15th International Symposium on School Life and School History Museums & Collections / 15. mednarodni simpozij šolskih muzejev in šolsko-zgodovinskih zbirk Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations as promoters of pedagogic development (historical and museum aspects) Povezovanje v izobraževanju: učiteljstvo in njihova društva kot spodbujevalci pedagoškega razvoja (zgodovinski in muzejski pogledi) Edited by / Uredila: Branko Šuštar & Maja Hakl Saje Ljubljana 2019 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations as promoters of pedagogic development (historical and museum aspects) / Vernetzung im Bereich Bildung. Der Einfluss von Lehrpersonen und deren Berufsorganisationen auf die Entwicklung der Schule und des Bildungswesens (historische und museologische Aspekte) / Povezovanje v izobraževanju: učiteljstvo in njihova društva kot spodbujevalci pedagoškega razvoja (zgodovinski in muzejski pogledi) 15th International Symposium on School Life and School History Museums & Collections / 15. Internationales Symposium der Schulmuseen und Schulgeschichtlichen Sammlungen / 15. mednarodni simpozij šolskih muzejev in šolsko-zgodovinskih zbirk, Ljubljana 26-29. 6. 2013 Symposium was organized by / Simpozij so pripravili: Slovenski šolski muzej / Slovenian School Museum, Ljubljana; Zveza zgodovinskih društev Slovenije / Historical Association of Slovenia, Ljubljana; ICOM Slovenija: Mednarodni muzejski svet / ICOM Slovenia Programme & Scientific Committee / Programski in znanstveni odbor dr. Branko Šuštar, Slovenian School Museum & Historical Association of Slovenia; coordinator of Symposium 2013 prof. dr. Annemarie Augschöll Blasbichler, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Faculty of Education, Brixen-Bressanone (Italy) mag. Marjetka Balkovec Debevec, Slovenian School Museum prof. dr. Aleš Gabrič, Institute for Contemporary History / University of Ljubljana mag. Dominik Joos, School Museum Amriswil (Switzerland) prof. dr. Uwe Krebs, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg (Germany) prof. dr. Juri Meda, University of Macerata (Italy) prof. dr. Zdenko Medveš, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts prof. dr. Mojca Peček Čuk, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Ljubljana dr. Marija Počivavšek, Museum of Recent History, Celje / Slovene museum society prof. dr. Edvard Protner, University Maribor, Faculty of Arts mag. Elizabeta Serdar, Croatian School Museum, Zagreb (Croatia) doc. dr. Ljiljana Stankov, College of Professional Studies, Šabac (Serbia) dr. Mojca Šorn, Historical Society of Ljubljana/ Institute for Contemporary History prof. dr. Tadej Vidmar, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts / Association of Slovenian Educationalists in collaboration with: Maja Hakl Saje, BA, National Museum of Slovenia, Ljubljana; secretary of Symposium 2013 Programme Book of Symposium and video of lectures: http://www.ssolski-muzej.si/slo/symposium2013.php http://www.ssolski-muzej.si/files/Symposium/symposiumbook2013.pdf Authors are responsible for the content, language and originality of their article in thematic issue of journal/ Avtorji so odgovorni za vsebino, izvirnost in jezikovno korektnost svojega prispevka v tematski številki revije. A video of each presentation at the 2013 Symposium is available at History of Slovenia - SIstory portal / Videoposnetek vsakega prispevka na Simpoziju 2013 je dostopen na portalu Zgodovina Slovenije - SIstory (Institute of Contemporary History/Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino, Ljubljana): http://hdl.handle.net/11686/20243 Šolska kronika – 28 Revija za zgodovino šolstva in vzgoje – LII Ljubljana School Chronicle – Journal of the History of Schooling and Education 28/2019 3 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Povezovanje v izobraževanju: učiteljstvo in njihova društva ŠOLSKA KRONIKA – REVIJA ZA ZGODOVINO ŠOLSTVA IN VZGOJE GLASILO SLOVENSKEGA ŠOLSKEGA MUZEJA, LJUBLJANA SCHOOL CHRONICLE – JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF SCHOOLING AND EDUCATION – BULLETIN OF THE SLOVENIAN SCHOOL MUSEUM. LJUBLJANA, SLOVENIA. Urednik / Editor: Anton Arko Uredniški odbor / Editorial Board: Anton Arko, mag. Marjetka Balkovec Debevec, dr. Theodor Domej (Avstrija / Austria), dr. Darko Friš, dr. Boris Golec, Ksenija Guzej, Tatjana Hojan, Polona Koželj, mag. Marija Lesjak Reichenberg, Marko Ljubič, Miha Mali, dr. Zdenko Medveš, mag. Stane Okoliš (odgovorna oseba izdajatelja / Responsible person for the publisher), dr. Mojca Peček Čuk, dr. Leopoldina Plut Pregelj (ZDA / USA), dr. Edvard Protner, Mateja Ribarič, dr. Branko Šuštar Zaslužna člana uredniškega odbora / Emeritus members of the Editorial Board: Slavica Pavlič, mag. Mladen Tancer Članke je recenziral uredniški odbor. Za znanstveno vsebino člankov odgovarjajo avtorji. Ponatis člankov in slik je mogoč samo z dovoljenjem uredništva in navedbo vira. / The articles have been reviewed by the Editorial Board. The authors are solely responsible for the content of their articles. No parts of this publication may be reproduced without the publisher’s prior consent and full mention of the source. © Slovenski šolski muzej / Slovenian School Museum, Ljubljana Redakcija te številke je bila zaključena 15. 11. 2019. The editing of this issue was completed on November 15th, 2019. Prevodi / Translation: avtorji/authors Prevodi (izvlečkov) / Translation (of abstracts): Maja Hakl Saje (nemščina / German, slovenščina / Slovene) Lektoriranje / Proofreading: Marjeta Žebovec (slovenščina / Slovene) Maja Hakl Saje (nemščina / German, angleščina/ English) UDK/UDC: Polona Koželj Uredništvo in uprava / Editorial and administrative office: Slovenski šolski muzej, Plečnikov trg 1, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija Telefon, fax / Phone, Fax: +3861 2513 024 E-pošta / E-Mail: solski.muzej@guest.arnes.si Spletna stran / Website: www.ssolski-muzej.si Transakcijski račun / Bank Account No.: 01100-6030720893 Sofinancira / Co-financed by: Ministrstvo za izobraževanje, znanost in šport / Ministry of Education, Science and Sport Agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost R Slovenije - ARRS / Slovenian Research Agency Izdajatelja / Publishers: Slovenski šolski muzej / Slovenian School Museum Zveza zgodovinskih društev Slovenije / Historical Association of Slovenia Oblikovanje in računalniški prelom / Design and Computer Typesetting: Matjaž Kavar, RAORA d.o.o. Tisk / Printed by: Abo grafika d.o.o. Naklada / Number of copies: 650 izvodov Revija je vpisana v razvid medijev pri Ministrstvu za kulturo Republike Slovenije pod zaporedno številko 43, z dne 14. 2. 2002. Šolska kronika – revija za zgodovino šolstva in vzgoje je vključena v / School Chronicle – Journal of the History of Schooling and Education is included in: ProQuest/Periodicals Acquisitions, Michigan, USA EBSCO Publishing, Ipswich, USA ERIH PLUS, c/o NSD COBISS - Co-operative Online Bibliographic System Services, Slovenia UDK/UDC 37(091) ISSN 1318-6728 Š O L S K A K R O N I K A REVIJA ZA ZGODOVINO ŠOLSTVA IN VZGOJE Glasilo Slovenskega šolskega muzeja, Ljubljana Leto/Year 2019, številka/No. 3 Letnik/Vol. 28 – LII School Chronicle / Schulchronik Journal of the History of Schooling and Education. Bulletin of the Slovenian School Museum. Ljubljana. Slovenia. Zeitschrift für Schul- und Erziehungsgeschichte. Organ des Slowenischen Schulmuseums. Ljubljana. Slowenien. Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations / Vernetzung im Bereich Bildung. Die Lehrpersonen und deren Berufsorganisationen / Povezovanje v izobraževanju: učiteljstvo in njihova društva Introduction / Einführung / Uvod ...293–294 ARTICLES AND CONTRIBUTIONS / ČLANKI IN PRISPEVKI Teachers & their associations / Učitelji in učiteljska društva Merja Paksuniemi, Mateja Ribarič, Johannes Westberg: Unmarried, well behaved and well dressed: The socialization process of female teachers in early twentieth-century Finland and Slovenia ...295–310 Unverheiratet, vorbildlich und ordentlich: Der Sozialisationsprozess von Lehrerinnen im frühen 20. Jahrhundert in Finnland und Slowenien Neporočene, vzorne in urejene: Proces socializacije učiteljic v začetku dvajsetega stoletja na Finskem in v Sloveniji Paulí Dávila, Luis Mª Naya: The Basque teaching profession, associativism and the Spanish civil service ...312–320 Baskischer Lehrberuf, Lehrerverbände und die spanische Staatsverwaltung Baskijski učiteljski poklic, učiteljska društva in španska državna služba Alberto Barausse: Primary school teachers’ associationism in Italy from unification to Giolitti’s age ...321–333 Verbindung von Grundschullehrern in Italien von der Wiedervereinigung bis zur Giolitti-Zeit Povezovanje osnovnošolskih učiteljev v Italiji od združitve do Giolittijevega obdobja András Németh: Die historische Konstruktionsprozesse des Fachwissens von Volksschullehrern in Ungarn am Beispiel der Enzyklopädie des Volksschulunterrichts 1913-1915 ...334–342 The historical construction processes of the knowledge of elementary school teachers in Hungary using the Encyclopaedia of elementary school education 1913-1915 Zgodovinski konstrukcijski procesi strokovnega znanja ljudskošolskih učiteljev na Madžarskem na primeru Enciklopedije osnovnošolskega pouka 1913-1915 Ljiljana Stankov: The contribution of male and female teachers to the foundation of empirical pedagogy in Serbia, with reference to Serbian association for child psychology (Srpsko društvo za dečju psihologiju) ...343–353 Der Beitrag männlicher und weiblicher Lehrer zur Gründung der empirischen Pädagogik in Serbien unter Bezugnahme auf das Serbische Verein für Kinderpsychologie (Srpsko društvo za dečju psihologiju) Prispevek učiteljev in učiteljic k nastanku empirične pedagogike v Srbiji na primeru Srbskega društva za otroško psihologijo Michelina D'Alessio: “Near to teachers”. The association ANIMI (National Association for the Interests of Southern Italy) at the beginning of 20th century ...354–363 "In der Nähe von Lehrern". Der Verein ANIMI (National Verein für die Interessen Süditaliens) zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts “V bližini učiteljev." Združenje ANIMI (Nacionalno združenje za interese južne Italije) v začetku 20. stoletja Fabio Targhetta: The section of Padua of the Italian Pedagogical Association (Associazione Pedagogica Italiana) in the late 20th century ...364–372 Die Sektion von Padua der Italienischen Pädagogischen Vereinigung (Associazione Pedagogica Italiana) im späten 20. Jahrhundert Padovanska sekcija Italijanskega pedagoškega združenja (Associazione Pedagogica Italiana) v poznem 20. stoletju Tea Anžur: The Association of University Professors of Ljubljana ...373–383 Vereinigung der Universitätsprofessoren von Ljubljana Društvo univerzitetnih profesorjev v Ljubljani School museums & teachers & education / Šolski muzeji, učiteljstvo in izobraževanje Jan Šimek: The importance of teachers’ association in the establishment of the Pedagogical museum in Prague ...384–395 Bedeutung der Lehrerverbände bei der Errichtung des Pädagogischen Museums in Prag Pomen učiteljskih društev za nastanek Pedagoškega muzeja v Pragi Chiara Grassi: The training of teachers in the National Museum of School (Museo Nazionale della Scuola), Florence (1925-1945) ...396–403 Die Ausbildung von Lehrern im Nationalen Schulmuseum (Museo Nazionale della Scuola) von Florenz (1925-1945) Izobraževanje učiteljev v Narodnem šolskem muzeju (Museo Nazionale della Scuola) v Firencah (1925-1945) Antonis Hourdakis, Konstantinos Karras, Angeliki Polyzou, Marina Suka: School history museums & collections and teachers’ profession: the example of the Laboratory for the study and research of the history of education and teachers’ profession (LSRHETP) at the University of Crete, Greece ...404–420 Schulmuseen und Schulgeschichtlichen Sammlungen und der Lehrberuf: das Beispiel des Labors für das Studium und die Erforschung der Geschichte der Erziehung und des Lehrerberufs (LSRHETP) an der Universität von Kreta, Griechenland Šolski muzeji in zbirke ter učiteljski poklic: primer Laboratorija za proučevanje in raziskovanje zgodovine izobraževanja in učiteljskega poklica (LSRHETP) na Univerzi otoka Kreta, Grčija Rossella Andreassi: Museum of School and Popular Education (Museo della scuola e dell’educazione popolare) of the University of Molise, Italy ...421–431 Museum für Schulgeschichte und Volksbildung an der Universität von Molise, Italien Muzej šolstva in ljudskega izobraževanja na Univerzi Molise, Italija Francesca Mogavero: MUSLI: an integrated museum from school to children’s books in Torino ...432–440 MUSLI: ein integriertes Museum von der Schule bis zum Kinderbuch in Turin MUSLI: povezovalen muzej od šolskih do otroških knjig v Torinu Maria Drakaki: Museums of education as fields of cultural management. Comparative analysis in Greece ...441–452 Schulmuseen als Felder des Kulturmanagements. Vergleichende Analyse in Griechenland Muzeji izobraževanja kot področja kulturnega upravljanja. Primerjalna analiza v Grčiji Moses S. Jayeola-Omoyeni: Museum – Center for adult literacy education delivery in Nigeria, 2000-2010: Evaluation ...453–462 Museum als Zentrum für Erwachsenenbildung in Nigeria, 2000-2010: Evaluation Muzej kot center za opismenjevanje odraslih v Nigeriji, 2000–2010: evalvacija Šolska kronika – revija za zgodovino šolstva in vzgoje. Glasilo Slovenskega šolskega muzeja, Ljubljana (Slovenija) je slovenska znanstvena in strokovna revija za zgodovino šolstva, pedagogike in vzgoje, ki jo od leta 1992 samostojno izdaja Slovenski šolski muzej v Ljubljani. Revija ima začetke v skupnem zborniku šolsko-pedagoških muzejev v Ljubljani, Zagrebu in Beogradu, ki je začel izhajati leta 1964 kot Zbornik za zgodovino šolstva in prosvete. School Chronicle – Journal of the History of Schooling and Education. Bulletin of the Slovenian School Museum. Ljubljana (Slovenia) is a Slovenian scientific and professional publication concerned with schooling, pedagogy and education. Since 1992 it has been independently issued by the Slovenian School Museum in Ljubljana. The Miscellany has developed from a joint publication of the school-pedagogical museums in Ljubljana, Zagreb in Belgrade, which began to be published in 1964 under the title of A Miscellany of the History of Schooling and Education. http://www.ssolski-muzej.si/slo/schoolchronicles.php Paulí Dávila, Luis Mª Naya: A Project about a Museum of education in the Basque Country ...463–472 Projekt über ein Bildungsmuseum im Baskenland Projekt Muzeja izobraževanja v Baskiji Tina Palaić: When the “West” meets the “East”: School museum in Yogyakarta, Indonesia ...474–484 Wenn der »Westen« auf den »Osten« trifft: Schulmuseum in Yogyakarta, Indonesien Ko se “Zahod” sreča z “Vzhodom”: Šolski muzej v Jogjakarti, Indonezija Between Ljubljana and Crete: International Symposium on School Life and School History Museums & Collections from Slovenia 2013 – (15th Symposium) to Greece 2021 (19th Symposium) ...487–498 Zwischen Ljubljana und Kreta: Internationales Symposium der Schulmuseen und Schulgeschichtlichen Sammlungen von Slowenien 2013 (15. Symposium) bis Griechenland 2021 (19. Symposium) Med Ljubljano in Kreto: Simpoziji šolskih muzejev in šolsko-zgodovinskih zbirk od Slovenije 2013 (15. simpozij) do Grčije 2021 (19. simpozij) Invitation to the 19th Symposium on School Life and School History Museums & Collections in Rethymno, Crete ...499 Einführung zum 19. Symposium der Schulmuseen und Schulgeschichtlichen Sammlungen in Rethymno, Kreta Povabilo na 19. simpozij šolskih muzejev in šolsko-zgodovinski zbirk v Rethymno na Kreti Supplement / Ergänzung / Dodatek: Programme - 15th Symposium 2013, Ljubljana, 26-29. 6. 2013 ...501–507 293Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Uvod v tematsko številko revije: Povezovanje v izobraževanju & 15. simpozij Tematska številka Šolske kronike o učiteljskih društvih, učiteljih in izobraže- valnih muzejih prinaša 17 prispevkov več kot dvajsetih avtorjev, ki so sodelovali s predavanji na 15. simpoziju šolskih muzejev in šolsko zgodovinskih zbirk junija 2013 v Ljubljani. Nekateri avtorji so besedilo s simpozija dopolnili v letošnjem letu ali že prej, uredniško pa smo pregledali tudi citirane spletne povezave in poiskali s spleta in od drugod še kakšno ustrezno ilustracijo k obravnavani temi. Uvodni članek, ki je povezal slovenske in finske izkušnje učiteljic sta avtorici iz svojih na simpoziju pred- stavljenih predavanj napisali čisto na novo. Na simpoziju v norveškem Bergnu leta 2007 se je kot delovni jezik mednaro- dnih srečanj šolskih muzejev uveljavila angleščina in tako je večinoma potekal tudi simpozij v Ljubljani. Zato so prispevki v tematski številki Šolske kronike objavljeni v angleščini, eden pa v nemščini. Nam domači slovenski izvlečki in nemščina v kazalu pa ohranjajo nekaj jezikovne pestrosti tudi v tej mednarodni številki revije. Predavanj, sodelavcev in razpravljavcev ter voditeljev panelov je bilo na simpo- ziju še precej več (68 prijavljenih povzetkov, ki jih je pripravilo 78 avtorjev iz 29 držav ter približno 115 udeležencev). Za sodelovanje smo posebej hvaležni programskemu in znanstvenemu odboru ter vsem trem so-organizatorjem, ki so bili: Zveza zgodo- vinskih društev Slovenije, ICOM Slovenija in Slovenski šolski muzej (http://www. ssolski-muzej.si/slo/symposium2013.php). Že pred dogodkom smo v programski knjižici simpozija objavili povzetke preda- vanj v angleščini in materinščini avtorjev, saj je tudi naša prva slovnica iz znamenitega leta 1584 izšla na naslovnici s svetopisemsko pobudo uporabe vseh jezikov (Rim 14:11). Udeležence je na simpoziju sicer delovno povezovala mednarodna angleščina, a z “babilonskimi” sekcijami romanskih, germanskih in slovanskih jezikov smo omogo- čili širšo dostopnost za aktivno sodelovanje. Pozneje smo s prijaznostjo kolegov z Inštituta za novejšo zgodovino in nji- hovega spletnega portala Zgodovina Slovenije – Sistory omogočili javni dostop do videoposnetkov vseh predstavitev. Celota je na voljo na spletnem portalu (http://si- story.si/11686/20243), k ogledu vsakega v reviji objavljenega prispevka pa vabi stalna spletna povezava, navedena pod posameznim izvlečkom. Tematsko številko revije Šolska kronika sklene kratek pregled simpozijev šolskih muzejev, ki so sledili Ljublja- ni (2015 Ballarat, 2017 Dordrecht, 2019 Copenhagen) in povabilo na 19. simpozij, ki ga pripravljajo grški kolegi na Kreti (2021 Rethymno). Pot do pričujoče publikacije je bila razmeroma dolga. Oba urednika sta vpeta v vrsto drugih muzejskih in zgodovinskih tem, z njunim sodelovanjem pa je Zveza zgodovinskih društev Slovenije, ključni soorganizator Simpozija 2013, v naslednjih letih pripravila še dva projekta s področja zgodovine izobraževanja z mednarodnim sodelovanjem: 38. zborovanje slovenskih zgodovinarjev leta 2016 in mednarodno potujočo razstavo Poti izobraževanja v slovanskem svetu (od 2016). Omejitve pri sredstvih za samostojne znanstvene monografije so nas usmerile k dobri odločitvi za tematsko številko revije Slovenskega šolskega muzeja Šolska kronika. B. Šuštar, M. Hakl Saje 294 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Introduction to the thematic issue of the journal: Creating links in education & 15th Symposium The thematic issue of the Šolska kronika/School Chronicle on Teachers Asso- ciations, teachers and School Museums brings 17 contributions from more than 20 authors who participated at the 15th International Symposium on School Life and School History Museums & Collections in June 2013, in Ljubljana. Some authors have supplemented their articles this year or earlier. We have also reviewed the cited web links and searched on the web and elsewhere for any relevant illustrations of the presented topic. The introductory article, which linked the Slovenian and Finnish experiences of female teachers, was completely rewritten. At the symposium in Bergen, in Norway in 2007, English became the work- ing language of international meetings of school museums, and for the most part the symposium in Ljubljana was also held in English. Therefore, the articles in the thematic issue of the School Chronicle are published in English and one in German. Slovenian abstracts and German titles in the index also retain some linguistic diver- sity in this international issue of the journal. There were many more lectures, collaborators, discussants and panel leaders (68 abstracts submitted by 78 authors from 29 countries and approximately 115 partici- pants). We are grateful to the Program and Scientific Committee and to all three co-or- ganizers for their cooperation: Historical Association of Slovenia, ICOM Slovenia and Slovenian School Museum (http://www.ssolski-muzej.si/en/symposium2013.php). Even before the event, the symposium's program booklet published abstracts of the lectures in English and the authors' native language, since our first grammar from the famous year 1584 also appeared on the cover with a biblical initiative to use all languages (Rom 14:11). The symposium was linked by international English, but with the "Babylonian" sections of Romanic, Germanic and Slavic languages we made it more accessible for active participation. With the kindness of our colleagues from the Institute for Contemporary His- tory and their web portal History of Slovenia - Sistory, we made all videos of presen- tations from the Symposium publicly available. The whole symposium is available on the web portal (http://sistory.si/11686/20243), and a permanent web link is listed for each of the presentation under each abstract published in the journal. We con- clude the thematic issue of the Šolska kronika/School Chronicle with a brief over- view of the symposia of school museums that followed Ljubljana (2015 Ballarat, 2017 Dordrecht, 2019 Copenhagen) and the invitation to the 19th Symposium, organized by our Greek colleagues in Crete (2021 Rethymno). The path to this publication was relatively long. Both editors are involved in a number of other museum and historical topics, and with their cooperation the His- torical Association of Slovenia, a key co-organizer of the Symposium in 2013, prepared two more projects in the field of history of education with international cooperation in the following years: the 38th HAS Historical Association of Slovenia Assembly in 2016 and the international travel exhibition “Paths of education in the Slavic world” (since 2016). Restrictions on funds for independent scientific monographs have led us to our decision to publish the thematic issue of the Slovenian School Museum’s periodical Šolska kronika/School Chronicle, Journal of the History of Schooling and Education. B. Šuštar, M. Hakl Saje 295 Articles & Contributions / Članki in prispevki UDC 316.614:37.011.3-055.2(480+497.12)˝19˝ 1.01 Original Scientific Article Received: 20. 10. 2019 Merja Paksuniemi*, Mateja Ribarič**, Johannes Westberg*** Unmarried, well behaved and well dressed: The socialization process of female teachers in early twentieth-century Finland and Slovenia Neporočene, vzorne in urejene: Proces socializacije učiteljic v začetku dvajsetega stoletja na Finskem in v Sloveniji Izvleček Devetnajsto in zgodnje dvajseto stoletje je bilo obdobje feminizacije učiteljskega poklica. Namen pričujočega članka je proučiti proces profesionalizacije učiteljic na Finskem in v Slo- veniji v začetku dvajsetega stoletja. Članek se osredotoča na naslednja vprašanja: Kakšnim zahtevam so morala dekleta zadostiti za vpis na učiteljišče? Katere veščine naj bi bodoče učiteljice pridobile na učiteljiščih? Kakšen oblačilni videz in kakšno vedenje se je priča- kovalo od učiteljic? Na podlagi zgodovinskih virov prikazuje članek tako razlike kot podob- nosti v teh pogledih. Poleg različnih zahtev, ki so jih morale učiteljice izpolnjevati za vpis na učiteljišče, opozarja članek tudi na znanje in individualne karakteristike, ki so se pričako- vale od njih. Ugotovitve kažejo, da so učiteljice morale biti moralne, spodobne, vzorne in skro- mnega videza. Članek odpira vprašanja, kako in zakaj se predstave o popolni učiteljici raz- likujejo skozi čas in med različnimi državami. Abstract The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries saw the feminization of the teaching profession. The aim of this article is to examine the pro- fessionalization process of female teachers in Finland and Slovenia in the early twentieth cen- tury. As such, the article focuses on answering the following questions: What were the require- ments for young women to enter teacher-train- ing colleges? What kinds of skills were future female teachers supposed to learn at teacher- training colleges? How were female teachers expected to dress and behave? Based on histori- cal source materials, this article reveals both differences and similarities in these respects. In addition to stating the various requirements for entrance to teacher-training colleges, the article indicates the teaching skills and indi- vidual characteristics that were expected of fe- male teachers. As the findings indicate, female teachers were expected to be moral and decent individuals, who behaved well and dressed mod- estly. Thus, this article raises questions about how and why notions of the ideal female teacher vary across countries and over time. * Merja Paksuniemi, PhD, University of Lapland, Finland; e-mail: merja.paksuniemi@ulapland.fi ** Mateja Ribarič, BA in History and Sociology, Slovenian School Museum, Ljubljana, Slovenia; e-mail: matejariba@yahoo.com *** Johannes Westberg, Professor, Örebro University, Sweden; e-mail: johannes.westberg@oru.se 296 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Ključne besede: podoba učiteljice, učiteljišče, ženske, Finska, Slovenija Key words: female teacher image, teacher-training college, women, Finland, Slovenia 15th Symposium on School Life, part 52: Merja Paksuniemi. Visit us / obiščite nas: Sistory, http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37705 Introduction The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries saw the feminization of the teaching profession in many countries (Albisetti 1993), including Finland and Slovenia. In Finland, the training of female teachers developed under Russian rule at the end of the 1860s, following the 1866 Decree on Primary Education, which promoted the establishment of primary schools in Finland. Existing stud- ies have emphasized that discipline, strict orders and respect for staff prevailed in teacher-training colleges (Hyyrö 2006; Paksuniemi 2013). At the end of the nineteenth century, the teaching profession became an im- portant career path particularly for women in rural areas. It was at this point that several teacher-training colleges were founded in Finland to prepare female stu- dents to teach at lower primary schools (Hyyrö 2006; Paksuniemi 2009). When male and female students studied in the same building, their classrooms were separated and they studied in groups of their own (Merciful Decree of Imperial Majesty 1866; Teacher Training College Act 1919). While most male teachers were from middle class families and rural backgrounds, the female teachers were from upper-class families (Hyyrö 2006; Nurmi 1989; Paksuniemi 2009). In 1918, the organization and content of teacher education were revised in accordance with the Temporary Act of Regulations. According to this act, lower elementary teacher education would last for two years, female students would attend 36–38 hours per week of teacher training and the subjects that they stud- ied would be geography, mathematics, handicrafts, drawing, writing, vocal and instrumental music, gymnastics and teaching practice (Temporary Act of Regu- lations 1918). As a result of the School Act of 1921, which was followed by the expansion of the primary school system (Westberg et al. 2017), several new teach- er-training colleges were established for female students to fulfil the increasing need for teachers (e.g. Annual Report of Teacher-Training College of Hämeen- linna 1919–1920; Annual Report of Teacher-Training College of Tornio 1921–1922; Annual Report of Teacher-Training College of Suistamo 1919–1920). In Slovenia, the primary school system was organized within the Austri- an half of the Habsburg Empire (Austro-Hungarian Monarchy) with authority centralized at the state level in Vienna. Nevertheless, the Slovenian lands of Carniola (Kranjska), Southern Carinthia (Koroška), Littoral/Primorska (includ- ing Trieste, the province of Gorizia-Gradisca and part of Istria), Southern Styria (Štajerska) and Prekmurje (which was part of the Hungarian half of the Empire) 297Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations retained their own school system. In 1869, liberal Austrian legislation pertaining to schools established the control of the state and land authorities in place of the Catholic Church (Šuštar 2009, 80–81). Women in Slovenia entered public life in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Training for the profession of primary school teacher opened up a route to a higher level of education for women (initially only secondary) and granted them professional and personal independence. Female teachers were among the women who played the most prominent role in sociocultural develop- ment. They were involved in professional, educational and cultural work within teachers’ societies. Women’s right to education in Slovenia became the first battle call of nationally prescribed womanhood (Hojan 1970; Milharčič Hladnik 1995; Peček 1998; Šuštar 2009). The teacher-training colleges in Slovenia were quite similar to those in Finland. Until 1870, teaching in Slovene primary schools was almost exclusive- ly a male profession, and female teachers were indeed a rarity. The first female teachers in Slovenia were nuns (mainly Ursulines), who taught girls at convent schools. These convents also fostered teachers who went on to teach at the con- vent schools.1 The subject of women’s handicrafts was taught by female teachers with no formal teacher training and, often, no general education either. In most cases, these women were the wives of teachers and were only rarely remunerated for their work (General School Ordinance of 1774). In fact, a decree in 1807 had called for teachers to marry women skilled in women’s craft work. The impetus for increasing women’s involvement in the teaching profession was created by the third Austrian State Primary School Act of 1869. Apart from introducing an eight-year primary school, the act made the teaching profession less lucrative for men, requiring them to forgo some of the indirect sources of income that teaching had afforded them. Consequently, there was a great deficit of candidates for the teaching profession. The School Act of 1869 also permitted women to teach the first four grades of primary school. Since this change also required that their education be at the same level as that of their male colleagues, it was an important step forward in the education of female teachers. The 1869 reform permitted the subsequent found- ing of female teacher-training colleges and, with them, the possibility for women to continue their education within the public school system after completing lower public grammar school (Hojan 1968; 1970; Peček 1998; Šuštar 2009). 1 The Ursuline nuns came to Ljubljana at the beginning of the eighteenth century and, until the first half of the twentieth century, played a prominent part in the upbringing and education of girls and young women in Slovenia. In 1703, the order opened a private school and, soon after, a public school for girls. They also founded a kindergarten, private and public lower secondary schools, a teacher-training college for girls with five classrooms and a higher secondary school or gymnasium for girls (Hojan 1969). 298 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Research questions The feminization of the teaching profession in Finland and Slovenia, as in many other European countries, raises questions about how female teachers were taught and socialized at teacher-training colleges and the discourses on teach- ing and femininity that guided this process. This article focuses on what may be termed professional socialization, which denotes the process that a member undergoes to become part of the profession at hand. During this process, the in- dividual becomes familiar with the norms, regulations, skills and ideology which are integral to the occupation and also learns how to act in accordance with the regulations (Harper & Lawson 2003). This socialization has two dimensions, which are understood in this article as a two-way process: the female students act as role-takers and the teacher-training colleges and society as role-makers (Lave & Wenger 1993). The aim of this article is to examine this professionalization process that female teachers followed in Finland and Slovenia in the early twentieth century. To this end, it addresses the following questions: What were the requirements for young women to enter teacher-training colleges? What kinds of skills were future female teachers supposed to learn at teacher-training colleges? How were female teachers expected to dress and behave? Data and method The data were collected from archives located in Finland and Slovenia. They were carefully analysed using the historical method, which emphasizes the value of the original source. However, when using these sources, it is also critical to consider the kinds of questions to which answers are being sought. The objective was to employ the data to draw a big picture of the history of Finnish and Slove- nian teachers’ images (see Kalela 2000; Kuikka 2001; Walls et al. 2010). In the last 40 years, the Slovenian School Museum has dedicated considera- ble attention to female teachers and women’s education through its research and exhibition. The research of Tatjana Hojan2, a historian in the Slovenian School Museum, in the late twentieth century, encouraged further examination of the 2 Hojan, Tatjana. Žensko šolstvo in učiteljstvo na Slovenskem v preteklih stoletjih [Female education and female teachers in Slovenia in the past centuries]. In: Zbornik za historiju školstva i prosvjete [Collected Papers for the History of Schooling and Education]. Zagreb, 47–81, 1968; Hojan, Tatja- na. Vzgoja učiteljic [The education of female teachers]. In: Zbornik za historiju školstva i prosvjete [Collected Papers for the History of Schooling and Education]. Zagreb, 125–171, 1969–70; Hojan, Tatjana. Žensko šolstvo in delovanje učiteljic na Slovenskem [Female Education and Activity of Fe- male Teachers in Slovenia in the Past Centuries], razstavni katalog [Exhibition catalogue]. Ljubljana: Slovenski šolski muzej [Slovenian School Museum], 5–48, 1970. 299Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations activities of female teachers and of women in history3 and, in recent years, several collections of papers4 on women’s education have been published. The data presented in this article were gathered from a combination of primary sources including archival sources from the Slovenian School Muse- um, pedagogical journals and the annual reports of teacher-training colleges in Ljubljana. The report of the state-run women’s teacher-training college for the 3 Milharčič Hladnik, Mirjam. Šolstvo in učiteljice na Slovenskem [Education and Female Teachers in Slovenia]. Ljubljana: Znanstveno in publicistično središče 1995 (Zbirka Sophia 5/95); Peček, Mojca. Avtonomnost učiteljev nekdaj in sedaj [The Autonomy of Teachers in the Past and Present]. Ljubljana: Znanstveno in publicistično središče 1998 (Zbirka Sophia 7/98). 4 Izobraževanje in zaposlovanje žensk nekoč in danes [The Education and Employment of Women Ye- sterday and Today], (ured./Ed. Mrgole Jukič, Tjaša et al.). Ptuj-Ljubljana, I. 1998, II. 2000; Pozabljena polovica. Portreti žensk 19. in 20. stoletja na Slovenskem [The Forgotten Half. Portraits of Women in the 19th and 20th Centuries in Slovenia], (ured./Ed. Šelih, Alenka et al). Ljubljana: Založba Tuma in SAZU 2007; Splošno žensko društvo 1901–1945 [The General Women’s Society]: Od dobrih deklet do feministk (ured./Ed. Budna Kodrič, Nataša, Serše, Saša). Ljubljana: 2003; Učiteljice v šolskih klopeh [Female Teachers at School Desks], Zbornik ob 130. obletnici ustanovitve slovenskega uči- teljišča za dekleta v Gorici, (ured./Ed. Tul, Vlasta). Nova Gorica: Zgodovinski arhiv 2005; Ženske skozi zgodovino [Women through History]: zbornik referatov 32. zborovanja slovenskih zgodovinar- jev [Collection of Scientific Papers – 32nd Convention of Slovenian Historians], (ured./Ed. Žižek, Aleksander). Celje: 2004. Building of public Teacher-training college in Ljubljana, from 1884 / Stavba Učiteljišča v Ljubljani iz leta 1884. (SŠM – Slovenian School Museum, Ljubljana, postcards collection) 300 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 1930–31 school year lists relevant data on the school’s pupils between 1871 and 1918. Data were also obtained from secondary sources – namely, literature and research publications in this field of history of education. Requirements for female teachers In both Finland and Slovenia, teacher-training colleges were intended to admit only the most suitable women. The entrance exams for these colleges in both countries were designed to be rigorous. In Finland, in 1922, teacher-training colleges had a three-step application pro- cess. This process was based on the Teacher Training Committee’s Report (1922). First, young women would submit their applications. Second, those deemed the most suitable according to these applications were invited to the college to take an entrance exam. Third, the candidates were tested in different subjects, such as music, mathematics, drawing, Finnish language and environmental studies. Then the candidates were interviewed by the teachers at the college and were subsequently sent for doctor’s check-ups. Even after gaining acceptance at a teacher-training college, the student would remain under observation for 6–12 months. If she did well in her studies and behaved as expected, she could continue studying. (Provincial Archieves of Hämeenlinna, Archieves of the College of Hä- meenlinna, Ca:1, Ca:2; Provincial Archieves of Mikkeli, Archieves of the College of Suistamo, Ca:1, Ca:2; Provincial Archieves of Oulu, Archieves of the College of Tornio, Ca:1; Provincial Archieves of Vaasa, Archieves of the College of Vaasa, Ca:1). The students were mostly 17-18 years old and many of them were from rural backgrounds (Provincial Archieves of Mikkeli, Archieves of the College of Suis- tamo, Bb:2; Provincial Archieves of Oulu, Archieves of the College of Tornio, Bb:1; Provincial Archieves of Vaasa, Archieves of the College of Vaasa, Ba:1.) In Slovenia, the lack of teachers was a state concern, and when female enrol- ment in public schools failed to produce enough new teachers, permission was granted to the convents to open additional teacher-training colleges in Ljubljana, Škofja Loka and Maribor, and candidates graduating from these schools would have to pass their final exam at a state-run college. In addition to the men’s col- leges, a new education law called for the establishment of four-year state-run teacher-training colleges for women in Celovec/Klagenfurt (1870), Ljubljana and Trieste (1871), Maribor (1874) and Gorica (1875) (Hojan 1968; 1970; Milharčič Hladnik 1995; Peček 1998). In 1874, an organizational statute for male and female teacher-train- ing colleges was released containing all the details regarding the operation of teacher-training colleges (organization of courses, curriculum and professional development). The entrance exam required knowledge of the subject matter as envisaged by the curriculum of the preparatory class. To take the entrance exam, a candidate would have to produce her baptismal or birth certificate, her latest school report and a medical certificate. Upon fulfilling all prescribed condi- 301Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations tions (i.e. physical and mental health, moral integrity, appropriate prerequisites and being at least 15 years of age), one could complete the entrance exam. The oral portion of the exam included issues of religious education, language of in- struction, geography and history, natural history, science and computational geometric morphology. The written portion of the exam included language of instruction, arithmetic, drawing and practical test skills of handicrafts. Regula- tions were one thing, but practice was another. Due to poor prior knowledge of the candidates (because they could not attract enough candidates), the entrance exams for female teachers were quite toned down (Strmčnik 1970, 341–343). However, the high number of graduates from teacher-training colleges in Finland and Slovenia per year indicates that the student selection process was quite successful. In a college in Slovenia, for example, in the first school year (1871–72), 39 female students were enrolled in the first class. In the 1878–79 school year, the number of students increased to 130 in all four classes. Later, in 1884–85, enrolment decreased to 41 students because they did not have the first and third classes. After this, the number of female students began increasing again. The Female teacher-training college in Gorizia, around 1900 / Goriško žensko učiteljišče, okoli 1900. (SŠM, photo collection) 302 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 highest number (178 female students) was recorded in the 1896–97 school year and until 1914–15, it fluctuated between 160 and 170.5 In Slovenia, the state generously provided scholarships for female stu- dents and, in this way, encouraged the employment of female teachers, thereby causing their numbers to increase. In 1871, in Southern Styria, female teachers represented only 3.4% of all teachers in primary schools. In Carinthia, they repre- sented 9.5% and in Carniola, 10%. Forty years later (1913), this figure was 31.9% in Carinthia, and in Carniola, more than half of the teachers (56.2%) were women. Carniola had the most female teachers and, thus, was also far above the Austrian average (Sagadin 1970, 101). The skills, marital status and wages of a female teacher Students in teacher-training colleges in Finland in the early twentieth cen- tury needed to study a range of different subjects. These included didactics, religion, Finnish language, environmental studies, mathematics, sports, music, arts and handicrafts. Besides being prepared for the teaching profession and meeting its requirements, students gained skills that they would need as women in the society. Depending on the location of the college, the teaching was either conducted in Finnish or Swedish (in Swedish speaking areas). (Teacher Training Colleges Committees’ Report in Finland, 1922). In Slovenia, the teacher training curricula for women and men differed some- what. In 1874, the female teacher training consisted of the following subjects: religion, pedagogy with practical exercises, language of instruction, mathemat- ics, science, natural history, geography, history, economics, French language, writing, free drawing, music, piano playing, gymnastics, women’s handicrafts and a practical part. All subjects except for religion and language were taught in German. From 1881, however, mathematics, women’s handicrafts and special methodology were taught in the Slovene language. After four years of schooling, the teacher candidates had to pass the matura exam, which was divided into three parts (written, oral and practical). The written and oral portions of the exam in- cluded pedagogy, language of instruction, mathematics, natural history, science, geography and history. Students had to demonstrate their methodical knowledge and practical skills through a self-learning tutorial, which was performed in June, before the end of their lessons, while written and oral exams were held in July (Gymnasium Ledina 1998, 11–14; Strmčnik 1970, 347, 361–363). Although female teachers had equal education and put in the same number of working hours as their male counterparts, they were by no means considered equal. Not only were female teachers in Slovenia limited by the constraint of 5 The annual report of the state-run teacher-training college for women in Ljubljana for the 1930–31 school year lists relevant data on the school’s pupils between 1871 and 1918. 