these figures were formed (2011, 136) classified as the ‘contour groove group’, en by elongated wheel-ground lines, while the de- thereby, defining the main characteristic of the ir tails on the fish were incised by hand. The dec- decorative techniques of these vessels. During oration depicting the fish species is made using further analysis, they were also wittily dubbed double upright lines on two of the fish, while spi- ‘ fish platters ’, as large and tasty fish were depict-ral lines were engraved on another. The waves on ed on all known examples of such vessels, and ac-the surface of the water were depicted using sev- cording to the manner of decoration, it was even eral strokes. The vessel was undoubtedly intended for possible to determine the species of fish on some serving fresh food as a welcome, as can be seen, examples (p. 137). The bowl from Bakar also has depicted on numerous mosaics and frescoes the same fish species depicted on it (left and right (Stern 2001, 136). Gifts from the sea, offered on a of the bust in the medallion), which can be rec-vessel with a motif of a fisherman and his catch, ognized as seabreams (scientific name Spari- dae).2 Most breams have a narrow body and a doubtedly exceptional due to its motif, which at single dorsal fin extending almost throughout the same time also directly relates it to the origi-their backs. The motif of similar large fish is also nal workshops in Egypt (Lazar 2008c, 67). depicted on a bottle from Ptuj, belonging to the Originally, many researchers determined same group of products (Lazar and Tomanič Je- this group of products as a younger version of vremov 2000, tab. 1; Lazar 2004b, 35, fig. 26). At the Lynceus group (Paolucci 1997, 41) which got least two of the depicted fish have an elongated its name after a cup from Cologne, on which the dorsal fin, while the details of the decoration on myth of Lynceus is depicted (Harden et al. 1988, the body of the fish are less distinctive. 198, no. 108). But the characteristics of the tech- The motif on the Bakar bowl is almost iden- nique in which they were made, the use of en- tical to that on the vessel from the Ernesto Wolf graved lines only for contours, and the combina-collection published by E. M. Stern (2001, 156– tion of decoration and motifs clearly distinguish 8, no. 56) (figure/slika 57). The figure is turned in these products from the so-called Lynceus group. 125 the same direction and has an almost identical- Even more, recent finds from dated contexts s ly shaped and decorated head covering. The low- (Egypt, Ostia; Nenna 2003, 362) have shown est er edge of the clothing is depicted with an iden- that these vessels belong to an earlier period and u tical wavy line. Unfortunately, the Bakar bowl are at least half a century older than the above-e g had been restored; hence the individual details bl mentioned group. ar of the bust are somewhat unclear. A difference is Given the homogeneity of the group in uo visible in the arrangement of the fish, which all terms of glass quality, the composition of the no swim in the same direction on the Bakar bowl. decoration and the characteristics of the engrav-r h A similar motif of large fish is also known from ing technique, it can be concluded that these are o a deep bowl from the Corning Museum collec- products of an Egyptian workshop that began tion (Whitehouse 1997, no. 401; Nenna 2003, production in the second half of the 2nd centu-essel f 362, fig. 7), and also on a vessel fragment from ry and exported its products to Italy, the Adri-the site in Egypt (Nenna 2003, 362, fig. 8). atic coast, as well as the West (Nenna 2003, 362; r – a va Naturally, it is possible to note details in the 2007, 141). Keeping in mind the recently col-ka quality of workmanship in this small group of lected finds, different workshops can be distin-m b products, which means they were created in the guished inside the ‘ contour groove group’. These ro same workshop but not manufactured by the use the same production technique, but distin-l f same master glass worker. The motifs that ap- w guish themselves through the motifs, pointing o pear on the vessels of this group from well-dat- to the existence of several specialized workshops ss b ed contexts (end of the 2nd and beginning of the for this group of products (Nenna 2003, 363, figs. la 3rd centuries) are, as deduced by Marie-Dominiq- 9, 10). ue Nenna, related to decorations on Egyptian ed g It can be concluded with certainty that the av faience pottery (friezes with fish, ducks, baskets, Bakar bowl and Ptuj bottle both belong to the rg etc.), dated to the first two centuries AD (Nen- n ‘ contour-groove group’ according to their deco- na 2003, 362). e e ration technique, while it is very likely that the ht Of the 19 known products from this group, decorative motifs mean they were made in two 12 are from Egypt (Nenna 2007, 142) and one different workshops. Nevertheless, based on each from Croatia (bowl – Bakar) and Slovenia analogies the Bakar bowl can most certainly be (bottle – Ptuj). The bottle with the depiction of related to the bowls from the Ernesto Wolf cola lighthouse from Ptuj (see figure/slika 60) is un- lection, the Corning Museum of Glass and Teb- 2 There are 125 species in 37 genera in the bream family. This tynis (Stern 2001, no. 56; Whitehouse 1997, no. family is common to almost all seas, while warmer seas present the centre of their population area. Breams are a 401; Nenna 2003, fig. 8), and it can be conclud- very important part of the economy. ed that these are products with the same figural motif, surely made in Egypt and probably also in Summary the same workshop. The bowl is dated to the late Among the Bakar glass, only one vessel with engraved 2nd century. decoration is preserved, a shal ow bowl made of decol- Products with cut and engraved decoration, ourised glass. The vessel was newly cleaned and restored which were mostly made in small quantities on and details of the decoration were now visible that had order, were intended primarily for the social and not been clearly recognizable before. The decoration economic elite of the Roman period. Many fac-has a medal ion with the figure in the centre. A male tors contributed to the high final price of the bust had a conical cap and the curly hair extends below product: the narrow specialization of the craft, the edge of the cap. In front of the face is probably a fish-the esteem of the quality craftsmen that passed ing rod. on their knowledge to their sons or apprentices Beyond the medal ion and its frame was an area fil ed and were thus exempt from taxes, as well as the with three large fish, and one cephalopod. The edges of 126 fragility and breakability of the vessels. The val- the decoration were delineated by a wavy wheel-ground ue of the object was in this case represented by line (groove), while the details were marked with indi-ss the beauty of the decoration, made by a special- vidual double dashes. la ized artistic craftsmanship technique; the aes- The vessel was undoubtedly intended for serving fresh e gh thetics were enough in these cases to often make food as a welcome. Gifts from the sea, offered on a ves-h t the glass vessel even more valuable than those sel with a motif of a fisherman and his catch, empha-ug made of precious metals. During the 3rd centu- sized the hospitality, and the hosts show off such a val- ro ry, engraved glass became entirely a case of pres- h uable object. tigious production. The number of orders slowly k t Based on preserved objects with engraved figural and o rose; the meaning of iconography became more o geometric decoration it has been possible to recognize important and gained value as a means of spread- and define several groups of products that belonged to ing culture and the ideals of the ruling classes. individual workshops in the period of the Roman Em- lo • a l That glass with engraved decoration was pire. The most renowned and quality products come ekt largely a status symbol, is evident from analyses from ateliers in Rome, the Rhineland and Egypt. i sz of necropolises and glass grave goods, especially Details of the workmanship of the vessel from Bakar ok from the Cologne ( Colonia Agrippinensis) area, enable confirmation that this was a product belonging where glass vessels with engraved decoration and to group E. M. Stern classified it as the ‘ contour-groove led sg figural motifs are characteristic of the wealthiest group’, thereby, defining the characteristic of the decora-o graves, along with precious jewellery and bronze tive techniques of these vessels. The motif on the Bakar r ■ pa items (Friedhoff 1989). bowl is almost identical to that on the vessel from the za The bowl from Bakar represents a status Ernesto Wolf col ection, similar motifs are visible on a l symbol in its own right. The item, made in an the find from the Corning Museum and a fragment en Egyptian workshop, certainly did not belong from Tebtynis. ir among the products of mass production. It was Given the homogeneity of the group (19 finds) it can be probably made on order for a person that want-concluded that these are products of an Egyptian work- ed to fascinate and honour their guests with this shop that began production in the second half of the 2nd prestigious tableware and emphasize their sta-century and exported its products to Italy, the Adriatic tus, i.e. a high and important position in socie- coast, as well as the West. ty; or perhaps the bowl was a gift, reflecting par- ticular benevolence, of course, conveyed by the Povzetek value of the gift itself, manufactured in a special- Edini primer figuralno okrašene posode z rimske nekro- ized workshop in Egypt. pole v Bakru je plitva polkroglasta skleda iz dekolorira- nega stekla. Po čiščenju in restavriranju lahko na okrasu prepoznamo podrobnosti, ki prej niso bile vidne. Ok- ras na zunanji strani predstavlja medaljon, v katerem je doprsje moške figure. Na glavi ima pokrivalo, izpod njega gledajo kodrasti lasje, pred obrazom je najverjetneje ribiška palica. Izven medaljona je prostor, ki ga zapolnjujejo večje morske živali, tri ribe in sipa. Obris in glavne poteze so izdelani z brušenjem, posamezni detajli pa so vrezani ročno. Posoda je bila brez dvoma namenjena serviranju hrane v znak dobrodošlice. Darovi morja na posodi z motivom ribiča in njegovega ulova so brez dvoma poudarili gosto- ljubje, gostitelj pa se je istočasno pohvalil z dragocenim predmetom. Do danes je bilo mogoče na osnovi ohranjenih najdb z 127 brušenim figuralnim ali geometrijskim okrasom prepo- s znati in opredeliti več skupin najdb, ki so pripadale po- sameznim delavnicam širom imperija. Najkakovostnej- estu ši izdelki so prihajali iz Rima, Egipta in Porenja. e g Na osnovi podrobnosti izdelave bakarske skodele lah- bla ko potrdimo, da gre za izdelek, ki sodi v skupino, ki jo je ru Marianne Stern opredelila kot ‘ contour groove group’ in s on tem določila glavne značilnosti okrasa tega posodja. o Motiv na skodeli je identičen skledi iz zbirke Ernesta r ho Wolfa, sorodne motive pa prepoznamo še na globo- ki skledi iz zbirke v Corningu in odlomku posode iz essel f Tebtynisa. Na osnovi detajlov izdelave lahko zaklju- čimo, da so nastale v isti delavnici, a jih ni izdelal isti r – a v mojster. ak Z ozirom na homogenost skupine (19 poznanih izdel- a kov) lahko zaključimo, da gre za izdelke egipčanske oz. m b aleksandrijske delavnice, ki je s proizvodnjo začela v dru-ro l f gi polovici 2. stol. in izvažala svoje izdelke v Italijo, na Ja-w dran in v zahodne province. o ss b la ed g avrgn e eht Dragoceno darilo iz Egipta – rimska steklenica s Ptuja, izdelek graverjev iz Aleksandrije A Precious Gift from Egypt – The Bottle from Ptuj, a Product of Engravers from Alexandria Izvleček 129 V tem poglavju predstavljamo steklenico z brušenim okrasom iz rimske dobe, najdeno v enem od grobov rimske Petovione. Izdelek je zanimiv zaradi kakovostnega brušenega okrasa in motiva, ki je upodobljen na obodu posode. Brušen okras posodo uvršča v posebno skupino izdelkov, t.i. contour groove group, ki jih pripisujemo delavnicam v Egiptu, najverjetneje v Aleksandriji. S slednjo pa je povezan tudi figuralni motiv, saj na ostenju steklenice lahko prepoznamo faroški svetilnik. Risba sodi med redke ohranjene upodobitve iz rimske dobe, ki predstavljajo enega od sedmih čudes antičnega sveta. Ključne besede: rimsko steklo, graviranje, diatretari , Egipt, Faros, Poetovio, ‘contour groove group’ Abstract This chapter presents a bottle with engraved decoration from the Roman period, found in one of the tombs of the Roman Poetovio. The product is interesting because of the high-quality engraved decoration and the motif depicted on the walls of the bottle. Decoration defines the vessel in a special group of products, i.e. contour-groove group, attributed to workshops in Egypt, most likely in Alexandria. A figural motif is also connected with the latter, as the Pharos lighthouse can be recognized on the vessel. The drawing is one of the rare surviving depictions from the Roman era, representing one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Keywords: Roman glass, engraving, diatretari , Egypt, Pharos, Poetovio, contour groove group Rimljani so že s poimenovanjem steklopi- lu dvignila na višjo, prestižnejšo raven (več o tem hače ( vitrearii) ločili od graverjev in bru- Harden idr. (1988, 179–186) in Harden (1935)). silcev ( diatretarii). Graverji na steklo so v Na osnovi ohranjenih posod z brušenim fi- rimski dobi, prav tako kot slikarji ali kiparji, de- guralnim in geometrijskim okrasom je danes lali na osnovi predlog oz. vzorcev. Delo je bilo mogoče prepoznati ter opredeliti že nekaj skupin zahtevno in je poleg obrtne spretnosti ter ume-izdelkov, ki so pripadali posameznim delavni- tniškega znanja zahtevalo tudi posebno pazlji- cam v obdobju rimskega cesarstva. Delavnice so vost zaradi lomljivosti stekla. Prav zaradi tega je verjetno delovale skozi več generacij, najbolj zna-bila materialna odgovornost graverja, ki bi poš- ni ateljeji so v Rimu, Porenju in Egiptu. V zad- kodoval predmet med svojim delom, tudi jasno njih nekaj letih so raziskovalci stekla opredelili določena in graver je za poškodbo odgovarjal la-novo skupino izdelkov s kakovostnim figural- stniku posode, ki jo je krasil (več o tem Paolu- nim okrasom, ki so najverjetneje nastajali v de- cci (1997, 27–30)). Zahtevnost krašenja in dela je lavnici v Aleksandriji (Stern 2001; Nenna 2003; te mojstre v primerjavi z ostalimi steklarji kma-2007). Njihova značilnost je uporaba gravure za 130 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too lo • a l ekti szok led sgo r ■ paza a l enir Slika 58: Grobni pridatki iz groba 11/1982 (po Lazar in Tomanič Jevremov 2000). Figure 58: Grave goods from the gr. 11/1982 (after Lazar and Tomanič Jevremov 2000). 131 ijerdnsa lek z a jev ier avr elek gdz, ijaut a s pic len ekt a sskim ipta – rg z e ilo ira o d encogar Slika 59: Risba steklenice iz groba v Petovioni. M = 1 : 2, risba Dragica Lunder Knific. d Figure 59: Drawing of a bottle from the g. in Poetovio. M = 1 : 2, drawing Dragica Lunder Knific. obrobe oz. zunanje linije upodobljenih motivov, le v odlomkih; restavrirana je bila v delavnicah s prostoročnimi vrezi pa so poudarili detajle. RGZM v Mainzu. Ostenje po vsej površini po- Med ne prav številnimi izdelki, ki sodijo kriva figuralni motiv, zgoraj in spodaj pa ga ome-v to skupino, imenovano contour groove group jujeta dva vodoravna okrasna pasova. Motiv je (skupina z žlebljenimi oz. graviranimi obroba-bil izdelan v kombinaciji gravure s koleščkom in mi),1 se je ohranila tudi steklenica, ki je z afriške prostoročno vrezanih detajlov, izdelanih z ostro obale pripotovala vse do Petovione (Lazar in konico. Obrisi figur in poslopja so bili zarisani Tomanič Jevremov 2000, 195). Odkrita je bila z uporabo gravure, s širšimi linijami, posamezni v grobu, ki so ga sodelavci Pokrajinskega muze-detajli na osebi, živalih in stavbi pa so bili vpra- ja Ptuj odkrili tekom enega od zaščitnih izko- skani prostoročno (slika/figure 59). pavanj na območju rimske Petovione. Grob 11, 2 ki je bil zidan iz opeke in pokrit z marmornimi 13 ploščami, je bil žgan, med pridatki pa so prevla- dovali stekleni predmeti (slika/figure 58): čaša ss gubanka iz mlečno belega stekla, čaša na nogi z la nataljenim okrasom, steklenička iz mlečno be- e gh lega stekla, oljenka z žigom FORTIS. Med nji- h t mi sta po svoji izjemni kakovosti izstopala kan- ug taros z vrezanim reliefnim okrasom rastlinja in ro steklenica z brušenim figuralnim okrasom (La- h zar in Tomanič Jevremov 2000, 197, tab. 1, 2.). k too In prav tej želimo posvetiti nekaj več pozornos- ti, saj sodi med izdelke, ki so nastali, navadno po naročilu in v majhnih količinah, v speciali- lo • a l ziranih delavnicah. ekt Cilindrične steklenice iz dekoloriranega i sz stekla so postale priljubljene konec 2. stol. (Isin- ok gs, 1957, 156, obl. 126), najdbe na območju JV Alp pa so datirane od konca 2. pa do začetka 4. stol. led sg (Lazar 2003a, 156, obl. 6.3.7.). Njihova značilnost o je izvihano, lijakasto ustje, cilindrično oz. valjas- r ■ pa to telo, ki se proti dnu lahko nekoliko zoži, do- z Slika 60: Figura, sedeča na obali (foto: Tomaž Lauko). a kaj širok ročaj pa je navadno gosto narebren in Figure 60: Figure sitting on the coast a l upognjen z izrazitim klekom. Ostenje teh posod (photo: Tomaž Lauko). en je najpogosteje okrašeno z vodoravnimi vrezani- ir mi ali z brušenimi linijami, včasih pa z geome- Motiv na posodi predstavlja morsko pokra- trijskim okrasom v več ločenih pasovih. Figu- jino. Na obali, ponazorjeni s kratkimi gravura- ralni okras se ne pojavlja zelo pogosto, zato so mi v poševni linji in z rastlinjem pod njo, sedi taki izdelki deležni toliko večje pozornosti (Fre-v profilu prikazana moška oseba, ki se naslanja mersdorf 1951, 8; Klein 1996, 152). na levo roko, okrašeno z dvema narokvicama Ptujska steklenica ima gosto narebren, le de- oz. obročkoma, desno roko izteguje predse (sli- loma ohranjen ročaj, vrat in ustje sta ohranjena ka/figure 60). Na glavi ima s prostoročno vre-1 Poimenovanje contour-groove group se kot t.i. tehnični iz- zanimi linijami poudarjeno nekakšno pokriva- raz zaenkrat uporablja v vsej mednarodni strokovni litera- lo, za hrbtom pa je morda nakazano plapolanje turi s tega področja; prevod navajamo kot dodatek oz. po- jasnilo in hkrati kot predlog za iskanje ustreznega poime- oblačila ali vetra. Pokrivalo na glavi je nenava- novanja v slovenskem jeziku. dno bogato, široko potegnjeno nazaj, kratke, piše že Homer v Odiseji; simboliziral naj bi morsko božanstvo, s preroškimi sposobnostmi in z močjo, da se je lahko preobrazil v kakršno- koli obliko; opoldne je navadno spal oz. počival na otoku Faros (Seyffert, 1995, 523). Po mlajši le- gendi, o kateri piše Herodot (Herodot iz Hali- karnasa 2006, II, 112, 114–116), pa je bil Pozej- donov sin Protej mitski egipčanski kralj, ki je živel na Farosu. V tem primeru nas faraonsko pokrivalo ( nemes oz. klaft) upodobljene osebe ne preseneča. Prostor pred figuro je morje, v katerem plavajo štiri večje ribe, gornji dve sta obr- njeni v levo, spodnji dve pa v desno. Vse imajo 133 izrazito poudarjene hrbtne plavuti, ki potekajo po vsej dolžini hrbta. ijer Motiv zamejuje visoka stavba z več nad- dn stropji (slika/figure 61). Poslopje je kvadratnega sa tlorisa, nakazane so številne odprtine oz. okna lek v nadstropjih. Prva etaža se konča s ploščadjo, z a na kateri na robovih prepoznamo skulpture in jev i v sredini še eno manjše, verjetno okroglo nad- er stropje, okronano s kipom na vrhu. Kip v dvig- avr njeni levi roki drži sulico oz. kopje, desnico pa ima spuščeno; v njej drži še en predmet, ki pa elek g ni prepoznaven – samo ugibamo lahko, ali gre dz za daritveno posodo ( fiala). V stavbi lahko pre- , ija poznamo svetilnik in glede na detajle zgornjega ut dela upodobitve ter kip na vrhu arhitekture skle- Slika 61: Prizor s svetilnikom na ptujski steklenici pamo, da je na steklenici upodobljen svetilnik z a s p (foto: Tomaž Lauko). ic otoka Faros v Aleksandriji, eno od sedmih čudes Figure 61: A scene with a lighthouse on the Ptuj bottle antičnega sveta. len (photo: Tomaž Lauko). ek Figuralni motiv je spodaj in zgoraj zame- t jen s pasom, omejenim z vrezanimi linijami in a s vodoravne vrezane linije na vrhu dajejo vtis ši- sk vov. Z nekoliko domišljije bi v tem pokriva- zapolnjenim s pokončnimi gravurami v obliki im lu lahko prepoznali nemes, kraljevsko pokriva- žitnih ali riževih zrn. Nad gornjo linijo se zunaj lo faraonov (Tiradritti 2008, kat. št. 133, 138); pasu še enkrat ponovi linija riževih zrn in nad morda pa je umetnik le želel ponazoriti boga-njo rastlinski oz. vitičast okras, prav tako v vo- ipta – rg to pričesko ali lasuljo, po vzoru upodobitev v doravni liniji. z e egipčanski umetnosti (Wilkinson, 2003, 92, Če želimo primerjati verodostojnost ilo i 96). Gola oseba verjetno upodablja božanstvo upodobitve svetilnika na ptujski steklenici, ra ali mitološko osebo, žal pa nima atributov, po velja omeniti vsaj nekatere značilnejše primere o d katerih bi jo lahko povsem natančno opredeli- iz rimskega obdobja. Ohranjenih ni veliko, po- en li. Glede na motiv, lahko razmišljamo o Neptu- leg tega pa ne smemo pozabiti, da se moramo pri cog nu (oz. Pozejdonu) ali Eolu, njegovemu sinu in teh upodobitvah vprašati, ali je bil kot model ar bogu vetrov. Morda pa gre za Proteja ( Proteus), res original oz. koliko je upodobitev stvar umet-d ki naj bi bil prav tako Pozejdonov sin. O njem niške svobode in interpretacije. Le redko ima- mo priložnost upodobitev primerjati z ohran-kot boginja Izida Tihe usmerjala usode ljudi. Izi- jenim originalom oz. njegovim verodostojnim da je bila ena najbolj priljubljenih boginj v Alek-opisom iz obdobja antike. Ne vemo, ali je imel sandriji, saj ji je že ustanovitelj mesta dal posta-npr. graver pred seboj original ali je motiv povzel viti prvo svetišče (Pfrommer 1999, 60). Svetilnik z neke druge upodobitve, ali pa je preprosto upo-na tej gemi je prikazan kot poslopje s spodnjim rabil že obstoječo predlogo oz. model. Ob tem kvadratnim delom, z nakaznimi nadstropji v ob-velja omeniti tudi, da so že v antiki obstojali t. liki prečnih linij, na ploščadi nad njim sta dva i. spominki, izdelki, namenjeni izvozu, popot-Tritona s piščalmi, oktogonalni del nad njim pa nikom, obiskovalcem prireditev ipd. Kot primer se sklene s kipom v nadnaravni velikosti, ki s svo-naj navedemo stekleničke z motivom mest Baiae jo pozo dvignjene desnice in spuščene levice spo-in Puteoli (Painter 1975, 55, slika 1), čaše z moti- minja na upodobitev s ptujske steklenice. Gema, 4 vom cirkuških dirk in z imeni zmagovalcev oz. ki je brez najdiščnega konteksta, je datirana v 2. 