303 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations celibacy but they were required to be single; marriage was synonymous with tendering one’s resignation. Only if they married a teacher were they permit- ted to continue working in the profession (Milharčič Hladnik 1995; Peček 1998). Further, their wages were not equal to those of men. In Finland, remaining un- married was not a requirement, but it was perceived as an ideal and a sacrifice that a female teacher could make for her career. Staying single meant that they could devote more hours to teaching and their pupils. This was mentioned in a textbook which was used in teacher-training colleges (Salmela 1931, 10, 130–132). Throughout Slovenia, as mentioned above, female teachers were paid less than their male counterparts. During the time of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, they received only 80% of the average male teacher’s wages. This discrepancy was justified by the argument that male teachers were the main providers for their families. At the same time, municipalities deliberately saved money by hiring women as teachers (Hojan 1970; Milharčič Hladnik 1995; Peček 1998). Despite the poor conditions, the teaching profession feminized and became increasingly popular because the teacher was a respected and accepted public figure who, though poorly paid, was financially independent (Milharčič Hladnik 1995, 32; Mrgole Jukič 1998, 116; Šebjanič 2013). In Slovenia, a rift ensued between male and female teachers when the Union of Slovene Teacher’s Association failed to give female members the support they were due. Subsequently, the women teachers left the union and, in 1898, founded the Slovene Women Teacher’s Association – the first professional women’s asso- ciation in Slovenia. The goals were to represent the interests of its members and defend their rights and to fight for the principles of equal pay for equal work and Graduates at Female teacher-training college in Ljubljana / Maturantke ljubljanskega učiteljišča, 1902. (SŠM, photo collection) 304 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 equal rights for equal responsibilities (Report of the 30th Anniversary of the As- sociation of Teachers in Ljubljana 1929). What was the character of female teachers? In both Finland and Slovenia, teachers were among the first female intel- lectuals to enter public life. These specially trained young women were initially only the daughters of senior officials and parents who were engaged in the liberal professions. Daughters of aristocratic families enrolled in teacher-training col- leges only to obtain a degree that was appropriate for their status. Middle class girls chose the teaching profession for the joy of teaching, but primarily because they wanted financial independence (Milharčič Hladnik 1995, 29; Mrgole Jukič 1998, 115–117). The formation of the image, ideal and moral character of female teach- ers was influenced by the plans and expectations of primary school and by the expectations of what a teacher should be. In the second half of the nineteenth century in Slovenia, it was believed that a teacher should not educate by strict discipline and external coercion but by example. Increasingly, it was emphasized that teachers should guide their pupils with love and example. In other words, teachers should exemplify what they wanted to their students to be – serious, silent, humble, reasonable, wise, patient, modest, gentle, observant, people of character and pious (Peček 1992, 75; 1998, 152–171). All of the aforementioned characteristics were embodied in the Sloveni- an female teacher at the end of the nineteenth century. She had to be cheerful regardless of her income and had to endure all the negative. She had to be an exemplary citizen of her homeland, who loved her nation and the people with whom she was working. Slovenian female teachers were also expected to be char- itable and help poor children. They collected clothes and provided children with notebooks to enable them to attend school and study. Especially in winter, many children could not attend school because they did not have anything to wear; therefore, the aid was heartily welcomed. Female teachers also organized school kitchens (Šebjanič 2013, 452–454). Moreover, owing to their sophistication, edu- cation and commitment to their profession, they attended teachers´ meetings and participated in preparing lectures on various topics. Female teachers faced similar expectations in Finland. In the early twenti- eth century, they were not allowed to attend dances, smoke cigarettes or drink alcohol. Any infraction of these rules could get them fired. Therefore, these rules for women were enforced from the time of their teacher studies. (Provincial Archieves of Hämeenlinna, Archieves of the College of Hämeenlinna, Ca:1; Pro- vincial Archieves of Mikkeli, Archieves of the College of Suistamo, Ca:1; Provincial Archieves of Oulu, Archieves of the College of Tornio, Ca:1; Provincial Archieves of Vaasa, Archieves of the College of Vaasa, Ca:1). It should be noted that the rules were less strict for male teachers and students (Heikkinen 2000; Hyyrö 2006; 305 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Paksuniemi 2009; Paksuniemi, Määttä & Uusiautti 2013; Paksuniemi, Uusiautti & Määttä 2013). The female students´were not allowed to spend time with male during their leasure time. If they were seen to do so, they were expelled, as a form of extreme punishment. (Provincial Archieves of Hämeenlinna, Ca:2.) In Slovenia, a similar code of conduct was implemented. In the early twen- tieth century, the colour and length of dresses were determined and make-up and hair colouring were forbidden. Teachers were not allowed to smoke or drink alcohol, and they had to remain at home between the hours of 8 pm and 6 am (Milharčič Hladnik 1995, 36; Mrgole Jukič 1998, 117; Šebjanič 2013). Public behav- iour was extremely important because teachers were seen as model citizens. They had to be role models for young people and novice teachers, and such character was consistent with the expected role of the profession in Slovenian society. Fe- male teachers also had to be well-dressed and well-spoken professionals. Around 1900, suitable apparel for female teachers in Slovenia included se- vere lines, high buttoned (white) blouses with long sleeves and skirts reaching to the floor, but this rigidity relaxed slightly in the new century. Many teachers learned how to sew and made their own clothes, especially for special occasions (e.g. a procession). The diversity of clothing increased and, after 1918, all cloth- ing became less severe (Balkovec Debevec 2011, 284). The second paragraph of Courtyard of Ursuline convent in Ljubljana as female school center / Dvorišče Uršulinskega samostana v Ljubljani kot središče ženskih šol (SŠM, postcards collection) 306 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 a circular at the time reads as follows: "Teachers shall not be fashionable ladies with shorn hair, painted cheeks, luxurious and fashionable clothes and glitter- ing jewellery, all of which turns on it the attention of the street and gives cause for suitable and unsuitable remarks and degrades the dignity and importance in particular of the upbringing side of her profession ..." (Šuštar 2012, 49). Conclusion In this article, we have examined the norms, regulations and ideology sur- rounding the feminization of the teaching profession in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In investigating female teacher training in Finland and Slovenia in the early twentieth century, this article has highlighted the great ex- pectations for female teachers. In addition to learning to teach and the contents of a range of school subjects, female teachers were supposed to be model citizens, behave well and dress modestly. Furthermore, they had to be hard-working and lead healthy lives. For instance, the image of a teacher included abstinence, and being unmarried and devoted to teaching were virtues. Apart from linking these ideals to the professional socialization of teachers – that is, the process of becoming part of a profession or an occupational group – this Šolski hodnik v Uršulinskem samostanu v Ljubljani, pred 1918 / School hallway in the Ursuline convent in Ljubljana, before 1918. (SŠM, postcards collection) 307 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations article has placed this process in the context of nineteenth-century schooling. The expansion of primary schooling required a larger number of teachers which the male teacher profession could not supply. As a result, female teachers had to be employed, although teaching as well as public offices traditionally had been almost exclusively male arenas. Thus, the ideal of a female teacher may be understood as a way of adapting the female teaching profession to this context, where there were great expectations, but where one could not expect much of a salary in return. Therefore, this article raises further questions regarding the similarities and differences in the ideal female teacher across countries. As the findings presented in this article show, despite the social, economic and cultural differences, there were certainly striking similarities between Finland and Slovenia in the early twentieth century. These questions also concern societal changes over time and how they were related to changes in the school system. References Sources and literature – Finland. – a. Sources Act on Compulsory Education 1921 in Finland. – Annual Report of Teacher-Training Col- lege of Hämeenlinna 1919–1920. – Annual Report of Teacher-Training College of Tornio 1921–1922. – Annual Report of Teacher-Training College of Suistamo 1919– 1920. – Decree on Primary Education 1866 in Finland. Provincial Archieves of Hämeenlinna, Archieves of the College of Hämeenlinna. – Ca:1, Records of the Teaching Personnell 1919–1920. – Ca:2, Records of the Teaching Per- sonnell 1920–1927. Provincial Archieves of Mikkeli, Archieves of the College of Suistamo. – Bb:2, Namelists of the Students 1918–1945. – Ca:1, Records of the Teaching Personnell 1918–1928. – Ca:2, Records of the Teaching Personnell 1928–1936. Provincial Archieves of Oulu, Archieves of the College of Tornio. – Bb:1, Namelists of the Students 1921–1962. – Ca:1, Records of the Teaching Personnell 1921–1928. 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In: Učiteljice v šolskih klopeh. Zbornik ob 130. obletnici ustanovitve slovenskega učiteljišča za dekleta v Gorici [Female Teachers at School Desks], (ured./Ed. Tul, Vlasta). Nova Gorica: Zgodovinski arhiv, pp. 39–54, 2005. Splošno žensko društvo 1901–1945 [The General Women’s Society]: Od dobrih deklet do feministk (ured./Ed. Budna Kodrič, Nataša, Serše, Saša). Ljubljana, 2003. Strmčnik, France. Razvoj izobraževanja osnovnošolskega učiteljstva na Slovenskem od leta 1869 do razpada Avstro-Ogrske [Development of elementary education teach- ing profession in Slovenia from 1869 until the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire]. In: Osnovna šola na Slovenskem 1869–1969 [The Primary School in Slove- nia 1869–1969]. Ljubljana: Slovenski šolski muzej [Slovenian School Museum], pp. 339–411, 1970. Sto let ljubljanskega učiteljišča. Zbornik. [One Hundred Years of Ljubljana Teacher Train- ing College] (ured./Ed. Čopič, Venceslav). Ljubljana: Gimnazija pedagoške smeri v Ljubljani, 1973. Šebjanič, Maja. (Neliterarna) podoba učitelja 1855–1914 v pedagoškem tisku [The (non- literary) image of the teacher between 1855 and 1914 in the pedagogical press]. In: Šolska kronika – School Chronicle. Ljubljana: 2013, pp. 447–464. Šola za sestre: zdravstveno šolstvo na Slovenskem 1753–1992 [School of Nursing: Health Service Education in Slovenia], (Ed. Šuštar, Branko), razstavni katalog [Exhibition catalogue]. Ljubljana: Slovenski šolski muzej [Slovenian School Museum], 1992. Šuštar, Branko. Slovene teachers and their contribution to cultural, national and social development. In: Slovene women in modern era. Ljubljana: National Museum of Contemporary History, pp. 45–49, 2012. Šuštar, Branko. The role of Catholic oriented women teachers in Slovenia in the first quar- ter of the 20th century in particular the activity of members of the ‘Slomškova zveza/ Slomšek Union’. In: Women in the History of Balkans. Thessaloniki, pp. 79–94, 2009. Učiteljice v šolskih klopeh [Female Teachers at School Desks], Zbornik ob 130. obletnici ustanovitve slovenskega učiteljišča za dekleta v Gorici, (ured./Ed. Tul, Vlasta). Nova Gorica: Zgodovinski arhiv, 2005. Učiteljišče – Gimnazija Ledina 130 let. Zbornik [Teacher Training College – Gymnasium Ledina 130 years], (ured./Ed. Bovha, Boris at al ). Ljubljana: Gimnazija Ledina, 1998. Vode, Angela. Zbrana dela Angele Vode [Collected Works of Angela Vode] I. - III. - I. Spol in upor, II. Značaj in usoda, III. Spomin in pozaba. Ljubljana: Knjižna zbirka Krt 109/1998, 110/1999, 111/2000. Vode, Angela. Skriti spomini [Hidden Memory]. Ljubljana, 2004. Ženska, politika, družina [Women, Politics, Family]. Ljubljana: Časopis za kritiko zna- nosti, pp. 135–136, 1990. Ženske skozi zgodovino [Women through History]: zbornik referatov 32. zborovanja slovenskih zgodovinarjev [Collection of Scientific Papers – 32nd Convention of Slo- venian Historians], (ured./Ed. Žižek, Aleksander). Celje, 2004. 311Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations 15th Symposium attendees participating in an old lesson at the Slovenian School Museum. Introductory information. 15th Symposium reception at the City Hall of Ljubljana. (Photo: Ksenija Guzej, Marijan Javoršek, SŠM) 312 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 UDC 37.014.5(460.15)˝18/19˝ 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 4. 4. 2019 Paulí Dávila*, Luis Mª Naya** The Basque teaching profession, associativism and the Spanish civil service Baskijski učiteljski poklic, učiteljska društva in španska državna služba Izvleček V prispevku bomo analizirali položaj ba- skovskega šolstva od konca 19. do prve tretjine 20. stoletja, kajti gre za ključno ob- dobje za proučevanje različnih dejavnikov, ki so vplivali na proces normalizacije izobraže- vanja v Baskiji. V tem času lahko opazujemo: 1. standardizacijsko politiko države; 2. po- litike deželnega sveta baskovskih ozemelj, ki spodbujajo nove oblike baskovskega izo- braževanja; 3. dejanja združenj baskovskih učiteljev, ki zahtevajo enakovrednost baskov- sko-navarskega izobraževanja s preostalim španskim izobraževanjem; 4. strokovni pe- dagoški tisk, ki zahteva prej omenjeno, in 5. oblikovanje alternativ uradnemu državne- mu izobraževanju ter nastajanje mestnih in podeželskih šol. Ključne besede: Baskija, Španija, učitelji, 19. stoletje, 20. stoletje Key words: Basque Country, Spain, teachers, 19th century, 20th century 15th Symposium on School Life, part 50: Visit us / obiščite nas - Sistory.si: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37703 Abstract In this contribution, we are going to analyze the situation of the Basque teaching from the end of the 19th century up to the first third of the 20th century because it is a key period to study the different agents who took part in the process of normalization of the teach- ing in the Basque Country. In this sense, it can be observed: 1) the standardizing politics of the State; 2) the policies of the Provincial Council of the Basque territories, raising new forms of formation of the Basque teach- ing; 3) the actions of the associations of the Basque teaching, requesting the equalization of the Basque-Navarre teaching to the one that the rest of Spanish colleagues had; 4) the professional press of teaching claiming the aforementioned ones and 5) the creation of al- ternatives to the official teaching of the State from some city councils, through the creation of a municipal and a rural teaching. * Paulí Dávila Balsera, Professor of the History of Education at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Faculty of Education, Philosophy and Anthropology, Avda. de Tolosa, 70, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián; pauli.davila@ehu.eus ** Luis Mª Naya Garmendia, Professor of the History of Education at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Faculty of Education, Philosophy and Anthropology, Avda. de Tolosa, 70, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián; luisma.naya@ehu.eus 313 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations In Spain teachers as a body of civil servants of the Spanish State is a relatively recent phenomenon. At the beginning of the 20th century educational policies developed by the Spanish State (henceforth referred to as “the State”) were aimed at ensuring that schoolteachers obtained a salary given that, being financially dependent on local or provincial bodies, this was not guaranteed. The 1900 Budget guaranteed the prompt payment of salaries as an obligation of the State. Nonetheless, this general policy did not include the whole territory of Spain, given that what were known as the “Basque Provinces” (Guipúzcoa, Vizcaya and Álava) as well as Navarre enjoyed special relation, the Economic Accords, which were agreements between the State and each one of these provinces. The Accords recognized distinct administrative powers for these Basque territories.1 In this contribution, we will analyze the situation of the Basque teaching profession from the end of the 19th century to the first third of the 20th century, a crucial period for studying elements involved in its functioning. We wish thus to highlight two relevant elements in this process: 1) educational policy and the teacher profession within the framework of the Economic Accords and 2) the role played by teachers’ associations in making demands regarding the homologation of Basque-Navarre teachers with their Spanish colleagues. The aim of this contribution is to highlight the conflict existing between the State and the Basque territories regarding teachers, and to emphasize the role of the professional teachers’ associations. This conflict was finally resolved in favour of the State, which, through a Decree, managed to harmonize the role of all civil servants, including those carrying out professional teaching in the Basque Provinces. 1. Educational policy and the teaching profession within the framework of the Economic Accords Between the 19th and the 20th centuries, the relations between the State and what were known as the “Basque provinces” and Navarre were based on a series of pacts. These agreements between each province and the State gave recognition to a political and administrative singularity. The pacts were known as Fueros (special legislative privileges) until 1876, Economic Accords (from 1878) and Autonomy (during the Second Republic (1931-1939) and since 1978) (Davila 2004 and 2005). The so-called “Basque problem” has to be understood in this political framework, in which there have been differentiated degrees of taxation and of administrative and political autonomy. 1 This article is the result of a research project financed by the Spanish Ministry for Science and Education, project number EDU-2010-15218. The authors are members of the Group for Histori- cal and Comparative Studies in Education – Garaian, recognized by the Basque Government, registry number IT 911-16 and of the Unity of Education and Research “Education, Culture and Society (UFI 11/54)” of the University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU. Email: pauli.davila@ ehu.eus and luisma.naya@ehu.eus 314 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Also, in the educational field, the Moyano Law was the basis of the Spanish educational system from 1857 until 1970. This law, despite modifications, dominated in everything important in educational legislation and administration in Spain for over a century. These two general approaches on policy and education are basic to understanding the development of the teaching profession in the Basque Country, above all when the State incorporated teachers into the civil service. The process by which schoolteachers carrying out their profession in the Basque Country became to have the same rights as the rest of their Spanish colleagues was highly conflictive. The payment to teachers at the expense of the State budget, from 1900, was fundamental to creating a single body of State civil servants. In the Basque Provinces this payment was regulated by the Economic Accords through the cupo (a quota that had to be paid by the Basque provinces to the State for expenses of the latter, an amount negotiated approximately every six years). The principle on which salary payments to teachers was based was already embodied in the Moyano Law. It was not until 1882 that, in order to pay schoolteachers, a provincial Fund was created, an entity that was under the control of the Provincial Government and not the municipal Town Halls. Given this governmental power, the Basque Provincial Governments argued that it should be the Basque municipal authorities that continued paying the salary of teachers, as this was a way of controlling the latter. Nonetheless, as we have pointed out above, the conflict arose from 1900 on, when the State took on the payment of salaries. The State, professional teachers’ associations, professional journals and teachers’ congresses coincided in this same objective. That is, while schoolteachers called for the State to pay them directly, the Basque Local and Provincial authorities wished to maintain powers. The Basque Provincial Governments argued that the agreed Economic Accords in force granted them a series of administrative powers, amongst these being the cost of primary school education (buildings, schoolteacher’s housing, school material, etc.). These administrative powers were subject of debate during the first third of the 20th century, especially when it came to revise the Economic Accords. Amongst the demands by Provincial Governments before the Ministry were ambitious ones regarding public education (appointment of teachers, a Basque university and, arising therefrom, official recognition of the Basque language), demands that were never addressed. Thus, until the State proposed the change in the system and took on the responsibility for teachers’ salaries, with the aim of creating a corps of civil servants, each province had a special Fund for paying such salaries. 1.1. The Economic Accords and payment of teachers The system for the payment of teachers’ salaries changed in 1900. The Royal Decree of July 21st, setting out for the first time the obligations of the State in this regard, although resources continued to be within the ambit of the local (municipal) authorities. To make this possible and workable, the State took on the 315 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Various articles on the Basque-Navarre teachers were published in El Magisterio de Álava. (http://escuelaentierradecampos. blogspot.com/2014/05/el-magisterio-de- alava-periodico.html, accessed 12. 10. 2019) payments but, in order to offset this, a surcharge of approximately 16% of the contribution was applied to municipal councils, which had to pay for buildings, crops and farm animals - except in the Basque Country. Consequently, this Royal Decree established a system eliminating the special Funding bodies in all the provinces of the State. This new situation meant applying a policy that was not in harmony with that set out in the Economic Accords. In order to analyse this important Decree, the Provincial Governments of Álava, Guipúzcoa and Vizcaya met together, the representative from Guipúzcoa being charged with drawing up a letter to the President of the Spanish Government, who had previously informally expressed agreement with the request put forward that the Basque Provincial Governments would obtain the powers and duties pertaining to the Decree. The arguments in this petition were purely rhetorical with respect to the special characteristics of the Basque Provinces, besides being highly repetitive: “by virtue of the Economic Accord, the State does not intervene in the collection of territorial or industrial contributions, nor in the administration of consumption tax, nor in the other agreed taxes; here surcharges do not exist, nor forestry harvesting, in short, here the action of the State is totally unknown as regards the exacting of resources (...) municipal funding does not exist, being the responsibility of the Provincial Governments’ Tax Offices (...). In short, it is totally impossible for the State to fulfil in the Basque Provinces what is stipulated in the Royal Decree” (Provincial Archive of Álava, File DH 604, number 2). Subsequently, the Provincial Governments exchanged communications in order to harmonise payment criteria, in accord with the Decree. Nevertheless, and given that the functioning of each Provincial Government varied with respect to their Finance Committees, the President of the Provincial Government of Guipúzcoa proposed that each Provincial Government adopt the measures they deemed opportune (Provincial Archive of Álava, File DH 602, number 2). Provincial Governments would thus come to agreements with their respective local municipal authorities regarding payments for teachers and the manner in 316 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 which the corresponding quotas would be managed by the Finance Committees of each Province. This regulation for the manner of paying teachers left aside a fundamental question for the teaching profession: the salary increases decreed by the Government and which were applied in Spain, but not in the Basque Country. This question was one of growing concern as manifested by written demands from teachers to the Minister, through their professional associations, for parity of salaries and remunerations with teachers throughout “the whole of Spain”. The difference in treatment demanded by the Basque Provinces, embodied by the singularities of the pact agreed upon, thus gave rise to a contradiction with the interests of teachers who were not awarded salary increases. The reason why this was not possible lay in the fact that the quota agreed upon did not provide for salary increases unilaterally decided by the State. In fact, this problem continued from 1900 to 1912, when the State took on complete responsibility for paying the salaries of Basque teachers. Throughout all this, period Basque teachers constantly demanded to be treated equally in financial terms with the other colleagues of their profession. 2. Defence of the civil service by Basque associativism Throughout all this process, the role of teacher associativism, through the Basque-Navarre Federation of Teachers’ Associations and through professional journals (Magisterio Alavés) was the key. The demands made and the support from the rest of Spanish teachers, as expressed in the professional teaching publications, achieved a legislative agreement in 1912 by which Basque teachers were placed on parity with the rest of Spanish teachers. This meant a victory for Basque teachers, as the salary increases which the State recognised for Spanish teachers would also be extended to include their Basque counterparts. However, it also represented a victory for the State and for the Basque Provincial Governments, on managing to incorporate the provisions of this Act into the so-called “cupo”. With this, one of the aims of any State was achieved: having a single civil service depending on the State, that is, an intellectual army, according to the terminology used at the time, at the service of the State. Also achieved was that appointment to the civil service would be through open competitive examinations – a key factor to understanding the functioning of the State with respect to civil servants and their service (Davila 1994). In the period between 1900 and 1912, professional teachers’ associations made a number of demands. Thus, in 1906 and on the occasion of the renewal of the Economic Accord, the President of the Association of Primary Education Teachers of Vizcaya petitioned the Minister with the decisions taken at a meeting on June 19th of that year, requesting the elimination of the direct payments by the Town Halls, given that they were commonly paid late and termly and, failing the State taking on responsibility for payment, it should be the Provincial Governments 317 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations that make these payments. Moreover, they demanded that no distinction should be made between teachers when being appointed, a concern of the Association, above all given the political force that Basque nationalists were gaining. The associated teachers feared that, amongst other conditions, they would be required to be fluent in the Basque language, as was being argued by “the party known as nationalist or Biscayan – which is perhaps the name that euphorically conceals an unhealthy and pernicious tendency in favour of the supreme interests of the Motherland” (General Archive of the Administration: File 6233). In the same way the President of the Association of Teachers of Tolosa stated in November 1906, when he addressed the Minister, that: “the wish of Basque teachers is to be treated like the rest of the Nation and, as a consequence, Primary Education and Teachers be excluded from the “Economic Accord” which has to be signed these days, or otherwise this oblige the Basque-Navarre Provincial Governments to concede to us the same advantages as those in the other provinces have or might have; that is, we wish to be Teachers with the same rights and obligations as those in the rest of Spain and, consequently, that we be remunerated by the State on a monthly basis, with the same salary fixed by the State, and without any dependence on Provincial Governments or Town Halls” (General Archive of the Administration: File 6233). These petitions did not bear fruit. Between 1910 and 1912 there was intense activity between the Ministry and both the professional Teachers’ Associations as well as the Provincial Governments, which finally bore fruit with the definitive payment of teachers by the State, as laid down by legislation of December 31st 1912. The Federation of Basque-Navarre Teachers’ Associations arose in 1911, with the aim of seeking a solution to this conflict. This association disappeared in 1913 just after achieving the objective of teachers’ salaries being paid by the State, as reported in the professional press at the time. In this sense, in 1910 various articles were published on this topic in El Magisterio de Álava, illustrating the concern of the Basque-Navarre teachers to be on parity with the rest of teachers in the State. All dealings with the Ministry Historical memory of education in the Basque Country: UPV/EHU Museum of Education – a step into the past. (https://basquebooks.blogs.unr.edu/upvehu- museum-of-education-a-step-into-the-past/ accessed 12. 10. 2019) 318 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 were channelled through this Federation in order to obtain parity with the rest of “teachers in Spain”, becoming thus a key element in the policy drawn up between the Ministry and the Provincial Governments. The constitution of this Federation was drawn up because of the call made by the provincial and local teachers’ associations to hold a meeting in Zumarraga (in Gipuzkoa province). Prior to January 1911 the provincial Associations had remitted letters to the Ministry demanding parity of salaries. The Spanish Society of Pedagogy took measures in Madrid so public powers might attend to the petitions of the Basque-Navarre teachers. To this end, a campaign was undertaken to gather the opinions of the teachers affected so that these measures would have effect. The January 29th 1911 issue of “El Magisterio de Álava” informed of the first meeting held on January 23rd 1911, and made known the following objective: “The ideal for which this Federation has to work is to achieve total parity of the public schoolteachers in this province with those in the rest of Spain”. Also, the good relations between Basque teachers and the National Association of Primary Teachers enabled measures, closely in accord with the Ministry to be undertaken by the Association itself, and in the manner desired by the Basque-Navarre teachers. The Law of December 30th 1912 established that the Basque Provinces be on parity with the rest of the provinces of the State, regarding the obligation of primary schooling, a situation made very clear in Article 1 thereof: “The obligations of primary education personnel and material, which will take effect on the passing of this Law in the Basque Provinces, will be met by the Treasury, incurring budget costs by the State, in the same way and under the same conditions as established for the other provinces.” This Law was clearly welcomed by the Basque teaching profession, as it resolved a problem of great concern regarding salaries and salary increases for these teachers. The Royal Order of January 29th 1913 would extensively develop aspects arising from this important legislation, giving rise to a series of rules for the drawing up salary payslips, appointment of qualified staff, ex-gratia payments, etc. Navarre, on the other hand, did not appear as a province affected by this law and, until March 14th 1913, there was no Decree issued about the situation of teachers in this province. Conclusions In the first decade of the 20th century, Spain developed policies favorable to the teaching profession with the goal that teachers become State civil servants. To this end, it was fundamental for the State to pay the salaries of teachers directly. Nonetheless, given that, the Basque Country enjoyed an agreement with the State, known as the Economic Accord; it was not possible to apply this decision. To this end, Basque teachers suffered financial discrimination. In order to resolve this situation, Basque professional associations and the teachers’ press demanded the same financial privileges as their Spanish colleagues. After various negotiations, in 1912 the State took on the responsibility for the salaries of teachers in the Basque Country. 319 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations The role played by the professional associations and the teachers’ press, both in the Basque Country and in Spain, was fundamental, as they channelled the protests and demands of professional teachers into accepting to a great degree that the State take over responsibility for their salaries. The consequence of all this was that the Basque provinces lost certain control over teaching staffs and, at the same time, ceded part of their powers, thereto recognised under the Economic Accord, to the State. From this moment on the Basque teachers’ professional press and associations were to share the same interests as their Spanish colleagues, being as they were part of the same corps of civil servants. Bibliography Alonso, E. J. (1999): Continuidades y discontinuidades de la administración provincial en el País Vasco, 1839-1978: una "esencia" de los derechos históricos [Continuities And Discontinuities of the Provincial Administration in the Basque Country, 1839-1978: the Being of Historical Rights]. Oñati, Instituto Vasco de Administración Pública Dávila, P. (1994): La honrada medianía. Génesis y formación del magisterio español [The Honest Mediocrity. The Genesis and Training of Spanish Teaching]. Barcelona, Promociones y Publicaciones Universitarias. Dávila, P. (2004): Las políticas educativas en el País Vasco durante el siglo XX [The Educational Policies in the Basque Country during the 20th Century]. Madrid, Biblioteca Nueva. Dávila, P. (2005): The educational system and national identities: the case of Spain in the twentieth century, History of Education, 34 (1), pp. 23-40. Education in the Basque Country. (http://aunamendi.eusko- ikaskuntza.eus/es/destacados/educacion-en-euskal-herria/ na-28/ accessed 12. 10. 2019) 320 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Summary The Basque teaching profession, associativism and the Spanish civil service Paulí Dávila, Luis Mª Naya The creation of the teaching as a government employees' body, in the Spanish case, is recent. The educational policies developed by the Spanish State, at the beginning of the 20th century, were directed to assure that teachers should have an insured salary. This right was not guaranteed until that moment because they depended on local and provincial instances. Since the Law of Budgets of 1901, the State was guaranteeing the punctual payment of the salaries to the teaching. Nevertheless, this general politics could not be extended to the whole terri- tory since the Basque Country and Navarre were enjoying a particular privilege as they had the Economic Agreement, which was an agreement between the State and these territories. In these agreements a series of attributions was recognized to the territories on the part of the State. In this contribution we are going to analyze the situation of the Basque teaching from the end of the 19th century up to the first third of the 20th century because it is a key period to study the different agents who took part in the process of normalization of the teaching in the Basque Country. In this sense, it can be observed: 1) the standardizing politics of the State; 2) the policies of the Provincial Council of the Basque territories, raising new forms of formation of the Basque teaching; 3) the actions of the associations of the Basque teaching, requesting the equalization of the Basque-Navarre teaching to the one that the rest of Spanish colleagues had; 4) the professional press of teaching claiming the aforementioned ones and 5) the creation of alternatives to the official teaching of the State from some city councils, through the creation of a municipal and a rural teaching. In all this process, the role of the associativism of the teaching, through the Federation of Associations of the Basque-Navarre Teaching, and the professional magazines (“El Magisterio Alavés”) was a key element. The aim of this contribution is to reveal the existing conflict between the Spanish State and the Basque territories in relation to the teaching, indicating the set of agents who were rose up before this situation. This paper is the result of a research project financed by the Spanish Ministry for Science and Education, project number EDU-2010-15218. The authors are members of the Group for His- torical and Comparative Studies in Education – Garaian, recognized by the Basque Government, registry number IT 603/13 and of the Unity of Education and Research “Education, Culture and Society (UFI 11/54)” of the University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU. 321 UDC 37.014:061.2(450)˝184/189˝ 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 24. 2. 2014 Alberto Barausse* Primary school teachers’ associationism in Italy from unification to Giolitti’s age** Povezovanje osnovnošolskih učiteljev v Italiji od združitve do Giolittijevega obdobja Izvleček Namen prispevka je, slediti razvoju učitelj- skega združevanja in prehodu iz pretežno lokalističnih, skupnih oblik družbenih or- ganizacij v bolj profesionalne in nacionalno organizirane skupine. Ta proces se je začel konec štiridesetih let 19. stoletja v Piemontu. Po rojstvu italijanske države so se učiteljska združenja množila, zlasti v mestnih središčih, kot so Milano, Neapelj, Rim, Firence, Genova itd. Toda šele v osemdesetih letih 19. stoletja so se začele uveljavljati zgodnje izkušnje na nacionalnem nivoju. Ključne besede: osnovna šola, učiteljstvo, društva, Unione Magistrale Nazionale (Državna zveza osnovnošolskih učiteljev), Italija Key words: primary school, teachers, assocations, Unione Magistrale Nazionale (Primary Teachers National Union), Italy 15th Symposium on School Life, part 8. Visit us / obiščite nas – Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37652 Introduction Only recently scholars of the history of Italian education have focused their attention to the complex vicissitudes of teachers and their association. After the Abstract The aim of this paper is to trace the evolution of teachers’ associationism and the transition from mainly localistic, mutualistic modes of social organization to more professional and nationally organized groups. This process started at the end of the forties of the 19th Century in the State of Piemonte. But only since the eighties of the 19th Century the early experience began at national character. * Alberto Barausse, University of Molise, Prof., Director, Center of research and documents on the school’s history, school book and children’s literature – School Museum of University of Molise, Italy; barausse@unimol.it ** The author's substantially expanded study of this topic presented at the Symposium is available in HECL journal - Primary School Teachers’ Associations in Italy from Unification to late ninteenth century: origin and development between processes of professionalization and nationalization, History of Education and Children’s Literature [HECL] IX, 1 (2014), pp. 709-754. 322 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 pioneering studies of Bertoni Jovine,1 the first survey that focused on the role of the teacher, his social status, legal location, institutional function, living and working conditions, training, professional organizations and trade unions2 was conducted in the 1970s. Until the 1980s, Italian historical research could make use of the studies by Santoni Rugiu and Ambrosoli for secondary school teach- ers, and of the archival research by De Fort for primary school teachers.3 More recently, the role of the primary school teachers’ category, was analyzed by some sociologists sensitive to its historical perspective, such as Dei;4 and the history of the primary school teachers’ association in the first decades of the 1900s has been further analysed by Barausse,5 while that of the Associazione Italiana Maes- tri Cattolici (AIMC) and of Unione Cattolica Italiana Insegnanti Medi (UCIIM), during the years of the Italian Republic was studied by Sani.6 Some surveys on the associative phenomenon have been brought forward as part of broader re- search on the developments of education locally or as part of the investigation of individual figures of the Italian teachers’ reality or teachers’ journals. In par- ticular the work of Morandini on the Kingdom of Piedmont, along with those of D'Ascenzo on the Bolognese reality,7 of Russo on Basilicata in the first decade of 1 D. Bertoni Jovine, Storia dell’educazione popolare in Italia,( Bari: Laterza, 1965), pp. 191-198. 2 See G.Vigo, “I1 maestro elementare italiano nell’Ottocento. Condizioni economiche e status sociale”, Nuova Rivista Storica, LXI, n. 1-2, (1977): 43-84; S. Ulivieri, “I maestri”, L’istruzione di base in Italia, (Firenze: Vallecchi, 1977), pp. 165-211; A. Broccoli, “L’insegnante e il sistema scolastico”, Ruolo, status e formazione dell’insegnante italiano dall’Unità ad oggi, (Milano: Isedi, 1978), pp. 11-131; F. Manzotti, “Il movimento magistrale cattolico e lo stato liberale”, Rassegna storica del Risorgimento, LII, n.4, (1965), pp. 463-488; G. Chiosso, “Dal mestiere alla professione magistrale. Note sul lavoro dei maestri elementari nel secondo Ottocento”, History of Educa- tion and Children’s Literature, [enhance HECL] II, 1, (2007), pp. 85-115. 3 See A. Santoni Rugiu, Il professore nella scuola italiana. Dal 1700 alle soglie del 2000, (Firenze: La Nuova Italia, 1981); L. Ambrosoli, La Federazione Nazionale insegnanti Scuole Medie dalle origini al 1925, (Firenze: La Nuova Italia, 1967); L. Cremaschi, Cinquant’anni dì battaglie sco- lastiche, (Roma, Edizioni de I Diritti della scuola, 1952); E. De Fort, “L’associazionismo degli insegnanti elementari dall’età giolittiana al fascismo”, Movimento operaio e socialista, n. 4, (1981):375-409; Idem, “I maestri elementari dai primi del Novecento alla caduta del fascismo”, Nuova Rivista Storica, LXVIII, n. 5-6 (1984): pp. 527-576. 4 See M. Dei, Colletto bianco, grembiule nero. Gli insegnanti elementari italiani tra l’inizio del secolo e il secondo dopoguerra, (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1994). 5 See A. Barausse, L’Unione magistrale nazionale. Dalle origini al fascismo, (Brescia: La Scuola 2002). 6 See R. Sani, Le associazioni degli insegnanti cattolici nel secondo dopoguerra (1944-1968), (Bre- scia: La Scuola 1990). 7 See M.C. Morandini, Scuola e Nazione. Maestri e istruzione popolare nella costruzione dello Stato unitario (1848-1861), (Milano: Vita e Pensiero, 2003); M. D’Ascenzo, La scuola elementare nell’età liberale. Il caso di Bologna (1859-1911), ( Bologna: Clueb, 1997). 323Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations the twentieth century,8 of Pruneri on Brescia,9 of Miceli on Molise,10 of Lo Parco on “Sezione maestre e maestri della Camera del lavoro di Milano”,11 of Ghizzoni on the figure of Maria Magnocavallo12 have expanded our knowledge that, how- ever, is still largely incomplete.13 The pioneering period of Italian primary teachers’ association in the years of liberal historic Right government (1861-1876) The first phase of associative life in Italy is included within the period be- tween pre-unification and that following the birth of the national State. From the limited research conducted on the subject, we know that the origins of the associative phenomenon among elementary school teachers dates back to the first half of the nineteenth century. Among the most important pre-unification associations we find the “Società di mutuo soccorso fra gl’insegnanti” (Teach- ers’ mutual aid society) founded in Turin in 1853 and the “Pio istituto di mutuo soccorso fra i maestri privati di Lombardia” (The Pious Institute of mutual aid for private school teachers of Lombardy) started in 1857.14 At the present state of research it has been possible to identify some tracks that reveal the existence of such associations in Bologna15 and in Naples.16 8 See T. Russo, Istruzione e sociabilità in Basilicata 1900-1921, (Milano: Franco Angeli, 2005). 