13 tekmovalcev (Landes 1998, 11) ipd. Taki izdelki stol. (Pfrommer 2005, 683). so v veliki meri uporabljali in širili enoten ikono- Nekoliko drugače je predstavljen svetilnik ss grafski model določenega motiva. na stekleni čaši iz Begrama, najdišča severno od la Nekatere upodobitve aleksandrijskega sve- Kabula v Afganistanu (Whitehouse 1989, 151; e gh tilnika so zelo stilizirane in včasih samo na 1998, 640). Na najdišču, ki je bilo identificirano h t podlagi razberemo, za katero stavbo gre. Tak pri- kot Kapisa, rezidenca tamkajšnjih kraljev, so leta ug mer je mozaik iz Sepphorisa v Izraelu iz 5. stol. 1937 francoski raziskovalci v enem od poslopij ro (Empereur 2004, 26). Bolj verodostojne in toč- odkrili skrinjo dragocenih predmetov, ki izvira- h nejše, glede na opise, ki jih poznamo, so upodo- jo iz vseh strani Sredozemlja. Poleg predmetov iz k to bitve na novcih in nekaterih drobnih predmetih. brona, kamene strele in slonove kosti je bilo tudi o Kar na nekaj rimskih novcih najdemo na zadn- 180 steklenih posod. Med njimi so bili odlomki ji strani motiv svetilnika iz Aleksandrije. Motivi čaše diatreta, na kateri je bil prikazan stolp s ki-lo • a l kot celota se sicer med seboj nekoliko razlikuje- pom na vrhu in okrog njega tri plovila (jadrnica, ekt jo, saj novci časovno segajo od cesarja Domicija- galeja in čoln). Okrogli stolp ima na vrhu ob ro- i sz na (91–92) do cesarja Komoda (188–189). Glavno bovih skulpturi, v sredini pa podstavek, na kate-ok poslopje svetilnika pa je skoraj vedno upodobl- rem stoji gola figura z veslom v roki – Pozejdon. jeno z določenimi skupnimi značilnostmi – sta- Najdbe podobnih zgodnjih izdelkov diatreta led sg vba kvadratnega tlorisa s številnimi okni, Trito- čašo uvrščajo v 1. stol., tako kot posode, okraše- o ni na prvi etaži, druga etaža in na njej kip; slednji ne v tehniki visokega reliefa (Whitehouse 1989, r ■ pa ima na treh upodobitvah v iztegnjeni levici su- 153). Čeprav motiv na čaši interpretirajo kot alek- za lico, drugo roko pa spuščeno ob telesu, nekoli- sandrijski svetilnik, se v podrobnostih, predvsem a l ko nagnjeno stran. To nakazuje, da morda v roki pa kip na vrh precej razlikuje od drugih upodo-en drži predmet. bitev. Iz različnih virov so se sicer ohranili po- ir Svetilnik je enako upodobljen tudi na dveh datki, da je bil kip božanstva vrh aleksandrijske-steklenih gemah. Na gemi iz 1. stol. motiv do- ga svetilnika v obdobju antike večkrat zamenjan, polnjujeta podobi božanstev Izide Farije in Po- vendar so nejasni in nepopolni. V primeru čaše zejdona, ki stojita vsako na eni strani svetilni- iz Begrama je verjetneje, da predstavljeni motiv ka – njima posvečeni svetišči sta namreč stali ni povezan z Aleksandrijo. na otoku Faros (Empereur 2004, 32). Podoben Pogled na ostenje ptujske steklenice nam motiv najdemo še na eni stekleni gemi, ki jo hra- torej odkriva: poslopje je kvadratnega tlorisa ni Umetnostnozgodovinski muzej na Duna- (spodnji del je zaradi slabe ohranjenosti nejasen), ju (inv. št. 41286) (Pfrommer 2005, 683–684). vodoravne linije in okna poudarjajo nadstropja. Gema prikazuje svetilnik in ob njem Izido Fari- Na zgornji etaži je dobro viden eden od dveh Tri- jo, z ladijskim krmilom v desni roki, s katerim je tonov, za njim pa drugo nadstropje stavbe s stebri in ploščadjo na vrhu, na kateri se dviga kip. Ta v Glede na homogenost skupine je mogoče levi roki drži kopje oz. sulico, druga roka, ki je ugotoviti, da gre za izdelke egipčanske delavnice, spuščena ob telesu in nekoliko odmaknjena, pa ki je s proizvodnjo začela v drugi polovici 2. stol. drži predmet – morda daritveno posodo. Motiv in izvažala v Italijo, na zahod in jadransko obalo na steklenici z detajli najlaže primerjamo z upo- (Nenna 2003, 362; 2007, 141). Upoštevaje zbra- dobitvami na novcih in omenjenih gemah (Em- ne najdbe pa lahko v skupini ločimo različne de- pereur 2004, 32; Pfrommer 2005, 683). Na vseh lavnice, ki se razlikujejo po motiviki in kažejo na prepoznamo vsaj štiri skupne elemente: poslop-več specializiranih ateljejev te skupine izdelkov je kvadratnega tlorisa, Tritoni na prvi etaži, dru- (str. 363, slika 9, 10). ga etaža in kip s sulico v roki na vrhu svetilnika. Ptujska steklenica je, če sklepamo po kom- Hkrati velja omeniti, da te upodobitve ustreza- pleksnem in zelo kakovostno izvedenem figural- jo predlagani rekonstrukciji svetilnika, kot jo je nem motivu, izdelek neke druge, ločene delav-podal Reddé (1979, 869, slika 9: 3). Na podlagi nice v Egiptu ali Aleksandriji. Nekateri detajli 135 primerjav z drugimi upodobitvami lahko potr- okrasa so npr. primerljivi s steklenico iz Hawa- re (Nenna 2003, 363, slika 10), saj poleg identične ije dimo, da je poslopje na steklenici s Ptuja res alek- r oblike in kakovosti dekoloriranega stekla prepo- d sandrijski svetilnik. n znamo tudi enake detajle pri omejevanju okras- sa Druge podrobnosti okrasa, predvsem velike ribe, pa povezujejo posodo z drugimi izdelki t. nega polja na ostenju (dvojna linija, riževa zrna). lek i. skupine z žlebljenimi obrisi oz. Žal pa je osrednji motiv večinoma geometrijski z a contour groove group in njenimi delavnicami oz. ateljeji. Stekle- in izdelan v tehniki, ki v celoti ne ustreza zna-jev i nica s Ptuja je že zaradi svojega motiva, ki jo ne- čilnostim te skupine. Podobno izvedbo figure, er celo v podobni pozi kot na ptujski steklenici, pa av posredno povezuje z izvornimi delavnicami v r poznamo z delno ohranjene stekleničke, odkrite Egiptu, izjemna. Od 19 sedaj poznanih izdelkov, ki pripadajo tej skupini, jih je 12 z egipčanskih pri izkopavanjih kapitolija v Brescii.2 elek gd najdišč (Nenna 2007, 142), po eden pa iz Slove- z Ekskurz: svetilnik na otoku Faros , i nije (steklenica s Ptuja) in sosednje Hrvaške (Ba- v Aleksandriji jau kar, skodela) (Gregl in Lazar 2008, tab. 5: 3). t Ko govorimo o motivu na steklenici s Ptuja, nas Arheološki muzej hrani gradivo iz rimske seveda zanima, ali je na motivu res predstavljen a s p nekropole v Bakru (rimska Volcera). Med bakar- ic svetilnik in ali smo glede na maloštevilne ohra- skim steklom se je ohranila kakovostno izdelana njene upodobitve iz antike lahko prepričani, da len polkroglasta skodela z brušenim okrasom (Gregl ek gre prav za svetovno čudo na otoku Faros. Zato t in Lazar 2008, 57, slika 6). se velja ozreti na nekatera zgodovinska dejstva, a s Motiv sorodnih velikih rib, ki ga prepozna- sk povezana s faroškim svetilnikom in z antično im mo na skodeli iz Bakra, je upodobljen tudi na Aleksandrijo. Kaj danes vemo o tej zgradbi in steklenici s Ptuja. Vsaj na dveh od njih prepozna-koliko podatkov iz antike se je ohranilo? mo dolgo hrbtno plavut, detajli okrasa po telesu ipta – rg rib pa so manj izraziti. Podobno narejen motiv *** z e rib poznamo tudi na skodeli iz zbirke v Cornin- Leta 331 pr. n. št. sta Aleksander Veliki in arhitekt ilo i gu (Whitehouse 1997, no. 401; Nenna 2003, 362, Dejnokrat ( Deinokrates ali Deinochares) (Voll-ra fig. 7) in odlomku posode z najdišča Tebtynis kommer 2007, 162) z Rodosa oblikovala in do-o d (Nenna 2003, 362, slika 8). Motivi, ki se pojav- ločila urbanistične smernice bodoče Aleksandri- en ljajo na posodah te skupine so sorodni okrasu na c je (Plu., Alex 1, 26,4–5; Green 1992, 276): najprej o keramiki iz egiptovske fajanse (frizi rib, race, ko- g obzidje, rastre ulic in pristanišča ter nato še ob- ar šare), datirani v prvi dve stoletji našega štetja (str. 2 Podatke o novi najdbi mi je prijazno posredovala dr. Eli-d 362). sabeta Roffia (2015), za kar se ji najlepše zahvaljujem. sežen sistem vodne oskrbe mesta. Monumental-natančneje 5.160 m), je imelo tri etaže oz. nad- ni načrt in izvedba mesta izjemnih razsežnosti, stropja. Prvo je bilo kvadratnega tlorisa in neko-ki je bilo po velikost takoj za Atenami, sta nav- liko piramidalno grajeno, visoko 71 m (s klanči- dušila in impresionirala že ljudi v antiki. Širina no v notranjosti, ki so jo uporabljali za tovorjenje glavnih dveh ulic naj bi po antičnih virih zna-kuriva za ogenj na vrhu), sledil mu je 34 m visok šala kar 30 metrov (dejansko znaša njuna širina oktogonalni del s stopnicami v notranjosti, zad-14 m, ostale so široke 7 m) (Empereur 1998, 56). nji del pa je bil okrogel oz. cilindričen in visok 9 Aleksander je umrl, preden je bil obsežni načrt m. To je bil tudi prostor za ogenj, katerega svet-gradnje uresničen. Njegov general Ptolemaj pa loba naj bi bila z ogledali usmerjena in razprše-je kot novi vladar Egipta Ptolemaj I. Soter (Reši- na tako, da jo je bilo videti čim dlje (Di Pasqua- telj) nadaljeval zastavljeno delo v vsej monumen- le 2004, 40). Na terasi prve etaže oz. nadstropja talnosti in zvesta ji je ostala tudi celotna dinasti- so bili na vogalih postavljeni Tritoni, na vrhu po- 136 ja Ptolemajcev. slopja pa je stal ogromen kip božanstva. Dolgo je Eno najveličastnejših poslopij tega mesta je prevladovalo prepričanje, da je bil to Pozejdon. ss bil vsekakor svetilnik na otoku Faros (Pharos), ki Novoodkriti papirus, t. i. milanski papirus (Isak la so ga zgradili za večjo varnost ladij in mornarjev, e g Kres 2006, 29), pa je z do sedaj nepoznanimi ver- h ki so pripluli v Aleksandrijo z vseh strani Sredo- zi pesnika Posidipa ( Posidippos) iz Pele, ki je ži-h t zemlja. Po ohranjenih virih iz 9. stol. naj bi sve- vel na aleksandrijskem dvoru v 3. stol. pr. n. št., ug tilnik pričeli graditi leta 297 pr. n. št.; drugi viri prinesel nove podatke. Pesnikovo delo dokazuje, ro pa poročajo, da so ga začeli graditi šele leta 283 h pr. n. št., v času vlade Ptolemaja II. (Empereur da je šlo v resnici za kip Zevsa Soterja – Rešitelja k t (Empereur 1998, 84). To neposredno nakazuje o 2004, 14). Plinij Starejši piše o izjemni vsoti 800 o talentov,3 ki so jo namenili samo za gradnjo te tudi povezavo s časom Ptolemaja I. Soterja. Eden stavbe ( NH 36,83). S svojo lepoto in veličastnim od ohranjenih napisov pa tudi priča, da je arhi-lo • a l videzom je naredila izjemen vtis. Toponim Pha- tekt in prijatelj družine Ptolemajcev Sostrat, sin ek Deksifana s Knida ( t ros je pozneje postal latinski Pharus in kmalu je Sostratos, Dexiphanes) (Mül- i s ler 2007, 850), daroval denar za postavitev kipa z ime simboliziralo oz. postalo sinonim za vse po- ok dobne svetilniške zgradbe. Že v antiki se je ale- na vrhu svetilnika za blagor pomorščakov in ga ksandrijski svetilnik uvrstil med sedem čudes posvetil Ptolemaju I. ter njegovi ženi Berenike led sg antičnega sveta. Rimska Aleksandrija je na Ta- (Empereur 2004, 16; Müller 2007, 851). Skupna o buli Peutingeriani prikazana s simbolom svetil- višina zgradbe je znašala 135 m. Dostop do svetil- r ■ p nika je bil urejen s klančino, ki je imela 16 lokov, a nika in to prav tako kaže na zavest o pomenu za tega poslopja. Strabon je zapisal, da je bil svetil- ob vhodu pa sta stala monumentalna kipa Ptole- a l nik zgrajen iz belega kamna (Str. 17, 1.6–9). To maja I. in njegove žene. en je nekatere zavedlo k napačni interpretaciji, da Poslopje in njegova oblika sta bila kmalu ir je bila stavba zgrajena iz marmorja. Zadnja izko- vzor za gradnjo številnih poznejših svetilnikov. pavanja Empereurja in njegove ekipe so dokaza- Tako lahko na več koncih rimskega imperija pre- la (1998, 80; 2004), da so za gradnjo uporabili lo- poznamo sorodne gradnje, npr. v mestu Leptis kalni apnenec bele barve, za temelje pa granit. Magna na libijski obali, še danes vidni ostanki Natančen opis svetilnika in njegove arhi- v Taposiris Magni, 48 km zahodno od Aleksan- tekture žal ne izvira iz antike, ampak iz poznej- drije, v Cezareji v Palestini, Fréjusu na francoski šega obdobja, podal ga je Abu al-Haggag Yusuf obali itd. (Castagnolli 1960, 596). Ibn Muhammad al-Balawi al-Andalusi, popot- Svetilnik v Aleksandriji je v celotnem ob- nik iz prve polovice 12. stol. Poslopje, ki naj bi dobju svojega obstoja zbujal pozornost in bil pril-bilo vidno z razdalje 300 stadijev (ok. 5 km daleč, jubljen motiv za upodabljanje v različnih umet-3 800 talentov ustreza približno 20.800 kg srebra. niških zvrsteh, npr. na mozaikih, freskah in tudi na predmetih za vsakodnevno uporabo (novci, n. št. Omenjene upodobitve na novcih, gemah in geme, posodje). ptujski steklenici pa kažejo, da je ostal na vrhu Okrog leta 1700 je znani umetnik Fischer zgradbe morda še dlje, celo do 2. stol. von Erlach po opisu iz. 12. stol. izdelal idealno ali, bolje rečeno, domišljijsko rekonstrukcijo te *** zgradbe (Empereur 2004, 86). Zelo natančno je Za konec nam ostaja še vprašanje, kako je dra-zapise in druge vire o svetilniku konec 19. stol. gocena steklenica prispela do Petovione? Grobna preučil Herman Thiersch. Devet let je preživel v arhitektura skupaj s pridatki dokazuje visok so-Egiptu in nato objavil knjigo o svetilniku s Faro- cialni položaj pokojnega. V Petovioni, naselju, ki sa ( Antike Islam und Occident – ein Beitrag zur je v 2. in 3. stol. cvetelo kot največje rimsko mes-Architekturgeschichte, 