9 See F. Pruneri, Oltre l’alfabeto. L’istruzione popolare dall’Unità d’Italia all’età giolittiana: il caso di Brescia, Milano: Vita e Pensiero, 2006). 10 See V. Miceli, “Associazionismo degli insegnanti e bollettini magistrali nel secondo Ottocento. Una ricerca in corso in Molise”, in H. Cavallera (ed.), La ricerca storico-educativa oggi. Un confronto di metodi, modelli e programmi di ricerca, (Lecce: Pensa Multimedia): vol. 1, pp. 389- 403. 11 See F. Loparco, “La Sezione Maestre e Maestri della Camera del Lavoro di Milano (1893-1898). Parte prima”, in HECL, VIII, 1,(2013), pp. 675-713. 12 See C. Ghizzoni, Cultura magistrale nella Lombardia del primo Novecento. Il contributo di Maria Magnocavallo (1869-1956), (Brescia: La Scuola, 2005). 13 See M. Cattaneo-L. Pazzaglia (Ead), Maestri educazione popolare e società in “Scuola italiana Moderna”, 1983-1993, (Brescia: La Scuola, 1997). In particular see C.Ghizzoni, L.Caimi, L. Scu- rati essays. 14 See Società d'istruzione di educazione e di mutuo soccorso fra gli insegnanti, Regolamento ge- nerale della Società d'istruzione, di educazione e di mutuo soccorso fra gl'insegnanti, (Torino: Tip. scolastica S. Franco e figli, 1861); Rossi, Pietro, La società d'istruzione, di educazione e di mutuo soccorso fra gl'insegnanti [di Torino]. Monografia presentata all'Esposizione generale ita- liana in Palermo 1891, (Torino: Tip. Lit. Camilla e Bertolero, 1891). References to the Turin socie- ty’s initiatives as that Milanese also, see M.C. Morandini, Scuola e nazione. Maestri e istruzione popolare nella costruzione dello Stato unitario (1848-1861), cit., pp. 210-220. 15 Statuti per l'Unione di sussidio ai maestri e sotto maestri delle scuole elementari della citta e dio- cesi di Bologna che si erige sotto gli auspici di M. Vergine Sedes Sapientiae e dei santi protettori degli oratori delle suddette scuole, Bologna 1842. 16 This attempt is also certified by a biographical memory of Giuseppe Vago, one of the future leaders of the Neapolitan associations. See G. Vago, Le mie memorie, (Napoli: Tip. di G. Errico e Figlio, 1900), p. 84. 324 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 During the first 15 years of the Italian unification period, only a few associa- tions were able to take root. The geography of the birth and the development of associations is a useful starting point to shed light on the contexts that had a major impact on the development of the afore mentioned phenomenon. At the present state of research it has been possible to identify the setting up of 23 as- sociations, of which 15 were in northern Italy, 3 in central and four in southern Italy. Of 23 associations, 14 were established in the late 1860s, 9 in the early to mid-1870s. It seems clear that the associationism was predominantly an urban phe- nomenon, at least in its earlier forms, affecting mainly cities like Milan – who could boast well 2 societies - and Turin.17 In the years immediately following the birth of the unitary State, alongside two Turin societies the “Istituto di mutuo soccorso fra gl’istruttori ed educatori” was born in 1861 in Milan and a society founded by some primary teachers in Bologna in 1862: both on the model of the Society of Turin education and of education and mutual aid among teachers.18 17 The data are extrapolated from the counting of G. Chiosso (ed.), La stampa pedagogica e sco- lastica in Italia (1820-1943), (Brescia: La Scuola, 1997), [hencefort SPES] and by some teachers’ periodicals. 18 See. M. D’Ascenzo, La scuola elementare nell’età liberale. Il caso Bologna (1859-1911), (Bologna: Clueb, 1997), p. 162 e ss. Some jurnals of Italian teachers’ associations: The Lombardy Educator 1857 (L'Educatore Lombardo giornale Pio Istituto dei maestri Anno I), L’ Unione, 1873, The Journal of Italian society of educators and mutual aid among teachers (Società italiana educatrice e di mutuo soccorso fra gl’insegnanti) and The School Renewal 1924. (Il Rinnovamento Scolastico-Rassegna Quindicinale; https://www.abebooks.com; https://www.ibs.it, https://libreriaantiquariacoenobium.it, accessed 16. 10. 2019) 325Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Three years later, in 1865, the association of teachers of Naples was founded while in Florence, on the other hand, the association was established in 1866 (“Società italiana educatrice e di mutuo soccorso fra gl’insegnanti”).19 Other associations were established in Palermo, Reggio Calabria, Trieste, Verona and Venice. Among smaller towns there was a mutual aid societies among the teachers in Perugia ,20 founded in 1864 and in Parma, founded in 1869,21 Legnago (Verona province) and Chiaravalle (Ancona province). The fragmentation of the schools in the area and transportation difficulties forced the teachers to almost total isolation, interrupt- ed only by periodic meeting, like “educational conferences” and the associations’ assemblies, thus offering teachers the opportunity to socialize. We cannot ex- clude the possibility of the presence of other sodalities during this phase that only careful reconnaissance of the journalism of the time could reveal. One of the interesting aspects that historiography should consider in more detail, is related to the profile of the pioneers of associationism. Who were early proponents of associative forms? Which is the profile of the promoters of the teachers’ associations? Even from this angle we can see a significant evolution; indeed the development of this phenomenon is accompanied by its own genera- tional change that accompanies many teachers. It is difficult, but not impossible, to detect a more precise identity, also political, in teachers who were involved in associative life. In fact, first associations were born in the wake of a significant pressure by liberal political representatives, together with that of philanthro- pists, university professors and representatives of school management such as inspectors, supervisors or directors of normal schools, together – rarely with the best teachers. It is difficult, but not impossible, to detect a more precise political identity in teachers who were involved in associative life. Initially, the motivation was represented by the difficult economic and legal conditions around it. The Turin society emerged within the “Società d’Istruzione e di educazione”, which was an expression of pedagogical reflection and policy development of exponents of liberal Catholicism; but it was also the result of the contribution of pedagogues as Aporti and Rayneri and of exponents of liberal Catholicism susceptible to development of education as Lanza, Berti, Boncompagni, Albini, Capellina and others.22 The second was close to the initiatives promoted by Igna- 19 Statuto della Società Italiana Educatrice e di Mutuo Soccorso fra gl’insegnanti stabilita in Firen- ze, (Firenze: Tipografia di M. Ricci e C., 1869). 20 Statuto della Società di Mutuo Soccorso fra gl’insegnanti dell’Umbria, (Perugia: Tip. Santucci, 1864). 21 In a booklet published in the early 1980s refers to the Memorial event for the Association's founder, Francesco Rossi, Professor of "human letters" dead octogenarian on December 29, 1879, that "for nearly three decade" presided. Regolamento interno per della Società di mutuo soccorso fra gl'insegnanti del Comune di Parma, (Parma: Tipografia Adorni Michele, 1880), p. 12. 22 See G. Chiosso, “Educare e istruire il popolo a Torino nel primo Ottocento”, L. Pazzaglia (ed.), Chiesa e prospettive educative in Italia fra Restaurazione e Unificazione, (Brescia: La Scuola, 1994), 227 e ss.; Idem [ed], Associazionismo e bollettini magistrali. Uno sguardo in Abruzzo e a Brescia, in Idem, Scuola e stampa dell’Italia liberale, (Brescia: La Scuola, 1993), p. 289-292. 326 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 zio Cantù and acted in compliance with Milanese pedagogical association (later, Italian pedagogical Society) by Giuseppe Sacchi.23 Even at the center of initia- tives that led to the establishment of the Neapolitan teachers’ associations, we find teachers and pedagogues, close to the liberal Catholicism, publicists and everyone responsible for school press with a distinct position compared to their colleagues from Lombardy and Piedmont. Neapolitan teachers were more sensi- tive towards the demand for autonomy. Since the first associative experiences the interlacement with the pedagogical and teachers’ press was very tight.24 The Turin society published newsletters such as “Il saggiatore scolastico” (1854-1855), then the “Bollettino mensile - Atti ufficiali della Società di mutuo soccorso” (1856- 1882) and lastly “L’amico dei maestri” (1882-1940), which became an important reference point and a powerful pressure group thanks to the reports that the as- sociation, through its press, made an alliance with other scholastic magazines (journals) and increased its members. The presence of periodic school magazine was usually a prerequisite or the voice, for the birth of associations. As regards the Southern Italy experience, initially the director and professors enlivened the pag- es of the magazine “L’Amico delle scuole popolari”, Mauro Valente, the cannon (priest) Giuseppe Vago25 put great effort in supporting the teachers’ organiza- tion; later academics, professors and directors of normal schools such as Edoardo Fusco and Pietro Rossi gave life to another periodical «Il Progresso Educativo» (1869-1874). They acted as intermediaries both with the teachers of those schools and with many teachers who had graduated from teaching school.26 Nature, initiative and projects of the first teachers’ associations The appearance comes in handy around deepen investigations locally, about the nature of these early teachers’ organizations. It is important to bear in mind that the teacher associationism, for at least two decades was primarily an ex- pression of local realities; a phenomenon explained with dependence on primary education by the municipalities and, therefore, the condition of municipal em- ployees of the primary teachers. The first pool would seem to be the prevalent presence of a mutualistic, relief and social security nature of the first associa- tions: they were aiming for economic support for teachers and, sometimes, at protection from breaches of municipalities’ breaches. They were supported by 23 See S. Bucci, “Associazioni pedagogiche Nazionali”, in M. Laeng (ed.), Enciclopedia Pedagogica, (La Scuola: Brescia, 1989), p. 1127-1135. 24 See G. Chiosso (ed.), La stampa pedagogica e scolastica in Italia (1820-1943), (Brescia: La Scuola, 1997). 25 On the figure of Molisan teacher see the profile n. 2238 in Dizionario Biografico dell’Educazione (1800-2000), (Milano: Edizioni Bibliografica Italiana 2013) [hencefort DBE], curated by A. Ba- rausse. 26 For these magazines, see SPES, ad vocem. 327Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations cultural and training aimed for the upgrading of teachers. Although the range of the first associations was predominantly local, it is possible to find an action by the wider breath, especially on mutualistic front. So, for example, organizations from Turin, Milan and Naples wanted to be solid benchmarks for all teachers in Italy as regards the extension of economic forms of mutualism. On this front, however, the two northern organizations proved to be more solid. The financial fragility of associations, often small in the number of members, not allowed to extend the social security interventions. The Umbra society which provided as intended to “protect the rights and improve the economic and moral condition of teachers”, provided with “grants in cases of illness or other difficult circumstances”, reserving “a better future, to ensure the economic condition of members with decent and stable pensions”.27 The organization established in Florence with the aim of “promoting education [and] to improve the status of teachers” had a social fund for the management of grants and annuities to ensure of predominantly welfare measures. The mem- bers, who paid an annual fee of 12 lire, have been enrolled for at least two years, if retired and been members for 15 years could enjoy subsidies; the families of a deceased member could benefit from subsidies if the deceased was enrolled for at least ten years or pensions if he had been a member for at least fifteen years.28 In other cases, the interventions were of cultural character. The first teachers’ as- sociations initiatives, in Bologna,29 were incurred by the pedagogical project to foster the maturation in the teaching staff of a genuinely national cultural iden- tity on ethical and religious grounds; on the other hand they aimed at promoting the development of new municipal-level educational institutions as educational and rural schools, and festive evening schools, supported by circulating librar- ies and reading rooms as well as from the use of the social fund, together with the attention to popular education,30 the construction of a balanced and solid socio-political system. Such ideas had their roots and culture reflect in the Risor- gimento Catholic-liberal education.31 Also the associations established in Southern Italy acted in the context of a broader commitment in the spread and promotion of a popular education in the southern provinces and the re-launching of the Neapolitan school, started by the periodical magazine (journal) from its creation.32 In urging both public and 27 Statuto della Società di Mutuo Soccorso fra gl’insegnanti dell’Umbria, (Perugia: Tip. Santucci, 1864), p. 2. 28 Statuto della Società Italiana Educatrice e di Mutuo Soccorso fra gl’insegnanti stabilita in Firen- ze, (Firenze: Tipografia di M. Ricci e C., 1869), p. 3. 29 See M. D’Ascenzo, La scuola elementare nell’età liberale. Il caso Bologna (1859-1911), (Bologna: Clueb 1997), p. 162 e ss. 30 Ivi, p. 163. 31 See G. Chiosso (ed.), La stampa pedagogica e scolastica in Italia (1820-1943), (Brescia: La Scuola 1993), 244-245. 32 “La Società degl’Insegnanti in Napoli”, L’Amico delle Scuole popolari, V, n.. 24, (1865), p. 369. 328 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 private teachers were encouraged “to form a phalanx” to join forces in order to protect and increase their dignity and to improve public education.33 Moral and material benefits deriving from initiatives34 were traced back to the increasing decorum and the high esteem of the educator, to the ability to offer reciprocal encouragement and protection, foster adequate promotions for those who had conscientiously and successfully carried out their duties, ensuring pensions and benefits even to teachers who had not reached the number of working years re- quired by law. In addition the editorial staff of the Neapolitan journal hoped that through the constitution of a teachers’ association, assistance could finally be given to teachers in the difficult task of choosing textbooks,35 highlighting worthy textbooks that were not widespread and ensuring the publications of new works.36 Last but not least, it was possible to recruit representatives to propose for the municipal and political elections from the teachers’ associations, in order to guarantee the possibility to have their say in leading circles.37 The early post-unification years were characterized by the reactions to the extension of the Casati law throughout the National territory. Teachers’ associa- tions confronted themselves with the legislative measures, expressed by Minister De Sanctis motivated more by a streamlining of administrative bureaucracy de- sire than by the recognition of the local autonomy, and by Mamiani (parallel to the administrative decentralization projects advocated by Minghetti between January and April 1862); with Berti’s ministerial experience who tried to reor- ganize the central and peripheral (suburban) school system according to an anti-centralist control, and Coppino’s plan that repealing Berti’s decree, restored the old system.38 Within this context, positions were not lacking of some national significance intended to feed the demands of the teachers' category. I would like to remind the attitudes assumed by the Association among the teachers of Na- ples about the trends undertaken by the ministry concerning public education (in the Neapolitan area an important tradition of private schools existed, mainly secondary); 39 or, above, the initiatives carried out by the first teachers’ associa- 33 La Redazione, “Per un’Associazione degli insegnanti. Invito”, in L’Amico delle Scuole popolari, V, n. 20, (1865), p. 307. 34 “L’Associazione degl’insegnanti in Napoli”, L’Amico delle Scuole popolari, V, n. 22, (1865), pp. 337-339. 35 See A. Barausse, Il libro per la scuola dall’unità al fascismo. La normativa sui libri di testo dalla Legge Casati alla Riforma Gentile (1861-1922), (Macerata: Alfabetica Edizioni, 2008): vol. I, p. 6. 36 “L’Associazione degl’insegnanti in Napoli”, cit. 37 “Statuto organico della Società degl’insegnanti”, L’Amico delle Scuole popolari, V, n. 30, (1865): 465-469; Idem, n.31, (1865), pp. 481-484. 38 See G.TALAMO, La scuola dalla legge Casati alla inchiesta del 1864, (Milano: Giuffrè 1960); Idem, “Centralismo e autonomia nell’organizzazione scolastica dalla legge Casati alla prima guerra mondiale”, in AA.VV., Storia della scuola e storia d’Italia, (Bari: De Donato, 1982), pp. 100-105. 39 La Società degl’Insegnanti di Napoli e la Relazione del Cav. Gioda sull’insegnamento privato na- poletano, Napoli 1876. 329Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations tions, that became supporters (advocates) of the periodical organ of the Turin Society “L’institutore” and several school delegates (a school administrative role) that led to the presentation of a petition in Parliament in 1869 signed by over 5567 primary school teachers with which they were demanding better salaries and the establishment of the pension.40 Development of the associationism in the liberal historic Left (1876-1898) The years between 1876 and 1898, which largely coincided with the histor- ic left government, saw new primary teachers’ associations flourish. Up to this point 64 new organizations have been counted, which helped to broaden the geographical base of associations. Of these 31 were established in northern areas of Italy, 17 in central and 16 in southern areas. Further subdividing the long period it is possible to detect the phenomenon has begun to take on a major extension, during the decade of the 1880s: in this period we notice 55 new associations, and during the first half of the 1890s 30 new more. The number, however, seems to be underestimated. Some articles on the periodical press, in fact, indicate the presence of a number of associations between two hundred and three hundred unit.41 It is therefore all the more essen- tial to deepen the investigations at local level and cross the information school newspapers to redial a more comprehensive framework and collect the spread of other mutual aid associations, especially those based on the smaller admin- istrative unit (named circondariali o mandamentali groups) are more difficult to detect then they can be highlighted only through in-depth research of locations. In the early 1880s, the idea of a national association among teachers began to emerge. This process matured within the framework of a new political sce- nario, which was the historical left liberal. The 1882 electoral reform that gave the teachers the right to vote represented another turning point for the growth of associative phenomenon and for professional identity as well as the most re- vengeful and political character of the movement. In this context, in 1879 a group of Roman schools teachers - Natale Inverardi, assisted by Francesco Triscornia, Angelo Pavesi, Getulio Rossi, Gregorio Pirani, Francesco Rotati, Domenico Beisso and others -, founded the National Associa- tion of primary school teachers which recruited a few thousand members with branches that extended also in the North and South of the country. The teachers 40 See Petizione degli insegnanti elementari italiani al Parlamento Nazionale e al R. Governo prece- duta da una succinta Relazione compilata dal Professore Domenico Gagliolo, (Torino: 1869), pp. 23-24. 41 See E. Berni, “Federazione delle società pedagogiche e magistrali”, in Il Nuovo Educatore, [hen- cefort NE], IV, n. 14 (1885), p. 210. 330 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 moved to promote the adhesion of the little societies as they arose.42 This period saw coexist associations that cultivated both cultural interests and mutual aid protection forms with associations that ripened more advanced positions. Pre- cisely in the Italian capital in September 1880, simultaneously to the pedagogical congress, the first teachers’ congress took place, with the presence and participa- tion of the Public Education and the Industry and Commerce Ministers. The purpose of the association was defined as follows: “Article 1. The Na- tional Association of primary school teachers, based in Rome, has as objective the moral and material well-being of teachers and the growth of popular educa- tion […] Article 3. The moral well-being that the association aims at consists in: a) The continuous search to find ways and devices needed to take out teachers from the unhappy conditions they are in with the current law that gives to the municipalities unlimited power in appointing them, and for being often treated unfairly; b) Supporting the exclusive appointment of teachers to district school inspectors [it is an administrative district], to teachers in normal schools; c) The moral support with the Government, the municipal and governmental educa- tional authorities whenever teachers are dismissed unfairly, treated unjustly, and defend them from harassment; and this support must come directly from the Committee to which the teacher belongs, and from the Governing Council of the association, provided that the member is considered worthy of impeccable be- havior and accurate fulfillment of every kind of duty; […] Article 4. The material well-being sought by the association consists in: a) Continuously studying ways and means to achieve a salary increase due to the beneficent work teacher’s pay to the Nation, establishing the minimum in 1200 lire; b) Requesting the necessary measures to timely payment of the monthly salary; c) Insisting that an old age pension more convenient than the one fixed by the current law be given, invoking the provisions of the November 13th, 1859 law; and that also the senior (elderly) headmasters and teachers obtain it, to whom the current law denies this benefit, or better this right; d) Promoting teachers’ mutual aid societies in the capital of provinces and districts for mutual assistance for illnesses and old age, and for defense in cases of illegal dismissal; claiming for the teachers decent accommo- dation or reasonable compensation, and a vegetable garden, or a small field for those in rural Municipalities […].”43 42 See the “Supplemento” a La Luce, II, n. 18, (1879): 1. See also “Associazione degli Insegnanti elementari italiani per gli Interessi dell’istruzione popolare” e “Svegliamoci” in La Luce, II, n. 2, (1879), pp. 2-3. 43 Statutory general lines and the program of the Association were summarized in a booklet pub- lished in Rome in 1883 from the Italian typographic L. Perelli which, however, has not managed to retrieve copies. Founding of the Association acts, however, are reported in Lo “Statuto” e il “Regolamento dell’Associazione Nazionale fra gl’insegnanti primari”, in L’Eco, I, n. 1, (1881): 4-15. See also D. Beisso - L. Farinelli, A ciascuno il suo. Cronistoria dell’azione magistrale dal 1869 al 1892, (Roma: Tipografia Diocleziana 1912), p. 38. 331Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations It was certainly a more homogeneous association than the previous ones, be- cause it accepted among its members a great number of primary school teachers “that teach in public and private schools”. The Governing Body of the Associa- tion, the Central Council of elementary teachers promoted the establishment of “Teachers’ Committee” and directed the teachers’ congresses of 1880 in Rome, 1881 in Milan, 1882 in Naples, 1885 in Turin, 1888 in Bologna, 1890 in Bari, and 1892 in Genoa. Even more important was the role played by periodical scholastic press in promoting or in resistance to the unitary process among the teachers. The wealth of comparison among teachers appears from survey of the different organs of the Association in the course of its existence, as «La Luce» which followed first «Eco» and then the «Italia Pedagogica». But just as important were the discussions that also involved close periodicals such as «Il Nuovo Educatore» or «Il Rinnovamen- to Scolastico». A careful examination of the periodicals of the time would make it possible to reconstruct with a wealth of details the debates that accompanied the early development of the Association. The Association broke away from the previous national experiences moder- ate mold which was the Italian Pedagogical Society. Usually close to the political leadership of the liberal historical left and marked by a strong laical identity.44 These teachers were an expression of a different sensitivity and pedagogical cul- ture, certainly closer to the lesson of positivism. The leadership team expressed an address more oriented to claim secularism and the role of the State in edu- cation. The way they approached the school educational issues, reflected the changes in mentality that pedagogical positivism was starting to produce both in terms of design and the role of the school is teaching practices. It was a genera- tion of teachers who drew a secularist vision and strongly anticlerical tones,45 a conception intended to affect even the teacher proposed by new associations and journalism of the time, tended towards the idea of the teacher as a lay mission- ary and teacher as "prolongation" of the mother, can instill feelings and sense of civil duty: “As in the days of Roman decadence, the word of the Carpenter of Nazareth, for everywhere, earned from rethrowing the Consortium – a human character more fair and equitable, as well in our civilization's verb is propagated by teachers will give new and perfect address to progress.”46 Important was the contribution of protagonists who took part in congres- sional life (teachers and experts of educational subjects) to the formulation of bills and proposals aimed at improving the economic conditions of the catego- 44 See D. Beisso - L. Farinelli, A ciascuno il suo. Cronistoria dell’azione magistrale dal 1869 al 1892, (Roma: Tipografia Diocleziana, 1912). 45 See D. Beisso, Del miglioramento educativo in Italia. Osservazioni e proposte, Tipografia econo- mica, Roma 1879; 46 Ivi, p. 9. 332 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 ry (increase and leveling salaries, Monte reform etc.). Different proposals were presented as innovative introduction to teaching methods and programs, to the reform of the structure and scholastic organization (the spread of nursery schools of Froebelian stamp, manual labor, drawing, choral singing, the little field, the attempted unification of school textbooks and the study for popular school). During this time the association embraced the nationalistic Crispi’s thesis emerging between the late eighties and early nineties and continued to pursue the goal of allocating public education and content of teaching a more nation- al character. They are testimony to the tones and themes discussed in the 1888 Bologna Conference. Antonio Pastore presented the theme “Of the patriotic sen- timent in primary school”, through which he intended to return to the question of national identity formation in primary schools. On that occasion were made six proposals to accompany the growth of education in the direction desired by those who promoted the development of the school as "army of the nation" moved by the conviction "that the weapons without the school are ineffective at protecting the States from enemy aggression and pitfalls."47 After 1892 the Asso- ciation had a phase of crisis. The birth of Unione Magistrale Nazionale Only with new century, finally, arose the greater national society among primary teachers. It was founded by a group of teachers leaded from a radical deputy, Luigi Credaro, wich on April 1901 gathered up 141 local primary teachers associations and founded a new society, named Unione Magistrale Nazionale (Primary Teachers National Union). The story of the UMN accompanied twenty- five years of national history and, in particular, the years of the Giolitti’s age, the dramatic years of the first world war and the years of liberal democratic institu- tions crisis and the rise of fascism. The advent of the new regime brought the association to alienation progressively up to force the leadership to the voluntary disbanding decision after some attempts at absorption by the new organization's primary teachers fascist.48 47 They are the words given in the telegram sent by Crispi to promoters of Conference. See Atti del Congresso Nazionale fra gl’insegnanti elementari. Tenuto in Bologna addì 3, 4, 5 e 6 settembre 1888, (Roma: Tip. Aldina,1889). 48 For the history of UMN see A. Barausse, L’Unione Magistrale Nazionale. Dalle origini al fasci- smo (1901-1925), (Brescia: La Scuola, 2002). 333Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Povzetek Povezovanje osnovnošolskih učiteljev v Italiji od združitve do Giolittijevega obdobja Alberto Barausse Pričujoči prispevek povzema najnovejše študije o fenomenu povezovanja osnovnošolskih učiteljev v Italiji v času med združitvijo in Giolittijevim obdobjem, v dramatičnih letih prve svetovne vojne in letih krize liberalnih demokratičnih institucij ter v času širjenja fašizma. Na- men prispevka je slediti razvoju učiteljskega združevanja in prehodu iz pretežno lokalističnih, skupnih oblik družbenih organizacij v bolj profesionalne in nacionalno organizirane sku- pine. Ta proces se je začel konec štiridesetih let 19. stoletja v Piemontu, zahvaljujoč aktivizmu inšpektorjev, učiteljev ali liberalnih politikov, ki so verjeli v izobraževanje kot vrednoto in orodje za boljši ekonomski, družbeni in politični razvoj. V tem obdobju so se člani združenja zavzemali za širjenje osnovnega in ljudskega izobraževanja, za višjo izobrazbo učiteljev. Promovirali so vrtce, večerne in nedeljske šole, deške in dekliške elementarne šole; hkrati pa so pripravili načrte za vzpostavitev novih »običajnih« šol in novih oblik medsebojne pomoči. Po rojstvu italijanske države so se učiteljska združenja množila, zlasti v mestnih središčih, kot so Milano, Neapelj, Rim, Firence, Genova itd. Toda šele v osemdesetih letih 19. stoletja so se začele uveljavljati zgod- nje izkušnje na nacionalnem nivoju. Zlasti so upoštevani nekateri najpomembnejši primeri združenj osnovnošolskih učiteljev v 19. in 20. stoletju, npr. Nacionalno združenje osnovnošolskih učiteljev Italije (Associazione Nazionale fra gli insegnanti elementari d’Italia), ustanovljeno leta 1880, in Nacionalno učiteljsko združenje (Unione Magistrale Nazionale), ki je bilo aktivno od leta 1901 do 1925. 334 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 UDC 378:373.3/.5(075)(439.2)˝18/19˝ 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 26. 3. 2019 András Németh* Die historische Konstruktionsprozesse des Fachwissens von Volksschullehrern in Ungarn am Beispiel der Enzyklopädie des Volksschulunterrichts 1913-1915 Zgodovinski konstrukcijski procesi strokovnega znanja ljudskošolskih učiteljev na Madžarskem na primeru Enciklopedije osnovnošolskega pouka 1913–1915 Izvleček Reforma izobraževanja učiteljev kot del bo- lonjskega procesa visokega šolstva je eno ključnih vprašanj izobraževalnih reform v Evropski uniji danes. Toda ta reforma želi spremeniti zgodovinsko oblikovan koncept usposabljanja učiteljev, ki je sledil vzorcem evropskih trendov oblikovanih med začetkom 19. in sredino 20. stoletja – upoštevajoč časov- ni zamik na različnih območjih. Raziskava sledi postopku institucionalizacije usposabljanja madžarskih učiteljev in njiho- vemu znanju, za katerega je bil značilen prej omenjeni. Ta proces je zbledel pod vplivom na- cionalnih tradicij in srednjeevropskih tendenc. V središču našega raziskovanja sta dve različ- ni vrsti strokovnega znanja (osnovnošolski in srednješolski učitelji) ter vsebina teoretičnega mišljenja, ki se je pojavilo na področjih znano- sti. Naša predstavitev se osredotoča na ta zelo zapleten postopek in analizira učbenike za izobraževanje madžarskih učiteljev ter izobra- ževalne publikacije iz konca 19. in začetka 20. Abstact The reform of teacher’s training as part of the Bologna process of the higher education is one of the key questions of the educational reforms in the European Union today. This reform how- ever aims to transform the historically shaped pattern of teachers’ training model, that fol- lowed the patterns of the European trends that were formed inbetween the beginning of 19th century and the middle of 20th century - with some time-lag of course in the different regions. Our research aims to follow the process of the institutionalization of Hungarian teach- ers’ training and teacher’s knowledge which was characterized by the above mentioned ’dual system’. This process passed off un- der the influence of the national traditions as well as the central European tendencies. In the centre of our research stand the two different professional knowledge-types (el- ementary and secondary school teachers) and also the contents of the theoretical reflection which appeared in the fields of science. Our lecture focuses on this very complex process and analyses the Hungarian teacher’s train- * András Németh, Faculty of Education and Psychology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary; e-mail: nemeth.andras@ppk.elte.hu 335 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations stoletja, tudi Enciklopedijo osnovnošolskega pouka (Az elemi népoktatás enciklopédiája) Ključne besede: osnovnošolski in srednješolski učitelji, izobraževanje, učbeniki, Madžarska Key words: elementary and secondary school teachers, education, textbooks, Hungary 15th Symposium on School Life, part 65. Visit us / obiščite nas – Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37732 1. Einleitung In der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts bilden sich bei den zwei typischen Berufsgruppen (bei den sog. Volksschullehrern und den Lehrern der höheren Schulen) zwei sich organisch und funktionell entwickelnde, aber in zahlreichen wesentlichen Zügen voneinander abweichende Lehrerkulturen und ein eben- solches Fachwissen heraus (vgl. Németh 2002, 2005, 2007). Das ist ein Prozess, der sich in den verschiedenen Regionen Europas mit einer gewissen zeitlichen Verschiebung seit etwa dem Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts bis zur Wende zum 20. Jahrhundert parallel zur Entstehung der modernen Nationalstaaten vollzieht – ein Umbruch mit zahlreichen weiteren Komponenten (die diffizile Dynamik des mik- ro- und makrostrukturellen Wandels inbegriffen), der zur Entwicklung der dualen Bildungssysteme, der verschiedenen Lehrerberufe sowie im Rahmen der ver- schiedenen universitären Wissenschaften zur Herausbildung der pädagogischen Wissenschaft führt. (Heidenreich 1999, Tenort 1999, Wulf 2001, Németh 2012) So betrachtet lässt sich am Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts auch unter den ungarischen Berufsgruppen das Bestreben beobachten, die fachlichen Wissens- inhalte einer Gliederung mit wissenschaftlichem Anspruch zuzuführen, wobei man auch die in der Praxis bestehenden Probleme mit Hilfe der Definitions- kontrolle auf das Niveau der wissenschaftlichen Reflexion anheben und für sie adäquate und verantwortungsvolle (d.h. fachliche und fachgemäße) Antworten formulieren möchte. Unsere Arbeit soll die wichtigeren dynamischen Elemente dieses Selbstreflexionsprozesses vorstellen und analysieren. Dies geschieht un- ter Verwendung des wichtigsten Fachhandbuchs, das den Volksschullehrern zur Jahrhundertwende zur Verfügung stand, der Enzyklopädie des Volksschulunter- richts. ing textbooks and educational publications of the late 19th and early 20th century, including Encyclopaedia of elementary school education (Az elemi népoktatás enciklopédiája). 336 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 2. Die Etablierung des modernen Beruf für Volksschullehrer in Ungarn Die Idee der Vermittlung von Allgemeinbildung, die große Aspiration an die Bildung des gesamten Volkes brachte, in Zusammenhang der Verbreitung der Professionalisationsprozesse der Modernen auch die Etablierung eines päd- agogischen Berufstandes der Volksschule mit sich. Um die Bildung des Volkes zu heben, bedurfte es neben der Durchsetzung der Unterrichtspflicht vor allem bes- serer Schulen mit besser gebildeten Lehrern. Ein ausgebildeter Volksschulehrer orientiert sich an allgemeingültigen beruflichen Prinzipien und nicht auf persön- lichen Beziehungen, Vorlieben, Abneigungen. Seine spezifischen Kompetenzen, seine Leistungsverpflichtungen sind vertraglich genau spezifiziert, seine Autori- tät beschränkt sich auf klar begrenzte Bereiche. Die Entfaltung der Lehrerberuf beziehungsweise die Professionalisierung pädagogischer Berufe haben einen je autonomen Wissenstypus erschaffen, der in der Praxis professioneller Erzieher, wie in Schulen und Erziehungseinrichtungen aus dem Alltag ausdifferenziert wurde und in eigenen Normen und Normen seit der Moderne organisierte Dauer gewonnen hat. Dieses Professionswissen wurde sich in fachlichen Zeitschriften, Handbüchern und Monographien organisiert, in denen die Lehrprofession ihre Erfahrungen dokumentiert und überliefern hat. (Tenorth 1992, 360) Nach dem Ausgleich 1867 hat die grundlegende Neuordnung des Volks- schulwesen sowohl in Ungarn als auch in Österreich eine hohe Priorität. In 1868 verabschiedet die ungarische Regierung ein neues Volksschulgesetz (GA 38/1868), das erstmals die allgemeine Schulpflicht für sechs- bis zwölfjähri- ge Kinder, die sich an eine dreijährige Wiederholungsschule anschloss. Neben der sechs klassigen Volksschule wurden auch die Höhere Volksschule und die Bürgerschule als weiterführende Schulen eingeführt. In den letzten Jahren des vorigen Jahrhunderts verbreiteten sich aufgrund der rapiden Institutionalisie- rung des modernen dualen Schulwesens die sechsklassigen Volksschulen. Die Anzahl der Schulen wuchs zwischen 1869 und 1914 von 14.000 auf 17.000, die Zahl der Lehrer von 18.000 auf 34.000, die Zahl der Schüler von 729.000 auf mehr als zwei Millionen. Diese dynamische Tendenz beweist, dass 50% der schulpflich- tigen Kinder zwischen 6 und 12 Jahren die Schule besucht haben, im Jahre 1890 stieg die Rate auf 81%, im Jahre 1913 auf 85% (Romsics 2000, 39.) Mit dem Volksschulgesetz von 1868 haben die Volksschullehrer ihre Ausbil- dung in Ungarn im niederen System selbst erhalten. Die Tradition der früheren ungarischen Lehrerausbildung wurde von der drei-, dann vier- (1881-1920), bzw. fünfjährigen (1923-1948) Lehrerausbildungs-Fachschule weiter getragen, die sich dank dem Volksbildungsgesetzes zu entwickeln begann. In den kommen- den Jahrzehnten befestigte sich diese Art der Ausbildung, wodurch die Form der Bildung der bürgerliche Ansprüche erfüllenden gebildeten intellektuellen Hand- werker, der Volksschullehrer(innen) geschafft wurde, die ihre Absolventen zur entsprechenden Bildung und Erziehung des Kindes, sowie in den kleineren Sied- lungen auch zur Erfüllung der Aufgaben der Volkserziehung befähigte. (Németh 2012) 337 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations 3. Die Konstruktion des modernen Fachwissens für Volksschullehrer In der Enzyklopädie des Volksschulunterrichts des sich emanzipierenden un- garischen Volksschulberufs offenbaren sich die neue pädagogischen Kenntnisse, die auf die oben beschriebenen Aufgaben reflektieren. Auf ihren Seiten des Bu- ches entfaltet sich das besondere Universum der Volksschullehrer, das gemäß den Anforderungen der Modernisierung in vollem Einklang mit der pädagogischen Auffassung konstruiert wurde. Im Mittelpunkt stehen die erziehungsbedürftigen Schüler in den ungarischen Volksschulen, sowie durch sie die Notwendigkeit und die Aufgaben bei der Bildung und Erziehung der unteren Gesellschaftsschichten, des Volkes. Gemäß der im Werk auffindbaren beruflichen Selbstinterpretation benötigt man zur erfolgreichen Erziehung und Bildung dieser Schichten solche gut ausgebildeten Fachkräfte, Volksschulspezialisten, die mit neuen Fachkennt- nissen ihre Arbeit mit sicherer Hand verrichten. (Körösi/Szabó 1911) In diesem Prozess der Wissenskonstruktion ist es eine wichtige Aufga- be, zu bestimmen, was akzeptabel, richtig oder nicht richtig aus Hinsicht der richtigen Entwicklung sei. Was die zu unterstützenden Inhalte der kindlichen Entwicklung darstelle und was die zu meidenden, also negativ beeinflussenden, gefährlichen Elemente seien, was die Risikoquellen seien, auf die die Lehrer auf- passen sollen, beziehungsweise, denen der Lehrer bei seiner Arbeit ausweichen soll. Die pädagogische Enzyklopädie versucht zu diesen neuen Aufgaben der Mo- derne in Ungarn auch im Detail die verschiedenen praktischen ausländischen Reforminitiativen der Epoche vorzustellen. Zur Deutung dieser Begriffe formulierten die zeitgenössischen pädago- gischen Bewegungen zahlreiche Grundprinzipien, die auch die Experten der ungarischen Volksschule unterstützten. Von diesen ist der sog. hygienische Dis- kurs der bedeutendste. Die jüngeren analytischen Werke behaupten, dass der hygienische Diskurs, dessen Munition aus dem darwinistischen Welt- und Men- schenbild stammt, auch im Zentrum der pädagogischen Diskussion der Epoche stehe. Die Hygiene war eines der Zauberworte der Epoche mit einer bewegten Geschichte. Die moderne Hygiene seit der Aufklärung war ein Wissen, das das Verhältnis des Menschen zu den materiellen Bedingungen seiner physischen Existenz beschrieb und das Individuen und gesellschaftliche Handlungsträger dazu anleitete, diese Bedingungen zu regulieren. Sie war also ein riesiges Feld von Wissen, Praktiken und Technologien. Die Hygieniker des 19. Jahrhunderts strukturierten ihren Wissensraum so weiträumig, dass darin alle Umweltfakto- ren als mögliche Ursachen von Gesundheit und Krankheit erscheinen konnten. Die andere neue Leitidee ist die Normalität, die sich auch im 19. Jahrhundert durchsetzt – diffundiert auch in die verschiedenen Gesellschaftsbereiche. (Sa- rasin-Tanner 1998, 20, Sarasin 2001, 17.) Der zentrale Begriff auch für die Schulhygienebewegung ist die Normalität (Normalhaltung, Normalschrift, Normalkleider, Normalwäsche, Schulhaus- normalbauten und -bestuhlung). Normalität bedeutet immer stärker eine vorschreibende Norm und gemessenen Durchschnitt, die auch experimentell 338 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 untersucht werden kann. Die ersten Untersuchungen der geistigen Leistungs- fähigkeit, der Aufmerksamkeit, des Gedächtnisses bildeten eine Brücke zu Vermessungsmethoden der experimentellen Pädagogik am Anfang des 20. Jahr- hunderts. Von der Schulhygienediskussion gingen auch wichtige Impulse für die Entstehung von Sonder- und Behindertenpädagogik sowie für den Jugendschutz aus. Später bezog die Bewegung auch mehrere soziale Aspekte mit ein, wenn sie sich mit moralischer Gesundheit und Verwahrlosung befasste. Somit gab es einen engen Zusammenhang zwischen Schulhygiene und der neu entstehen- den sozialen Bewegung in dem Anliegen, die Lebensbedingungen der unteren Schichten, der Kinder und der Jugendlichen, zu verbessern. (Vgl. Kost 1983, 169, Stoß 1998, 2000, Freyer 1998, Oelkers 1989, 249, Hopf 2004, 27-29) In der ungarischen Enzyklopädie finden sich mehr als achtzig Stichworte, die die starke Rezeption der verschiedenen Richtungen der Schulhygienebewegung zeigen. So befasste sie sich mit der Beschaffenheit, Lage, Größe und Ausstattung der Schule und Klassenzimmer, Temperatur, Belüftung, Reinigung der Räume, mit Form und Größe der Schulbänke, Fragen der Körperhaltung, der Einrichtung von Erholungsplätzen, der Ausstattung der sanitären Einrichtungen. Im Zusam- menhang damit beschäftigen sich mehrere Stichwörter der Fachenzyklopädie mit den „körperlichen“ Gefahren der Kinder: die infektiösen Krankheiten, die Epidemien und deren Vorbeugung durch die entsprechende Durchlüftung des Klassenzimmers, die körperliche Hygiene, und durch das Schulbad. Die andere Gefahr, die die körperliche Gesundheit des Kindes gefährdet, ist die falsche Kör- perhaltung, dann deren Korrektur durch die entsprechende Körperbewegung. Ein ganzes Kapitel beschäftigt sich mit der Schwindsucht, mit einer der grundle- genden Gefahren des Zeitalters, und mit deren Heilung und der Vorbeugung in der Schule. Die neu entstandenen, speziellen Aufgabenbereiche der Volksschullehrer sind der Kampf mit diesen körperlichen Gefahren sowie das Gesundheitswesen an den Schulen (Krankheiten der Schüler und der Lehrer, Gesundheitswesen an den Schulen, die äußeren Eigenschaften eines gesunden Kindes, Gesundheits- zustand der Schüler: Körperwachstum, Rückgratverkrümmungen, Hör- und Sehfähigkeit, Blutarmut usw.). Die Schule, als eine auf eine besondere Weise konstruierte pädagogische Stätte, beschäftigt sich vor allem mit praktischen Fragen, wie der Ausstattung der Schule (das Schulgebäude, Möbel und andere Einrichtungsgegenstände, der Garten der Schule, der botanische Garten oder das Aquarium, der Schulhof). Der zweite Wirkungsfaktor der Epoche, in der Enzyklopädie auch stark rezipiert, war die Rassenhygiene beziehungsweise die Eugenik, die sozialbio- logische bevölkerungs- und gesellschaftspolitische Lehre von der „genetischen Verbesserung“ des Menschen. Sie entstand in den letzten beiden Jahrzehnten des 19. Jahrhunderts. In diesen Zeitraum der Entstehung und Formierung der Eugenik als wissenschaftliche Lehre und sozialpolitische Bewegung fielen auch die Anfänge jenes Transformations- und Modernisierungsprozesses, in dessen Verlauf die alte Armenpflege des 19. Jahrhunderts zur sozialen Fürsorge und 339 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Wohlfahrtspflege umgestaltet wurde. Die Eugenik als Lehre und Programm von der „genetischen Verbesserung“ des Menschen und der Gesellschaft stand in einer Konkurrenzstellung zu dem modernen Programm einer erzieherischen und sozialfürsorglichen Verbesserung des Menschen. (Vgl. Reger 1991, S. 9) Aus rassenhygienischer Annäherung erscheinen in dem Buch die verschiedenen ge- sellschaftlichen Risiken beziehungsweise Gefahrenelemente, wie das arme Kind oder das arbeitende Kind. Die anderen Elemente, die das Kind gefährden, sind die Stichwörter Alkoholismus – Kinder in der Kneipe, weiters das Rauchen und das rauchende Kind, die morale Imbezilität, später das kriminelle Kind. Zahlrei- che weitere Stichwörter beschäftigen sich mit den verschiedenen Methoden der Abwehr dieser Gefahren, die die Rolle des Volksschullehrers in diesem Tätig- keitsbereich betonen: Der Horizont der empfohlenen Therapie – wie darauf auch mehrere Stichwörter hindeuten – verläuft von der Elternversammlung über den Kirchenbesuch bis zur Patronage, beziehungsweise bis zur sexuellen Erziehung. Die Aufgaben des Volksschullehrers werden in den beiden Stichwörtern die so- zialen Aufgaben der Lehrer und der gesellschaftliche Kindesschutz beschrieben. Zum wirkungsvollen Kampf des Experten der Volksschule gegen die ver- schiedenen Gefahrenelemente der kindlichen Entwicklung, zum erwünschten Einfluss auf die kindlichen Äußerungen braucht er wissenschaftlich begründete Kenntnisse über das Kind. Die verschiedenen Bewegungen der Epoche spiel- ten eine wichtige Rolle darin, dass der Beruf von Volksschullehrern szientifisch gegründet wurde. Sie versuchten das Wissen der Volksschullehrer der Epoche zu erneuern, alte Stützen pädagogischer Argumente gegen neue und moder- ne, richtige auszutauschen. Die gesuchte neue Instanz war nach der Medizin und der Schulhygienebewegung um 1900 die empirische Psychologie sowie die Körösi László és Szabó László (Hrsg., 1911-15): Az elemi népoktatás enciklopédiája. I. kötet. (Enzyklopädie des Volksschulunterrichts / Encyclopedia of elementary school education). Budapest: Franklin. (https://www.antikvarium.hu) 340 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 psychologische Kinder- und Jugendforschung. Neben den Stichwörtern der Schulhygienebewegung bildeten jene die zweitgrößte Stichwortgruppe der En- zyklopädie (ca. 60 Stichwörter), die die Rezeptionen der verschiedenen Bereiche der Kinderforschung und der experimentellen Psychologie beziehungsweise von Meumanns und Lays experimenteller Pädagogik zeigten. Hinsichtlich der Wirkung der antimodernen Reformbewegungen der Zeit, vor allem der Lebensreform, verbreitete sich im Kreise der Volksschullehrer die Auffassung, dass die inadäquate Tätigkeit der Schule selbst die gesunde kindliche Entwicklung gefährde und eine der wichtigen Aufgaben der Volksschullehrer die Rettung des Kindes sei. So spielte auch die reformpädagogische Semantik im Be- rufswissen der modernen Volksschullehrer eine wichtige Rolle. Aus der Kritik des Herbartianismus und nach dem Durchgang durch die experimentelle Pädagogik hat das pädagogische Wissen der Volksschullehrer im reformpädagogischen Ge- danken schließlich zu seiner modernen und legitimen Gestalt gefunden. Diese Semantik brachte neue Zauberworte. Das Eigenrecht des Kindes wurde das neue regulative Prinzip und zur Basis des professionellen Ethos. Der pädagogische Be- zug als sozialer Ort kann diesem Eigenrecht zur Verwirklichung verhelfen. Diese Prinzipien helfen bei der Rettung der Kinder mit Hilfe der Minimierung der Risi- kofaktoren inner- und außerhalb der Schule. (Vgl. Tenorth 1999, 369-370.) In diesem Kontext betrachtet erscheinen in der Arbeit zahlreiche weitere Stichwörter, die von der Wirkung der frühen Reformpädagogik und der Lebensre- form zeugen. Die pädagogische Enzyklopädie versucht zu diesen neuen Aufgaben der Moderne in Ungarn auch im Detail die verschiedenen praktischen ausländi- schen und ungarischen Reforminitiativen vorzustellen. Sie gibt einen Überblick über die verschiedenen Reformschulen jener Zeit, vor allem der englischen „New School“-Bewegung, und die daraufhin entstehenden nationalen pädago- gischen Reformtrends und die neuen methodischen Ideen (Abbotsholme, Ecole des Roches, Landerziehungsheim, Reformschule, Parker-Schule, Arbeitsschule, Waldschule, Pfadfinder). (Németh 2002) Zu den „pädagogischen Helden“ der ungarischen Volksschullehrer, die die neue pädagogische Identität legitimieren, kommen neue Helden, die die positivistische Wissenschaftsauffassung und die Weltbetrachtungsweise sowie das Lebensgefühl der Epoche ausdrücken und die gleichzeitig auch die „neue Erziehung“ repräsentieren. Sie sind Repräsentanten der experimentellen Wissenschaftlichkeit, beziehungsweise emblematische Fi- guren der Gesellschafts- und Lebensreformen, sowie der Kunstrichtungen und pädagogischen Tendenzen der Epoche (Comte, Bain, Spencer, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Ruskin, Ibsen, Tolstoi, Ellen Key, Otto, Dewey), sowie Repräsentanten der experimentellen Psychologie und Pädagogik (Ebbinghaus, Wundt, Meu- mann, Lay), der Kinderstudien beziehungsweise der Kinderpsychologie (Binet, Claparède, Groos, Sikorsky, Gaupp). Diese neuen Helden bereiten das Jahrhun- dert des Kindes vor, die glückliche Kindheit. Sie zeigen sichere Methoden auch für die Rettung des Kindes auf. Eine bessere Kenntnis des Kindes sollte es er- möglichen, Schule und Erziehung kindgerecht zu gestalten und damit auch die Risiken und Gefahrenelemente in der Kindheit minimieren zu können. 341 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Literatur Heidenreich, M. (1999): Berufkonstruktion und Professionalisierung. Erträge der soziolo- gischen Forschung. In: Apel, H-J. et. al. (Hrsg): Professionalisierung pädagogischer Berufe im historischen Prozeß. Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt, pp. 35-58. Hopf, C. (2004): Die experimentelle Pädagogik. Empirische Erziehungswissenschaft in Deutschland am Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts. Bad Heilbrunn, Klinkhardt. Kost, F. (1983): Die „Normalisierung“ der Schule. Zur Schulhygienebewegung in der zwei- ten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 30. 1., pp. 769-782. Körösi László és Szabó László (Hrsg., 1911): Az elemi népoktatás enciklopédiája. I. kötet. Budapest: Franklin. Németh A. (2002): A magyar neveléstudomány fejlődéstörténete. Budapest: Osiris Kiadó. Németh A. (2005): A magyar pedagógus professzió kialakulásának előtörténete a 18. száz- adban és a 19. század első felében. Pedagógusképzés, 3. 2., pp. 7-32. Németh A. (2007): A modern középiskolai tanári és tanítói szakmai tudástartalmak ki- bontakozásának történeti folyamatai. Pedagógusképzés, 5. 1-2. 5-26. Németh A. (2012): Magyar pedagógusképzés és pedagógus szakmai tudásformák I. 1775– 1945. Budapest: ELTE Eötvös Kiadó. Oelkers, J. (1998): Psychologie, Pädagogik und Schulreform im 19. Jahrhundert. In: Sa- rasin P. és Tanner J. (Hrsg.): Physiologie und industrielle Gesellschaft. Studien zur Verwissenschaftlichung des Körpers im 19 und 20. Jahrhundert. Frankfurt am Main: Surkamp, pp. 245-285. Reyer, J. (1991): Alte Eugenik und Wohlfahrtspflege. Entwertung und Funktionalisierung der Fürsorge vom Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zur Gegenwart. Freiburg. Romsics I. (2000): Magyarország története a XX. században. Budapest: Osiris. Sarasin, P. (2001): Reizbare Maschinen. Eine Geschichte des Körpers 1765-1914. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. Sarazin, P. / Tanner, J. (Hrsg. 1998): Physiologie und industrielle Gesellschaft. Studien zur Verwissenschftlichung des Körpers im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. Stoß, A. M. (1998): Zwischen Emphase, Kritik und Methodenbewusstsein: Schulhygiene, Medizin und wissenschaftliche Pädagogik im deutschen Kaiserreich. Paedagogica Historica. International journal of the history of education. Suppl. Series Vol. III, Gent, pp. 561-581. Stoß, A. M. (2000): Pädagogik und Medizin. Ihre Beziehungen in „Gesundheitserziehung“ und wissenschaftlicher Pädagogik 1779-1933. Weinheim: Beltz. Tenorth, H.-E. (1992): Verbesserung des Argumentierens in der Pädagogik durch Ar- gumentationsanalysen. In: Paschen, H. és Wigger, L. (szerk.): Pädagogisches Argumentieren. Weinheim: Beltz, pp. 357-375. Tenorth, H.-E. (1999): Der Beitrag der Erziehungswissenschaft zur Professionalisierung pädagogischer Berufe. In: Apel, H. u.a. (szerk.): Professionalisierung pädagogischer Berufe im historischen Prozeß. Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt, pp. 429-461. Wulf C. (2001): Einführung in die Anthropologie der Erziehung. Weinheim-Basel, Beltz. 342 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Zusammenfassung Die historische Konstruktionsprozesse des Fachwissens von Volksschullehrern in Ungarn am Beispiel der Enzyklopädie des Volksschulunterrichts 1913-1915 András Németh Auf Grund unserer Analysen kann man resümieren, dass die Enzyklopädie des Volks- schulunterrichts vom Zustandekommen der neuen Betrachtung des Wissens der ungarischen Volksschullehrer eine bedeutende Schöpfung auf dem Wege zum autonomen Fachwissen ist. Das in der Enzyklopädie formulierte, in den Anfängen des 20. Jahrhunderts zustande gekom- mene, das Fachgerechte betonende, dem neuen fachlichen Etalon entsprechenden Fachwissen der Volksschullehrer, besteht anscheinend manchmal aus sich gegenüberstehenden Elementen. Solche, die moderne Wissenschaftlichkeit begründenden Strömungen und Bewegungen der positivistischen Orientierung sind darin beschrieben, wie die Bemühungen des hygienischen Dis- kurses, weiterhin die Ergebnisse der experimentalen Pädagogik und der Kinderstudien. Daneben erscheinen darin mit starker gesellschaftskritischer Schärfe formulierte rhetorische Elemente der scheinbar gegenüberstehenden Ideologie der Lebensreform und der Reformpädagogik. Diese zeitgenössischen Bemühungen bilden zusammen die Grundlage der ideologischen Elemente des neuen Volksschullehrerwissens, deren ethische Erwartungen und deren Kompetenzinhalt. In diesem Wissenskonstruktions-Prozess enthält der Gedanke von der allgemeinen Gül- tigkeit der Rettung der Lebensreform einen starken normativen Inhalt, der hier eine starke pädagogische Orientierung gewinnend, als Metaphorik der Rettung des Kindes erscheint. Sein Hauptfunktion ist die Sicherung des ideologischen Hintergrundes einer solchen erwünschten fachgerechten pädagogischen Arbeit, die eine positive emotionelle Ladung hat. Sie steht mit der notwendigen neuen Wissenschaftlichkeit zur Gründung der sachgemäßen Arbeit, mit den Kinderstudien, die auf die empirischen Messungen – Bewertungen (Leistungs- Aufmerksam- keits- und Erinnerungsuntersuchungen) aufgebaut werden, bzw. auch mit den empirischen Prinzipen der Pädagogik in enger Verbindung. Der im 19. Jahrhundert aufkommender Diskurs über die Hygiene und damit im Zusammenhang über die Wichtigkeit des gesunden menschli- chen Körpers beeinflusste aus zwei Richtungen die Prozesse der Lehrerwissenskonstruktionen. Einerseits erscheint darin in impliziter Weise das Grundbedürfnis für die wirksame Arbeits- leistung der modernen europäischen Arbeitsgesellschaft, das den beherrschten menschlichen Körper bzw. die körperliche und die seelische Gesundheit betont. Die Schule hat im Prozess der Institutionalisierung – anhand der Entwicklung des Gesundheitswesens – den körperlichen und seelischen Bezug des Kinderschutzes gleichermaßen verstärkend, die Versorgung des gesund- heitlichen und moralischen Schutzes der Schüler als Aufgabe der Schule gestellt. Laut der Selbstdefinition der Enzyklopädie ist der Fachmann der Volksschule die Schlüs- selfigur der Verwirklichung der erwarteten Aufgaben, die in dem fachlichen Diskurs von vorher beschrieben wurden. Die zu der Zeit sich herausgebildeten ideologischen und ethischen Motive des neuen fachlichen Wissens werden von dem Rettungsmotiv gesichert, das von den verschie- denen pädagogischen Reformbewegungen reflektiert wird und auf die rhetorischen Elemente der Lebensreform zurückgeführt werden kann. Die Voraussetzung vom Ergebnis der Kinder- rettung ist nicht nur die Berufung, sondern die wahre Kenntnis des Kindes, deren Wissens- und Kompetenzelemente wissenschaftlich begründet sind und deren Hintergrund von der empirisch grundierten Psychologie und Pädagogik bzw. von den Kinderstudien gesichert wird. 343 UDC 159.922.7:061.2:37.011.3-051(497.11)˝1907/1910˝ 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 30. 3. 2019 Ljiljana Stankov* The contribution of male and female teachers to the foundation of empirical pedagogy in Serbia, with reference to Serbian association for child psychology (Srpsko društvo za dečju psihologiju) Prispevek učiteljev in učiteljic k empirični pedagogiki v Srbiji na primeru Srbskega društva za otroško psihologijo Izvleček Na pobudo 16. generacije maturantov Moške- ga učiteljišča, ob 15. obletnici njihove mature 1906, so leta 1907 v Beogradu ustanovili Srb- sko društvo za otroško psihologijo. Društvo je zbralo nad petsto članov, največ učiteljev in profesorjev. Pričelo je izdajati svoje glasilo – „Glasnik Srpskog društva za dečju psihologi- ju“. Društvo je pripravilo tri srečanja, en tečaj s področja otroške psihologije in opravilo 22 raziskav, s katerimi so preučevali različna področja otrokovega razvoja. Prav tako so učiteljem omogočali strokovno usposabljanje na področju otroške psihologije. V Vranju so odprli manjši laboratorij z moderno opremo iz tovarne Zimmerman v Leipzigu. Po letu 1910 je društvo prenehalo delovati, predvsem zaradi pomanjkanja denarja, saj niso imeli za- dostne podpore državnih prosvetnih oblasti. Abstract At the initiative of the 16th generation of grad- uated students of the Male Teacher Training College, on the 15th anniversary of their gradu- ation in 1906, the Serbian Association for Child Psychology was founded in Belgrade in 1907. The Association assembled more than 500 members, who were mostly teach- ers and professors. They published their own journal – „Glasnik Srpskog društva za dečju psihologiju“ / „The Herald of the Association for Child Psychology“. The Association or- ganized three meetings, one course from the field of child psychology, 22 surveys to study different issues of child development. They also had ambition to offer teachers a profes- sional training in the field of child psychology. A small laboratory was open in Vranje, with the most modern equipment ordered from the Zimmerman’s factory in Leipzig. After 1910 the Association stopped its activities due to lack of money for professional activities, since the state authorities did not offer adequate support. * Ljiljana Stankov, PhD, College of Professional Studies for Kindergarten Teachers, Šabac, Serbia; e-mail: ljiljanastankov@yahoo.com 344 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Ključne besede: društvo za otroško psihologijo, učiteljstvo, Srbija, 1907-1910 Key words: association for child psychology, teachers, Serbia, 1907-1910 15th Symposium on School Life, part 38. Visit us / obiščite nas – Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37688 Introduction The sixteenth generation of students from the First Male Teacher Training College in the Kingdom of Serbia graduated in 1893. On the 15th anniversary of their graduation, in 1906, they decided to found the Serbian Association for Child Psychology.1 They were inspired by two reasons: the first one was their need to improve their position in the society, since they were not allowed to continue their education at the University of Belgrade (the grammar schools were the only preparatory schools for studying). Teachers demanded that the state authorities recognize their work, as one of national significance, since they had great impact on the development of future generations. The second reason was their need to keep pace with the development of modern experimental pedagogy, which was in progress in Europe at that time. Since the state authorities did not recognize their needs for professional development, teachers realized they had to do it by them- selves. The experimental pedagogy was under the great influence of psychology, which introduced the scientific view on child development. That was the reason why teachers wanted to develop their own methodology of research. The Foundation of the Serbian Association for Child Psychology Their constituent assembly was held in Belgrade on August 4th, 1907. The Board of teachers was chosen.2 Already in the first assembly the number of mem- bers increased from 60 founder members to 200 regular members. The rules of the Association regulated that they would deal with the research of children’s physical and psychological development and the improvement of the methods of youth care and education. The aim of the Association was not to deal only with the theory of psychology, but with practice as well and in this way they wanted to develop the science of psychology and empirical pedagogy in Serbia. Anyone could become a member, regardless sex, occupation or age, as well as every insti- tution – schools, associations and others. 1 The proposal was given by a teacher Sima M. Jevrić who then became the secretary of the As- sociation and editor of Glasnik / The Herald. 2 The first chairman of the Association was Sreten Pašić, the headteacher of the Female Hig- her School in Belgrade. A well-known Croatian pedagogue Davorin Trstenjak was an honorary member of the Board (1909-10). 345 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Organizing the Association marked the first year of its work. In a very short time, the Association assembled more than 500 members, who were mostly teach- ers and professors. They launched their own journal Glasnik Srpskog društva za dečju psihologiju / The Herald of the Association for Child Psychology,3 which was always printed in 1,000 copies so that potential members would become in- terested. The first attempt of short methodological work was Sima Jevric’s article Teacher’s Role in the Study of Children with Brief Instructions on First Observa- tions, which had been duplicated before the launching of The Herald and sent to the founder members. Finding support for his attitude in the opinion of Stanley Hall PhD that teachers and parents had the most abilities to observe children, it was believed that the lack of psychological knowledge would be compensated if there were sympathies and interest in this work. He also defined some peda- gogical problems, such as: the detection of child’s ideals, the children’s choice of future profession, children’s play and toys, the origins of children’s fears and lies. For each of the problems mentioned there was a professional reference book listed. Based on these proposals, the first works were written: On the Feeling of Fear (Vlad. Nikolić, Milica Jakovljević and Rista Cvetković), On Children’s Ideals (Milica Jakovljević).In their journal Glasnik The Herald teachers published the translations of the works of famous European psychologists, also their original works, and, above all, the reports of their surveys. The journal also informed them about a lot of interesting information in the field of experimental pedagogy and psychology from all over the world. They could even read about research from Japan. However, their best inspirational models were Stanley Hall, Ernst Maumann, Edouard Claperede and Alfred Binet. Course in Experimental Pedagogy In the first phase of its life, the Association organized a course in Belgrade, with the aim to introduce the method of experimental research to teachers. The course was attended by 143 male and female teachers. Paja Radosavljevic, PhD, a well-known Serbian pedagogue, was invited to be a main lecturer. At the be- ginning of the 20th century he had organized an experimental laboratory at the Serbian Teacher Training College in Sombor.4 Soon after that he left Europe and moved to the United States where he worked as associate professor at the Uni- versity of New York. Serbian teachers respected him very much. He was ready to travel across the Atlantic only to teach them about experimental research. Before visiting Belgrade, he also gave 15 lectures for teachers in Zagreb (which belonged to Austria-Hungary at that time). 3 Glasnik - The Herald, the journal of the Serbian Association for Child Psychology, 1907-08 (volumes 1-6) and 1909-10 (volumes 1-5). 4 At that time Sombor was in Austro-Hungary. In the same school there was a psychology and pedagogy laboratory even in 1910, although modest, in which the head Bozidar Bordjoski mea- sured pupils’ tiredness using Collin’s dynamometer in order to define the most suitable teach- ing time. (Jevrić 1924, p. 43). 346 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 The theoretical part of the course was organized in the primary school which was located in the area close to the Sava River. At that time, it was the newest and the biggest school in Belgrade. An experimental part of the course was organized in another school in the district of Terazije. For that occasion a class of pupils from that school of both sexes and different ages was formed. An anthropometer, dynamometer and other smaller devices were used. The classes were illustrated with pictures and drawings. Paja Radosavljević also proposed additional topics: the anthropometric measurements, the circle of thoughts, the observation of children’s tiredness during the process of learning, the developing of the methodology of reading, writing and reckoning. This course had a powerful response among teachers and it was written about not only in Glasnik The Herald, but also in other magazines published by teachers. Paja Radosavljević, PhD, agreed to give series of lectures without any payment, which was positively viewed in teacher circles, particularly because it was common knowledge that ‘Serbian intellectuals do not share their knowledge for free’. 5 Many articles, translations and original local works on the significance of sys- tematic observation of children were published. In his articles Paja Radosavljević PhD, a student of Maumann, introduced readers to the latest achievements in this field in Germany and the USA. His Diary for the Observation of Children was published in the second year of the magazine’s operation. It was a manual for teachers on how to observe pupils’ physical, spiritual and moral life. Glasnik The Herald reported on all of the more important activities initiated by similar associations in other countries. The journal’s editorial staff published translations from foreign magazines, striving to make it possible for local readers to follow events in science and, by comparing themselves to others, to develop Serbian pedagogy according to general tendencies. Even though it was noticed that collective research of a larger number of children should be conducted in order to determine psychological types, it was still not possible to work in that direction due to the lack of qualified staff who would be in charge of certain sec- tions. Therefore, the choice of problems to be observed and division of tasks were carried out after teachers had been educated in the Course. Ernst Maumann PhD, in 1908 sent a letter to the Association, which was published in Glasnik The Herald. He supported the work of Serbian teachers in the field of experimental pedagogy and recommended, as an honorary member, working on a certain number of problems and questions that could be dealt with simple methods and instruments, like the development of children`s memory 5 Anonymous. This year’s course of the Association of Child Psychology, column Notes, Our School Voice of the Mlava Teacher’s Association, 1908-09, 1, p. 25. 347 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations and spontaneous children`s interests from age 5 to 18. Further research could observe and compare the increasing and decreasing of working skills of children of both sexes during a school year and throughout childhood. He offered his help in the future and recommended the instruments from Zimmermann`s factory in Leipzig for their experiments. Jovan Miodragović, a pedagogue- whose involvement in the work of the As- sociation was welcomed by a great number of member-teachers, wrote about the relationship between general and child psychology in Glasnik The Herald. He thought that the observation of children should not be limited only to one pe- riod but that we should bear in mind the continuity of child development. At that time he was preparing his book National Pedagogy Among Serbs - or How Serbian People Raise Their Offspring (published in 1914). In it he dealt with family upbringing, comparing it to modern pedagogical principles of upbringing. Тhе Association even founded a board for studying the history of child psychology in Serbia. The head of that board was Jovan Miodragović. Journal Glasnik Srpskog društva za dečju psihologiju / The Herald of the Association for Child Psychology, 1907-1910. (https://www.kucazasunce.com, accessed 15.10. 2019) Sima M. Jevrić: Osnovi dečje psihologije i eksperimentalne psihologike za nastavnike, roditelje i prijatelje omladine. [Essentials of child psychology and experimental pedagogy for teachers, parents and friends of the young], Beograd 1924. (https://www.kucazasunce.com, accessed 15.10. 2019) Paja Radosavljević: Nacrti grana psihološke nauke. 1. Nacrt opšte psihologije za učitelje [Outline branches of psychological science. 1. Draft for General Psychology for Teachers], Novi Sad 1908. (https://www.kupindo.com/Antikvarne- knjige, accessed 15.10. 2019) 348 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Keeping in mind that younger teachers, both male and female, had to take a practical exam, the Association assigned the editorial staff of Glasnik The Her- ald to publish theses drafts with the review of foreign references in order to help those who prepared for the practical teacher exam. The Organization of Empiric Research In the second assembly 17 surveys were created and then there was a pause in the work of the Association and the publishing of Glasnik The Herald due to the delay in the organization of new surveys. The Board felt they should begin with the new school year. With the aim of a systematic observation of the Serbian child, and based on Sima Jevric’s lectures in the second annual assembly, On Methods of Psycho- logical Research, a total of 25 surveys were proposed,6 including: On Individual Observation of Children, On the Development of Children’s Language During Pri- mary School, exercises for observing primary school pupils conducted in the Male Teacher Training Schools in Aleksinac and Jagodina and the Female Teacher Train- ing Schools in Belgrade and Kragujevac,7 Experiments on Observing Grammar School Pupils, Children’s Inquiries, On Children’s Reading, Drawing, Anthropo- metric Measurements of Pupils, Testing Children’s Reading Skills, Apprehension of Numbers and Arithmetic in Primary School, Motoric Exercises,8 Children’s An- swers, First Childhood Memories, On the Economy of Shoolwork and Homework, Testing Learning Skills,9 Testing and Determination of Psychological Types, Chil- dren’s Ideals, Оn Memory, Testing Children’s Concepts. The survey Anthropometric Measurements of Pupils required equipment ordered from Zimmermann`s factory in Leipzig, as Maumann suggested. The head of this survey was Mihailo A. Stefanović, a teacher form Vranje (Southern Serbia). Since he had been appointed acting managing school supervisor for 6 Some of these survey could not be conducted, of which readers were informed afterwards: The Analysis of Children’s Circle of Thoughts when Enrolling in Primary School, under authority of Dimitrije Stojanović, a teacher. Surveys: Moral Development in Early Childhood and Early Edu- cation, by Vojislav Mladenović a teacher (at that time); later PhD in pedagogy and Children’s First Geography Concepts at Preschool and School age, by Vladimir Vemić, a teacher, could not be carried out because there were not enough members interested. However, both topics were covered afterwards and they were proposed for the holding of the third annual assembly. 7 It refers to four different surveys conducted in four teacher training schools which existed in the Kingdom of Serbia at that time. Male and female students carried out those exercises during their mandatory training. 8 Jovan Milijević was in charge of this research. He spent one year (1897-98) in Sweden in order to receive training in the well-known system of ‘Swedish gymnastics’ which was introduced in schools in the Kingdom of Serbia after that. Milijević then worked at The Male Teacher School in Jagodina. 9 Hristina Simićeva, a teacher in a village called Boljkovci neat Gornji Milanovac (Central Serbia), was in charge of this research. She was the only female head of research. 349 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations several districts of Vranje county, Stefanovic managed to obtain eight devices: stethom- eters, cephalometers, dynamometers and other necessary devices. Due to his persis- tence, a small laboratory was opened there, although that county was one of the poorest in the country. The surveys were organized in several phases. In the first phase, the head of re- search had a task to study a certain topic, read literature and propose the ways of the realization of a survey. The emphasis was on prompt implementation of new methods in the work with children. Since they could not get a detailed insight into child psychology before, but alongside conducted research, the tendency was to compare the results with the ones obtained in the world. In the third regular session of the as- sembly, a total of 11 papers were read, among which: On the Need for Pedagogy Laboratory in our Country, Moral Development in Early Childhood, Anthropometric Measurements with the Observations from Vranje County, Childhood Memories. The Association had intention to organize teacher training courses, cours- es for learning foreign languages and to found a laboratory for experimental psychology and pedagogy according to the similar laboratories in Antwerpen, Petrograd, Budapest, Zürich and Milan. They also had intention to send some teachers abroad in order to gain experience. However, even lectures in the provinces could not be held because reduced fares could not be obtained, and the Association itself could not defray the ex- penses. Preparations for the Exhibition on Child Development The Association was preparing to hold its first exhibition in August 1910. A Board was chosen to design the layout of the exhibition.10 The plan was to show diverse material which attested development within three stages (age) – pre- school period, school period and post-school period, until the age of 15 inclusive. so that all the levels and types of institutions would be covered. 10 The Board consisted of two teachers and one preschool teacher. Paja Radosavljević, PhD (1879-1958) 350 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 The preschool period was supposed to be presented within two units: a child at home and a child in a playground and other places, including sports too: swimming, sliding and ice skating. The participation of few Belgrade kindergar- tens was announced. There was a growing interest in this type of institutions in other parts of Serbia as well, so the exhibition was an opportunity to show didac- tic means, as well as children’s works. It was planned that the exhibition objects, for the preschool period, con- sisted of: photographs of different moments during play and affective states: laughter, crying, anger, fear, indifference; types of movement: crawling, standing up, toddling sleeping; different face expressions: sweetness, sourness, bitterness, insipidness as well as photographs made during various children behaviour to- wards parents and other members of household, animals, plants and objects; gramophone records used to record cooing, laughter, crying, first words, with older children singing songs as well, and in addition different activities in a group. Should someone lack a gramophone, writing down notes or texts of songs was suggested. Within the collection of objects of children’s play, there were, for younger ages, objects children used for fun: shreds, colourful paper, straws, short threads, small pieces of wood, buttons; and children’s mud-works stood out as especially valuable. For the older group, these were toys the children made themselves: a doll, whip, ball, shreds made with scissors, cookies, pearls, pots and houses. The last group listed was a collection of individual drawings, on paper or planks, as well as exact copies of children’s drawings on walls, doors or in sand. The school period started with kindergarten.11 The material would also in- clude photographs of children, individually and in a group; collection of different toys and objects – children’s handicrafts made according to instructions and un- der teacher supervision, toys; collection of drawings form kindergarten free and under supervision; teaching resources: Froebel Gifts, building blocks kits, tiles and others. The school period was supposed to show the development of drawing, writ- ing, free compositions, both male and female handiwork, teaching resources made by teachers and pupils, as well as information on pupils’ reading rooms, books children most enjoyed reading and relevant statistical data. The type of objects was the same – photographs, gramophone records and handiwork. It was required that individual records of children be selected according to differ- ent criteria, for example school records, temperament, physical qualities (from the well-built to the ones who stagnated), and wealth (from the richest to the penniless), cleanliness (from the cleanest to the dirtiest), with a note that the photographs of the last mentioned could be sent anonymously. An instruction was given that group photographs should be taken both during classes and in different situations like entering and leaving school, extracurricular activities, 11 According to the Law on Public Schools (1898, 1904) kindergaten made a constituent part of lower grades of primary school, it was intended for children of both sexes, from the age of five to seven and attending it was not obligatory. 351 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations school trips, play etc. Gramophone records should record speaking and reading extremes, singing songs typical of regions where they were made, individually and chorally. They could be written down in notes or at least textually. Collections of toys and objects made by pupils: a ball, top, instruments, klis, kite, popgun, cart, hat, little basket etc.; toys and objects made under teacher supervision; col- lection of forbidden toys among school children: marbles, slingshots, buttons, pistols, pupil lottery etc.; collections of tools and teaching aids. The collection of drawings should include works made on children’s own initiative as well as the ones required and supervised by teachers. The themes of the drawings should be plants, animals, faces, situations, historic scenes and coursebook illustra- tions. The collections of compositions encompassed emergent writing up to free writing. Special collections should include new and the most famous teaching resources made by teachers and children, as well as typical female handiwork. The post-school period should show the same types of objects (photo- graphs, tone records, handiwork) and collections of self-taught pupils and works of deaf-mute pupils and blind pupils were also included as well as the work of the home for abandoned children and similar institutions. It was also suggested that the photographs of the most comfortable school buildings and those of the worst (a shanty, the worst food for children, and other things) should be added. The ambitious design of the project of the exhibition suggests that the Ser- bian Association for Child Psychology wanted to approach the study of childhood as comprehensively as possible. It is surprising that the demands for photographs were so extensive since at that time photography was a rarity in Serbia. Taking photographs, and especially gramophone recordings, required adequate equip- ment, training and competence which was not easy to fulfil. The central board of the Teachers’ Association decided to help the Serbian Association for Child Psychology financially with the condition that the objects exposed remained the property of the School Museum in Belgrade.12 Even though collecting material was an ongoing process, the exhibition did not take place in 1910 as planned, but a couple of years later. Conclusion During the four years of the existence of Serbian Association for Child Psy- chology 22 surveys on child observation were organized, namely: 10 under the management of professors, 11 – male teachers and one under the management of a female teacher. The surveys were conducted with the aim of studying different issues of child development. Three assemblies and one course were held. Com- paring the questions dealt with by experts in other countries, we come across 12 The Teachers’ Association founded the School Museum (now the Pedagoški muzej / Museum of Education) in Belgrade in 1896. 352 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 significant similarities. The work of this Association was recorded in several countries: the USA, England, France, Russia, Germany, Italy and Spain. In the first two years, the members hoped to come closer to those movements in the world which made success in research in the field of child psychology and peda- gogy and join their ranks. The well - known Serbian writer Jovan Skerlić wrote these words: “When other nations begin some important things, they have difficulties. Contrary to them, Serbs initiate things easily, but they have a lot of difficulties in other phases and they very often do not have strength to realize their projects to the end-” (Skerlić 1906:27). The very same thing happened to this Association. Teachers were very enthusiastic about the foundation of their Association, but the Asso- ciation stopped its activities in 1911, due to the lack of money for professional seminars and lectures. They also did not have funds for publishing the journal, since the state authorities did not offer adequate support. Such enthusiasm could not be met in the next several decades. Besides enthusiasm, the power of the Association was in the teachers` devoted and per- sistent work. They made a significant contribution to the development of empiric pedagogy. Bibliography Aksentijević, B. (1967). Sedam decenija Pedagoškog muzeja u Beogradu [Seven Decades of the Museum of Education in Belgrade]. Beograd: Pedagoški muzej. Anonim. (1908-9). Ovogodišnji kurs Društva za dečju psihologiju [This year’s course of the association of child psychology]. Naša škola organ mlavskog učiteljskog udruženja 1, pp. 24- 25. Jevrić S. M. (1924). Osnovi dečje psihologije i eksperimentalne psihologike za nastavnike, roditelje i prijatelje omladine [Essentials of child psychology and experimental ped- agogy for teachers, parents and friends of the young], Beograd: Vasić i Jocić. Mijatović, S. M. (1907-8). Glasnik Srpskog društva za dečju psihologiju [The Herald of the Association for Child Psychology]. Učitelj 9, pp. 799-800. Skerlić, J. (1906). Omladina i njena književnost (1848-1871) izučavanja o nacionalnom i književnom romantizmu kod Srba [Youth and their literature (1848-1871), research on national and literary romanticism among Serbs]. Beograd: Srpska kraljevska aka- demija. Todorović, D. (1997). Eksperimentalna psihologija i njeni instrumenti: Čulo, um i mera [Experimental psychology and its instruments: Sense, mind and measure]. Beograd: Muzej nauke i tehnike i Laboratorija za eksperimentalnu psihologiju Filozofskog fakulteta. Žeravčević, V. (1910). Iz eksperimentalne dečje psihologije [Experimental Child Psychol- ogy]. Školski radnik 1, pp. 20-30, 2, pp.87-91. Žujović, J. (1919). Govor na XXVII učiteljskoj skupštini [Speech in XXVII teacher assembly]. Školski radnik 6, p. 466. 353 Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Summary The contribution of male and female teachers to the foundation of empirical pedagogy in Serbia, with reference to Serbian association for child psychology (Srpsko društvo za dečju psihologiju) Ljiljana Stankov The Association of Serbian Teachers was founded in 1881. It launched its own journal The Teacher, at the very beginning of the next year. In the last decade of the 19th century this As- sociation founded also the School Museum. In the first decade of the last century the branches of the Association published their own local journals. During that time, the idea that teachers can contribute to the foundation and development of national pedagogy, based on the research of physical and psychical development of Serbian children, matured. At the initiative of the 16th generation of graduated students of the Male Teacher Training College, the Serbian Association for Child Psychology was founded in Belgrade in 1907. The As- sociation assembled more than 500 members, who were mostly teachers and professors. They published their own journal Glasnik - The Herald. The Association organized three meetings, one course from the field of child psychology, 22 surveys. The surveys were conducted with the aim to study different issues of child development, like anthropometric measurements, chil- dren’s speech, drawings, basic concepts like numbers, children’s ideals, as well as their learning styles, memory and reckoning. The exhibition with photographs, audio track, written materials and craftworks of chil- dren up to 15 was prepared, with the view to collect material for the foundation of the psychology of Serbian children. They also had ambition to offer teachers a professional training in the field of child psychology. Due to persistence of teachers from the district of Vranje, a small labora- tory was open there, with the most modern equipment ordered from the Zimmerman’s factory in Leipzig, although that district was one of the poorest in the country. After 1910 the Association stopped its activities due to lack of money for professional seminars and lectures and for pub- lishing the journal, since the state authorities did not offer adequate support. Journal Glasnik Srpskog društva za dečju psihologiju / The Herald of the Association for Child Psychology, 1907, 1909. (Pedagogical museum Belgrade, library) 354 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 UDC 37.011.3-051:061.2(450)˝19˝ 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 20. 2. 