1909). Njegove risbe kaže- to na območju današnjega slovenskega prostora jo zgradbo v različnih fazah razvoja in propada, (Horvat idr., 2003, 153–190), so prav gotovo žive-od začetka 3. stol. do osmanskega obdobja, ko je li premožni predstavniki tako civilnega kot voja-137 v letih ok. 1477–80 sultan Kait Bey objekt pre- škega upravnega sloja, ki so jih življenjske usode zidal v utrdbo z enakim imenom. Thierscheve gnale na vse strani imperija, po drugi strani pa so ijer risbe so bile osnova za številne nadaljnje študije d bili dovolj premožni, da so si lahko privoščili vse, n (Pfrommer 1999, 10, Abb. 8a–c). kar je bilo v določenem obdobju modno in je po sa O upodobitvah svetilnikov v antiki je pisal svoje dokazovalo njihov visok družbeni položaj. lek tudi Reddé (1979, 845–856). Ugotavlja, da so si Nakup ali naročilo izdelka, izdelanega v majhni z a umetniki kot po navadi pri upodobitvah dovo- seriji, brez dvoma sodi v ta kontekst. Grobni in- jev i lili veliko svobode, še posebej ko je šlo za detajle. ventar s Ptuja gotovo izstopa zaradi velike kako-er S primerjavo upodobitev svetilnika iz Aleksan- vosti priloženih steklenih predmetov (Lazar in avr drije na novcih in drugih predmetih ugotavlja, Tomanič Jevremov 2000, 195, tab. 1), ki večino-da zadnja etaža verjetno ni imela kupolaste stre- ma sodijo v drugo polovico 2. stol., v skrajnem elek g he, in zavrača Thierschevo rekonstrukcijo tega primeru na začetek 3. stol. Izjema je kantharo s z dz dela svetilnika, saj naj bi nastala brez prave pod- okrasom v visokem reliefu, ki je značilen primer , ija lage. To naj bi bilo smiselno tudi zaradi ognja, prežitka oz. pridatka kot družinske (?) dediščine ut ki je gorel na vrhu in bi povsem uničil tako obli- in sodi glede na okras v 1. stol. kovano arhitekturo. Po njegovem mnenju je bil Stekleni izdelki z brušenim in graviranim a s pic osmerokotni del, ki je stal na prvi etaži, pravza- okrasom so bili namenjeni socialni in ekonom- prav odprta arhitektura s kolonado oz. stebri, v len ski eliti rimskega časa. Počasno in natančno ek kateri je gorel ogenj, pokrit pa je bil s podijem, delo, umetniški dar, ki ni bil dan vsakomur, ob-t na katerem je na podstavku dominiral orjaški rtna spretnost, pridobljena z izkušnjami, in stala ssk kip (Reddé 1979, 869, slika 9: 3). Tritoni na prvi na skrb, da se krhka posoda ne zdrobi pod pre-im etaži, s svojimi piščalmi iz školjk, pa naj bi ime- hudim pritiskom brusnega koleščka, vse to je li več namenov; eden za zvočne signale ladjam v vplivalo na visoko končno ceno figuralno okra-primeru megle, drugi je oddajal zvočni signal za šenega izdelka. Posebno vrednost je predstavljala ipta – rg merjenje časa in se je oglašal ob vsaki polni uri, prav lepota okrasa. z e tretjega pa so uporabljali kot opozorilni signal v Da je šlo pri steklu z brušenim okrasom za ilo i primeru nevarnosti oz. sovražnega napada (Red- statusni simbol, so pokazale analize poznorim- ra dé 1979, 870; Pfrommer 2005, 684). Kip Zevsa skih grobišč in grobnih pridatkov na območju o d Soterja, simbola dinastije Ptolemajcev, je bil pos- Kölna. Pokazalo se je, da so za najbogatejše gro- en tavljen na svetilnik ob koncu gradnje oz. kmalu bove poleg dragocenega nakita in bronastih cog zatem in je dominiral kot osrednje božanstvo na izdelkov značilni prav pridatki steklenih po-ar vrhu svetilnika najmanj do konca vlade te dina- sod z brušenim okrasom in s figuralnimi moti- d stije ter ustanovitve rimske province leta 30 pr. vi (Friedhoff 1989, 45). Tudi steklenica iz Petovione je bila status-teja ( Proteus), ki naj bi bil prav tako Pozejdonov sin. O ni simbol in enako seveda velja za kantaros iz is- njem piše že Homer v Odiseji; predstavljal naj bi morsko tega groba, ki predstavlja prežitek starejšega časa. božanstvo s preroškimi sposobnostmi; opoldne je nava-Izdelek, ki je nastal v egipčanski delavnici, prav dno spal oz. počival na otoku Faros. Po mlajši legendi pa gotovo ni sodil med predmete široke proizvod-je bil Protej mitični egipčanski kralj, ki je živel na Faro-nje. Verjetno je bil izdelan po naročilu, za osebo, su. V tem primeru nas faraonsko pokrivalo upodoblje-ki je s prestižnim posodjem hotela očarati svoje ne osebe ne preseneča. Pred figuro je morje, v katerem goste na gostiji in poudariti visok družbeni polo-plavajo štiri večje ribe. Motiv zaključuje visoka stavba z žaj. Morda pa je steklenico skupaj z vsebino do-več nadstropji. Poslopje je kvadratnega tlorisa, nakazane bila v dar kot izraz posebne naklonjenosti, ki je so številne odprtine oz. okna v nadstropjih. Prva etaža bila seveda izražena prav z dragocenostjo darila se zaključuje s ploščadjo, na kateri prepoznamo skulp-samega, saj so ga ustvarile roke izkušenega gra- ture in v sredini še manjše, okroglo nadstropje, s kipom 138 verja v specializirani delavnici v Egiptu. To so na vrhu. Le-ta ima v dvignjeni levici sulico oz. kopje, des-bili izdelki, ki so v družini pogosto ostali več ge- nico ima spuščeno; v njej drži nerazpoznaven predmet, ss neracij in se dedovali iz roda v rod; bili so pred- mora daritveno posodo. V stavbi prepoznamo svetilnik la meti posebne vrednosti, tako zaradi kakovosti in glede na detajle sklepamo, da je upodobljen svetilnik z e gh kot zaradi z njimi povezanih spominov. Gre to- otoka Faros v Aleksandriji. Skoraj identično je svetilnik h t rej za dediščino, ki še danes, v arheološkem kon- upodobljen na stekleni gemi iz 1. stol., kjer motiv dopol- ug tekstu, nosi posebno sporočilo in govori o lju- njujeta podobi božanstev Izide Farije in Pozejdona, vsa- ro deh, njihovem življenju, medsebojnih odnosih ko na eni strani svetilnika. Podoben motiv najdemo na h in duhu antičnega časa. stekleni gemi, ki jo hrani Umetnostnozgodovinski mu- k to zej na Dunaju. o Povzetek Nekoliko drugačen je svetilnik na stekleni čaši iz Begra- Do danes je bilo na osnovi ohranjenih izdelkov z bru- ma, najdišča severno od Kabula v Afganistanu. Okrog- lo • a l šenim figuralnim in geometrijskim okrasom mogoče li stolp ima na vrhu ob robovih skulpturi, v sredini pa ekt opredeliti nekaj skupin izdelkov, ki so pripadali posame- podstavek, na katerem stoji gola figura z veslom v roki – i sz znim delavnicam v obdobju rimskega cesarstva. V zad- Pozejdon. Čeprav stavbo interpretirajo kot aleksandrij- ok njih nekaj letih so raziskovalci opredelili novo skupino ski svetilnik, se v podrobnostih, predvsem kipa na vrhu, izdelkov s figuralnim okrasom, ki so nastajali v Egiptu, precej razlikuje od drugih upodobitev. Verjetneje je, da led sg predstavljeni motiv ni povezan z Aleksandrijo. o najverjetneje v delavnici v Aleksandriji. Njihova značil- nost je uporaba gravure za obrobe, ki je kombinirana s Upodobitev s ptujske steklenice najbolje vzporejamo z r ■ pa prostoročnimi vrezi za detajle oz. podrobnosti. Med iz- upodobitvami na novcih in omenjenih gemah. Na vseh za delki, ki sodijo v skupino, imenovano contour groove gro-prepoznamo štiri skupne elemente: poslopje kvadratne- a l up, se je v Sloveniji ohranila steklenica, odkrita na Ptuju. ga tlorisa, Tritoni na prvi etaži, druga etaža in kip s sulico en v roki na vrhu svetilnika. Upodobitve ustrezajo predla- ir Izvira iz žganega groba, med pridatki pa so prevladova- li stekleni predmeti. Ostenje ptujske steklenice pokriva gani rekonstrukciji svetilnika, kot jo je podal Reddé. Na figuralni motiv, omejujeta ga dva horizontalna okrasna osnovi primerjav lahko potrdimo, da poslopje na stekle-pasova. Obrisi figur in poslopja so bili zarisani z uporabo nici s Ptuja res predstavlja aleksandrijski svetilnik. gravure, posamezni detajli na osebi, živalih in stavbi so Steklenica s Ptuja je že zaradi svojega motiva, ki jo ne-bili vpraskani prostoročno. Motiv predstavlja morsko posredno povezuje z izvornimi delavnicami skupine pokrajino. Na obali sedi moška oseba, prikazana v pro-contour groove group v Egiptu, izjemna. Glede na homo-filu, ki se naslanja na levo roko, desno roko ima iztegnje-genost skupine raziskovalci ugotavljajo, da gre za izdel- no predse. Na glavi ima neke vrste pokrivalo (nemes oz. ke delavnice, ki je s proizvodnjo pričela v drugi polovici klaft?). Gola figura verjetno predstavlja božanstvo ali 2. stol. in svoje izdelke izvažala v Italijo, na zahod in tudi mitološko osebo. Glede na motiv lahko razmišljamo o na jadransko obalo. Steklenica s Ptuja in skodela iz Bak-Neptunu (oz. Pozejdonu) ali Eolu. Morda pa gre za Pro- ra po svoji tehniki okrasa pripadata skupini ‘ contour groo- ve group’, glede na detajle okrasa pa je verjetno, da sta nas-clude that the depicted lighthouse is Faros in Alexan- tali v različnih delavnicah. dria. Almost identical y, the lighthouse is depicted on a glass gem from the 1st century, where the motif is com- Summary plemented by the images of the deities Isis Pharia and Until today, on the basis of preserved products with en- Poseidon, each on one side of the lighthouse. A similar graved figural and geometric decoration, it was possible motif can be found on a glass gem kept at the Kunsthis-to identify several groups of products that belonged to torishes Museum in Vienna. individual workshops during the period of the Roman Slightly different is a decoration on a glass beaker from Empire. In the past few years, researchers have identified Begram, a site north of Kabul, Afghanistan. The round a new group of wares with figural decoration that was tower has sculptures at the top along the edges, and in produced in Egypt, most likely in a workshop in Alexan-the middle, there is a pedestal on which stands a naked dria. Their characteristic is the use of engraving for bor-figure with an oar in his hand – Poseidon. Although the ders, which is combined with freehand cuts for details or building is interpreted as an Alexandrian lighthouse, it 139 details. Among the products belonging to the contour is quite different from other depictions in the detail, es-groove group, a bottle found in Ptuj has been preserved pecial y the statue at the top. It is more likely that the ijer motif presented is unrelated to Alexandria. d in Slovenia. It originates from a cremated grave where n glass objects prevailed as grave goods. The depiction of the Ptuj bottle is best compared to the sa The wall of the Ptuj bottle covers a figural motif, bound- depictions on the coins and the mentioned gems. We lek ed by two horizontal decorative bands. Outlines of fig- can recognize four common elements in all of them: z a ures and buildings were drawn using contour engraving, the building with a square floor plan, the Tritons on the first floor, and the second floor and a statue with a spear jev i and individual details on people, animals and buildings er were scratched freehand. The motif represents a sea- in hand at the top of the lighthouse. The renderings cor- av respond to the proposed reconstruction of the light- r scape. A male figure, shown in profile, is seated on the house as given by Reddé. Based on comparisons, we can shore, leaning on his left arm, his right arm extended confirm that the building on the bottle from Ptuj real y elek g in front of him. The figure has some kind of headdress d represents the Alexandrian lighthouse. z (nemes or klaft?) on her head. The naked man probably , i The bottle from Ptuj is extraordinary because of its mo- ja represents a deity or mythological figure. Depending on u tif, which directly connects it to the original workshops t the motif, we can think about Neptune (or Poseidon) or of the contour groove group in Egypt. Aeolus. But perhaps it is Proteus, who is also supposed to a s p Considering the homogeneity of the group, the re- ic be Poseidon’s son. Homer already writes about him in searchers note that it is the product of a workshop that len the Odyssey; supposed to represent a sea deity with pro- started production in the second half of the 2nd centu- ek phetic powers; at noon he usual y slept or rested on the t ry and exported its products to Italy, the West and the island of Pharos. According to a younger legend, Pro- a s Adriatic coast. The bottle from Ptuj and the bowl from sk teus was a mythical Egyptian king who lived on Pha- Bakar belong to the ‘contour groove group’ according im ros. In this case, the pharaoh’s headdress of the depict- to their decoration technique, and given the details of ed person does not surprise us. In front of the figure is the decoration, it is likely that they were made in differ-the sea, in which swim four large fish. The motif is com- ipta – r ent workshops. g pleted by a tall building with several floors. The build- z e ing has a square floor plan, and many openings or win- ilo i dows on the floors are indicated. The first floor ends ra with a platform on which we can recognize the sculp- o d tures and in the middle round floor with a statue on top. en She has a spear or spear in her raised left hand, and her cog right hand is lowered, holding an unrecognizable object ar in it, it must be an offering vessel. We recognize a light-d house in the building and, based on the details, we con- The Glass from the Gnalić Wreck Steklo s potopljene ladje pri Gnaliću Abstract 141 A few miles south of the town of Biograd, at the end of the 16th century, a ship sunk in the vicinity of the rocky islet of Gnalić and bears its name. It is located at the southern entrance to the Pašman channel. A team of Slovene and English archaeologists undertook at the end of 2004 the first systematic analysis of the glass from the shipwreck. The aim was to classify the glass for the first time, and also to answer a number of specific research questions. The article brings the presentation of our results in a text for museum purposes. Keywords: Gnalić, Croatia, shipwreck, Biograd, renaissance glass, beakers, flat glass Izvleček Nekaj milj južno od mesta Biograd je konec 16. stol. v bližini skalnatega otoka Gnalić potonila ladja, ki danes nosi njegovo ime. Leži na južnem vhodu v Pašmanski kanal. Skupina slovenskih in angleških arheologov je leta 2004 začela s sistematično analizo steklenega tovora z ladje. Njihova naloga je bila prva sistematična opredelitev steklenega gradiva in poiskati odgovore na številna raziskovalna vprašanja. Članek predstavlja rezultate raziskav v besedilu za muzejsko predstavitev. Ključne besede: Gnalić, Hrvaška, brodolom, Biograd, renesančno steklo, čaše, ravno steklo The Eastern Adriatic coastline has always In 1967 local fishermen noticed the remains and been a popular route for ships. Its advan-reported them to the authorities. Soon it was ob- tages are the favourable current and the vious that it was a merchant ship that had sunk possibility of offering shelter during inclement with all its rich cargo. weather. Unfortunately, some of the ships en- Only a few months after the discovery, the countered difficulties before they reached the first underwater research actions were organised shelter. Such was the destiny of the ship that by the Institute for the Preservation of Cultur-sunk a few miles south of the town of Biograd, al Monuments and the Regional Museum in Za-at the end of the 16th century. dar. Up to 1996, six campaigns were organised to The ship sank in the vicinity of the rocky is- recover portions of the vessel and its cargo. let of Gnalić and bears its name. It is located at Shortly after the initial a large part of the the southern entrance to the Pašman channel, diagnostic pieces were exhibited in several loca-known as part of the sailing route since ancient tions in the former Yugoslavia until the whole times. collection was deposited in a specially estab- Amateur divers accidentally discovered the lished museum in Biograd, where they can still remains of the ship at a depth of 26–27 metres. be seen today. On the initiative of Smiljan Gluščević, to the shipwreck during the sailing was that it Head of the Department for underwater archae-was most probably overloaded. ology in the Archaeological Museum in Zadar Before our project, the last underwater and in cooperation with Mira Hanuda Vegar campaign in Gnalić was organised in 1996. On and Gorka Božulić, former directors of the Re-the basis of earlier investigations, the divers con- gional Museum in Biograd, the shipwreck and centrated in two areas: the ship and the area to the cargo of a ship from Gnalić has been includ-the southwest of it. The area about 100 metres to ed in the international project ‘The Heritage of the south and southwest of the sunken ship was Serenissima’, organised by University of Primor-carefully investigated. Here, another part of the ska (Koper) with the cooperation of the Karl glass cargo was discovered. It is possible that dur-Franzens University in Innsbruck and Universi- ing the storm part of the glass cargo fell off the ty Ca’ Foscari in Venice (Serenissima 2006). The boat and was carried by the wind. The glass from 2 goal of the project was to investigate Venetian this area is comprised of exclusively two types of 14 influence in the Adriatic. simple goblets, which were obviously transport- ss A team of Slovene and English archaeolo- ed in great quantity. To date around 3500 pieces la gists undertook at the end of 2004 the first sys- of these goblets have been recovered. e gh tematic analysis of the glass from the shipwreck. The objects discovered at the shipwreck h t The aim was not only to classify and accurately were first illustrated and discussed in Vrulje, the ug quantify the glass for the first time, but also to journal of the Museum in Zadar (Radulić 1970) ro answer a number of specific research questions and exhibited from 1970 to 1971. The first de-h k t (Lazar and Willmott 2006a).1 scription of the glass finds from Gnalić was writ- oo The glass was an important, if not the most ten by Sofia Petricioli (1973, 85–92) in volume important, part of the ship’s cargo discovered 15 of the Journal of Glass Studies, together with near Gnalić. Only a few months after the dis-some limited chemical analysis by Robert Brill lo • a l ek covery of the ship the first underwater research (1973, 93–7). An article about the ship by Astone t was organised. The campaign was mainly aimed Gasparetto was published in the same Journal. i szo at the removal of the cargo and protecting the After a systematic examination of the archives k site from looting. During the campaigns in 1967, and the records of the notaries of the period in led s 1972 and 1973 divers mainly picked up the mate- Venice, Gasparetto came to the conclusion that go rial that was visible on the seabed. A good part the wreck most probably belonged to a ship the of the glassware, particularly the drinking glass-Gagiana, which left Venice in November 1583 r ■ paz es, was found on the bottom of the sea away from (1973, 82). a the perimeter of the ship. The goods probably The latest research in Venetian archives dur- a l fell into the sea whilst the ship was foundering ing the continuation of the work on the site of enir or it is possible that this part of the cargo was in- Gnalić (Radić Rossi and Nicolardi 2019) con- tentionally jettisoned. The drinking glasses were firmed the identification of the ship as Gaglia-still packed in wicker baskets, and the flat glass na Grossa and discovered its very complex histo-still had straws placed between the various lay- ry. The archives also give another interesting and ers. The shipwreck was most probably caused by important piece of information that in 1583 Sula storm, combined with a strong north-westerly tan’s office ordered 5000 windowpanes from the wind typical in the area, which resulted in rough Venetian bailo in Constantinople (Radić Rossi seas and bad visibility that obscured the low-ly-and Batur 2020, 530). ing islet from view. Another factor contributing After these first reports, the work on Gnal- ić material did not continue until the year 2004. 1 The research on the site is now continuing within the pro- jects of Croatian colleagues under the director Irena Radić The new study of the material began as a part Rossi (Radić Rossi and Batur 2020). of an international project The Heritage of Se- 143 k ecr lič wan e gh m t ro ss f la e ght Figure 62: The number of plain goblets stored at the museum in Biograd (photo: Caroline Jackson). Slika 62: Velika količina navadnih čaš shranjenih v muzeju v Biogradu (foto: Caroline Jackson). renissima, joined by Slovene, Italian and Aus- coloured glass. It represents roughly 75% of the trian Universities at the end of 2004, with the entire glass assemblage from the wreck. The ta-main portion of the project being finished in bleware included beakers, goblets and tank-2005 (Gnalić 2004; Guštin, Gelichi, and Spin- ards, as well as bowls, lids, tazzae and vases. The dler 2006). The glass cargo was studied by a team group of containers is less numerous and includ-joined by Slovene and English colleagues. From ed sprinklers, flasks, bottles and jars. A small se-the amount and variety of the studied glass ma- lection of coloured glass was also discovered. The terial, we may suppose that it was a very impor-style of these vessels is very un-European and tant, if not the most important, part of the ship’s cargo. We can now estimate that the amount they represent even less than 0,5 % of the cargo. of the excavated objects totals in excess of 5500 We will briefly present the variety of forms pieces, and this is by no means all the original and glass groups represented in the cargo. The cargo, it is likely that the majority of the material first group are plain beakers. We divided them is still underwater (Lazar and Willmott 2006a; into two subgroups according to height (small 2006b; 2009). and large). This is a simple form with nearly Vessel glass from the Gnalić wreck was straight sides and a simple, low pushed-in base. made of naturally coloured and intentionally (Lazar and Willmott 2006a, 26, figs. 17–8.) The next broad group are goblets (figure/ 31). Engraved decoration on the bowl is com- slika 62). We divided them into subgroups ac- posed of leaf, scroll and foliage design, and the cording to their stem shape and type, and fur- foot is decorated with simple leaf engraving. ther variants according to the bowl forms and The group of drinking vessels with mould- decoration. The majority of goblets are plain, but blown stems from Gnalić consists of two basic some groups are decorated with mould-blowing forms–the ladder and lion-mask stem goblet. or engraving. Ladder stem goblets are not very numerous and Goblets with the hollow foot are made of appear in two subgroups with a plain or decorat-two separate paraisons that form the bowl and ed (optic-blown ribbed) bowl. the foot. The foot is joined to the bowl directly. Examples of the lion-mask stem are quite Goblets with a low hollow foot and a plain bowl numerous and were divided into 5 variants ac-4 are the most numerous forms in this glass assem- cording to the height of the lion mask and bowl 14 blage. The bowl shapes vary slightly and are ei- decoration. The study of more than a hundred ther straight and tapering or tulip-shaped. In the preserved stems provided further answers to ss last campaign in 1996 this form was found in the questions concerning mould types. Lion mask la area away from the ship, and in total 2300 vessels stems are the epitome of façon de Venise glasse gh were found. Goblets of this form can also have a ware of the second half of the 16th and beginning h t decorated bowl, with an optic-blown pattern of of the 17th centuries. This form is an Italian in-ug teardrops, but they are not so common. novation of the mid-16th century and within a ro Only a few examples of a goblet with a hol- few decades, they were produced in most areas h low foot and folded bowl were found. In this of northern, central and southern Europe. Stud-k to form a foot is joined to the bowl with a flattened ies from England and Belgium have shown that o disk– merese (Lazar and Willmott 2006a, 30, fig. relatively few moulds were used in each region. 