2014 Michelina D'Alessio* “Near to teachers”. The association ANIMI (National Association for the Interests of Southern Italy) at the beginning of 20th century “V bližini učiteljev". Združenje ANIMI (Nacionalno združenje za interese južne Italije) v začetku 20. stoletja Izvleček Namen prispevka je prikazati zgodovino društva ANIMI (Associazione Nazionale per gli Interessi del Mezzogiorno d'Italia/ Naci- onalno združenje za interese južne Italije, ustanovljeno 1908), izvirno italijansko dru- štveno izkušnjo na področju poučevanja in boj proti nepismenosti v južni Italiji v začet- ku 20. stoletja. Leta 1921 je društvo dobilo od ministrstva nalogo razširiti osnovno šolstvo v različnih regionalnih območjih južne Itali- je (Bazilikata, Kalabrija, Sicilija in Sardinija), zlasti pa usmeriti ukrepe v razširjanje kulture in povečanje izobraževalne dejavnosti. Zdru- ženje ANIMI je veliko pozornosti namenilo odprtju vrtcev, šolskih knjižnic in ljudskih, ve- černih, prazničnih, vsakodnevnih šol, preskrbi z učnim gradivom in pripomočki kot tudi skr- bi za pedagoško ter izobraževalno pripravo učiteljev in učiteljic. Ključne besede: združenje ANIMI, učiteljstvo, izobraževanje, nepismenost, južna Italija Key words: assocation ANIMI, teachers, education, illiteracy, South Italy 15th Symposium on School Life, part 48: Visit us / obiščite nas - Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37700 Abstract The object of the paper is to describe the his- tory of ANIMI (Associazione Nazionale per gli Interessi del Mezzogiorno d’Italia / National Association for the Interests of Southern Italy), an original Italian associative experi- ence in the field of teaching education and the struggle against the illiteracy in Italy through the beginning of 20th century. In 1921, it obtained from the ministry the task of the work for dissemination of primary school in different regional areas of southern Italy, like Basilicata, Calabria, Sicilia and Sardinia, in par- ticular directing action to the dissemination of culture and the increase in educational works. In addition to the opening of kindergartens, school libraries and popular, evening, festive, daily schools, supply of teaching materials and tools, significant attention was paid by ANIMI to the choice and care, pedagogical, educative preparation of male and female teachers. * Michelina D'Alessio, University of Basilicata / Università degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy; e-mail: michelina.dalessio@unibas.it 355Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations The object of the paper (“Near to teachers”.1 The Association ANIMI (Associazione Nazionale per gli Interessi del Mezzogiorno d’Italia / National As- sociation for the Interests of Southern Italy) during the first half of 20th Century) is to describe the history of ANIMI (Associazione Nazionale per gli Interessi del Mezzogiorno d’Italia), an original Italian associative experience in the field of teaching education and the struggle against the illiteracy in Italy through the first XX century. It was a "wide experiment freely school activity"2 that gave "a major contribution to the history of the school and pedagogy not only Italian and Italian"3 until today not exhaustively considered in the field of historiography.4 The ANIMI was concerned with the promotion of school-education and as- sistance to its national teachers.5 My essay aims to reconstruct the broad spectrum of initiatives undertak- en by the field "near to teachers" of rural schools, in the performance of their fundamental "education and hygienic propaganda" in the southern regions of 1 The title comes from a work dedicated to the teachers by Giuseppe Lombardo Radice, “Near to teachers”. Propaganda pedagogical new essays (Accanto ai maestri: nuovi saggi di propaganda pedagogica, Torino: Paravia, 1925). On the background of educational problems emerging in the Italian society of the early twentieth century are very significant proposals drawn up by Giuseppe Lombardo Radice, on the reform of school and the updating of teachers' pedagogical culture and the initiatives undertaken by the National Association for the Interests of Southern Italy. On the prominent figure and the educational work deployed by Giuseppe Lombardo Radice (1879-1938), professor of education at the University of Catania and then in Rome, close collaborator of the minister Gentile during the development of the reform of 1923, are still obliged the references to the special issue dedicated to Giuseppe Lombardo Radice, in "Reform School", 14 (1968), no. 8-9, in addition to a rich bibliography of studies (Picco, Chiosso, Cives, Margiotta, Pesci and many others). See especially the conference proceedings of Giuseppe Lombardo Radice, Proceedings of the Inter- national Congress for the centenary of his birth (1879-1979) edited by Iclea Picco (L'Aquila: Ed Gallo Cedrone, 1980). A timely collection of bibliographic information on the "fervent activity as a writer and educator born" Lombardo Radice, prior to the lessons of 1913 and followed until 1934, is due to the editor of Lugano "The Educator of Italian Switzerland": Edoardo Pelloni, Bibliography of the writings of Giuseppe Lombardo Radice (1899-1934), (Lugano: Tip. Rezzonico - Pedrini, 1935). 2 See Giuseppe Isnardi, Educational and school activity of the Association, in AA. VV., The Nati- onal Association for the Interest of Southern Italy in its first fifty years (Rome: South Collection Editrice, 1960), especially on pages 195-251. 3 On the occasion of the centenary of ANIMI birth was successfully produced a work of historical re- construction on the "most important private initiative of the century" in defense of Southern Italy, in Guido Pescosolido and others, One hundred years of activity of the 'National Association for the Interest of Southern Italy and the Southern question today (Soveria Marinelli: Rubbettino, 2011). 4 Around the educational work carried out by the association with the contribution of its mem- bers actively involved in providing educational advancement is now in Michela D'Alessio, A scuola fra casa e patria. Dialetto e cultura regionale nei libri di testo durante il fascismo /At school between home and homeland. Dialect and regional culture in textbooks during Fascism (Lecce: Pensamultimedia, 2013). 5 As is known, the issue was provided to the Minister Baccelli RDL September 2nd, 1919 n. 1723 which established the National Authority for the education of illiterate adults, a measure designed to focus on a single autonomous body initiatives to combat illiteracy. With the R.D. August 28th, 1921, n. 240 born to work against illiteracy: Giuseppe Tognon, Benedetto Croce to Minerva: the Italian school policy between Caporetto and the March on Rome (Brescia: La Scuola, 1990), 208-209. 356 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Italy. The main interest is directed to educational experiments and innova- tions introduced by the Association in respect of the special recipients of teaching, especially the illiterate adults in the regions of South of Italy. In this particular hairpin, a significant importance was the centrality and encouragement "at distance" that led Lombardo Radice as director of ele- mentary education, tireless promoter and determined action of ANIMI in favor of the deplorable condition of the school for children and illiterate adults; editorial director of an organ of great prestige and influence, which was the journal named "National Education"; prominent figure who had a specific role in educational and school activity. He was very active on both sides in the public administra- tion and private associations, in an unusual and difficult revived harmo- ny and selfless joint action between the educational activities of the state and associated initiatives. The ANIMI played an important role in urge ac- tion to municipalities and populations for the improvement of school premises, furniture and furnishings, as well as over the time was always engaged in exciting a "continuous action of the State in order especially for the prompt application of laws in favor of the South" (Viola). The collected data show how many aspects of the development education formulated by Lombardo Radice and legislative requirements of the programs aired in 1923, positioned right in the experiences carried out in person by the Sicilian educator within the ANIMI, the most im- portant antecedent and the real forge work, that '"intense training" which will be based on the "innovative lines" of his ministry (Viola). Sources The exploration of the Archive of the Associazione Nazionale per gli Interessi del Mezzogiorno d’Italia in the Library of Southern Studies "Giustino Fortunato" in Rome has returned a rich harvest of documents: reports, information and use- Front cover of Giuseppe Lombardo Radice's book: La buona messe (The good harvest/Dobra letina), edited by Associazione Nazionale per gli Interessi del Mezzogiorno d’Italia Editrice, 1926 (https://usolibri.it, accessed 12. 10. 2019) 357Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations ful activity exercised in Southern Italy during the '10s and '30s of the 20th century. In the archive, you can find many documentary papers about the organization of the Association between 1910 and 1920; reports of culture (the popular libraries and kindergartens) and economic activities (the International Book Fair and the press); several correspondences about other exhibitions of the book data and re- ports on kindergartens in the three regions entrusted to the Association; dossiers on the publishing entity, with the practices and matches to other publishers and authors; drafts of papers published at the institution; reports on the work against illiteracy, brochures and other publications. An important source is represented by the initial library policy directed by the opening popular libraries and was car- ried out between 1925 and 1928. The catalogue on one hand reflects the ANIMI’s interest about school manuals and pedagogical books, on the other the other publications related to internal needs of operation, cultural and economic rela- tions flowed in circular educational budgets and programs. The origins of a project ANIMI was born as a service made on volunteer basis (which met in its ranks intellectual exponents of political and cultural different orientations, Vil- lari, Fortunato, Salvemini, Zanotti-Bianco and others) during Messina (Sicily) earthquake in 1908.6 ANIMI was born on March 1st, 1910 and it was "a partner- ship inspired by spiritual, liberal and democratic values" aimed to "any purpose politician" since there was rather "the ambition of a direct action, targeted and volunteer in the South of Italy."7 The voluntary contribution and public financing worked together in order to reach an extraordinary national solidarity, in which the care of the organization represented one aspect of the success of the ANIMI.8 6 The earthquake on December 28th, 1908 gave substantial acceleration orientation of the Ita- lian political and cultural life, in relation to the southern question. The "significant contribu- tion in the fight against illiteracy and [...] in favor of promoting socio-economy of the South" carried out by the place was recently highlighted by the work of F. Mattei, ANIMI. Il contri- buto dell'Associazione Nazionale Italiana per gli Interessi del Mezzogiorno d'Italia alla. sto- ria dell'educazione / ANIMI The contribution of the “National Association for the Interests of Southern Italy” to the history of education (1910-1945) (Roma: Anicia, 2012). Some comments on the initial interventions in the field of education, popular education and child protection, to improve the sanitary conditions of the South and the spread of popular libraries and schools, in G. Alatri, “Schools and social and cultural action of the National Association for the Interests of the South of Italy from the foundation to the fall of Fascism”, The problems of pedagogy XXVI, no. 6 (1990): 561-582. 7 Gerardo Bianco, Introduction to Per una storia dell'Associazione nazionale per gli interessi del Mezzogiorno d'Italia. I presidenti / History of the National Association for the Interests of the South of Italy (1910-2000). The Presidents (Rome: from the Association, 2000), 10-11. 8 “The development of primary and popular education” in the South of Italy was part of the fun- damental purposes of the association (art. 3 of Statute). 358 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Organization In its organization there was a Central Directorate located in Rome to have relations with the Ministry and with other agencies delegates and regional direc- tors, these directors were: for Sicily Vitale Chialante, for eastern Sicily Archangel Sciacca and for the central Giuseppe Liotta; for Sardinia Guglielmo Zanini; for Calabria Giuseppe Isnardi and for Basilicata Emilio Larocca and Domiziano Vi- ola. Policy intervention was geared to different fields: health, social, urban and civil. Channels of financing were voluntary contributions, ministerial channels and the Bank of Italy and other institutions, furthermore Industrial companies active in the social field. The creator of ANIMI was Umberto Zanotti Bianco, the first president Leopoldo Franchetti, Honorary President was Pasquale Villari, in the Council executive committee there were Bodio, Fortunato,9 Stringher, Tito Poggi, Giuseppe Lombardo Radice, Gaetano Salvemini, Tommaso Gallarati Scot- ti. The General Secretay was Gaetano Piacentini.10 Aims The principal aims of the Association were the improvement of local con- ditions with regard to primary education; agricultural economics and credit to work; forms of interest of public awareness and accurate knowledge of Italian civil life problems of southern regions and appropriate means to solve them grad- ual and complete; “to continue to excite the action of the state in order to apply application of the above read in favor of southern”. The task In 1921 ANIMI obtained from the Ministry the task of work for disseminat- ed primary school in different regional areas of southern Italy, like Basilicata, Calabria, Sicilia and Sardinia, in particular directing action to the dissemination 9 Giustino Fortunato was a greatest exponent of the "Southern question" posed in terms of eman- cipation of the rural world of the South, with recall assumption of political responsibility by the middle classes not only in southern Italy, but especially at the national level. He defined ANIMI "so far the only organized force in Italy for the awakening of the Southern Provinces" setting the terms of engagement spent from ANIMI "intransigent on the continuity of an ideal philanthro- pic and autonomy from fascism" (G. Bianco). 10 Gaetano Piacentini and Lombardo Radice were the main holders and coordinators operating in organizational management and boost cultural activity of ANIMI, in a happy "complementarity of personal qualities [...] in the service of school and the emancipation of the southern nations and progress of all of Italy”. 359Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations of culture and the increase in educa- tional works.11 During the first year of activities, 1,163 schools were estab- lished with 5,000 students enrolled and 2,200 approved; 114 of them were day schools, 114 festive and 1,262 even- ing schools with a total of 66,413 pupils and 32,707 approved. After receiving the task, the Assocation ANIMI helped to aim the effective instruments to offer assistance in poor areas and under- privileged in the South; child health and social works (in 1923, about 100 subsidies case of children); to open school and popular libraries (compe- tition system in taking part in the 50% of the costs of buying new volumes received from the ANIMI; in 1930 gave assistance to 146 libraries for a total of 5,549 books, appreciable results in areas that are heavily pervaded by illiteracy); to give hospitalization in villages for Armenian refugees; the education of illiterate adults; to open rural schools in the daytime and festive schools in the afternoon; the- oretical development and production of required teaching materials; a special choice in the care of personal employee. In seven years the ANIMI ran on behalf of the state about 33 millions by creating more than 2,000 schools. The important novelty was represented in that year by the passage by the school administration to those of the Managing Authorities of the Opera of many rural schools so-called "poorly performing" leaving to them the autonomous decision to keep them alive or to abolish or in- stead of transfer them elsewhere. In 1923, the Association ran 229 rural schools in poor performance state. The schools of Basilicata, 36; Calabria, 77; Sicily, 61; Sar- dinia, 55, called "unclassified" or "provisional" were given to ANIMI. The evening 11 The ANIMI obtained a substantial funding estimated in 4/10 of the entire allocation for local delegates, with a clear recognition of the prominent role played in the contemporary field of volunteering. C. Cassani, The National Association for the Interest of Southern Italy between voluntary contributions and public funding, in History of the National Association for the inte- rests of the South of Italy (1910-2000). The Presidents, cit., 196. Umberto Zanotti Bianco, one of the founder of assocation ANIMI (https://www.lazio900.it/istituto/ associazione-nazionale-per-gli- interessi-del-mezzogiorno-ditalia- animi/, accessed 12. 10. 2019) 360 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 and festive classes for adults reached the maximum number in 1923-24 with 1,159 schools and 55,358 students. By Royal Decree of December 31st, 1923 ANIMI was named Committee against illiteracy dealing with a popular school with the origi- nal contours of educational and social. The other areas were widely ANIMI took care were the school building and the health system. Through the work of these cultural institutions, the rule was intended to finance the establishment of even- ing, festive and summer schools for adults, farmers, fishermen, immigrants (as well as daytime only for the lower course), in the places with less density school. Between 1925 and 1928 ANIMI recorded the steady increase in the number of rural and unique day schools, with identical decline in the number of so-called adult schools and the establishment of complementary or supplementary cours- es. In addition to the opening of kindergartens, school libraries and popular, evening, festive, daily schools, supply of teaching materials and tools, significant Different activities of association ANIMI in the beginning of 20th century: from health and childcare to lottery to raise money for activities. (http://www.animi.it/; https://scripofilia.it/ accessed 12. 10. 2019) 361Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations attention was paid by ANIMI to the choice and care, pedagogical, educative prep- aration of male and female teachers. They often were war veterans, the elderly and elements with "service" spent in state schools, which were chosen with dif- ferent modes - order of merit, information about their knowledge, interviews, competition tests: “the thinking in the selection of teachers was the first element that allowed and encouraged the success of the school.”12 “Near to teachers” Unclassified schools’ teachers had to accept assignments and working conditions greatly disadvantaged with regard to the workplace, to the tools and educational opportunities. They had to reside in the schools of the most distant and abandoned villages, with a deep spirit of dedication and sacrifice. The ANI- MI sometimes reached to build them a home, providing the means to live there -as you can read in a lot of correspondence with the Regional Directors. They had a benefit for each lesson, with the maximum limit of 120 lessons for evening schools and 180 hours for the day ones - teachers need continuous presence and valuable attachment to work prize for each student promoted. The educational and cultural action was developed through the organization of educational conferences; culture courses for rural teachers (including those in education and child hygiene education, between those in Maratea, Palermo and in Sardinia); permanent educational exhibitions at the regional offices; an intense editorial publication (Connection sheets for teachers; Rules and instruc- tions; Teaching programs). You can see the brochure in which you learn the goals and the means by which the Association wants to be "near to teachers" giving assistance especially with instructions and useful to their educational work. Some important information come from the Educational program, duly given to the teachers: rules of practical utility and which concern "the teaching of writing, the alphabet, numbering, dictation, reading, goodwill to compose, of the various notions of design, the node of the corrections and the tightness of the notebooks. The programs give useful indications to the teachers of schools for peasants, miners, fishermen. The action of these schools for peasants etc. is pre- parative and avant-garde action... "(p. 21). The expected results are summarized "in good reading, knowledge of the four operations, the right to express their needs and desires in writing, in the notion of the fundamental laws that govern our civic life, and especially those affecting the agricultural populations, in the elementary notions of hygiene, geography and agriculture. "It seems clear that the main task of schools for peasants are in "instrumental teaching"…" 12 F. Mattei, ANIMI. The contribution of the “National Association for the Interest of Southern Italy” to the history of education (1910-1945), cit. 362 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Among the key factors in the proposal of new teaching methods, include the specificity attributed to new schools and the evaluation of the environmental and cultural living conditions of the southern part of Italy, resulting in the search for new ways of teaching and practical models that take account of attention to the local culture, the need to disseminate hygiene education, diagnostic and preventive maintenance, as well as the experiments of agricultural operations. In this work of "differentiation teaching" that is given to the places, the cen- tral figures of rural male and female teachers, as well as to an appropriate manuals for schools, lies much of the effectiveness of education and teaching, promoted by local delegates and of "innovative lines." "Different countries, different dif- ficulties, different temperaments and aptitude of people who are in charge of our educational services" (Lombardo Radice). After seven years of important and portentous activities (1921-1928),13 the Association gave back the delegation to the State, because of the inability to continue with freedom and autonomous spirit in its field of action, since the urgent interference of fascism, from its repre- sentatives in local political level: the delegation was later passed on to the Opera Nazionale Balilla. It had been thrown a "good seed" (Isnardi), in the wake of a large experi- ment not yet sufficiently remarked on the importance of the educational value and goodness of teaching practices, a unique meeting of the conditions of the environment and the specificity of its beneficiaries. Summary “Near to teachers”. The association ANIMI (National Association for the Interests of Southern Italy) at the beginning of 20th century Michelina D'Alessio The object of the paper is to describe the history of ANIMI (Associazione Nazionale per gli Interessi del Mezzogiorno d’Italia), an original italian associative experience in the field of teaching education and the struggle against the illiteracy in Italy through the beginning of 20th century. ANIMI was born as a service made on a volunteer basis during Messina (Sicily) earthquake in 1908. In 1921, it obtained from the ministry the task of the work for disseminated primary school in different regional areas of southern Italy, like Basilicata, Calabria, Sicilia and Sardinia, in particular directing action to the dissemination of culture and the increase in educational 13 (Editorial note.) The author also deals with this topic later: Michelina D'Alessio: Our Schools. The work of the Association of Southern Italy against illiteracy in Basilicata (1921-1928), HECL 2015, 10 (2), pp. 463-480, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321993690_Our_Schools_ the_work_of_the_Association_of_Southern_Italy_against_illiteracy_in_Basilicata_1921-1928 (accessed 12. 10. 2019). 363Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations works. In addition to the opening of kindergartens, school libraries and popular, evening, festive, daily schools, supply of teaching materials and tools, significant attention was paid by ANIMI to the choice and care, pedagogical, educative preparation of male and female teachers. The edu- cational and cultural was deployed on several levels: through the organization of educational conferences; culture courses for rural teachers (including those in education and child hygiene education); permanent educational exhibitions at the regional offices; an intense editorial pub- lication (Connection sheets for teachers; Rules and instructions; Teaching programs). Among the key factors in the proposal of new teaching methods, include the specificity attributed to new schools and the evaluation of the environmental and cultural living conditions of the southern part of Italy. In this work of “differentiation teaching” that is given to the places, the central figures of rural male and female teachers, as well as to an appropriate manuals for schools, lies much of the effectiveness of education and teaching, promoted by local delegates. After seven years of important and portentous activities (1921-1928), the Association gave back the delega- tion to the State, because of the inability to continue with freedom and autonomous spirit in its field of action, since the urgent interference of fascism, from its representatives in local political level: the delegation was later passed on to the Opera Nazionale Balilla. 364 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 UDC 061.2:37.011.3-051(450)”19” 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 10. 5. 2019 Fabio Targhetta* The section of Padua of the Italian Pedagogical Association (Associazione Pedagogica Italiana) in the late 20th century Padovanska sekcija Italijanskega pedagoškega združenja (Associazione Pedagogica Italiana) v poznem 20. stoletju Izvleček Italijansko pedagoško združenje (Associazi- one Pedagogica Italiana), ustanovljeno leta 1950 v Firencah, je še vedno dejavno po vsej državi, zahvaljujoč usklajenemu prizadevanju številnih lokalnih sekcij. Posebnost progra- ma Italijanskega pedagoškega združenja je povezovanje učiteljev vseh ravni izobrazbe in univerzitetnih profesorjev, da bi izboljšali in prenovili šolo in katerokoli drugo izobraže- valno ustanovo, kot tudi izboljšali študij in raziskave na področju pedagogike. Padovan- ska sekcija se vse od ustanovitve odlikuje po organizaciji konferenc in osvežitvenih tečajev za osnovnošolske učitelje. Obsežna dokumen- tacija, ki se nanaša na dejavnosti sekcije, se trenutno hrani v Muzeju izobraževanja (Mu- seo dell'Educazione) Univerze v Padovi. Ključne besede: učiteljstvo, društva, Italija, 20. stoletje Keywords: teachers, association, Italy, 20th century 15th Symposium on School Life, part 56. Visit us / obiščite nas - Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37710 Abstract The Italian Pedagogical Association (As- sociazione Pedagogica Italiana), founded in Florence in 1950, is still active throughout the country, thanks to the coordinated effort of the numerous local sections. The distinctive feature of the Italian Pedagogical Associa- tion is to bring together school teachers of all levels and university professors in order to im- prove and renovate the school and any other educational institution, as well as to enhance studies and researches in the field of Peda- gogy and education. The section of Padua has distinguished itself since its founding by the organization of conferences and refresher courses for teachers of elementary schools. A significant amount of documentation relating to the activity of this section is currently pre- served at the Museum of Education (Museo dell'Educazione) University of Padua. * Fabio Targhetta, University of Macerata, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage and Tourism, Macerata, Italy; e-mail: fabio.targhetta@unimc.it 365Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations »The Italian Pedagogical Association (Associazione Pedagogica Italiana, As.Pe.I.) was founded to unite all the people engaged in School of every level and those who have interest in the problems of education, beyond any difference of political, religious and doctrinal thought and of trade union, in order to enhance and increase studies and pedagogical experiences, and to disseminate the active interest in the improvement of School«. This is the verbatim transcript – capital letters included [the word “school” appears twice with the first letter capitalized, to emphasize the importance, also symbolic, of this institution] – of the first article of the As.Pe.I. Statute, sub- scribed by the founding members in Venice on May 1st, 1956; that was the last day of the Third National Congress. Pluralism is one of the peculiar features of the association, together with the openness to figures who, for various reasons, are interested in educational matters, as can be seen in the Article number 9 of the original Statute. It states that the President's Council would be composed of eight university professors, three lecturers, four professors of secondary school and four elementary school teachers. The "ecumenical" instance among teachers of different educational levels, which is the basis of As. Pe.I. since its foundation, as we have seen, it can appear to the colleagues who are not Italian – and to those who do not remember well that season – not only a practice dictated by common sense, but also a strategy to channel the energies in the direction of a common interest. But it is not so. Not in Italy and not in those years (and even today, in many ways). The corporate defense of the interests of one side has often product divi- sions more than shared "battles", in a variety of fields, from the union trade to the school one. In this last field, consider the bitter controversy and the "attacks of unusual roughness"1 that have been conducted in the Fifties, when the As.Pe.I. was born, between the two catholic associations of primary school teachers and teachers of secondary schools (AIMC and UCIIM). Although they were referring to the same ideological front – and to the same hierarchy – at that time strictly committed to contrast the "red menace", the two associations made use of their own journals to support their proposals of school reform, often in open conflict between them. The postwar period was characterized in Italy by deep divisions, divided the country by rigid ideological barriers imposed by the Cold War and by the splitting within the cultural context. Consider, to stay in the pedagogical field, that those years saw the end of the actualistic hegemony, started by Giovanni Gentile over 1 See Roberto Sani, “Le associazioni cattoliche degli insegnanti e il rinnovamento democratico della scuola italiana”, in Chiesa e progetto educativo nell’Italia del secondo dopoguerra (1945- 1958), ed. Luciano Pazzaglia (Brescia: La Scuola, 1988), now in Roberto Sani, Sub specie edu- cationis. Studi e ricerche su istruzione, istituzioni scolastiche e processi culturali e formativi nell’Italia contemporanea (Macerata: EUM, 2011), 540. 366 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 thirty years ago. The scene was then occupied by the representatives of pedagogical trend called “personalism” and by those of laical current. In a so divided scenario, the commitment of the As.Pe.I. Statute to over- throw the divisions of status (between elementary teachers, middle and high school teachers and university professors) and the divisions of political, religious and doctrinal thought acquires a very significant relief. Unique in its kind, therefore, the As.Pe.I. brings together school teachers of all levels to improve and renovate the school and any other institution dealing with education, as well as to enhance study and researches in the field of peda- gogy and education. To this end, its work is mainly direct, then as now, to the creation and the planning of activities such as training, upgrading and qualifica- tion of teachers and all the people involved in education. When and how was the As.Pe.I. founded? We have already discussed about the ideological and political context. However, it is necessary to specify, espe- cially to the benefit of the foreign colleagues, that those years were characterized by a considerable fervor in the educative field. At the end of World War II, the work of “defascistisation” of the school2 was only the beginning of a season in which the theme linked to the school and the education was at the center of debates, comparisons, projects, discussions that involved teachers, intellectuals, political parties and grassroots. Consider, for example, the importance assigned to the school in the work of the Constituent Assembly (1946-47), and in particular the debate between Concetto Marchesi, a member of the Italian Communist Party, and Aldo Moro, important spokesman for the Christian Democrats. 3 But consider, also, the Na- tional Commission of Inquiry formed in 1947 by the Minister of Education Guido Gonella.4 The data relating to the impressive participation at the consultation by the entire teaching staff (211,000 teachers who replied to the questionnaire), and the staff gravitating toward schools (85,000 replies) testify not only the interest, but also the will to make education the keystone of a country that need to restart after more than two decades of dictatorship and the rubble of World War II. In 1949, at the end of the work of collecting and analyzing records, the Min- ister formed another committee, consisting of ministry officials and school staff, charged with drafting a plan for a comprehensive reform of the national educa- tion system.5 2 F. Targhetta, “Tra selva normativa e schedature di massa: i procedimenti di epurazione degli insegnanti di scuola secondaria”, in Rivista di storia dell’educazione», no 1 (2018), 209-225. 3 See, in particular, Adolfo Scotto di Luzio, La scuola degli italiani (Bologna, Il Mulino: 2007), chapter VII, “La scuola alla Costituente”, 233-281. 4 Giorgio Chiosso, “Motivi pedagogici e politici nei lavori dell’inchiesta Gonella (1947-1949)”, in Scuola e società nell’Italia unita. Dalla Legge Casati al Centro-Sinistra, ed. Luciano Pazzaglia and Roberto Sani (Brescia: La Scuola, 2001). 5 Giorgio Chiosso, “Cattolici e riforma scolastica. L’Italia nel secondo dopoguerra (1949-1951)”, in Scuola e società nell’Italia unita. Dalla Legge Casati al Centro-Sinistra, edd. Luciano Pazzaglia, Roberto Sani (Brescia: Editrice La Scuola, 2001), 397-419. 367Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Some of the most famous Italian specialists of education brought their con- tribution to the work of the above mentioned committees. Most of them were destined to become, between 1949 and 1950, the promoters of the Italian Peda- gogical Association.6 Indeed, the first provisional presidential council saw the presence of Giovanni Calò, Ernesto Codignola and Raffaele Resta.7 In a meeting held at the end of September 1949, during which the foun- dations were laid for the final structuring of the association, other famous researchers were added to them, starting from Giovanni Maria Bertin, in addition to membership in the meantime collected of Luigi Stefanini, Angiolo Gambaro, Nicola Abbagnano, and so on. This short list of names shows that feature of the association is, as said ear- lier, the plurality of voices and the search for dialogue among different cultural tendencies. An aspiration, the latter, intended to emerge especially at the na- tional congresses, in those “conclusive motions” in which it was possible to see the effort of the speakers in order to represent all the positions. In those years the dialectic within the Association arose from the debate, frequently intense, between two ideological tendencies: the pedagogical spiritu- alism, represented by Calò, Caramella, Flores d’Arcais, Agazzi, Bongioanni and others, and the pedagogical sociologism, represented by Borghi, Mazzetti, De Bartolomeis, Bertin, Visalberghi, D’Alessandro.8 The first of the mentioned symposiums was arranged in Florence from 5th to 8th April 1950. There were three major reports, which were entrusted to three leading figures of the Italian cultural and pedagogical scene: in addition to the president Giovanni Calò, attended Ernesto Codignola and Vito Fazio Allmayer. They were assigned, respectively, the following themes: Training to the teach- ing (La preparazione al magistero educativo); The ethical and social problem of education (Il problema etico-sociale dell’educazione); The problem of teaching and the innovative trends in secondary schools (Il problema didattico e le tendenze inno- vatrici nella scuola secondaria). As we can see, the urgent need to renew the school was immediately felt, as well as the awareness that this renewal would necessarily be passed through the figure of the teacher and, in particular, through training, re- cruitment and professional development of teachers. It is not by chance that those were the issues mainly debated during the periodic national conferences. After the second national conference, organized in Sicily in the spring of 1954, the national executive of As.Pe.I. landed in Veneto. From April 28th to May 1st 1956, indeed, the section of Padua organized a symposium on the theme of 6 Francesco De Vivo, “La storia dell’As.Pe.I. attraverso i Congressi”, in L’associazione Pedagogica Italiana (1950-1996), ed. Sira Serenella Macchietti (Roma: Bulzoni Editore, 1996), 16. 7 For the biography of these figures and others cited in the paper see DBE. Dizionario biografico dell’educazione 1800-2000, ed. Giorgio Chiosso and Roberto Sani (Milano: Editrice Bibliografi- ca, 2013). 8 Gianfranco Pontini, I problemi della scuola italiana nei congressi dell’As.Pe.I. nel dopoguerra (diss., University of Padua, 1970/71), XVII-XVIII. 368 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 The humanistic tradition and the problem of integration of the technical-scien- tific culture in contemporary education (La tradizione umanistica e il problema dell’integrazione della cultura tecnico-scientifica nell’educazione contempora- nea), emphasizing the co-responsibility of the productive forces of the Country in solution of the problem of the Italian school. Founded since 1952 by Luigi Stefanini and Giuseppe Flores d'Arcais, the sec- tion of Padua of the As.Pe.I. has been directed for decades by d’Arcais, a very significant figure in the Italian pedagogical scene and exponent of personalism, a current of thought of Catholic orientation based on the centrality of the person. D’Arcais was still presiding over the local section when, after a period of sleep that lasted for a few years, on March 3rd 1975 was reconstituted with a first group of 52 members.9 Those years were characterized by a lot of bottom-up initiatives in primary and secondary levels.10 The meetings, organized not only by As.Pe.I., but also by other important association (it is sufficient here to recall the activities of the Movement of Educational Cooperation, MCE, inspired by Célestin Freinet's “or- ganic pedagogy”), corresponded to a strong demand from teachers to have many refresher courses. These teachers, along with those just graduated, renewed the teaching practices in elementary school, fixed to the ministerial programs of 1955. Topics such as the extension of school hours in the afternoon for the work- shop activities, the abolition of the votes in favor of the judgments, the abolition of failures, a greater dialogue with the families were at the center of the debate. These teachers became promoters of innovative experimental proposals, while institutions, from municipalities to the ministry, traditionally reluctant to accept the most advanced project, struggling to keep up, when not directly obstructed the most innovative experiments.11 For these reasons, the season opened in the mid-seventies was very full of meeting and commitments for the section of Padua. Step by step, indeed, it be- came an esteemed institution for the training of teachers. In 1975, for example, the theme debated at the lessons was the teaching of history and the experimentation in the first two years of the secondary schools. The following year the refresher course was addressed only to preschool teachers. In 1977 a series of lectures was dedicated to preschool teachers, to teachers and to principals of secondary school. Then, in 1978 was organized a refresher course for teachers of Chioggia, a small town in the province of Venice, arranged in a series of ten lectures. The 9 Bollettino della As.Pe.I., no. 10 (1975): 10. See also the minutes of the first meeting of the teach- ers who marked the reconstitution of the section of Padua, dated February 19, 1975, in the archive group “AS.Pe.I.” preserved by The Museum of Education of University of Padua. 10 Annalisa Tiozzo Caenazzo, Tra passato e presente. La sezione padovana As.Pe.I. dal 1950 ai gior- ni nostri (diss., University of Padua, 2017/18). 11 See Quando la scuola si accende. Innovazione didattica e trasformazione sociale negli anni Ses- santa e Settanta, ed. Luisa Bellina, Alfiero Boschiero and Alessandro Casellato, special issue of Venetica, no. 2 (2012). 369Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations themes, from teaching Italian language to the teaching of Latin and mathemat- ics, from the problem of evaluation to the teamwork, were discussed, in large part, by professors of the University of Padua, including Flores d'Arcais, Anna Maria Bernardinis and Sergio Baratto. At the beginning of the 80s this annual activity assumed a systematic character, as evidenced by the progressive numbering which was adopted. This organization also meant a greater enlargement of the number of speakers, also called from other Italian universities on the basis of their specific expertise in the subject matter. So, for example, in 1983, when the subject of a series of meet- ings was The current pedagogical and didactic problem of compulsory education (Attuali problematiche pedagogiche e didattiche della scuola dell’obbligo), were invited two professors who were working on the revision of the new programs teaching for the elementary school. «Considering the success and the wide inter- est aroused» from this series of meetings, as stated by President Flores d'Arcais in the letter of presentation of seminars for 1984, it was decided, on an exceptional basis, to consider the theme even in following year. In 1983 the Association organ- ized also an important conference in Padua on the occasion of the conferment of the honorary degree in Pedagogy to Bogdan Suchodolski. An opportunity for comparison, to use the words of the flyer, between Italian and Polish pedagogy. I will not go beyond the limits of this report, which is supposed to be an in- troduction to the topic, recalling themes and speakers of the cycles of meetings Flyer of the conference organized in 1983 on the occasion of the conferment of the honorary degree in Pedagogy to Bogdan Suchodolski (cover and inside). 370 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 organized by section As.Pe.I. of Padua. I think that these few hint are sufficient to frame the activity of a section which between the eighties and the nineties lived a very intense period. The collaboration started with the education agency and, above all, with the IRRSAE Veneto (Regional Research Institute of Educational Testing and Update; Istituto di Ricerca Regionale di Sperimentazione e Aggior- namento Educativo), an organization sponsored by the Ministry of Education in order to encourage and support the process of autonomy and innovation of school, allowed to enrich the educational offer of Padua section of As.Pe.I., which could rely on regional contributions to cover the costs of organizing lessons and symposiums. This was the case, for example, of the international conference held in Padua in January 1996 on the occasion of the 250th anniversary of the birth of Pestalozzi. Scholars from the major universities in Europe and the United States were invited. To conclude this brief presentation of the activities carried out by the sec- tion of Padua of As.Pe.I. at the end of the century we must give at least a mention to the research on The university training of preschool teachers. A study over the schools of Veneto region (La formazione universitaria degli inseg- nanti di scuola materna. Un’indagine nelle scuole del Triveneto), published as a supplement to the issue no. 6 (November-December 1992) of the journal "Perspective EP". Starting from this brief report, it is easy to see the potential for the research of the rich material, not yet used in studies, preserved in the Museum of Education of the Univer- sity of Padua. It is possible to consult teachers’ meeting minutes, programs for refresher courses, lists of mem- bers, notes, lessons plans, collections of photographs, administrative docu- ments, correspondence with the other sections, and so on. This is an archivial collection yet to be inventoried. Nev- ertheless it is important to retrace a very interesting and qualified experi- ence of teachers’ association working in Veneto region during the second half of the twentieth century. Cover of issue no. 6 (November- December 1992) of the journal "Perspective EP" dedicated to the university training of preschool teachers. A study over the schools of Veneto region. 371Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Bibliography Roberto Sani, “Le associazioni cattoliche degli insegnanti e il rinnovamento democra- tico della scuola italiana”, in Chiesa e progetto educativo nell’Italia del secondo dopoguerra (1945-1958), ed. Luciano Pazzaglia (Brescia: La Scuola, 1988). Roberto Sani, Sub specie educationis. Studi e ricerche su istruzione, istituzioni scolas- tiche e processi culturali e formativi nell’Italia contemporanea (Macerata: EUM, 2011), p. 540. Adolfo Scotto di Luzio, La scuola degli italiani (Bologna, Il Mulino: 2007), chapter VII, “La scuola alla Costituente”, pp. 233-281. Giorgio Chiosso, “Motivi pedagogici e politici nei lavori dell’inchiesta Gonella (1947- 1949)”, in Scuola e società nell’Italia unita. Dalla Legge Casati al Centro-Sinistra, ed. Luciano Pazzaglia and Roberto Sani (Brescia: La Scuola, 2001). Giorgio Chiosso, “Cattolici e riforma scolastica. L’Italia nel secondo dopoguerra (1949- 1951)”, in Pazzaglia and Sani. Francesco De Vivo, “La storia dell’As.Pe.I. attraverso i Congressi”, in L’associazione Peda- gogica Italiana (1950-1996), ed. Sira Serenella Macchietti (Roma: Bulzoni Editore, 1996), p. 16. Dizionario biografico dell’educazione 1800-2000, ed. Giorgio Chiosso and Roberto Sani (Milano: Editrice Bibliografica, 2013). Gianfranco Pontini, I problemi della scuola italiana nei congressi dell’As.Pe.I. nel dopoguerra (diss., University of Padua, 1970/71), pp. XVII-XVIII. Bollettino della As.Pe.I., no. 10 (1975): 10. See also the minutes of the first meeting of the teachers who marked the reconstitution of the section of Padua, dated February 19, 1975, in the archive group “AS.Pe.I.” preserved by The Museum of Education of Padua University. Quando la scuola si accende. Innovazione didattica e trasformazione sociale negli anni Sessanta e Settanta, ed. Luisa Bellina, Alfiero Boschiero and Alessandro Casellato, special issue of Venetica, no. 2 (2012). Annalisa Tiozzo Caenazzo, Tra passato e presente. La sezione padovana As.Pe.I. dal 1950 ai giorni nostri (diss., University of Padua, 2017/18). Summary The section of Padua of the Italian Pedagogical Association (Associazione Pedagogica Italiana) in the late 20th century Fabio Targhetta The Italian Pedagogical Association (Associazione Pedagogica Italiana), founded in Flor- ence in 1950 by Giovanni Calò in cooperation with some of the major scholars of Pedagogy (Aldo Agazzi, Giovanni Maria Bertin, Giuseppe Flores d’Arcais), is still active throughout the country, thanks to the coordinated effort of the numerous local sections. The distinctive feature of the Italian Pedagogical Association is to bring together school teachers of all levels and university professors in order to improve and renovate the school and any other educational institution, as well as to enhance studies and researches in the field of Pedagogy and education. To this end, its work is mainly direct to the construction and the plan- ning of activities like training and upgrading of teachers and every person involved in education. 372 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 The section of Padua has distinguished itself since its founding by the organization of conferences and refresher courses for teachers of elementary schools. A significant amount of documentation relating to the activity of this section is currently preserved at the Museum of Education (University of Padua). It is possible to consult teachers’ meeting minutes, programs for refresher courses, lists of members, notes, lessons plans, collections of photographs, ad- ministrative documents, correspondence with the other sections, and so on. All these relevant documents, not yet studied, the proceedings of the National congress – including two sympo- siums organized in Padua (1956 and 1996) – and the examination of the Italian Pedagogical Association bulletin have made possible the reenactment of a very interesting experience of teachers’ association during the second half of the twentieth century. Povzetek Padovanska sekcija Italijanskega pedagoškega združenja (Associazione Pedagogica Italiana) v poznem 20. stoletju Fabio Targhetta Italijansko pedagoško združenje (Associazione Pedagogica Italiana), ki ga je leta 1950 v Firencah ustanovil Giovanni Calò v sodelovanju z nekaterimi večjimi učenjaki pedagogike (Aldo Agazzi, Giovanni Maria Bertin, Giuseppe Flores d'Arcais), je še vedno dejavno po vsej državi, zahvaljujoč usklajenemu prizadevanju številnih lokalnih sekcij. Posebnost programa Italijanskega pedagoškega združenja je povezovanje učiteljev vseh ravni izobrazbe in univerzitetne profesorje, da bi izboljšali in prenovili šolo in katerokoli drugo izobraževalno ustanovo, kot tudi izboljšali študij in raziskave na področju pedagogike. Delo združenja je usmerjeno predvsem v gradnjo in načrtovanje dejavnosti, kot sta usposabljanje in izpopolnjevanje učiteljev in vseh oseb, ki se ukvarjajo z izobraževanjem. Padovanska sekcija se vse od ustanovitve odlikuje po organizaciji konferenc in osveži- tvenih tečajev za osnovnošolske učitelje. Obsežna dokumentacija, ki se nanaša na dejavnosti sekcije, se trenutno hrani v Šolskem muzeju (Univerza v Padovi). Možno si je ogledati zapisnike pedagoških sestankov, programe za izpopolnjevalne tečaje, sezname članov, zapiske, učne načr- te, zbirke fotografij, upravne dokumente, dopisovanje z drugimi sekcijami itd. Vsi ti pomembni dokumenti, ki še niso bili proučeni, zborniki nacionalnih kongresov – vključno z dvema simpo- zijema, organiziranima v Padovi (1956 in 1996) - in pregled poročil Italijanskega pedagoškega združenja, so omogočili obnovo zelo zanimive izkušnje združenja učiteljev v drugi polovici 20. stoletja. 373Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations UDC 378.011.3-057.175:061.2:378.4(Ljubljana) 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 24. 2. 2014 Tea Anžur* The Association of University Professors of Ljubljana 1919–1945 Društvo univerzitetnih profesorjev v Ljubljani 1919–1945 Izvleček Ljubljanska univerza je že dve leti po nastan- ku – ob koncu leta 1921 – ustanovila društvo, ki je povezalo visokošolske profesorje in se je imenovalo »Udruženje visokošolskih učiteljev v Ljubljani.« Naloga društva je bila pomagati mladi univerzi, ki se je že kmalu po ustanovitvi srečevala z vrsto težav. Zlasti v prvem desetle- tju, to je v dvajsetih letih prejšnjega stoletja je Udruženje slovenskih profesorjev pomemb- no sodelovalo v boju za izboljšanje položaja slovenske univerze. Prizadevali so si zlasti za njeno neokrnjenost in obstoj. Po vojni je bilo Društvo več kot desetletje del sindikalne or- ganizacije, zato se je ukvarjalo s sindikalnimi problemi svojih članov (stanovanja, dopusto- vanja, urejanje posmrtninskega in kreditnega sklada). Njegova primarna naloga pa je bila tudi skrb za kakovostno delo svojih članov, prizadevanje za ustreznejši položaj univerzi- tetnih asistentov in ustvarjanje primernejših delovnih razmer na univerzi. Ključne besede: Univerza v Ljubljani, univerzitetni profesorji, društvo Key words: University of Ljubljana, university professors, association 15th Symposium on School Life, part 58. Visit us / obiščite nas - Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37712 Abstract Towards the end of 1921, two years after its foundation, the University of Ljubljana estab- lished an association of professors of higher education called “The Society of Teachers of Higher Education of Ljubljana”. Its mission was to provide support for the young univer- sity, faced with a number of difficulties soon after its foundation. In the first decade espe- cially – that is, in the 1920’s – the Association of Slovenian Professors played an important role in the struggle to improve the situation at the Slovenian university. Their main effort was to preserve its integrity and existence. Af- ter the Second World War more than a decade the Association was a part of the union and it was mainly dealing with current problems of the union members (housing, vacations and collective credit funds). Its main role was also to improve the status of university teachers and working conditions at University. * Tea Anžur, Univerza v Ljubljani / University of Ljubljana, Zgodovinski arhiv in muzej Univerze / University Historical Archives and Museum, Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia; e-mail: tea.anzur@uni-lj.si 374 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Introduction Archival material represents invaluable cultural heritage that is essential for the existence of any institution. For close to half a century, the University of Ljubljana has been archiving material in-house, overseen by a specialist service of the Rector's Office: the Archival-Museum Service or the University Histori- cal Archives and Museum (ZAMU). The service was founded when an expert was first appointed to the position of archivist and curator. By the decision of the University Council, Ana Benedetič, previously the curator of the Museum of Gorenjska in Kranj, filled the position on 1 September 1968. The idea of establish- ing University archives coincided with the preparations for the celebration of the University's 50th anniversary and was supported by the then-Rector, Dr. Roman Modic. Initially focused predominantly on museum activities, the new service was named the Museum-Archival Service; later the Service encountered increasing amounts of archival material and was renamed the University Archival-Museum Service. As planned and implemented from the very beginnings of the Service, the Historical Archives today employs three experts working in the fields of ar- chival, museum and library science. The Historical Archives and Museum now houses more than 500 linear metres (lm) of archival material in 10 stores. Profes- sionally processed and stored in suitable depots, the material has been labelled and made accessible to users. When it comes to museum matters, the University Historical Archives and Museum is responsible for documenting the movable cultural heritage of the University of Ljubljana. In the last decade alone, the Rector's Office has collected more than a hundred museum exhibits. The museum department has a photo library with more than 27,000 photographs, which have been professionally pro- cessed and organised chronologically and thematically. The archival reference library has some 4000 units, mainly monographs and fewer periodical literature, most of which were collected by the University administration, while some were also acquired through exchanges and purchases. The Historical Archives and Museum expert staff are well aware of the im- portance of material presentation for successful research work. Accordingly, they have organised a number of exhibitions about the University of Ljubljana building – the former Provincial Mansion –, the University rectors and Slovenia's great- est poet, France Prešeren, as well as detailed presentations of several University members: the Faculty of Law, the Biotechnical Faculty, the Faculty of Theology, the Faculty of Technical Sciences and the Faculty of Medicine. The exhibitions were accompanied by extensive exhibition catalogues or exhibition brochures; most exhibitions are available in digital form on the University website. The staff of the Historical Archives have published the results of their re- search activities in expert articles and discussions focused on the history of 375Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations schooling in Ljubljana and on professional archival and museum topics. The University Historical Archives and Museum has made contributions to science conferences in Vienna (1991), Ljubljana (1996), Ichenhausen in Bavaria (1996), Modinci (2000), Budapest (1999), Aachen (1996), Šmarje (2003), Križevci (2006), Bielefeld (2006) and elsewhere. As the subject of this year's international sympo- sium is the presentation of teaching staff and their associations as promoters of the teaching process, we are introducing (The Association of University Profes- sors of Ljubljana), established at the University of Ljubljana in 1921. No materials have been preserved from the earliest beginnings of the Association, but infor- mation was collected from the University Council and University administration minutes. However, we do have materials from the post-war period that date back to the period from 1954 to 1995; they include general meeting and executive board minutes, reports from commissions and pending matters. The Association of University Professors of Ljubljana The desire to establish a Slovenian university has a long history, dating back to the time of national awakening, the revolutionary year of 1848. One of the de- mands included in the Slovenian national programme was a Slovenian university. The idea had a solid foundation in the form of the established Jesuit higher educa- tion system and the Ljubljana Lyceum. However, the desire was not fulfilled until the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It was not until the beginnings of Yugoslavia that the long-ignored demand of the Slovenian nation was met. In 1918, the National Government in Ljubljana appointed the University Founding Board, headed by the President, Dr. Danilo Majaron, and the Secretary, Prof. Dr. Fran Ramovš, a young Slovenian linguist. The Board was tasked with laying the groundwork for establishing the university and finding the professorial staff, most of whom had previously worked at foreign, mainly Austrian universities and scientific institutions but had returned to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to find employment once Austrian universities began to dismiss univer- sity teachers of Slovenian nationality in the new political climate. In June 1919, when the University of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was estab- lished, it employed 18 professors. The full professors appointed at the Faculty of Theology were Dr. Aleš Ušeničnik for Christian philosophy, Dr. Franc Ušeničnik for pastoral theology and Dr. Ivan Zore for church history. At the Faculty of Law: Dr. Ivan Žolger, full professor at the University of Vienna, for international law; Dr. Leonid Pitamic, associate professor at the University of Černovice, for admin- istrative law; Dr. Bogumil Vošnjak, private assistant professor at the University of Zagreb, for Yugoslav public law; and Dr. Ivan Žmavc, curator of the university li- brary in Prague, for national economy. Dr. Žmavc turned down the position. The full professors appointed at the Faculty of Arts were Dr. Josip Plemelj, who had 376 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 previously lectured in mathematics at the University of Černovice; Dr. Rajko Nahtigal, Slavic linguistics lecturer in Graz, for gen- eral Yugoslav philology; Dr. Fran Ramovš, private assistant professor at the University of Graz, for the Slovenian language; and Dr. Ivan Prijatelj, curator of the Court Library in Vienna, for the history of modern Slavic literature with a special focus on Slovenian literature. The Faculty of Technical Sciences also appointed four full professors who had previously worked as professors or experts in various technical fields at different in- stitutions in Vienna. Dr. Rihard Zupančič, professor at the Vienna University of Tech- nology, was appointed mathematics lecturer; Dr. Karl Hinterlechner, mining councillor at the Geology Institute in Vienna, took over the fields of mineralogy and petrography; Dr. Maks Samec, teacher at the Vienna Re- alschule, was appointed chemistry lecturer; Dr. Ing. Milan Vidmar, assistant professor at the Vienna University of Technology, took over the field of electrical engineering. The Faculty of Medicine appointed two full pro- fessors who had previously lectured at the University of Prague, Dr. Albert Botteri, assistant professor of ophthalmology, and Dr. Alfred Šerko, a neurology and psy- chiatry expert, as well as appointing an associate professor, Dr. Janez Plečnik, who had attained his doctorate in Vienna and specialised in pathology, a subject that he later taught at the University of Ljubljana.1 The first university in Slovenia found its professors among Slovenian scientists who had already achieved habili- tation or had fulfilled most of the conditions for habilitation. Since there was a lack of qualified candidates, honorary professors and private assistant professors were used as a temporary solution. The University of Ljubljana also welcomed Russian immigrants who settled in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and sought employment.2 Further obstacles were posed by the government in Belgrade delaying new appointments. Additionally, there were requests for the closure of some faculties and even the University of Ljubljana itself – being the 1 Fifty years of the Slovenian university in Ljubljana 1919-1969, Ljubljana 1969, p. 64. 2 Tatjana Dekleva, Russian professors at the Faculty of Law in Ljubljana 1918-1945, Arhivi, XXI, Ljubljana 1998, p. 77. Prof. dr. Karel Hinterlechner, Professor at the Faculty of Technical Sciences, Member of the Association of University Professors and Rector of the University. (University of Ljubljana Historical Archives and Museum) 377Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations newest and smallest university compared to the universities in Belgrade in Za- greb, it was usually neglected in the national budget. As early as 1921, Belgrade called for the closure of two of the smaller Univer- sity of Ljubljana faculties, the Faculty of Medicine and the Faculty of Technical Sciences, despite the fact that both faculties had successfully formed their own institutions and achieved success without state support.3 Attempts to suppress the University of Ljubljana continued in the years that followed. In the 1922-1923 budget, as many as 14 full professorships were terminated, of which 7 had al- ready been filled, and remunerations for honorary professors and other items were reduced. On top of that, the closure of faculties was announced yet again.4 In order to combat these problems, facilitate the beginnings of the young Univer- sity of Ljubljana and ensure that it maintained its independence, on 8 December 1921 its professors established the Association of University Teachers in Ljublja- na (Udruženje visokošolskih učiteljev v Ljubljani), stating as their mission the protection and promotion of the interests of universities, other higher educa- tion schools and their teaching staff.5 The Association also aimed to defend the freedom of religion and education, and to support the preservation and mod- ern improvement of the autonomy of universities and other higher education schools. The Association was intended to protect the interests of teachers under any government and on any occasion with the aim of improving their material situation.6 Another way that the Association tried to achieve this was by coop- erating with the University Council in order to ensure a maximum degree of autonomy for the University. Following the measures undertaken by the govern- ment in Belgrade on 16 January 1925, including the non-academic retirement of several professors at the University of Zagreb without the knowledge and involve- ment of the academic authorities, the Association was united in lodging a protest with Nikola Pašić, the Prime Minister. At the same time, the University Council stated that it welcomes all attempts for a fair autonomy of our universities and that the government should only act against university professors with the full cooperation of the academic authorities. 7 Meanwhile, the Association of Uni- versity Teachers published a resolution strongly defending the autonomy of the University. Following a proposal from Prof. Dolenc, the resolution was supported by the University Council at the meeting on 20 November 1923.8 3 Ana Benedetič, Association activities from the founding to World War II, At the 70th anniversa- ry of the Association of University Professors, Ljubljana 1921-1991, Ljubljana 1991, p. 3. 4 Fifty years of the Slovenian university in Ljubljana 1919-1969, Ljubljana 1969, p. 70. 5 Slovenian commemorative collection of papers: At the 20th anniversary of the Kingdom of Yu- goslavia, Ljubljana 1939, p. 205. 6 Ibid. 7 Fifty years of the Slovenian university in Ljubljana 1919-1969, Ljubljana 1969, p. 72. 8 ZAMU IV, Minutes of the university council and university administration meetings, Minutes of the 1st university council of 20.11. 1923. 378 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 The young university was troubled by more than just its efforts for greater independence – due to the lack of state resources, it was threatened again by downsizing or even closure. In the 1923-1924 academic year, the proposed finan- cial act contained an article that stipulated the closure of the Faculty of Medicine and the Faculty of Technical Sciences. The University Council prepared a strong protest against this, stating that the University of Ljubljana is of the greatest cul- tural significance for the entire country and a prerequisite for the national survival of our nation outside the borders of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.9 Prof. Dr. Karel Hinterlechner, Rector and Association member, discussed the possible solutions in his treatise, The Issue of Universities in Yugoslavia with a Special Focus on the University of Ljubljana (Prašenje univerz v Jugoslaviji s posebnim ozirom na ljubljansko vseučilišče). He refuted the arguments against the continued existence of the Slovenian university by establishing that the clo- sure of the university would only save the state a negligible share of the national budget.10 In Belgrade they argued that the University of Ljubljana was producing far more graduates than were needed. Prof. Dr. Hinterlechner replied that the main purpose of the university was to "nurture objective science, disregarding even the needs of the university" and that teaching only came second. It was his belief that the first task of the university was to teach competent students about science and scientific methods, rather than to act as a "breeding ground" for fu- ture civil servants. The latter was only a secondary task, since "the state finds its most competent workers at academies".11 However, the matter of the continued existence and development of all the faculties and the fate of the University of Ljubljana was far from resolved. The discussion broke out anew at the University Council meeting on 25 November 1927; while preparing a university act, the Uni- versity Board drew up a draft that again planned the downsizing of the University and the closure of several faculties. Since there was no dedicated act governing the University of Ljubljana upon its founding, it was governed by the legisla- tion of the University of Belgrade. When the promised act for the University of Ljubljana failed to materialise, the early 1920s saw the drafting of a state-wide university act that reflected the intention of the central government to bring the three universities closer together and ensure the development of each individual field only at the university that offered the best conditions.12 Belgrade mainly fo- cused its attention on the two smallest faculties, the Faculty of Medicine and the Faculty of Technical Sciences. To stand up to them, at the suggestion of Prof. 9 ZAMU IV, Minutes of the university council and university administration meetings, Minutes of the 1st university council of 15. 10. 1923. 10 Fifty years of the Slovenian university in Ljubljana 1919-1969, Ljubljana 1969, p. 72. 11 Ibid. 12 The Faculty of Medicine at the University of Ljubljana 1919-1945, Exhibition catalogue, Ljublja- na 2012, p. 48. 379Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Dr. Ivan Plečnik the professors elected a three-member council to manage the national fund for maintaining the University.13 The council comprised members of the Association of University Teachers, professors Dr. Franc Ksaver Lukman, Dr. Karel Hinterlechner and Dr. Fran Eller.14 In support of the University, the University Council and the Rector, Prof. Dr. Rajko Nahtigal, submitted a plan for a resolution wherein it was emphasised that the Slovenian public supports the continued unimpeded operation of the University and that its closure would represent an illegal activity and a degradation of academic teachers,15 a statement that was supported by the professors, students and the political public alike. The Ministry of Culture devoted as many as 10 meetings to the matter of downsizing the University of Ljubljana. Late 1927 saw the publication of a printed memoran- dum entitled The Importance of the University of Ljubljana for Slovenians and the State of SCS, which was published and signed by 38 Slovenian associations. In the introduction, substantial arguments were stated for the existence of in- dividual faculties and their contribution to scientific development. In February 1928, a delegation from the University of Ljubljana working in conjunction with the Zagreb and Belgrade university boards succeeded in convincing the minister to eliminate from the financial act proposal the contentious articles that planned the closure of smaller faculties, thus preserving the existing situation. Another memorandum was drawn up, stating that university-related issues should be re- solved by a universities act rather than a financial act.16 The new act was later published in Službene novine on 28 June 1930 and preserved all the faculties of the University of Ljubljana and the full teaching staff brought together by the As- sociation of University Teachers. An important member of the Association was the professor and theologian Dr. Fran Ksaver Lukman, whose main contributions to the Slovenian culture were translations, interpretations of patristic literature and analyses of the history of early Christianity. Additionally, he was a full professor of historical dogmatics, the history of Old Christian literature and the history of the first three centuries of Christianity.17 Dr. Lukman was elected Rector at the University Council meet- ing on 31 May 1926. The January 6th dictatorship established by King Alexander and the central- ised organisation of the state in 1929 brought the Association activities to an end. In 1931, the abolished Slovenian Association of University Teachers was replaced 13 ZAMU IV, Minutes of the university council and university administration meetings, Minutes of the university council of 25. 11. 1927. 14 Ana Benedetič, Association activities from the founding to World War II, At the 70th anniversa- ry of the Association of University Professors, Ljubljana 1921-1991, Ljubljana 199 , p. 4. 15 Fifty years of the Slovenian university in Ljubljana 1919-1969, Ljubljana 1969, p. 75. 16 Fifty years of the Slovenian university in Ljubljana 1919-1969, Ljubljana 1969, p. 78. 17 Jože Ciperle, The University of Ljubljana and its rectors, dr. Franc Ksaver Lukman, Ljubljana 2006, p. 21. 380 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 by a single association known as the Association of University Teachers of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (Udruženje univerzitetskih nastavnika kraljevine Jugoslavije) with three sections in Bel- grade, Zagreb and Ljubljana. The first President of the Ljubljana Section was Prof. Dr. Rado Kušej. As of May 1935, the President of the Ljubljana Sec- tion of the Association of University Teachers of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was Prof. Dr. Marius Rebek, while as- sociate professor Dr. Ivan Tomšič was appointed Secretary on 26 November 1932.18 In this pre-war period, the Lju- bljana Section had an average of 40 to 75 members. Their role and involve- ment in resolving university-related issues is evident from the minutes of the University administration meet- ing on 19 November 1937. Dr. Rado Kušej reports on his visit to Belgrade, where, as the University of Ljubljana delegate, the Rector and Vice-rector gave him the finished proposals of the Belgrade Section for the future finan- cial act. While he had no objections to the proposals, he did highlight the irregular hierarchy that would enable an assis- tant professor to have a higher rank and salary than an associate professor and an associate professor was higher than a full professor. The importance of the visit is evidenced by the fact that the Belgrade University administration forwarded the proposals to the Minister of Education and assured the Ljubljana delegates that Kušej's arguments would be implemented.19 During the Italian occupation in World War II, the only way for professors to continue their work was within the context of the Association of Teachers in the Province of Ljubljana (Združenje šolnikov Ljubljanske pokrajine), which had a section for university professors and assistant professors. After the German occupying forces assumed power, General Lev Rupnik, the President of the pro- vincial administration, appointed Rihard Zupančič, professor of mathematics at 18 Ana Benedetič, Association activities from the founding to World War II, At the 70th anniversary of the Association of University Professors, Ljubljana 1921-1919, Ljubljana 1991, p. 7. 19 Ibid. "The Importance of the University of Ljubljana for Slovenes and the State of SHS", 1927. Title page. (University of Ljubljana Historical Archives and Museum) 381Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations the University of Ljubljana, State Commissioner of the Association of Teachers on 24 December 1943.20 After the war, in these new circumstances, the Association was reorganised and revived. Despite the relative proximity of the events in the 1950s through to the 1980s, the documentation from the period is incomplete due to frequent changes in the location of the Association offices. We are missing general meet- ing minutes and executive board meeting minutes for certain individual years. There is no information available for the year 1951, aside from the fact that Prof. Dr. Božidar Lavrič was elected as the first Association President. By 1983, the As- sociation had had 16 presidents, the last of whom was Dr. Anton Ogorevc. The Association was organised into commissions, sections and the Executive Board. Soon after 1952, three important commissions and two administrations were es- tablished: the Commission for the Organisation of Scientific Work, the Housing Commission, the Holiday Commission and the Administrations of the Pension Fund and the Death Benefit Fund. Later, several temporary commissions were established as and when required: the Terminology Commission, the Commis- sion for Textbooks and Lecture Notes, the Commission for Directed Education, the Commission for Daytrip Organisation, the Commission for Member Issues, the Code Commission, the Statute Commission, the Commission for Research and Teaching Assistant Issues, the Commission for Club Activities and others. 1983 saw the introduction of the Section of Retired University Professors, presided over by Prof. Dr. Ivan Bonač. The Section focused on new areas includ- ing physical and recreational activities, health lectures, lectures on current social issues, cultural activities, the organisation of daytrips and excursions and activi- ties in the club rooms as regulated by the Association rules. In keeping with the purpose of the Association, the rules prescribed suitable positions, roles, rights and obligations for professors, something that the Association focused on in all its activities. Continuing their activities after World War II, the Association members kept up with the conditions at the University, particularly when it came to im- portant matters such as university reforms, and sought common solutions for current political situations. They published many articles on the depoliticisation of education, supported a reorganisation of the University to achieve greater au- tonomy, supported the fight for human rights and the improvement of economic conditions, and focused particularly on the issue of pedagogical and research work at the University as well as the crucial role of professors in the process. When it comes to the new challenges of today, the Association sees a solution in changing the attitude of society towards education, especially higher education, and establishing a clear delineation of the vision for the development of higher education. 20 Anton Suhadolc, The life and work of mathematician Rihard Zupančič, Kronika 1-2, 49, Ljublja- na 2001, p. 91. 382 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Sources and Bibliography Sources ZAMU IV - Zgodovinski arhiv in muzej Univerze v Ljubljani [University of Ljubljana Historical Archives and Museum], Zapisniki sej univerzitetnega sveta in univerzitetne uprave 1919- 1945 [Minutes of the university council and university administration meetings]. Bibliography Petdeset let slovenske univerze v Ljubljani 1919-1969 [Fifty years of the Slovenian university in Ljubljana 1919-1969], Ljubljana 1969. Tatjana Dekleva: Ruski profesorji na pravni fakulteti v Ljubljani 1918-1945 [Russian professors at the Faculty of Law in Ljubljana 1918-1945], Arhivi, XX, Ljubljana 1998. Ana Benedetič: Dejavnost društva od ustanovitve do druge svetovne vojne, Ob sedemdesetlet- nici Društva univerzitetnih profesorjev, Ljubljana 1921-1991 [Association activities from the founding to World War II, At the 70th anniversary of the Association of University Professors, Ljubljana 1921-1991], Ljubljana 1991. Spominski zbornik Slovenije, Ob dvajsetletnici Kraljevine Jugoslavije [Slovenian commemo- rative collection of papers, At the 20th anniversary of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia], Ljubljana 1939. Jože Ciperle: Univerza v Ljubljani in njeni rektorji, dr. Karel Hinterlechner [The University of Ljubljana and its rectors, Dr. Karel Hinterlechner], Ljubljana 2006. Medicinska fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani 1919-1945, Razstavni katalog [The Faculty of Medi- cine at the University of Ljubljana 1919-1945, Exhibition catalogue], Ljubljana 2012. Anton Suhadolc: Življenje in delo matematika Riharda Zupančiča [The life and work of math- ematician Rihard Zupančič], Kronika 1-2, Ljubljana 2001. Summary The Association of University Professors of Ljubljana 1919-1945 Tea Anžur Towards the end of 1921, two years after its foundation, the University of Ljubljana estab- lished an association of professors of higher education called “The Association of University Professors of Ljubljana”. Its mission was to provide support for the young university, faced with a number of difficulties soon after its foundation. In the first decade especially – that is, in the 1920’s – the Association of Slovenian Professors played an important role in the struggle to improve the situation at the Slovenian university. Their main objective was to preserve its integrity and existence. In 1925, Professor PhD Karel Hinterlechner, Association member and University Rector, opposed the disbandment of the University and rejected criticism that the University of Ljubljana raised too many, graduate students, emphasizing that the University's main job was “to cultivate an impartial science, even disregarding the needs of the University”. The Association also worked closely with the University Council. Following the measures taken by the Belgrade government as a result of the non-academic retirement of some of the professors at the University of Zagreb without the knowledge and cooperation of the academic authori- ties, they responded together, expressing their disagreement. As for the costs necessary for the existence of the University, the staff, at the proposal of Professor PhD Ivan Plečnik, elected a three-member council, responsible for managing a national fund for the support of the Univer- 383Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations sity. It consisted of Professors PhD Franc Ksaver Lukman, PhD Karel Hinterlechner and PhD Fran Eller. When a new university law was being drafted (in 1930), the Society members were already deep in discussion on individual articles of the law in March 1928 at the general meet- ing. With its centralist system, the dictatorship of the 6th of January suppressed the operation of the Association. In 1931, the dissolved Slovenian “Society of University Teachers” was replaced by “The Association of University Teachers of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia” with three individual sections in Belgrade, Zagreb and Ljubljana. One year before the war, the Ljubljana section had an average membership of 40 to 75 people. During World War II, under Italian occupation, the Association of Schoolteachers of the Region of Ljubljana was formed with separate branches for university and assistant professors. After the war, the Association revived once again. Povzetek Društvo univerzitetnih profesorjev v Ljubljani 1919–1945 Tea Anžur Ljubljanska univerza je dve leti po nastanku – ob koncu leta 1921 – ustanovila društvo, ki je povezalo visokošolske profesorje in se je imenovalo »Udruženje visokošolskih učiteljev v Ljublja- ni.« Naloga društva je bila pomagati mladi univerzi, ki se je že kmalu po ustanovitvi srečevala z vrsto težav. Zlasti v prvem desetletju, to je v dvajsetih letih prejšnjega stoletja, je Udruženje slovenskih profesorjev pomembno sodelovalo v boju za izboljšanje položaja slovenske univer- ze. Prizadevali so si zlasti za njeno neokrnjenost in obstoj. Prof. dr. Karel Hinterlechner, član društva in rektor univerze, je leta 1925 nasprotoval ukinitvi univerze in zavračal očitke, da lju- bljanska univerza vzgoji preveč absolventov, ter poudaril, da je naloga univerze predvsem »nega nepristranske znanosti in to celo ne oziraje se na potrebe univerze«. Društvo je tesno sodelovalo tudi z univerzitetnim svetom. Ob ukrepih beograjske vlade zaradi neakademske upokojitve ne- katerih profesorjev na zagrebški univerzi brez vednosti in sodelovanja akademskih oblasti so skupaj nastopili in izrazili nestrinjanje. Glede stroškov, ki so bili potrebni za obstoj univerze, je profesorski svet na predlog prof. dr. Ivana Plečnika izvolil tričlanski svet, ki je vodil narodni fond za vzdrževanje univerze. V njem so bil profesorji dr. Franc Ksaver Lukman, dr. Karel Hin- terlechner in dr. Fran Eller. Ko se je pripravljal nov zakon o univerzi (1930), so člani Udruženja o posameznih členih zakona že marca 1928 zelo aktivno razpravljali na občnem zboru. Šesto- januarska diktatura je s svojim centralističnim sistemom zatrla delovanje društva. Leta 1931 je ukinjeno slovensko »Udruženje univerzitetnih nastavnikov» nadomestilo »Udruženje univerzi- tetskih nastavnika kraljevine Jugoslavije« s tremi sekcijami v Beogradu, Zagrebu in Ljubljani. Leta pred drugo svetovno vojno je bilo v ljubljanski sekciji Udruženja včlanjenih povprečno 40 do 75 oseb. Med drugo svetovno vojno v času italijanske okupacije je delovalo Združenje šolnikov Ljubljanske pokrajine s posebnim odsekom za univerzitetne profesorje in docente. Po vojni je društvo znova zaživelo. 384 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 UDC UDC 37.011.3-051:061.2:069(437.3Praga) 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 18. 3. 2014 Jan Šimek* The importance of teachers' associations in the establishment of pedagogical museum in Prague Pomen učiteljskih društev za nastanek pedagoškega muzeja v Pragi Izvleček Leta 1880 je bila ustanovljena „Centralna zveza učiteljskih društev“ (Ústřední spolek je- dnot učitelských), ki je povezovala posamezna regionalna društva čeških osnovnošolskih uči- teljev. Dejavnosti centralne zveze so bile precej široke. Prispevek bo na kratko predstavil cen- tralno društvo, predvsem pa se bo osredotočil na problem nastajanja češkega pedagoškega muzeja in prva desetletja njegovega ob- stoja. Stalna razstava učnih pripomočkov (1890) je neločljivo povezana z Josefom Kli- ko (1857-1906), izjemnim učiteljem, aktivnim organizatorjem in vodjo praških učiteljev, ki je bil dejaven tudi pri „Centralni zvezi učitelj- skih društev“. Društvo je realiziralo mnoge projekte, med drugim je leta 1892 ustanovilo muzej Komenskega. Dediščina Josefa Klike je del zbirk Narodnega pedagoškega muzeja in knjižnice J. A. Komenskega v Pragi, kjer so shranjeni tudi drugi viri na to temo. Abstract: In 1880 the “Central Association of Teachers’ Unities” (Ústřední spolek jednot učitelských) which unified other regional “unities” (as- sociations) of Czech teachers of elementary schools was established. The activities of this Central Association were considerably wide. This contribution briefly introduces the Cen- tral Association itself, but will primarily focus on the problem of formation of the Czech pedagogical museum and the first decades of its existence. The Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids (1890) is inseparably connected with Josef Klika (1857-1906), an outstanding teacher and active organizer and leader of Prague teachers, who was also engaged in the “Central Association of Teachers Unities”. This Association realised many extraordi- nary projects, including the founding of the Comenius Museum in 1892. The inheritance of Josef Klika is a part of collections of The National pedagogical museum and Library of J. A. Comenius in Prague, where mostly other sources on this issue are deposited. * Jan Šimek, PhD, National Pedagogical Museum and Library of J. A. Comenius / Národní pedagogické muzeum a knihovna J. A. Komenského, Praha, Czech Republic; e-mail: jan.simek@npmk.cz 385Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Ključne besede: učiteljska združenja, pedagoški muzej, muzej Komenskega, Josef Klika, Praga Key words: teachers association, pedagogical museum, Comenius Museum, Josef Klika, Prague 15th Symposium on School Life, part 42. Visit us / obiščite nas - Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37693 Among all manner of missions met by teachers’ associations in Bohemia in the second half of the 19th century, there is also effort to found a pedagogical mu- seum in Prague. This contribution tries to outline the history of these efforts in a broader context of origins and development of associations of teachers as such. Beginnings of the associations’ life can be noticed already in the first half of the 19th century; nevertheless the real boom of associations came only after the so called “great association act” was passed in 1867. This act was considerably liberal. The development of associations’ life was really enormous after this act was adopted: while in the beginning of the 1870s, there were 3,367 associations in Bohemia, in the late 1880s there were already 10,547 of them (i.e. three times more).1 Associations’ life became a characteristic of Czech society in the last third of the 19th century, and naturally teachers were imbued by it as well. Teachers as a professional group went through a distinct change in the late 60s of the 19th century: the concordat between the Holy See and the Austrian Em- pire of 1855 guaranteed a privileged position to the Catholic Church in the sphere of education (the church supervised both schools and textbooks). Nevertheless influence of the Church bowed after the lost war with Prussia and with accession of the liberal government in the Austrian Empire; this process culminated by is- suance of the so called Hasners’ School Act of 1869. Teachers´associations - generally was used designation “teachers’ unity” (učitelská jednota) accompanied by the name of the locality where the respective association worked - became a place where the new professional self-confidence of teachers, who were freed from a direct Church’s supervision, was formed. An important mission of associations was protection of teachers’ social interests, which means they operated as trade union sui generis (interest in social issues of course doesn´t made from teachers´ associations real trade unions). At the same time they played a great role at discussing topical pedagogical issues, and their enlightenment activity was also very important, no matter if they addressed members of the association (lectures on various pedagogical topics or focusing on current problems of contemporary schooling), or wider public (public lectures on themes from miscellaneous scientific disciplines, issuing of popularising pub- lications etc.). 