21). A group of goblets with high hollow foot It is not surprising therefore that such a large lo • a l have a hemispherical bowl, the foot is joined to number from Gnalić (over 100 examples) can ekt the bowl with separate reel-shaped merese. The be grouped only into five categories (Lazar and i sz hemispherical bowl is usually plain, or very oc- Willmott 2006a, 38, figs. 35–9, pl. 4, 5). ok casionally decorated with optic-blown ribs that Tankards are larger drinking vessels. The can sometimes grow into a teardrop-shaped dec- general form in ceramic appears in the 15th cen- led sg oration. This is another rather numerous group tury, and although the earliest glass examples o with around 900 examples being recovered in are early 16th century, they are known also from r ■ pa 1996. the late 17th century (Willmott 2002, 55). Tradi- za Goblets with inverted baluster stems are tionally this form is thought to be Northern Eu-a l represented by 4 variants: a goblet with a solid ropean in origin, although they may have been en baluster stem can have either a plain or decorat- produced in southern Europe for an alternative ir ed bowl, whilst a ribbed inverted baluster stem market. Given their large capacity they were pre-appears as both a small and a large variant. sumably used for the consumption of beer, al- Knopped-stem goblets from Gnalić were though we can not exclude that they may have made in a good quality thinly-blown glass, prob-also functioned as jugs. Generally, they can be ably of a mixed-alkali or soda composition, and found with either a cylindrical or bellied shape the bowls and feet are sometimes decorated with to the body. Only tankards with spherical bodies engraving. The goblets have stems with either are found amongst the cargo of the Gnalić wreck. plain or ribbed flattened knops, a combination They have a vertical neck and rim, rounded body of plain and ribbed knop, a spiral ribbed knop, and folded pedestal foot. A solid handle is at-or in only two examples a ribbed three-stepped tached to the neck and shoulder. They are made stem (Lazar and Willmott 2006a, 34, figs. 25– of high-quality glass and decorated with either 145 k ecr lič wan e gh m t ro ss f la e ght Figure 63: An engraved footed bowl (photo: Tomaž Lauko). Slika 63: Skleda na nogi z graviranim okrasom (foto: Tomaž Lauko). vetro a fili and vetro a retorti trails, prominent simple hemispherical design would have allowed opaque white trails or engraved decoration. As-for large numbers of them to be easily stacked in sociated with the tankard is a lid with a solid fin- the containers. However, given that most have ial, domed top and folded rest. They can be plain very thin bodies and rims, in the majority of ves-or decorated in the same manner as the tankards. sels, only the foot has survived. The first group The group of bowls includes a hemispherical consists of simple vessels with a pushed-in base vessel in both smaller and larger variants as well or applied base ring. Smaller examples are decas footed bowls. These larger open vessels were orated with applied twisted opaque white, or primarily used for the temporary storage and white and blue vetro a retorti trails to their rim. serving of both, liquids and solids at the table. Footed bowls are found as plain or decorated ex-They could also in some cases have been used for amples. Plain-footed bowls are by far the most hand washing or even as drinking vessels. Vari-numerous, there being 167 in this group, whilst ations of bowls are found throughout most pe- decorated vessels are very few, and only one is riods, although they become increasingly com- completely preserved (figure/slika 63). Its en- mon during the late 15th and 16th centuries. Their graved decoration is composed of a foliage de- sign in the central portion, with a band of scroll- primarily decorated with engraving, although work above it and another band of foliage below applied raspberry prunts, shell appliqués, trails the rim. The vessel is made of high-quality glass and a lid with a domed top, also decorated with and very thinly blown. leaf engraving and raspberry prunts, comple- Among the forms represented by only a few ment its form and decoration. Their height var-examples are bowl lids and tazzae. Glass lids ies between 20 and 25 cm. were an Italian innovation of the later 15th cen- tury, appearing on bowls and tankards but in some cases also on goblets. Flat lids survive that have a solid finial and either plain, optic-blown or engraved surfaces. Domed lids can be plain or decorated with engraving. It seems most like- 146 ly that they would have been associated with bowls. Tazzae predominantly appear in the 16th ss century and were used to form elaborate dis- la plays holding fruits, sweetmeats and other exot- e gh ic foods. Two basic varieties of tazzae have been h t found: those with a knop stem and those with an ug open applied foot; their diameter exceeds 20 cm ro and their shape and elaborate appearance mean h that these were expensive items. Examples with k to an open foot have a simple decoration of applied o trails, which can be plain or pinched (Lazar and Willmott 2006a, pl. 13). Tazzae with a knop lo • a l stem have more elaborate decoration of filigrana ekt or engraving. One of the engraved vessels is dec- i sz orated with foliage and fruits in its central por- ok tion, and on outer panels with a laurel and foli- age design, whilst a second one has applied trails led sg and engraving of alternating blank and foliage o panels (Lazar and Willmott 2006a, pl. 11, 12). r ■ pa A vase is a form that typically has a narrow za neck with an out-turned rim, an ovoid body and Figure 64: Plain sprinklers (photo: Tomaž Lauko). a l a foot. A group of vases from the Gnalić wreck Slika 64: Neokrašene stekleničke s kapalko (foto: Tomaž en includes smaller vessels with engraved decora- ir Lauko). tion of leaves and foliage and two examples with mould-blown decoration. There are significant The last broad category includes vessels in- differences in size between examples which sug- tended for the storage of liquids and solids. The gests that they may have been used for a variety group from the cargo represent containers, flasks of functions. One of them was blown in a mould and bottles. This is one of the earliest forms that with human faces (possibly with three faces in appear in glass and there are a considerable num-the original form and two of them can still be ber of variations. The long-necked bottle, a typi-recognised on the surviving portion). Large vas- cal and popular form of the period that appeared es are represented by footed examples with han- as early as the 12th century, is represented by two dles and a spout. This very elaborate form is plain variants (one with a narrow and one with made of good quality glass, thinly blown and a funnel-mouth rim), as well as those decorat- ed with opaque white trails or simple colourless the over 5,000 vessels recovered just 65 (or less trail decoration. A simple plain or wavy trail is than 0.012%) of the assemblage falls into this sometimes applied around the upper neck. group. A separate and homogenous group is the The most striking of these are made of deep sprinkler – a small flask with a spherical body blue or opaque red glass and decorated with and a tall tapering neck (figure/slika 64). This blobs of coloured glass which are ‘marvered’ or is a very distinctive form of a container as it is smoothed into their surfaces (figure/slika 65). the only one in which contents were complete- Plainer, but no less unusual, are over 40 exam- ly sealed. Sprinklers are usually assumed to have ples of plain blue oval flasks with a distinctive held perfumes and other precious liquids. The ‘stepped’ rim. All of these vessels cannot be par-bottle was designed so that its narrow top could alleled by examples from known centres of West-easily be snapped off and the contents dripped ern European glass production. Their presence, out. The form causes the contents of the vessel to albeit in relatively small numbers, on what had 147 pour slowly, or in drops, as would be needed for been previously assumed to be a Venetian galley k perfume-sprinkling. This use is not certain, but is curious. Certainly, they confirm that the car-ec the shape has led us to regard it as the most like- r go consisted of a more complex mixture of ves- ly function for these vessels. The examples from sels than originally first thought. lič w Gnalić are plain, optic-blown with ribbing or an decorated with opaque white trailing. They are e g all made of high-quality glass and are excellent- h ly manufactured. m t In this context, we should also mention the ro small pear-shaped flask, represented by only a ss f la few examples. The form of the flask leads us to e g the tentative possibility that these are parts of ht sandglasses (Lazar and Willmott 2006a, 55, fig. 66). This was an instrument for measuring time, and took the form of a reversible device made of two vertical connected phials. The sandglasses are known archaeologically from the early 13th century in Italy, but most examples date to the 17th century and continued in common usage until the 18th century (Willmott 2005). The first production centres to specialise in them were in Venice, the Low Countries and Germany. Whilst the vast majority of the vessels could be shown to belong to relatively few well-defined categories, there were some smaller groups of glass which were much more unusual. Perhaps one of the most interesting of these was a num- ber of intentionally coloured oval bottles and Figure 65: Small oval bottle with splashed decoration shallow small bowls that were distinctly un-Eu- (photo: Tomaž Lauko). Slika 65: Ovalna steklenička z okrasom nataljenih lis ropean in style. This leads to several possibilities: (foto: Tomaž Lauko). that this glass was manufactured for a specif- ic customer in the East or simply for an eastern In addition to vessel glass, over 1.300 pieces market. However, this assemblage is small and of of flat glass were recovered, forming nearly 25% with the mirroring of tin and mercury elsewhere (Herrera et al. 2008). The group of plain window panes shows that there was no standardised size or range of sizes of the panes produced. This was most prob- ably done intentionally for a specific building project while different glazing projects would require panes of different sizes. A handful of examples are further decorated with mould- blown designs, but given that so few were found it might be that these were also made for a spe- 8 cific purpose. The latest research in Venetian ar- 14 chives gives information that in 1583 Grand Vi- zier of Sultan Murad III ordered 5000 window ss panes from the Venetian bailo in Constantino- la ple after the old palace of the Sultan burnt down e gh (Radić Rossi and Batur 2020, 530). This would tie h t the window panes cargo of the ship with the court ug of Constantinople. ro The other category of flat glass comes from h mirrors (figure/slika 67). The mirrors found are k to all made by a more laborious process, to ensure o that the glass is of sufficient flawless quality to reflect without distortion. A thick sheet of glass lo • a l was first cast into the approximate size and once ekt cooled its surfaces were ground smooth and the i sz Figure 66: A group of flat glass from the Gnalić wreck sheet cut and ‘grozed’ or chipped to the appro- ok (photo: Tomaž Lauko). priate shape. Two different shapes of mirrors Slika 66: Skupina ravnega stekla z ladje pri Gnaliču (foto: were found, circular and rectangular. Interest-led s Tomaž Lauko). g ingly, not only are finished examples of rectan- o gular mirrors present in the assemblage, (three r ■ p of the cargo (figure/slika 66). This divides into a distinct size categories) but the ship also carried z two separate types. Over 700 of these are cir- a a number of ‘sides’–or cast but unground mirror cular window glass ‘crowns’ or panes. The win- a l plates. These were presumably being traded with en dow glass was made by blowing and opening out the intention that they are finished off elsewhere. ir a bubble of glass on the blowing iron, and then Part of the mirrors, both circular and rectangu-spinning it so the centrifugal force created an lar and of standardized shapes and sizes, were in-even-shaped disc. Window panes were not com- complete and were in transit to be finished with monly used in this period, and when used they the mirroring elsewhere (Herrera et al. 2008). would be purchased in multiples to provide a Some of the mirrors retain evidence for their sil-glazing pattern within each window. Their pri- vered backing, although contrary to popular be- mary use would be for glazing in churches or lief silver was not actually used to make them re-buildings owned by rich families. flective, rather an amalgam of tin and mercury The mirrors, both circular and rectangu- was applied. lar and of standardized shapes and sizes, were Besides the enormous quantity of glass ves- incomplete and were in transit to be finished sels and flat glass, a large amount of glass beads The cargo from Gnalić gives an opportuni- ty to study not only the typology and chronolo- gy of the Renaissance glass but also the organisa- tion of trade and transport. It is most likely that the ship was conducting point-to-point trade. The entire cargo was loaded at a single point of origin and offloaded at its final destination–the complex loading of such a ship with this vol- ume and variety of cargo (Gnalić 2004) would suggest that picking up and offloading at many points along the coast would be unrealistic. The diverse nature of the cargo would suggest that while the ship may have been loaded at a single 149 port, its cargo was collected from different man- k ufacturing centres. ec The glass discovered on a seabed in some r areas retained evidence of its original contain- lič w ers and storage for the voyage. Woven baskets, an straw padding and wood boxes all provide infor- e g mation about the packing and transport of the h finished glass products. The more elaborate, and m t of course valuable, items were packed in wood- ro en boxes and as we may assume carefully stored ss f la in the lower hold of the ship. Common forms, Figure 67: Rectangular and circular mirrors e g which were transported in great numbers (such (photo: Tomaž Lauko). ht as the varieties of simple beaker and goblet– Slika 67: Pravokotna in okrogla ogledala forms S1 and S2) were discovered in woven bas- (foto: Tomaž Lauko). kets many meters away from the perimeter of the was collected from the sea bed. They were found ship. It therefore can be suggested that they were together, on a pile, and put in a vessel. Their not so carefully stored and perhaps during the weight exceeds 2 kilograms. These beads were course of the shipwreck even intentionally jetti-not yet evaluated and researched. More or less, soned from the ship. The window glass and mir-these are miniature glass objects since their di- rors were carefully packed with layers of straw placed between the sheets and then most prob- ameter and length are no larger than 1 cm (fig- ably placed into wooden chests. ure/slika 68). Their form is circular, oval and The variety of glass goods onboard, with elongated, and they are made of coloured (red, vessels for everyday use like footed goblets, dec-green, blue, yellow) or colourless glass, and deco- orative table display wares including vases and rated with glass threads in contrasting or white half-finished products like the mirror glass colours. The new research and sorting of the finds plates, suggests they were intended for a range in 2017 determined that 76 types of beads were of different markets. But, some small groups of found on the ship (Radić Rossi and Batur, 2020, speciality glass items, such as the small coloured 537). Since our information about their discov-bowls and coloured bottles may well have been ery is lacking, we can not presume or conclude packed for delivery to a particular customer. whether they were transported as jewellery or as The intended market is also a matter of spec- individual items. ulation. As far as the glass is concerned, most of 150 ss la e gh h t ug roh k too lo • a l ekti sz Figure 68: Glass beads recovered from the Gnalić wreck (photo: Caroline Jackson). ok Slika 68: Steklene jagode najdene na potopljeni ladji pri Gnaliću (foto: Caroline Jackson). led s the assemblage is of lower quality plain drinking Stylistic analysis of the cargo opened nu- go wares which were for everyday use and relative- merous questions connected with the origin r ■ p ly low value. The flat glasses for mirrors and win- of the glass products on board and the intend- az dows were of a higher value but again could be a ed market. Archaeometric analysis could help destined for almost any market. The existence of a l us to define the groups of products on the ba- en small consignments of specialist glassware on the sis of their composition and minor differences in ir ship, which includes some highly decorated arti- production technology and thereby indicate the cles (such as the engraved vases and bowls) that possibility of their origin in the Venetian work-were probably produced in Venice, would indi- cate glasses were made for specific, luxury-loving shops or even in the wider area of northern Ita-markets. And this would not be unlikely if the ly or the Adriatic. ship was heading for Constantinople. Caroline Jackson was responsible for sam- However, most of the simple forms (such as pling the glass and for chemical analysis using goblets, bowls, and jars) were made for everyday ICPS. The numerous broken fragments com-use. But were they really all produced in Venice? bined with the multiple replications of some of Or perhaps in several north Italian workshops the forms have enabled us to take in excess of 212 and then shipped from Venice? samples and these will prove crucial in aiding in a comprehensive characterisation of the whole blanchum; subtle differences in composition in-assemblage. dicate that different styles of glasses, most nota- What can be concluded from the analysis? bly vessel glasses, were manufactured at different The first conclusion is that the glass from the centres. The low concentrations of some trace el-wreck conforms to a very similar composition ements suggest these centres were probably locat- (Jackson 2006, 87), no high-quality glasses such ed within Italy. The glass could then have been as cristallo were found, and all the other glasses, transported to the ship for loading at a single lo-regardless of whether they are vessels, windows cation, which may have been Venice. The des-or mirrors, are of a composition which matches tination of the ship was most probably Con-that defined as vitrum blanchum by researchers. stantinople, if we take into consideration the However, there appear to be different manufac-above-mentioned results of the latest research in turing groups within this overall composition, the Venetian archives. which is reflected in differences in trace elements 151 associated with the sands used to manufacture Summary k the glasses (Jackson 2009, 137). The Eastern Adriatic coastline has always been a pop- ec In some cases, these compositional groups r ular route for ships. Its advantages are the favourable can be linked to different stylistic groups, indic- current and the possibility of offering shelter during in- lič w ative of different manufacturing centres special- clement weather. Unfortunately, some of the ships en- an ising in the production of different vessels. The countered difficulties before they reached the shelter. e g mirrors and window glass seem to be manufac- Such was the destiny of the ship that sunk a few miles h tured at different centres, even though they re- south of the town of Biograd, at the end of the 16th cen- m t quire very similar glass-working technologies. It ro tury. The ship sank in the vicinity of the rocky islet of appears that there seems to be some specialisa- Gnalić and bears its name. It is located at the southern ss f la tion between different functional types of glass- entrance to the Pašman channel, known as part of the e g es which is probably related to the location of sailing route since ancient times. ht manufacture. The lion stem goblets show a wide Amateur divers accidental y discovered the remains of variation in composition, as do the mirrors. the ship at a depth of 26–27 metres. In 1967 local fisher- Compositional evidence indicates that the men noticed the remains and reported them to the au-glasses are all of the same general composition, thorities. Soon it was obvious that it was a merchant ship but that it is likely these were manufactured at that had sunk with all its rich cargo. different centres. Are these manufacturing cen- Only a few months after the discovery, the first under- tres widely dispersed within Italy or do these water research actions were organised and up to 1996, compositions reflect different workshops within six campaigns were organised to recover portions of the a closely defined area? Alternatively, were glass-vessel and its cargo. es made elsewhere, outside of Italy? The consign- Shortly after the initial a large part of the diagnostic ment aboard the vessel must have been manu- pieces was exhibited in several locations in the former factured within a constrained time period, one Yugoslavia until the whole col ection was deposited in which probably did not precede the date of the a special y established museum in Biograd, where they wreck by more than a year or so, and so the dif-can still be seen today. ferences in composition cannot be linked to dif- On the initiative of Smiljan Gluščević, Head of the De- ferences over time, giving us an enviable snap- partment for underwater archaeology in the Archaeo- shot of trade in glass at a very specific moment. logical Museum in Zadar and in cooperation with Mira Using our understanding of the materi- Hanuda Vegar and Gorka Božulić, former directors of al at the present time, the compositional analy- the Regional Museum in Biograd, the shipwreck and sis of the glass from the Gnalić shipwreck indi- the cargo of a ship from Gnalić has been included in cates that the glass cargo on board was all vitrum the international project The Heritage of Serenissima, or- ganised by University of Primorska (Koper) with the in s sodelovanjem Mire Hanuda Vegar in Gorke Bo-cooperation of the Karl Franzens University in Inns- žulić, nekdanjih direktoric Regionalnega muzeja v Bi- bruck and University Ca’ Foscari in Venice. The goal of ogradu, je bilo gradivo potopljene ladje pri Gnaliću the project was to investigate Venetian influence in the vključeno v mednarodni projekt »The Heritage of Sere-Adriatic. nissima/Dediščina Serenissime«, ki ga je pridobila Uni- A team of Slovene and English archaeologists under- verza na Primorskem (Koper) v sodelovanju z Univero took at the end of 2004 the first systematic analysis of Karl Franzens iz Innsbrucka in Univerzo Ca’ Foscari the glass from the shipwreck. The aim was not only to iz Benetk. Cilj projekta je bilo raziskovanje beneškega classify and accurately quantify the glass for the first vpliva in dediščine na Jadranu. time, but also to answer a number of specific research Skupina slovenskih in angleških arheologov je konec questions. Since its discovery, it has been widely as-leta 2004 začela s sistematično analizo steklenega gra- sumed that