1 Lašťovka, Marek [et al.]. Pražské spolky: soupis pražských spolků na základě úředních evidencí z let 1895-1990, Praha 1998, p. 36. 386 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 The first teachers’ association in Prague was established in 1867, followed by associations in other cities soon – only in 1870 32 teachers’ associations were established and the number continued to increas also in the following years;2 the minimum number of members of one association fluctuated between 10-20 per- sons, larger association could have over 50 members.3 Teachers’ associations were overwhelmingly organised according to the regional principle – members of one association had one common employer, i.e. a relevant district education office. It is necessary to point out that the associations were divided also according to nations – teachers from Czech and German schools were united in different as- sociations (and then the associations of Czech teachers became centres of the Czech patriotic movement). This paper deals only with Czech associations and we leave entirely aside the largest association “Central School Foundation” (Ústřední matice školská) founded in 1880, which aimed specific objectives – the purpose of its existence was the formation and support of Czech schools in areas where the ethnic German population predominated (similar in the territories with superior- ity of Czech population served “Deutscher Schulverein”, founded also in 1880).4 Whole land teachers’ conventions provided with an opportunity of mul- ti-regional meetings. The first one was held in Prague in 1870, the second one year later in the Moravian town Přerov. However, while striving to organise other conventions, teachers met with problems from the side of state administration.5 Already in the 70s the effort aroused to found a central organisation, which would cover relevant regional teachers’ associations. This idea was managed to be imple- mented in 1880, when the “Central Association of Teachers’ Unities”6 (Ústřední spolek jednot učitelských) was established. So the activities of teachers´ associa- tion were characterized by a strong base at the regional level which after some time felt the need to establish a central organization, not as it might be in other cases when the strong central organization established local branches. And so a great professional teachers’ organisation was established that became a strong partner at negotiations with the “Land Board of Education” (Zemská školní rada) 2 Pulpán, František. Dějiny Zemského ústředního spolku jednot učitelských v Čechách, Praha 1931, p. 5. 3 Otcovský, Ivan. Soupis učitelských a školských spolků v Čechách do roku 1900: soupis podle po- litických okresů z r. 1880, Praha 1977, p. 10. 4 Details in Otcovský, Ivan. Soupis učitelských a školských spolků v Čechách do roku 1900: soupis podle politických okresů z r. 1880, Praha 1977, p. 17-19. 5 Cikhart, Roman. Padesát let Zemského ústředního spolku jednot učitelských v Čechách 1880- 1930, Praha 1932, p. 54-55 (in addition to the information about the first teachers´conventions is also given a list of conventions until 1920). 6 Pulpán, František. Dějiny Zemského ústředního spolku jednot učitelských v Čechách, Praha 1931, p. 7. 387Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations not only in terms of organisation of whole land teachers’ conventions.7 The Cen- tral Association provided state administration with its positions to educational legislation, fought for detaching of education from the Church’s influence, and promoted higher education of teachers: a never implemented dream was a uni- versity education also for primary school teachers, but even though the Central Association was not successful in this direction, it still contributed to a reform of teachers’ institutions and supported self-education of teachers.8 One of the biggest topics was the fight for higher salaries for teachers – the issue of material 7 The mission of „Central Association of Teachers’ Unities“ is simply and clearly expressed in the first statues - the three main tasks of the Association are: 1) to support the education of teachers 2) to improve the teaching and the school system 3) to defend and promote the interests of te- achers - according to Pulpán, František. Dějiny Zemského ústředního spolku jednot učitelských v Čechách, Praha 1931, p. 7. 8 Cikhart, Roman. Padesát let Zemského ústředního spolku jednot učitelských v Čechách 1880- 1930, Praha 1932, p. 16-21. The "Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids" - Teachers Hall of Fame (room Nr. I.), photo from the early 20th century. (All photographs are from sub-collection of photographs of the National Pedagogical Museum and Library of J. A. Comenius in Prague) 388 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 security of primary school teachers was discussed each and every year, neverthe- less it was never solved to teachers’ satisfaction.9 Besides the fight for a better legal and social status of teachers, the “Central Association of Teachers’ Unities” devoted itself to issues linked directly to school and teaching: as a platform for expert discussions served – apart from annual conventions – newly established professional periodicals.10 To improve the level of visual teaching, there were organised exhibitions of teaching aids both during the whole land teachers’ conventions, and by particular teachers’ unities within districts. However, the “Central Association of Teachers’ Unities” began from its very establishment to strive for permanent exhibition of teaching aids – their col- lection should become one of component parts of the pedagogical museum one day.11 Even though the Central Association represented considerable number of teachers, it was beyond their limits to finance the pedagogical museum - there- fore they decided to ask the city of Prague for support. But the municipal council did not react to the proposal of 1880. For that reason teachers decided pragmati- cally not to ask for the establishment of the pedagogical museum, which would document systematically the past and the present of Czech education, but they asked only for the establishment of a permanent exhibition of teaching aids. Sup- port was promised to this request in 1881, but it took nine more years till a suitable room was found and prepared, and the exhibition was opened to the public. It happened primarily thanks to unremitting efforts of a Prague teacher, author of numerous textbooks, and designer of teaching aids, Josef Klika (1857- 1906), who was significantly engaged in the Prague teachers’ association “Budeč” and served as a secretary of the Central Association for several years. For Klika it was very important that teachers have the possibility to familiarise themselves thoroughly ideally with all teaching aids, which were available on the market, to try them and only then to decide, which of them they would use in teaching.12 After the exhibition committee headed by the chairman K. Urlich and secretary J. Klika managed to arrange premises for the exhibition, to get a regular annual subvention from the city of Prague, and examples of teaching aids from most 9 Details in Kodedová, Oldřiška - Uherek, Zdeněk. Kapitoly z dějin českého učitelstva (1890-1938), Praha 1972, p. 9-22. 10 In addition to the Journal of the Association („Věstník Ústředního spolku jednot učitelských“) with supplement „Czech school“ („Česká škola“) was from September 1897 published biweekly „Czech teacher“ („Český učitel“) and since 1905 „Revue for Teaching aids“ („Revue učebných pomůcek“), after the First World War a magazine „School reforms“ („Školské reformy“). Infor- mation about the associational press taken from Cikhart, Roman. Padesát let Zemského ústřed- ního spolku jednot učitelských v Čechách 1880-1930, Praha 1932, p. 57-59. 11 Details about initial efforts on the establishment of the czech pedagogical museum see Šimek, Jan. Úloha spolků v počátcích pražského pedagogického muzea, In Muzejní spolky včera a dnes. Sborník příspěvků ze semináře k 20. výročí obnovení Včely Čáslavské, Čáslav 2011, p. 84. 12 Klika, Josef. Stálá výstava školská v Praze, dějiny myšlénky, rozvoj a zřízení její. Praha 1890, p. 7. 389Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations of Czech firms dealing with production of them, the “Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids” was opened to the teachers’ public in 1890.13 Its purpose, that is to serve for improvement of visual teaching at schools, fulfilled very good from its very beginning, even though it began to face with lack of space to exhibit all teaching aids and also the annual subsidies for running the exhibition ceased to be sufficient. Running the exhibition was provided by volunteers from Prague teachers, who took care for both exhibits themselves, and performed various ad- ministrative tasks (all of them as volunteer without any reward). Josef Klika functioned as a secretary of the “Permanent Exhibition” in the first years, but his organisation soon took a turn for a different direction: 1892 was the 300th anniversary of the birth of J. A. Comenius and Klika became one of the main organisers of these celebrations (he himself was an excellent expert in the 13 National Pedagogical Museum and Library of J. A. Comenius in Prague, sub-collection Archive of documents, sign. 15-21, Denník stálé výstavy školské v Praze, p. 17. Ground plan of rooms on Jungmannovo náměstí (Jungmann Square) in Prague, where between 1896-1916 the "Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids" was located (including collections "Teachers' Hall of Fame" and "Comenius Museum"): I. "Teachers Hall of Fame"; "Comenius Museum"; II. Geography, history, visual teaching, languages, religious education; III. Drawing, geometry, writing; IV. Natural history, physics, special schools (England), singing; V. Women's handwork; VI. Committee Office. 390 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 work of J. A. Comenius and popularised his thoughts in several publications).14 The “Museum of Comenius” was founded also from his initiative – a collection of objects, which were linked in any way to Comenius: pictures and sculptures of him, prints of his works (no matter if original editions of the 17th century or later editions), or publications about him. The Museum was opened on the day of Comenius birthday, March 28th, 1892 and after the jubilee celebrations it was attached as a parallel collection to the “Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids”.15 In 1892, there existed the “Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids” and the “Museum of Comenius” in Prague, in the same building and administered by one exhibition committee. Members of the exhibition committee were until 14 In the jubilee year 1892 prepared Klika 3 publications about Comenius, each focused on diffe- rent group of readers - Klika, Josef. Jan Amos Komenský: Čech, učitel národů, křesťan, charak- ter. Praha 1892, 193 p.; Klika, Josef. Komenského život a práce. Praha 1892, 106 p.; Klika, Josef. O slavném Čechu Komenském. Praha 1892, p. 40. 15 National Pedagogical Museum and Library of J. A. Comenius in Prague, sub-collection Archive of documents, sign. 15-21, Denník Musea Komenského, p. 2. "Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids" - Geography, history, visual teaching (room Nr. II.), photo from the early 20th century. 391Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations 1905 elected from those teachers who organized and managed “district teach- ers´ library”. After 1905 matters of library and the exhibition were separated and the committee of the “Permanent Exhibition” was elected directly from mem- bers of “district teachers´ convention” (under the law were members of “district teachers´convention” all teachers of the district, which for the “Permanent Exhi- bition” meant all teachers from Prague).16 These two collections were considered to be the basis for the pedagogical museum. According to teachers’ ideas the museum should have been designed more generally, to concentrate on documentation of the past, to have its own printing house and to publish, to organise lectures and to fulfil also some re- search tasks in the field of pedagogy. No matter how vivid the thoughts of such a museum were, teachers’ organisations unifying teachers of schools of lower lev- els did not start the realisation of the museum that was planned this way till the end of the 19th century. It was not a sign of lack of abilities of their representatives, 16 Jandl, Antonín. Stálá výstava školská v Praze, její vznik a vývoj od r. 1879 do r. 1909. Praha 1909, p. 8. "Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids" - Drawing (room Nr. III.), photo from the early 20th century. 392 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 more likely it was a result of realistic appreciation of their own possibilities: it was obvious that the museum would not manage without financial support of the land or the state, and they did not succeed in getting this support. Primary school teachers were therefore satisfied with existence of the “Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids”, which was growing enjoyably thanks to their efforts. Secondary school teachers took over the initiative in the matter of a broader conceived pedagogical museum and founded the “Society of the Czech Pedagogi- cal Museum” in 1906.17 In their plans they anticipated documentation of the past and the present Czech education, a broad enlightenment and publishing activity, and even a research pedagogical section.18 But secondary school professors did not manage to obtain financial support from the state administration, and therefore the project was not able to be implemented in the originally planned scope. The Museum Society succeeded in the creation of a voluminous and valuable library of pedagogical literature, acquired under the administration of the “Museum of Comenius”, and the collection of inheritances of various excellent teachers called the “Teachers´ Hall of Fame” (Učitelský Slavín) and on December 3rd, 1916 the “Pedagogical Comenius Museum” was inaugurated. The “Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids” was located in the same building, and its committee collabo- rated closely with the museum´s committee, but rejected strictly the inclusion of teaching aids collection in museum.19 The situation of the “Pedagogical Comenius Museum” changed only after the Austria-Hungary ceased to exist, when the “Pedagogical Institute of Come- nius” was founded in the Czechoslovak Republic its activity was very similar to the concept formulated by the Museum Society. Because many members of the Museum Society took influential positions in the Ministry of Education, a plan for fusion of the Museum with the Institute was adopted – it seemed that it would bring a bright future for the Museum, since it gained access to state subsidies. Unfortunately the “Pedagogical Institute of Comenius” was abolished in 1925, and together with it the Museum came to an end as well. It was renewed only in the 50s of the 20th century (only the “Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids” and pedagogical library survived the year 1925, and existed autonomously in the following decades). In conclusion it is possible to say that although teachers’ associations did not manage to realise a broadly conceived pedagogical museum in the 19th centu- ry, there originated its basis in a form of the “Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids” and the “Museum of Comenius”. In the view of limited financial resources 17 This Society sought to establish an institution called "Pedagogical Comenius Museum" - one part of this museum should be the collection of objects and publications connected with J. A. Comenius which was called "Museum of Comenius". 18 Patočka, Josef. Pedagogické museum Komenského v Praze. Praha 1919, p. 8-9. 19 Jandl, Antonín. Stálá výstava školská v Praze, její vznik a vývoj od r. 1879 do r. 1909. Praha 1909, p. 27-28; more details are present in typescript Stálá výstava školská (without author and dating, probably1945-48), deposit in National Pedagogical Museum and Library of J. A. Comenius in Prague, source Archiv dějin učitelstva, inv. č. 278/368, p. 12-14. 393Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations of teachers’ associations – and particularly considering that foundation of a ped- agogical museum was not among the utmost priorities of their activity – it can be viewed as a success. Talking about importance of teachers’ associations it is nec- essary to add that a decisive role at formation of the “Permanent Exhibition” and the “Museum of Comenius” was played by selfless personal efforts of individuals – particularly of Josef Klika, Karel Urlich, Adolf Frumar and other members of the first exhibition committee. The today´s “National Pedagogical Museum and Library of J. A. Comenius” in Prague was de facto established in 1956, when the Ministry of Education heard out the long-term efforts of teachers and historians after the restoration of the pedagogical museum. The situation then was favourable, because the year 1957 was marked by great celebrations of 300 years since the publication of Comenius didactical opus magnum "Opera Didactica Omnia" (it was published in Amster- dam in 1657). Museum supporters pointed to the fact that it would be a great opportunity to revive the defunct "Museum of Comenius", which was founded in 1892, at the 300th Comenius’s birthday jubilee. As mentioned, the "Museum of Josef Klika (1857-1906), as a 33-year-old teacher and later. He was one of the founders of the "Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids" and "Comenius Museum." (All photographs are from sub-collection of photographs of the National Pedagogical Museum and Library of J. A. Comenius in Prague; some also on web: http://www.cesonline.cz/arl-ces/cs/detail-ces_us_cat- psb0002573-21-Fotografie-filmy-videozaznamy-a-jina-media/) 394 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Comenius" founded in 1892 was not an independent museum institution, but the reference to the "museum" established at the previous Comenius jubilee fulfilled its function and the museum was restored in 1956. The today´s “National Pedagogical Museum and Library of J. A. Comenius”, which employs almost 50 employees, is divided into two organizational units: the first part is a museum, which manages five sub-collections (archive of written documents, historical sub-collection, sub-collection of photographs, sub-collec- tion of books and textbooks, sub-collection of school equipment and teaching aids) and the second part is a public library focused on textbooks, literature for children and specialized literature from branches as pedagogy or psychology. We could ask whether the today's relatively large pedagogical museum in Prague would exist if hundreds of Czech teachers-volunteers in the late 19th century did not sacrifice so many hours of their free time with efforts for the establishing and maintenance of its ancestors: Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids, Museum of Comenius and Pedagogical Comenius Museum. I personally believe that the role of teachers and teachers associations was in this regard irreplaceable. Sources and Literature: Stálá výstava školská (typescript without author and dating- probably 1945-48), deposit in National Pedagogical Museum and Library of J. A. Comenius in Prague, source Archiv dějin učitelstva, inv. č. 278/368. National Pedagogical Museum and Library of J. A. Comenius in Prague, sub-collection Archive of documents, sign. 15-21, Denník stálé výstavy školské v Praze (volume 27 x 44 cm, 226 written pages). National Pedagogical Museum and Library of J. A. Comenius in Prague, sub-collection Archive of documents, sign. 15-21, Denník Musea Komenského (volume 27 x 44 cm, 17 written pages). Cikhart, Roman. Padesát let Zemského ústředního spolku jednot učitelských v Čechách 1880-1930, Praha 1932, p 179. Jandl, Antonín. Stálá výstava školská v Praze, její vznik a vývoj od r. 1879 do r. 1909. Praha 1909, p. 54. Klika, Josef. Stálá výstava školská v Praze, dějiny myšlénky, rozvoj a zřízení její. Praha 1890, p. 8. Kodedová, Oldřiška - Uherek, Zdeněk. Kapitoly z dějin českého učitelstva (1890-1938), Praha 1972, p. 159. Lašťovka, Marek [et al.] Pražské spolky: soupis pražských spolků na základě úředních evi- dencí z let 1895-1990, Praha 1998, p. 742. Otcovský, Ivan. Soupis učitelských a školských spolků v Čechách do roku 1900: soupis podle politických okresů z r. 1880, Praha 1977, p. 483. Patočka, Josef. Pedagogické museum Komenského v Praze. Praha 1919, p. 11. Pulpán, František. Dějiny Zemského ústředního spolku jednot učitelských v Čechách, Pra- ha 1931, p. 152. Šimek, Jan. Úloha spolků v počátcích pražského pedagogického muzea, in Drahomíra Nováková (ed.). Muzejní spolky včera a dnes. Sborník příspěvků ze semináře k 20. výročí obnovení Včely Čáslavské, Čáslav 2011, p. 83-98. 395Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Summary The importance of teachers' associations in the establishment of pedagogical museum in Prague Jan Šimek In 1880 the “Central Association of Teachers’ Unities” ”(Ústřední spolek jednot učitelských) which unified other regional “unities” (associations) of Czech elemenetary school teachers was established. The activities of this Central Association were considerably wide, the range of ques- tions discussed at the annual general meetings included matters from questions concerning material provision of teachers (in the last decades of the 19th century it was a significant part of the agenda of Association) to the practical issues of teaching methods. This contribution briefly introduces the Central Association itself, but primarily it will focus on the problem of the forma- tion of the Czech pedagogical museum and the first decades of its existence. The idea of establishing a museum was partially realized in 1890, when the “Permanent Exhibition of Teaching Aids” (so not directly the museum which was originally intended) was opened. The formation of the Permanent school exhibition is inseparably connected with Josef Klika (1857-1906), an outstanding teacher and active organizer and leader of Prague teachers, who was also engaged in the “Central Association of Teachers Unities”. Therefore this contribu- tion cannot omit this extraordinary personality of the movement of Czech teachers in the last decades of the 19th century. In fact, Josef Klika is a good example to demonstrate, how the strong individuality was able to realize through the Teachers Associationso many extraordinary projects, e. g. the founding of the Permanent exhibition /1890, the founding of the Comenius Museum (1892) or the publishing of the Encyclopedia of Education, the greatest scientific and editorial project of Czech teach- ers in the 19th century. The inheritance of Josef Klika is part of the collections of The National pedagogical museum and Library of J. A. Comenius in Prague, where mostly other sources on this issue are deposited. 396 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 UDC/UDK37:930.85:069(450.521) 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 23. 4. 2019 Chiara Grassi* The training of teachers in the National Museum of School (Museo Nazionale della Scuola), Florence (1925-1945) Izobraževanje učiteljev v Narodnem šolskem muzeju (Museo Nazionale della Scuola) v Firencah (1925-1945) Izvleček Prva razstava iz leta 1925 v Narodnem šol- skem muzeju (Museo Nazionale della Scuola) v Firencah, ki je prikazovala šolsko življe- nje in napredek v izobraževanju, je leta 1929 postala stalna razstava Državnega didaktič- nega muzeja (Museo Didattico Nazionale). Glavna naloga muzeja je bilo nadaljevanje usposabljanja učiteljev prek predstavljanja domiselnih didaktičnih eksperimentov, ki so jih spretno zasnovali eksperimentalni didak- tični centri in šolski muzej. Razstavni prostor je tako postal prostor za prikaz napredka šole in točka centralizacije in nadzora za di- daktično prenovo italijanske šole, kjer naj bi se usposabljal učitelj, zlasti osnovnošolski učitelj, ki je imel ključno vlogo pri prenosu nacionalne identitete in s fašistično ideologijo skladne kulture novim generacijam skozi me- dij izobraževanja. Ključne besede: šolski muzej, učiteljstvo, Firence, zgodovina izobraževanja Key words: school museum, teachers, Florence, history of education 15th Symposium on School Life, part 24. Visit us / obiščite nas - Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37672 Abstract The first exhibition in 1925 at the National School Museum (Museo Nazionale della Scu- ola) in Florence, that illustrated school life and educational progress, became in 1929 a permanent form as the National Didactic Museum (Museo Didattico Nazionale). The primary task of the museum was meant to be that of furthering the training of teachers by showing them the ingenious didactic experi- ments cleverly devised by the Experimental didactic centers and scholastic museum. The exhibition space thus became a display area for the progress of the school and a point of centralisation and control for the didac- tic renewal of the Italian school, where the schoolmaster was to be trained, in particular the elementary schoolmaster, who was in- vested with a key role in the transmission of national identity and of a culture consistent with Fascist ideology, to the new generations through the medium of education. * Chiara Grassi, PhD Researcher in “Pedagogical Research Methods, Theory and History” and Primary Teacher; e-mail: chiara.grassi1968@gmail.com 397Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations My purpose is to study the training of teachers in the School Museum of Florence in this historic period. The research, conducted through an analysis of the available sources and suitable materials (bibliographic, archival, photo- graphic), shows in emblematic fashion how an entire series of communicative, theatrical and propagandistic strategies was actuated, and was then filtered through the educational, pedagogic and social potential of the museum, so as to construct a collective awareness adapted to the exigencies of the new society promoted by the Fascist Regime. In this connection, the present research project has as its objective an his- torical investigation of the role and contribution of museums in the informal educational process, focusing on a particular example, the National Museum of the School in Florence, setting it in the context of the history of Italian museums in the twentieth century and in particular in the two decades of Fascism. The museum is a cultural institution that acts as custodian of a society’s of- ficial historical memory, a semantic and epistemological accumulation, actuated according to motivations and choices that reflect the anthropological-cultural system of those who produce it, who deem certain objects as worthy of being preserved not for their utile value but for their significance as ‘semiophores’, which according to Krzysztof Pomian1 play an important role in organising the transmission of values, the passing on of a civilisation’s traditions to future gen- erations, as theorised by Jacques Le Goff2 who makes the connection between ‘monument’ and ‘document’. The principal European museums have participated in the definition of the new bourgeois knowledge and, in the reading of Michel Foucault,3 they also function, together with other political, social and administrative institutions, through rational classifications, in the relations between knowledge and power, control and order that totalitarian regimes, in their permeation of society, have not failed to invoke.4 An emblematic case was the Museo Pedagógico Nacional in Madrid, which was founded by the educationalist Manuel Bartolomé Cossío in 1882. It played an important role in the development of educational studies, but was obliged in 1941 to unite its own activities with those of the CSIC (Consejo Superior de Inves- tigaciones Científicas), the Franco government’s organ of political control.5 The regime most attentive to the school-museum relationship was that of the Soviet Union, which set up new museums in the service of universities and research institutes, where courses were organised with the involvement of teachers and scholars, in organic relationship with the world of state schooling.6 1 Krzysztof Pomian, Che cos’è la storia (Milano: Mondadori, 2001). 2 Jacques Le Goff, Storia e memoria (Torino: Einaudi, 1972). 3 Michel Foucault, Sorvegliare e punire (Torino: Einaudi, 1976), p. 161. 4 Peter Vergo, The New museology (London: Reaction Books, 1989). 5 María Bolaños, Historia de los museos en España (Gijón: Ediciones Trea, 1997). 6 Giovanni Pinna, “I musei nelle dittature: Germania, Italia, Spagna,” Nuova Museologia n. 21 (2009), p. 2. 398 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 To return to the case of Italy, the museum-school relationship took concrete form from the mounting of a national didactic Exhibition in 1925 in Florence, which displayed educational and pedagogical material from Italian schools, with the objective of casting light on the results obtained by the Gentile Reform of 1923, reflecting the regime’s desire to bring schools into line with Fascist prin- ciples. The Exhibition that illustrated the Italian school life and educational progress in 1929 was given permanent form as the National Didactic Museum at the University of Florence, a space for the observation, documentation and study of the progress of the national culture, for the training of teachers. In 1937 it changed its name to National Museum of the School, being more concerned with the development of new ideas and experimentation in the pedagogic field, with the historical study of national education and of Italian educational institu- tions, revealing the role historically played by Italian civilisation and culture and evaluating the nation’s educational tradition.7 The exhibition space thus became a display area for the progress of the school and a point of centralisation and control for the didactic renewal of the Italian school, where the schoolmaster was to be trained, in particular the el- ementary schoolmaster, who was invested with a key role in the transmission of national identity and of a culture consistent with Fascist ideology, to the new generations through the medium of education. We know that Fascism took an interest in education, having identified it as a strategic point in the development of future Fascists, paying special attention to elementary education.8 In the educational sector there was an attempt to centralise at the didactic level, and to identify strategic structures able to control the school, putting a 7 Statute of 26 August 1937 which set up in Florence a “National Didactic Museum” attached to the Royal University. 8 Jürgen Charnitzky, Fascismo e scuola. La politica scolastica del regime (1922-1943) (Firenze: La Nuova Italia,1996). Ester De Fort, La scuola elementare dall’Unità alla caduta del fascismo (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1996). National School Museum (Museo Nazionale della Scuola) in Florence, since 1925 (http://www.indire.it/home/storia/ acessed 10. 10. 2019) 399Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations brake on its autonomy. The school, taking on the nature of an ideological ap- paratus, was to ensure the complete adherence of young people to Fascism, in accordance with the triple injunction “credere, obbedire, combattere” [believe, obey, fight]. With the dissolution of all trade unions in 1926, the teachers’ asso- ciations were re-grouped into “la corporazione della scuola”, the association for Fascist teachers. The primary task of the Museum was meant to be that of furthering the training of teachers by showing them the ingenious didactic experiments cleverly devised by the scholastic museum and experimental didactic centres. The Carta della Scuola [School Charter],9 issued in 1939 by Giuseppe Bottai, Minister of National Education 1936-1943, was a series of reforms of the national school system, expressing the Regime’s educational principles, that was intended to confer on the school a corporate nature under direct state control. In practice only a small number of its directives were applied. In the text of the ‘XXIII Di- chiarazione’ that deals with teachers, emphasis was placed on the importance of preparing schoolmasters by means of experimental didactic centres and scholas- tic museums. The scope of the new national didactic centres,10 set up to encourage study and research for the renewal of the school system, was “to document personages and events of the Italian educational tradition; to constitute the power-centre for the didactic renewal of the Italian school”.11 The Florence centre was the first, and it was supposed to co-ordinate the other ten new national and provincial didactic centres at the various school lev- 9 Approved on 15 February 1939. G. Bottai, La Carta della Scuola. Principi, fini e metodi della Scuo- la fascista. 10 L. 30 novembre 1942 n.1545 – Istituzione di Centri Didattici. Pubblicata nella G.U. n.6 del 9 gennaio 1943. 11 Decreto interministeriale 25 gennaio 1943. National School Museum (Museo Nazionale della Scuola) in Florence, since 1925 (http://www.indire.it/home/storia/ acessed 10. 10. 2019) 400 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 els, to be set up in the entire national territory.12 Bottai intended them to bring about the renewal of the school through the training of teachers.13 The national centres were to specialise in one sector and to deal with par- ticular technical problems such as school buildings, professional orientation and didactic material, but also programmes, teaching materials, textbooks. Among the purposes of the national centres were those of developing studies of didac- tic methodology, conducting research on educational subjects, encouraging the development and experimentation of new methods of teaching, and making pro- vision for the professional training of teachers at all levels. The provincial didactic centres conducted research into the problems of the school, they were supposed to deal especially with rural elementary schools, and to evaluate individual experiences, involving the families with courses of educa- tional culture. They were also supposed to organise conferences and exhibitions, seen to the collecting of didactic materials, form pedagogical libraries and pro- mote publications. The centres, endowed with juridical personality in public law, were intend- ed as technical organisms to assist the Minister and the Provveditori in studying the performance of any activities of a pedagogical or didactic nature. “Ciascun Centro Didattico è sottoposto alla vigilanza del Ministero dell’Educazione Na- zionale: ogni attività dei Centri deve essere preventivamente autorizzata dal Ministero” [Each didactic centre is subject to the control of the Ministry of Na- tional Education: every activity of the centres must be previously authorised by the Ministry].14 Moreover, a superior controlling body was set up. The activities of each centre were directed by trusted men appointed by the Minister, not for particular qualities or merits, but because they could be relied on to implement his directives. “In this way the centres constituted a docile in- strument of political intervention endowed, albeit indirectly, with certain powers of stimulus and control over the activities of the teaching body”.15 The Minister Bottai instituted,16 annexed to the Museo Nazionale of Florence, the National Didactic Centre and Pedagogic Library, 17 under the direction of Naza- reno Padellaro, who was a member of the Commission for the drafting of a single state text for the elementary schools. The Museum18 differed from previous initia- tives in its significance and duties;19 it was in fact an instrument for the training of 12 Dina Bertoni Jovine, La scuola italiana dal 1870 ai giorni nostri (Roma: Ed. Riuniti, 1972). 13 Giovanni Bottai, “Funzione dei Centri Didattici nella rinnovata scuola fascista,” Annali dell’ordine elementare XVII n. 2 (1941), p. 69. 14 L. 30 November 1942 n.1545 art. 15. 15 Rino Gentili, Giuseppe Bottai e la riforma fascista della scuola (Firenze: La Nuova Italia, 1979), p. 146. 16 Royal decree 19 July 1941. 17 The inauguration took place on 28 October 1941. 18 The Museum was set up as an ‘ente morale’ by royal decree on 11 October 1941. 19 “Il Centro Didattico Nazionale di Firenze,” Annali dell’ordine elementare XVII n. 2 (1941). 401Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations teachers, who during their visit could see the didactic experiments and make use of the content elaborated and of the pedagogic innovations of the centre. It corresponded to the corporate ideal of the Fascist state, and the national centre in Florence “always represented the most important fulcrum of official ed- ucational activity”,20 offering itself as a model, thanks also to the presence of the educational Museum, which by combining tradition and innovation represented a trait-d’union for studies in the pedagogic and educational field, tracing a line of continuity between past and future. The combination of the Museum and the Centre aspired to demonstrate “that progress of pedagogic and didactic studies which the School Charter envisages and promotes”.21 In practice it was a technical organism of Fascist education capable of ori- enting, directing and co-ordinating the entire national didactic movement. Its usefulness was emphasised also in practical terms, as for example in the case of the room of school architecture, or the room of statistics, which supplied data for orienting research. Lastly, the exhibition was also intended to reconstruct the history of the school by means of old texts, portraits, original documents and copies, educational works, etc, illustrating didactic activity in various historical periods.22 Although we do not possess information on the numbers of visitors to the museum, nor is there concrete documentation on the methods of teacher training,23 there exists an original film of the period24 that shows a typical day’s visit to the museum. The Florence Centre published a bulletin on children’s book, Libri per la Scuola dell’Ordine elementare, intended as useful for forming a national litera- ture. The pages “devoted to books of fairy stories, books of fables, books of war”25 accorded with the introduction of the single state text, and with the militarisa- tion of the schoolboy that was summed up in the phrase “libro e moschetto balilla perfetto” [book and gun, perfect little member of Fascist youth organisation]. One of the National Didactic Centre’s first initiatives regarded the experi- ment in the contemporaneous teaching of two or more classes, entrusted to a single schoolmaster, to be tried in village schools.26 The problem of teacher training was a well known and much debated sub- ject: despite the efforts that had been made, there was poor preparation and a 20 Bertoni Jovine, La scuola italiana dal 1870 ai giorni nostri, p. 452. 21 “Il Centro Didattico Nazionale,” Annali dell’ordine elementare XVII n. 1 (1941), p. 37. 22 Pamela Giorgi, Dal Museo Nazionale della Scuola all’INDIRE (Firenze: Giunti, 2010), p. 38-43. 23 The following course is mentioned: “Il Centro ha già iniziato la sua attività pedagogica con un corso di conversazioni didattiche dell’ispettore centrale Giorgio Gabrielli sull’insegnamento della lettura e della scrittura in prima classe. Alle lezioni intervennero centinaia di maestri e tutti i direttori e ispettori della provincia di Firenze.” “Il Centro Didattico Nazionale di Firenze,” Annali dell’ordine elementare XVII n. 2 (1941), p. 127-128. 24 Archivio Storico Istituto Luce Centro Didattico Nazionale. "Firenze - Come funziona il Centro Didattico Nazionale" 05/01/1942 - C0211, duration 00:01:59 b/n – sound. 25 “Il bollettino di letteratura infantile” I Diritti della scuola n. 4 (1941): 64. 26 Circular n. 40588 of 7 January 1942. 402 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 low cultural level in the great majority of middle and upper school teachers, and especially among the elementary school teachers whose shortcomings and de- ficiencies were due to a number of factors, but particularly to past educational policies. Moreover, the Gentile reform of 1923 had suppressed the system of ap- prenticeship. The School Charter, which by adding a year of practice to the four-year course extended to five years the period spent at an Istituto Magistrale, was according to Bottai a way of giving importance “... to didactics, understood no longer in philosophical but in technical terms, and precisely as state didactics in- stitutionalised by the creation, in accordance with the law of 20 November 1942, of the ministerial didactic centres”.27 We may conclude that the institution of the National Didactic Centre in Florence, and its attached museum, were connected to the new reform of the Istituto Magistrale, which on its own had proved inad- equate for the training of schoolmasters.28 “Teaching does not exhaust its educational duties by the strictly limited performance of scholastic activity because its work must be formative and there- fore integrated by those forms of cordial collaboration with the Gioventù Italiana del Littorio [Fascist Youth], to whom the Duce has entrusted the delicate task of the military and political education of the young.”29 In practice, as Lamberto Borghi has affirmed, “His Carta della Scuola of 1939 was principally intended to make of the school a source of cheap manpower for the Fascist economy and turn it into an instrument of the corporate State.”30 Bibliography D. Bertoni Jovine, La scuola italiana dal 1870 ai giorni nostri. Roma: Ed. Riuniti, 1972. M. Bolaños, Historia de los museos en España. Gijón: Ediciones Trea, 1997. L. Borghi, Educazione e autorità nell’Italia moderna. Firenze: La Nuova Italia, 1951. G. Bottai, “Funzione dei Centri Didattici nella rinnovata scuola fascista”, Annali dell’ordine el- ementare XVII n. 2 (1941): 62-70. J. Charnitzky, Fascismo e scuola. La politica scolastica del regime (1922-1943). Firenze: La Nuo- va Italia, 1996. E. De Fort, La scuola elementare dall’Unità alla caduta del fascismo. Bologna: Il Mulino, 1996. M. Foucault, Sorvegliare e punire. Torino: Einaudi, 1976. R. Gentili, Giuseppe Bottai e la riforma fascista della scuola. Firenze: La Nuova Italia, 1979. P. Giorgi, Dal Museo Nazionale della Scuola all’INDIRE. Firenze: Giunti, 2010. 27 Tina Tomasi, Idealismo e fascismo nella scuola italiana (Firenze: La Nuova Italia, 1969) 176. 28 “Centri Didattici e preparazione dei maestri elementari,” Annali dell’ordine elementare XVII n. 3 (1942). 29 Circular of 12 February 1939 “Rapporti tra scuola e GIL”. 30 Lamberto Borghi, Educazione e autorità nell’Italia moderna (Firenze: La Nuova Italia, 1951), p. 299. 403Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations J. Le Goff, Storia e memoria. Torino: Einaudi, 1972. G. Pinna, “I musei nelle dittature: Germania, Italia, Spagna”, Nuova Museologia n. 21 (2009), pp. 2-33. K. Pomian, Che cos’è la storia. Milano: Mondadori, 2001. T. Tomasi, Idealismo e fascismo nella scuola italiana. Firenze: La Nuova Italia, 1969. P. Vergo, The New museology. London: Reaction Books, 1989. Summary The training of teachers in the National Museum of School (Museo Nazionale della Scuola), Florence (1925-1945) Chiara Grassi I am carrying out a research into the history of education, with particular focus on school memories and formative institutions and I am currently following a project which is document- ing the experience of the School Museum of Florence. The first Exhibition of 1925, that illustrated school life and educational progress, became in 1929 a permanent form as the National Didactic Museum. The primary task of the Museum was meant to be that of furthering the training of teachers by showing them the ingenious didactic experiments cleverly devised by the Experimen- tal didactic centres and scholastic museum. We know that Fascism took an interest in education, having identified it as a strategic point in the development of the future fascist man, paying special attention to elementary ed- ucation. The exhibition space thus became a display area for the progress of the school and a point of centralisation and control for the didactic renewal of the Italian school, where the schoolmaster was to be trained, in particular the elementary schoolmaster, who was invested with a key role in the transmission of national identity and of a culture consistent with Fascist ideology, to the new generations through the medium of education. My purpose is to study the training of teachers in the School Museum of Florence in this historic period. The research, conducted through an analysis of the available sources and ma- terials (bibliographic, archival, photographic) suitable, shows in emblematic fashion how an entire series of communicative, theatrical and propagandistic strategies was actuated, filtered through the educational, pedagogic and social potential of the museum, so as to construct a collective awareness adapted to the exigencies of the new society promoted by the regime. 