the ship was a Venetian gal ey and therefore diva s potopljene ladje. Njen cilj je bil ne le kvantitativna 152 the likely origin for all the glass was Murano. However, in tipološka opredelitev gradiva, ampak tudi najti odgo-this supposition was open for question for the first time. vore na številna raziskovalna vprašanja. Vse od odkri- ss Furthermore, it had never been established where the tja so namreč domnevali, da je potopljena ladja beneška la glass cargo might have been heading, or indeed whether galeja in njen tovor stekla izvira iz muranskih delavnic. e g Ta predpostavka je bila prvič postavljena pod vprašaj. h it was destined for a single place, or represented the con-Prav tako do takrat ni bilo nikoli z gotovostjo ugoto- h t texts of a ship that was stopping to trade at a variety of vljeno, kam je bila ladja namenjena oz. ali je bil njen cilj ug Adriatic ports. ro en sam ali pa se je ustavljala in trgovala v več jadranskih h Povzetek pristaniščih. k too Vzhodna jadranska obala je bila od nekdaj privlačna za morjeplovstvo. Njena prednost so ugodni tokovi in šte- vilne možnosti za iskanje zavetja v primeru slabega vre- lo • a l mena. Vseeno pa so se številne ladje spopadle s težavami, ekt še preden so tam našle zavetje. Tako usodo je doživea i sz ladja, ki je konec 16. stol. potonila nekaj kilometrov juž- ok no od mesta Biograd. Potonila je v neposredni bližini skalnatega otočka Gnalić in je po njem tudi poimeno- led sgo vana. Otok leži ob južnem vhodu v pašmanski kanal, ki je že iz antičnih časov znan kot plovna pot. r ■ pa Amaterski potapljači so na ostanke ladje naleteli pov- za sem slušajno, na globini med 26 in 27 metri. Leta 1967 so a l lokalni ribiči o ostankih ladje obvestili oblasti. Kmalu je enir postalo jasno, da gre za ostanke trgovske ladje, ki je po- tonila z vsem svojim tovorom. Le nekaj mesecv po odkritju so bila organizirane prve podvodne raziskave, do leta 1996 pa je bilo organiziranih šest raziskovalnih kampanj, da bi rešili ostanke ladje in njenega tovora. 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Corning: Corning Museum of Glass. ———. 1998. ‘Book Reviews: Michael Meininger; Untersuchungen zu den Recenziji Reviews Pogled skozi steklo Recenzija Tina Milavec 916 Predložena monografija je rezultat dolgo- 2022 v različnih muzejih po Sloveniji v sklopu letnega arheološkega raziskovalnega dela vseslovenskega muzejskega projekta Po stekleni Irene Lazar, mednarodno uveljavljene spe-poti. cialistke za steklo, predvsem antično pa tudi Monografija bo objavljena predvsem v an- kasnejše. gleškem pa tudi v slovenskem jeziku in bo brez Ob mednarodnem letu stekla 2022, katere- dvoma uspešno predstavljala lahko dostopne do- ga obeleževanju se pridružuje tudi Slovenija prav mače študije steklenega gradiva iz Slovenije ter pod njenim vodstvom, je združila in zaokrožibližnje soseščine v mednarodnem prostoru. la 13 študij posameznih izjemnih predmetov, po- membnih najdišč ter pogledov na steklo kot mu- zejski predmet. Prvi del, poimenovan 'Razvoj steklarstva na območju jugovzhodnih Alp in sosedstva' pred- stavlja predvsem razvoj antične steklarske obrti in zadnje rezultate raziskav na območju Sloveni- je in okolice. Drugi del z naslovom 'Najdišča in gradivo' prinaša najnovejše študije steklenega gradiva, ve- činoma kot rezultat raziskav antičnega stekla, odkritega med obsežnimi arheološkimi raziska- vami med gradnjo avtocestnega križa v Sloveniji v zadnjih 25 letih. Izpostavljene so predvsem tis- te najdbe, ki imajo izjemen pomen tudi v svetov- nem merilu. Tretji del, 'Steklo kot muzejski predmet', poudarja pomen interpretacije in posredovanja raziskovalnih rezultatov vsem. Muzejski pred- meti pripovedujejo zgodbe in na ta način prib- ližujejo raziskovalne rezultate ter kulturno de- diščino kar najširši javnosti, kar je gotovo eden najpomembnejših ciljev oz. zadnja postaja dela vsakega raziskovalca. Tu predstavljeni rezultati bodo na ogled tekom mednarodnega leta stekla A Look through the Glass Review Caroline M. Jackson 117 I wish to strongly support the application for grown considerably in the last 20 years. It will be funding for the publication of a volume on read widely by scholars who work on the analy-the scientific study of glasses by Professor Ire- sis of glass, those who are interested in the his- na Lazar. The volume is timely, as 2022 is the In- tory of glasses, material scientists, archaeological ternational Commission on Glass and United scientists and both arts, humanities and science Nations International Year of Glass and the col-students. The publication will also resonate with lection of papers will form an important contri- those interested in the history and archaeology bution. This volume will constitute a firstly a cel- of Slovenia. It will promote an understanding of ebration of glass but it also focusses on research scientific work in archaeology of the region, and undertaken in and around Slovenia. Thus it will in glass, to the general public internationally, es-illustrate the role of glass in a regional archae- pecially if it can be widely available and accessi- ological and historical study and demonstrate ble in an electronic format. how this material and its products informs our The publication highlights just some of understanding of the material and political past. the major projects the author has researched Irena Lazar is an internationally renowned through relevant and informative case studies. researcher in ancient and historic glasses, and The volume is divided into three themes, the has worked on the material from prehistory to first looks at the development of working with the early modern period. She is the foremost re-glass in Slovenia and surrounding areas from the searcher on the topic in Slovenia. She has active- Early Iron Age but focussing predominantly on ly contributed to major international conferenc- the Roman period, a period when glass working es, hosted the international congress on glass and glass use in the region was vibrant. This re-research in 2012 and is on the board of the Asso- search includes important finds such as the lamp ciation pour l’Histoire du Verre, the major inter- showing a glass working furnace and the glass national body for historical and archaeological from the glass working regions in Celje and Ptuj. glass research. The publication will showcase her It also demonstrates the range and extent of the research and research collaborations into glass movement of glasses into and from the region. spanning a wide chronological period, from Slo- The second theme in the book looks at venia and neighbouring regions. finds from the region which have internation- The book gives a comprehensive coverage of al importance and relevance to our understand-man-made glasses from all periods and incorpo- ing of the region in the Roman period; these in- rates a very large body of knowledge. It provides clude a beaker which depicts Roman gods which a very timely synthesis of the major and current have special social importance, vessels in the re-work in the area – in a research theme which has gion which have been imported from specialist glassmakers (Ennion) and sites which have yielded important and high status Roman assemblag- es, especially highly prized strongly coloured and colourless glass, such as those from early Roman Ribnica, and the extensive assemblage from the cemetery at Budva, Montenegro. The third theme in the book examines how glasses form an important resource in muse- ums and enable communication about the ma- terial past to scholars and to the public. This in- cludes specific illustrative examples such as the 2 Roman decorated bottle from Ptuj which tells 17 us of the wealth of its owner, about the skill of the glassworker and about how history was then ss told in images and a high quality decorated bowl la imported from Egypt. Finally, the volume con- e g cludes with a chapter on the impressive and ex- h tensive collection of 17th century vessel and win- h t dow glass discovered on the Gnalic shipwreck, ug ro which displays the extensive international move- h ment of glass in a snapshot of time. k to The content, structure and organisation of o the publication are well conceived and it is a very accessible and informative volume. The written lo • a l style is easy to follow and the volume represents ek a very good resume of important research under- ti s taken by Professor Lazar in the region. zok led sgo r ■ paza a l enir Document Outline Lazar, Irena. 2022. Pogled skozi steklo / A Look Through the Glass. Koper: Založba Univerze na Primorskem. Libri universitatis hereditati, 1 Kolofon • Colophone Vsebina • Contents Zrinka Mileusnić • Predgovor Zrinka Mileusnić • Foreword Razvoj steklarstva na območju jugovzhodnih Alp in sosedstva • Development of Glassmaking in the South-east Alpine Area and its Vicinity Antična steklarska proizvodnja na območju jugovzhodnih Alp in vzhodnega Jadrana • Ancient Glass Production in the South-east Alpine Area and Eastern Adriatic Izvleček Abstract Prazgodovina Vprašanje lokalne proizvodnje Rimska doba Nova tehnika – nova odkritja Rimska steklarska proizvodnja v Celeji in Petovioni Problem interpretacije najdb v Emoni in Kranju Hrvaška – lokalna proizvodnja v Panoniji in Dalmaciji Nova odkritja v Črni gori Sklep Summary Povzetek Glass Finds in Slovenia and Neighbouring Areas • Steklene najdbe iz Slovenije in njenega sosedstva Abstract Izvleček Summary Povzetek Roman Oil Lamp from Slovenia Depicting a Glass Furnace • Rimska oljenka iz Slovenije z upodobitvijo steklarske peči Izvleček Abstract Summary Povzetek Roman Glass Production in Celeia (Noricum) – New Evidence • Rimska proizvodnja stekla v Celeji (Norik) – novi dokazi Izvleček Abstract Summary Povzetek Najdišča in gradivo • Sites and Finds Coloured Monochrome Glass of the Early Imperial Period in Romula (Pannonia) • Intenzivno obarvano stekleno posodje iz zgodnje cesarskega obdobja iz Romule (Panonija) Izvleček Abstract Monochrome translucent coloured fine ware Monochrome opaque-coloured fine wares Black (appearing) glass vessels Conclusion remarks Summary Povzetek Finds of Roman Colourless Glass from Romula • Najdbe dekoloriranega rimskega stekla iz Romule Izvleček Abstract Summary Povzetek Ennion Beaker and other Fragments of Mould-Blown Glass • Čaša mojstra Enniona in druge najdbe v kalup pihanega stekla Abstract Izvleček Summary Povzetek Čaša za posebne priložnosti: odlomka čaše bogov iz Celeje • A Beaker for Special Occasions: Two Fragments of a Mythological Beaker from Celeia Izvleček Abstract Summary Povzetek Črno steklo, da ali ne?: nove najdbe posod iz na pogled črnega stekla • Black Glass, yes or no?: New Finds of Vessels from Black-Appearing Glass Izvleček Abstract Uvod Stanje raziskav Predstavitev gradiva in razprava Sklep Katalog obravnavanih posod Summary Povzetek Glass Material from the Roman Necropolis of Budva in the Social and Economic Context of the Empire • Stekleno gradivo z rimske nekropole Budva v socialnem in ekonomskem kontekstu imperija Abstract Izvleček Conclusion Summary Povzetek Steklo kot muzejski predmet • Glass as a Museum Object The Engraved Glass Bowl from Bakar – A Vessel for Honourable Guests • Steklena skodela z graviranim okrasom iz Bakra – posoda za cenjene goste Abstract Izvleček Summary Povzetek Dragoceno darilo iz Egipta – rimska steklenica s Ptuja, izdelek graverjev iz Aleksandrije • A Precious Gift from Egypt – The Bottle from Ptuj, a Product of Engravers from Alexandria Izvleček Abstract Ekskurz: svetilnik na otoku Faros v Aleksandriji Povzetek Summary The Glass from the Gnalić Wreck • Steklo s potopljene ladje pri Gnaliću Abstract Izvleček Summary Povzetek Viri in literatura • Bibliography Sources Literature Recenziji • Reviews Tina Milavec • Pogled skozi steklo: recenzija Caroline M. Jackson • A Look Through the Glass: Review