404 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 UDC 37:069:37.011.3-051:378.4(495Kreta) 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 15. 3. 2014 Antonis Hourdakis, Konstantinos Karras, Angeliki Polyzou, Marina Suka* School history museums & collections and teachers’ profession: the example of the Laboratory for the study and research of the history of education and teachers’ profession (LSRHETP) at the University of Crete, Greece Šolski muzeji in zbirke ter učiteljski poklic: primer Laboratorija za proučevanje in raziskovanje zgodovine izobraževanja in učiteljskega poklica (LSRHETP) na Univerzi otoka Kreta, Grčija Izvleček Namen prispevka je kratka predstavitev la- boratorija za proučevanje in raziskovanje zgodovine šolstva in učiteljskega poklica na Univerzi otoka Kreta v Grčiji. Prispevek na kratko predstavlja laboratorij, epistemologi- jo njegovega nastanka in nekatere pedagoške implikacije kot primere njegove uporabe. Epistemologija laboratorija predlaga dialo- ški izobraževalni proces, ki spodbuja aktiven razvoj različnih pedagoških »kronotopov« poučevanja in učenja. Verjamemo, da bo naš pristop k usposabljanju učiteljev spremenil slabo definirane predstave bodočih učiteljev, jih podpiral pri obujanju preteklosti s preno- som pozitivnih elementov in zaznavanjem poučevanja in tako postavil temelje za »novo pedagoško šolo«. Abstract This paper is motivated to provide a brief presentation of the Laboratory of Study and Research of the History of Education and Teachers Profession (LSRHETP) at the University of Crete, Greece. Specifically, it provides a brief description of the Labo- ratory, the epistemology upon which this Laboratory was founded and some pedagogi- cal implications as examples of its uses. The epistemology of the LSRHETP proposes a dia- logical educational process that encourages an active journey into the different education- al ‘chronotopes’ of teaching and learning in order to support the participants’ negotiation of affordances as ways to develop new educa- tional meanings. We trust that our approach to teacher training will change the ill-defined fixed representations of the future teachers, it will support them to revive from the past by bearing the positive elements and perceptions of teaching and therefore, set the strands for the ‘new pedagogical school’. * Antonis Hourdakis, Konstantinos Karras, Angeliki Polyzou, Marina Suka: University of Crete, Department of Primary Education, Rethymno, Crete, Greece; e-mail: ahurdakis@edc.uoc.gr 405Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Ključne besede: zgodovina izobraževanja, učiteljsko izobraževanje, pedagoška in tehnološka vsebina znanja, dialoška vzgoja Keywords: history of education, teachers' education, pedagogical and technological content knowledge, dialogic education 15th Symposium on School Life, part 47. Visit us / obiščite nas - Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37699 1. Introduction: A Brief Description of the Laboratory for the Study and Research of the History of Education and Teachers’ Profession (LSRHETP) The Laboratory for the Study and Research of the History of Education and Teachers’ Profession (LSRHETP) as its name implies is a realisation of the early stages of teacher training and education in Crete, Greece until recently. It is rela- tively new as it was founded in the year 2012 although the process of collection of its exhibits has started ever since 2002. In this section of the current paper, we account for the collections, the archives, the museum’s material and its library as these are allocated in its different sections. The LSRHETP, with its exhibits dating from 1821 to date, is a journey back in time on its own. It consists of six sections-showrooms. The first showroom introduces us to the content of the exhibits and is a start for reflection in the educational history. There is a compendious presentation of some indicative ex- hibits from 1898 to 1964, like for example, a school girl uniform, a school bag, a student’s desk, some representative photos with students and teachers, leavings of student messes from the fifties of the implementation of the Marshal plan, two school bells (one comes somehow from the US navy and the other one from the period of the Egyptian occupation of Crete (1830-1840) as it appears from the in- scription that has on it), and an old reproduction for educational purposes of the revolutionist of Greek Enlightenment Rigas Velestinlis Magna Charta (a map of the Balkan Countries that he had envisioned), and a bust of Alexander the Great, which was distributed to all schools in Greece for obvious reasons: the develop- ment of ethnic identity of students. Also, there number of exhibits of methods different punishment. These were used for the shaping of virtuous and disciplined citizens. Characheristics are the shaving machine to shave the heads of students in detention in hard olive cores that were used for students to kneel on them. The other section contains evidence from the history of teacher education in Crete (1901-1986). The head’s of the Didaskaleio and Pedagogical Academy of- fice, with stamps of the time, drawers for record keeping, pictures of the staff and students dating from 1902, a school album with the graduates’ pictures and their names (from the period of Pedagogical Academy 1967-1986), a calculator and a typewriter from 1920 and a rare phone device of the times without the dial calling part but with a crank to its side to call the centre. In Crete, the first institution exclusively concerned with the education of teachers, known as the ‘Didaskaleio’, 406 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 was established during the years of the Cretan State in 1901. A number of changes occurred until the year 1933-34 when it closed down and paved the way for Peda- gogical Academies. The Pedagogical Academies continued to exist until the year 1988. The fu- ture teachers would have to attend two years of study until they could get their certificate. Their successors are the Pedagogical Departments (Schools of Educa- tion) at the Universities. There, the student teachers have to attend four years of study until they get their undergraduate degree. To this point, it is very important to refer to the two books presented in this section of the novelist N. Kazantzakis that bare his original signature. The students of the Academy were holding these books in the writer’s funeral service when in the process of excommunication from the church. Also, there are se- lected graduate certificates (dating back to 1915) and letters by the secret service of local police departments certifying that the prospective teacher candidate, among his successful graduation bears right non-anarchist beliefs. The next section is the historical library. This was and has always been im- portant since it is to support the student teachers of the Didaskleio’s and the Pedagogical Academy with their curriculum of study on pedagogy, psychology, literature, history, physics, mathematic, didactics. The first library was founded the same year the first Didaskaleio was founded but its great book collection expanded gradually. School visit at the Museum of Education of University of Crete - Xeniseum. (https://www.kemeiede.org, accessed 10. 10. 2019) 407Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations There is also a representation of the school class dating back to the late 19th century. This is divided into three sub-sections. The first one has the eldest exhibits and is a classroom of the early grades. Of course, there is the teacher’s desk with the bell, the globe and the rod for punishment on it. There is a closet with exhibits used for teaching and writing like for example pens, ink-pots etc. There are the students’ desks, where some of them bear a hole for students to put the ink-pot in. Then, there is the calligraphy and music classroom represen- tation; this is the other sub-section, with calligraphy note books and students’ representative work of art bearing the teacher’s marking on. Notably, we have the ‘Singer sewing machines’ used for female students to learn how to sew in order to teach their own students in the class when in service. The final sub-section is a relatively newer classroom representation with the teacher’s and the students’ desks, maps and visual aids on the walls for the teach- ing of sciences dating back to the 1950s. Another section is dedicated to the ‘audio-visual media’ dating back to 1950 and hereafter. Here we have exhibits of the technological means used in those times in education. These are divided into the writing section with typewriters and polygraphs, the audio section with record players and the visual section with a cinematographer projector, slide showing machines, view masters and over- head projectors. It is important to refer to our rich collection of educational films of the times, which are operational, as we have managed to repair the cinematog- rapher projectors. Also, we have managed to reset some of the record players for our exhibits. Next to the audiovisual section, there is the sector of the naturalist courses. There, we hold a school barometer (made in Paris in 1900) hanging on the wall and school tokens used for the teaching of geology, marine life, physics, chem- istry and stereometry. It is vital to this point, to refer to our collection of silk cocoons, to the representation of the production of bee honey and among others to the models of the human heart and liver that date back to the end of the 19th century. Therefore, we may speculate that these posterior are one of the first ones manufactured for classroom teaching purposes. In the laboratory, there are also collected and exposed maps categorised per subject of teaching. Specifically, for the teaching of mythology, history, reli- gion, first literacy and numeracy, zoology, anthropology and geography. One of the most important exhibits of this section is the Bible, which was published in 1821 in Moscow and had served as a textbook, during the Ottoman occupation in Crete. Given the exhibits as distributed across the Lab’s showrooms-sections, our philosophical bet is to transform the Laboratory of the history of education in such a learning space like the bed of a “psychoanalyst”, in the hope to provide us all with opportunities to define, reason upon and further on, change the ill- defined fixed representations of ourselves as related to teaching and learning and of the future teachers. This is a longitudinal process with aims to support its participants to revive from the past by bearing the positive elements and percep- tions of teaching. 408 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 2. The Philosophy and the Epistemology of the LSRHETP According to the bibliography, “teacher training requires functioning insti- tutions to contain the visible part of the history of Greek education” (Charitos, 2006) and “this is more obvious in the case of the University Museums, which provide laboratories for training students at educational issues. A University Mu- seum for Education is a typical example, because, as it is oriented to preserve the cultural inheritance related to education, it can easily provide material for study and research to many undergraduate or postgraduate university students. In the same time, a University Museum for Education … covers an enormous variety of activities and provisions and can promote the interest of different sections of the society. It can respond to students’ needs (those who study in the Departments of Education or those who attend school classes), as well as to the needs of other types of public.” (Geladaki, 2006) The philosophy that lies behind the LSRHETP is to support the curricu- lum for the training of the future teachers and in particular to contribute to the development of their professional formal (theoretical) and practical knowledge for teaching and learning (Shulman, 1987). Shulman’s (1987) interest lies in the teaching of content and suggests that teachers pool their knowledge of content from their past experiences in other contexts of practice. He has further on elab- orated on teachers’ knowledge to discuss the concept of ‘pedagogical content knowledge’, which is knowledge that originates during teaching, so it is mostly developed in expert teachers. Shulman (1987, 1999) explains that the teacher ei- ther consciously or unconsciously communicates ideas and facts to the students but the centrality of topics and the periphery of others will depend upon his/her understanding of her students (i.e. flexibility of the teacher to impart alternative explanations of the same concept or principle once students’ preconceptions or misconceptions are diagnosed) and her attitudes and enthusiasm for what is be- ing taught and learned. Based on these understandings, and in particular, on what makes the learn- ing of specific topics easy or difficult, the conceptions and preconceptions that students of different ages and backgrounds bring with them, teachers are in a continuous spiral and reflective process to develop and implement the most powerful illustrations and analogies that would make the subject matter compre- hensible to the diverse abilities of the students. Mishra and Koehler (2006) have extended Shulman’s concept of pedagogical content knowledge towards one, which they have called ‘technological pedagogi- cal content knowledge’ (TPCK). They claim that this knowledge is the basis of good teaching with technology and requires the teacher’s understanding of how to represent the content using technologies and how she/he relates it to her/his understandings of context. This kind of knowledge embraces pedagogical tech- niques that use technologies in constructive ways to teach content; knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn and how technology can help redress some of the problems that students face; knowledge of students’ prior 409Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations knowledge and theories of epistemology; and knowledge of how technologies can be used to build on existing knowledge and to develop new epistemologies or strengthen old ones. Guided by the literature discussed above, in the LSRHETP, our main concern is how to extend the student teachers’ and the in-service teachers’ theoreti- cal knowledge of content, of curriculum, of programmes of study, of learning theories with or without the use of technology, of educational values, aims and purposes and of pedagogy learned in the University or developed during practice. Our intention is to expand on the practices of the past as these are revealed by studying the exhibits of our Lab and the classroom representations in its sections. By developing the Bakhtinian theory of «dialogic» relationships with the past and the present, student teachers are encouraged to originate and elaborate upon the ill-defined practices of the past and employ chronotopes, in a spatial-temporal" framework and therefore, advance their knowledge with meaningful understand- ings of different but “good” pedagogical practices. This longitudinal, spiral and reflective process can foster ‘the school of the present’ and of the ‘future’. So, the different pedagogical practices and especially those developed in this Lab can be described using Bakhtin’s metaphor of ‘chronotope’ (Bakhtin, 1981, 1991, 1999). Its epistemology comes from the Greek ‘chronos’ meaning time and ‘topos’ meaning space. According to Vice (1997), Bakhtin uses the chronotope to discuss the real historical time and space in which actual people are dialogically Museum of Education of the University of Crete - Xeniseum, student visit. (https://www.kemeiede.org/en, accessed 10. 10. 2019) 410 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 articulated and constructed in relation to one another and the value system in which educational events occur. The values system in a chronotope dictates the ways that practices are organised and their rationales (Matusov and Smith, 2011). Based on ‘Bakhtin’s chronotipocity of dialogism’, our purpose is to encourage in our Lab and Museum interactive relationships between individual themselves and individuals and their educational contexts. In addition, the concept of chronotope is of main interest to us as it discusses the real historical school time and space in which actual people are dialogically articulated and constructed in relation to one another (Polyzou, 2008, Scholz, 1998, 156). For Bakhtin, a person may converse with his own double, his alter ego and images of these interactions may be reflected in symbolic representations such as pedagogical rituals, myths, songs, tales, programmes of study and good practices (as in our case) or in every by-product of human creativity that takes place in its specific chronotope (Mor- son and Emerson, 1990, 94-95). While walking around the LSRHETP, one may realise the traditional pedagogies as these are narrated by the exhibits and the representations in the sections. Each exhibit or classroom representation has its “own story” as authored by its creators in their specific referential semantic sphere of the past. For ex- ample, one semantic sphere may dictate a value system where instructors could have attempted to eliminate the possibility for students’ learning initiatives as all teaching and learning would have to be accomplished by the students ac- cording to the teacher’s expectations. Based on that value system, the traditional teachers may have demanded that their classes would highly limit or eliminate all opportunities for students’ interactive initiatives. In the meantime, the teach- ers of the present, being active participants in this chain of communication, are encouraged to develop evaluative attitudes, to rediscover new ‘affordances’ and new ‘educational ecologies’ (Matusov and Smith, 2011). ‘Affordances’ are the dispositional properties to manifest some other prop- erties in certain (educational) circumstances/ environments, on the grounds that the individual has the capabilities to perceive and use them (Gibson, 1979; Turvey, 1992). They are, also, relations of possibility between individuals and their envi- ronments (ecologies), which are immersed gradually as the learner acts within and with the educational environment. Action, perception and interpretation, in a continuous cycle of mutual reinforcement, are preconditions for the emergence of meaning (van Lier 2004, 92; Stoffregen, 2003, 115). Eventually, affordances are relations between the abilities of the individual, the features of the educational environment and the different ways in which the individual re-discovers and re-contextualizes them each time she/he enacts with and within her/his envi- ronment (ecology). Similarly, we recognize that our Lab provides mutual pedagogical and tech- nological affordances founded in past and present chronotopes. Once individuals enter into new dialogues within and across these chronotopes and reflect upon them, new perceptions may foster, which will generate the development of new in- dividual-environment relationships. By listening to the voices of the past, as these 411Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations are envisioned in the Lab’s exhibits and sections, the students will explore, negoti- ate, reflect upon, re-define and re-establish new educational ideas and pedagogies, and therefore extend their knowledge of teaching. Throughout these infinite dia- logical processes between the participants and the different chronotopes, the good practices of the future will generate. Specifically, they will discover new affordanc- es, which will be consistent elements of their new chronotopes. These will be their new interactive learning spaces, their new educational ecologies. Following our discussion above, within the Bakhtinian conceptualization of concepts, we maintain that the intersection of different chronotopes is grounded on pedagogical practices which include a return “back to the books” combined with the use of new technologies. This educational ecology endorses a school of the present, which is a non-digital school, a school that is not merely technology oriented, but one which will be run by teachers who are capable of negotiating and re-establishing the relationships between three components: Technology, Pedagogy and Content (Koehler and Mishra, 2008). It is vital that in this school, the content of “dialogic” pedagogical practices aim to develop critical thinking, a wide range of skills, embodiment and generally speaking all these involved in order to bring back to school its human dimension. Obviously, we consider crucial that teacher training should involve a dia- logical process that would take into account the history of their profession by developing an active and reflective relationship with the educational past. Being historians of education, we cannot live and work without the tangible material remains of the school culture. Thus, we have gathered in this place, the educa- tional affordances of the past chronotopes which embrace the history of Greek schools dating back to the first half of the 19th century until the eighties and secondly the history of the teaching profession. The history of education and in particular the “dialogical” study of school and educational experiences referring to school, to curriculum, to textbooks, and their relationship with the environ- ment over time can form the basis and the framework for the development of good practices and innovative educational ecologies. Museum of Education of the University of Crete - Xeniseum, student visit. (https://www.kemeiede.org/en, accessed 10. 10. 2019) 412 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Our goal is twofold. First, we aim to develop a dialogic relationship with the accumulated ill-defined domains of schooling and education over time, in past chronotopes and further, reflect upon them so as to investigate whether these have emerged from the improper handling of issues or from the educational poli- cies of the past. Another dimension of our dialogical perspective is to explore how the school and the school community as originally organised, were scheduled to be aware of any environmental/ecological issues. Specifically, we will study the historical and the contemporary relationship of school with the rural and the urban envi- ronment, the agriculture, the rural production, the contact of students with the nature (e.g. courses, school garden, teaching materials, educational tours etc.), with buildings, roads, water, biodiversity, production and all aspects of the coun- try and the society where schools historically are located. Our key question today is whether and how a University Museum for Educa- tion of the future teachers, in our case the Laboratory for the study and research of the history of education and the teaching profession, could foster “journeys” into different chronotopes, in order to educate a modern and effective school teacher, one who could be able to further his knowledge by discovering new af- fordances and establishing new educational ecologies with a full understanding of the educational past. 3. Pedagogical Implications The school practice of student teachers consists of a key dimension in their undergraduate education, or during their training after having obtained their de- grees. The practice, however, is historically intertwined with the whole system of education and training of future teachers and it is inextricably linked to the dynamic relation between theory and practice, as these are epistemologically and methodologically defined in the pedagogical sciences. It aims to transform the theoretical methodological choices into concrete interdisciplinary actions (Kok- kinos and Alexaki, 2002) and educational practices as far as the organization and the accomplishing of the pedagogical process are concerned. By looking into modern psycho-pedagogical concepts and by studying alternative educational practices, we aim to redefine historically the content and the concepts of teacher education in the 21st century. Our key point of reference is to set aside the passivity of formalistic teach- ing approaches, the compliance to a techno-bureaucratic context of teaching and the sterile reproductive function of school and class. In addition, to connect action-research with scientific knowledge and to try to mitigate any educational malfunction within its actual social dimensions. Grounded on the above, in the LSRHETP a number of projects are under their way which will be discussed below as simple examples, aiming to illustrate how we have employed and are planning to employ the University Museum, the 413Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations exhibits and all the material of this University Collection in the training of the student teachers, the in-service teachers and in the education of the school stu- dents, as well. In the Lab, one’s glance stands still in the reading room and in the class- room, both of them full of various and diverse readings. School students who visit the LSRHETP with their teachers are introduced to this philosophy and scope. They are encouraged to develop dialogical processes with the past by sit- ting at the desks of another school chronotope, by touching the old school books and the notebooks, by browsing through them and by writing on the writing plates. They get to re-negotiate the affordances of these school chronotopes. For example, they consider what teachers from other school eras used in their teaching - the pen, the inkpot and the withe, they reflect upon them in order to elaborate upon new meanings and understandings. These may involve practices of the present spatial-temporal frame, where students collaborate in their groups to create their own riddles with the use of the Lab’s exhibits and finally create their own new utterances in the form of visual representations. In this way, not only do they enculturate themselves to the educational ecology of another class- room era, but also they are involved in a dialogical educational process, where they actively participate in that school’s pedagogies, in order to advance their knowledge of teaching by exploring the relationships of the affordances in dif- ferent chronotopes. Program of lifelong learning and training at the Museum Education of the University of Crete – Xeniseum. (https://www.kemeiede.org/en, accessed 10. 10. 2019) 414 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 More specifically, the textbooks and the reading books, originating from different eras, in conjunction with the literary texts bearing the students’ lived memorable experiences – their heroes, act in exemplary ways, subjecting the stu- dents to a process of analogical reasoning (Sustar, 2010, 119-120). The students’ as well as the teachers’ microcosm stemming from a past era, reveals the fears, the dreams, the hopes and the desires of that age and facilitates the deepening in the educational practices. Throughout this micro-historical process, the teacher be- comes the facilitator, who helps the students to discover these unknown "facets" of the everyday life of children and the educational system, the contradictions of education and thus the pedagogical and humanist aspects become more intense, more persistent and therefore more efficient. To this concept, the (future) teacher stands critical also to another important educational section of our Lab and Museum, the maps. The maps are excellent materials. They are touching them and gaining a holistic understanding of the subject they are dealing with. In the case of the geographical maps, the students themselves become "young cartographers”, with what it means. To this point, the use of new technologies proves to be extremely effec- tive when combined with the use of maps. Beyond the demonstration of maps as a complementary teaching material, the students work with interactive whiteboards out of which they can draw data in order to make inferences. The interactive desktop of an interactive whiteboard (e.g. touch pad/special stylus) reinforces the students’ inquiry skills, while they search for information on the Internet. In parallel, texts, images, tables, or virtual tours of museums are pro- jected and stored. Then, students select their preferred information to construct their own multimodal texts. They can either make their own videos with their own sounds or further on, demonstrate it to other students, who are involved in this process of creative practice. Moreover, the children display the maps they have constructed and explain the type of the map they have built; they justify the correctness of their choices and options. Such combined approach re-contextualises the educational pro- cess, since it brings the good practices that have already been implemented and reflected upon (use of map-the making of maps from the children themselves) together with the use of new technologies, and therefore it expands the learning opportunities of the students to be more actively involved in the learning process. Similar activities are taking place with the use of historical maps of the Mu- seum. The students use the maps as a stimulus to further navigate virtually with the computer to other Museum collections of a relative historical period and thus, the students’ historical imagination becomes active to ask questions. Then, the children are organized into groups of young museologists to se- lect certain educational objects in order to compose their own stories (creative writing) that will represent that era. These are followed up by theatrical plays. Moreover, they create a virtual educational museum (with the use of the interac- tive tools), where each student group can take up a different subject (for example, 415Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations religion, daily life), they create descriptive captions for these objects and they make their own descriptive texts of their collections, which serve as a guide for other groups. They even build up the objects which are the central point of their pedagogical stories, they think upon the tools/objects, they have been replaced by today, they even justify the methods and the materials used for construction and articulate which of them still have the same utility or not and finally, specu- late about their evolution. Other thematic maps and images like portraits of history or images of naturalistic sciences etc., are a motivation for the writing of tales. The combina- tion of objects such as the silkworm silk in association with the sewing machine, provide the students with ideas for creative writing. Moreover, the reading of traditional fairytales/stories from the world of kindergarten and the first grades of the elementary school reinforces the concept of hyper-textuality in literature. Whole class examples include the tale of the Little Red Riding Hood, which is studied and then, deconstructed with the use of concept maps in order to be reconstructed into a new story text with one or more new persons in the story. Likewise, students can envision the Little Red Riding Hood’ brother, who follows a different path in the woods and is involved in new adventures. With the aid of new technology, students create a hypermedia stories in which the reader inter- acts with the nodes so as to choose different paths to follow. An educational program implemented by the museum which concerns university students and pupils of primary education with the aim of revitalizing school gardens. (https://www.kemeiede.org/en, accessed 10. 10. 2019) 416 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 The audiovisual media for teaching and learning existed in the school of the past, as well. Children get to know their history, their evolution, and their usefulness so as to combine them all creatively with the newer media technolo- gies. Some educational films of the past times are complemented with sound and subtitles that the students decide upon and then, transcribe into other modern digital media. Still, they can observe these media, like for example, the overhead projectors or the mimeograph, in order to understand their func- tion and further clarify the new media: which has replaced what, for instance. Texts that are created by the children themselves are replicated in other ways (e.g. image, video). By comparing the two ways of representing the information and by adding notes on the images, the children understand the representational particulars of each mode (image, speech) as well as the choices made by the in- dividual creator. This whole process enhances the students’ critical reading and understanding of multimodal texts as well as the complexities of the semiotic world which plays a key role in the shaping of our/theirs contemporary reality. A cross-curricular and interdisciplinary innovative approach to knowledge (Kokkinos and Alexaki, 2002) is the basket-weaving workshop. This aims to the development of students’ knowledge of local traditional art of basket weaving through the interaction with local artists, so as to appreciate the uniqueness of the art of craft, to realize the man’s immediate contact with his environment, to comprehend that traditional art is fundamental to the educational, the environ- mental and the societal prosperity of local communities. Another workshop that takes place in the Laboratory and Museum con- cerns the Art Education in the Greek curriculum as it involves the enactment with it within the period 1834-1979. This workshop aims to the comparative inves- tigation of the terms, used to introduce the Art Education in the Greek Education as well as their position in the Greek curricula. In parallel, all the workshop mate- rial is digitized for future demonstration in the laboratory. Also, there is a creative processing of the material to be used as souvenir gifts. Needless to discuss one of our current museum projects aiming to train the ‘eco-teacher’: a teacher who knows the school context as a legacy combined with the educational history at an environmental and ecological level; One who is sensible to environmental issues as these are routed in his cultural heritage and further on, is able to exploit them dialogically throughout the different chronotopes in order to make himself and his/her students efficient for the envi- ronment’s present, future and continuous protection. Within the framework of the ‘eco-teacher’, teacher training is upgraded and modernised to include issues of study of and respect for the environment, and therefore they are able to sensitize their students to issues concerning the environment and its protection. They get their students to know over time about many of today's so-called ‘green jobs’, many of which have, however, been regis- tered in time and historically speaking, we know that they have been included in the programmes of study for the career guidance in schools but within different socio-economical contexts. Some of these jobs, however, have been character- 417Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations ized as outdated or lower manually, resulting in being rejected due to shortage in manpower, whereas some others, the so called modern ones, (photovoltaic, en- vironmental engineers, nanotechnology, etc.) develop environmental awareness within them in order to prepare future citizens, who are friendly to the culture, to education, to the environment, to the natural and cultural history. Eventually, the proper information for citizens at individual and professional level help to protect the quality of the environment and improve the living conditions and the health of the citizens. 4. Some Final Thoughts … The study of education within the LSRHETP – Museum acquires features of historical “anatomy”, aiming to reveal the “educational pathology”. Meanwhile, we hope to be able to make propositions for extended possible solutions. We trust that ‘good practices’ do not occur in a historical vacuum. Rather they oc- cur by critically reflecting upon the history of education with one foot and while looking into the present, we will be winking in the future, with the other. With- out lightly skipping the problems that museum education faces, we believe that the institution of educational programs at the museum can contribute positively in the thematic and didactic view of our modern school reality (Pitman-Gelles, Bonnie, 1981, Mouratian, 1995). The setting of this Lab necessitates the orchestration of diverse challenges and their creative deployment in order to develop a new school perspective, the pedagogical school, one which will endorse a dialogical approach to teacher edu- cation in order to promote the active involvement of the students and not the monotony of the classroom. All mentioned so far suggests that the combination of various teaching en- vironments, media (old and new) and tools (from pencil to tablet) are expected to generate new affordances by the participants themselves and therefore, set new standards in the educational process. Moreover, furthering the view of advancing the historical and pedagogi- cal knowledge in the field, we are determined to make useful international comparisons and studies, as well. We will explore and study the teacher-school background and the history of the teaching profession in the modern period of the European history. We will analyse scientifically all existing documents and their connection with the current European and international educational and school reality through time in order to trace findings for the presence or absence of environmental issues in them and to develop an environmental discourse as an important historical parameter for the school of today and for modern educa- tion, in general. Some of the key questions that we will try to ask are the following: Which are the aims and purposes of current schooling? How far does it bring the expected results? 418 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 To what extent has the State included, within its educational policy and philosophy of curriculum development, the historical political and the natural environment? How has the school as an institution moved diachronically into issues relat- ed to the development of environmental/ecological conscience and the morality of the pupils? How can we train the future teachers into new ways of knowledge acqui- sition? Most importantly, how can we develop the human perspective in the education of boys and girls so as they do not end up to be mere digits in a virtual environment? How can we resist to the storm of Information and Communication Tech- nologies (ICT) in order to keep the balances between the concepts of Technology, Pedagogy and Education? How far do we benefit from the use of the students’ audiovisual media and how far have the school books and all kinds of teaching aids (maps, tables, phys- ics instrumentation, geometric bodies, episcope, slides, etc.) contributed to education? Having in mind the questions above, we will be able to identify good prac- tices and we will propose changes to the existing basic education of school pre-service teachers in order for them to develop educational and cultural-en- vironmental consciousness that will assist them to prepare future citizens, who are friendly towards culture, education, environment and the green occupations. The elaboration of good practices that come from the past, in combination with the demystification of new technologies, will provide us with the citizens, who will be more creative, more critical, and more human. In this context, we can “dream” of a new “pedagogic school”, for pupils, teachers, parents, citizens, and modern researchers, ones, who will be involved in the history of education and will instruct school professionals at universities, institutes and archives of the 21st century. Bibliography Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). "Forms of time and of the chronotope in the novel". In The Dialogic Imagination. Austin: Univ. Texas Press, pp. 84–258. Bakhtin, M. M. (1991). Dialogic imagination: Four essays by M. M. Bakhtin (C. Emerson & M. Holquist, Trans.). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Bakhtin, M. M. (1999). Problems of Dostoevsky's poetics (Vol. 8). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Geladaki, S., (2006). (In Greek) University-Based Museums of Education: The Pedagogi- cal Dimension of Reviving the Educational Past. 4th International Conference of History of Education. University of Patras. Dept of Primary Education-Laboratory of the Historical Records of Modern Greek and International Education. 6-8 October 2006. (Πανεπιστημιακά Μουσεία Εκπαίδευσης: Η παιδαγωγική διάσταση της ανάπλασης του εκπαιδευτικού παρελθόντος. 4ο Διεθνές Συνέδριο ιστορίας εκπαίδευσης, Πανεπιστήμιο Πατρών, ΠΤΔΕ- Εργαστήριο Ιστορικού Αρχείου Νεοελληνικής και Διεθνούς Εκπαίδευσης, 419Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations 6-8 Οκτωβρίου 2006) http://www.eriande.elemedu.upatras.gr/eriande/synedria/syn- edrio4/praktika1/geladaki.htm (accessed 10. 10. 2019) Charitos, H., (2013). (in Greek) Is there any space for a Museum of History of Education in the University? International and Greek Past. 4th International Conference of His- tory of Education. University of Patras. (Χωράει ένα Μουσείο Εκπαιδευτικής Ιστορίας στο Πανεπιστήμιο; Διεθνή και ελληνικά προηγούμενα. 4ο Διεθνές Συνέδριο ιστορίας εκπαίδευσης, Πανεπιστήμιο Πατρών, ό.π.) Available. at: http://www.eriande.elemedu. upatras.gr/eriande/synedria/synedrio4/praktika1/xaritos.htm (accessed 10. 10. 2019) Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Koehler, M. J. & Mishra, P. (2008). Introducing tpck. AACTE Committee on Innovation and Technology (Ed.) The Handbook of Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (tpck) for Edu- cators, pp. 3-29. Mahwah, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kokkinos, G. and Alexaki, E. (2002). (Eds) (In Greek). Interdisciplinary Approaches in Museum Education. Athens: Metehmio Editions. Available at: http://benl.primedu.uoa.gr/data- base1/museums_apokleismos.pdf (accessed 10. 10. 2019). Matusov, E. and Smith, M. (2011). Ecological model of inter-institutional sustainability of af- ter-school program: The La Red Mágica community-university partnership in Delaware. Outline: Critical Practice Studies, Vol.5, No.1, pp. 19-45. Mishra, P. & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A frame- work for integrating technology in teacher knowledge. Teacher’s College Record. Vol.108, No 6, pp. 1017-1054. Morson, G. S. and Emerson, C. (1990). Mikhail Bakhtin: Creation of a Prosaics. Stanford: Stan- ford University Press. Mouratian, Z., (1995). (In Greek). Alternative Ways of Approaching Museums: The Casa of Educational Programmes. Basic Principles and their Philosophy. Thessaloniki: Tech- nical Museum. (Εναλλακτικοί Τρόποι προσέγγισης του Μουσείου. Η περίπτωση των εκπαιδευτικών προγραμμάτων. Βασικές αρχές και η φιλοσοφία τους. Θεσσαλονίκη, Τεχνικό Μουσείο.). Pitman-Gelles, Bonnie, (1981). Museums Magic and Children, Washington, D.C.: Association of Science Technology Centers. Trans. in Greek : Rok-Mela Sophia, 1987, Greek Children Museum, Centre of Justifying. (Ρωκ-Μελά Σοφία, 1987, Ελληνικό Παιδικό Μουσείο, Κέντρο Τεκμηρίωσης). Polyzou, A. (2008). Dialogism and the Process of Meaning Making: Studying the Chronotopic- ity of Pedagogical Interaction in a Multimodal Hypermedia Educational Contexts. In M. Pourkos (Ed.). Perspectives and Limits of Dialogism in Michail Bakhtin. Vol. 2, pp. 233- 250. Rethymno: University of Crete. Scholz, B. F. (1998). Bakhin’s Concept of Chronotope: The Kantian Connection. In D. Shepherd (Ed). The Contexts of Bakhtin: Philosophy, Authorship, Aesthetics (Studies in Russian and European Literature), pp. 141-172. Harwood Academy (Performing Arts). Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Edu- cational Review, 57(1), pp. 1-22. Shulman, L. S. (1999). Foreword to G. Hillocks, Jr., Ways of thinking, ways of teaching. New York: Teachers College Press. Stoffregen, T. A. (2003). ‘Affordances as Properties of the Animal Environment System’, Ecological Psychology, Vol. 15, 115–134. Sustar, B. (2010). A child on the way to becoming a pupil: memories of childhood, 119-120. Availa- ble at: http://www.ische.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/ISCHE-32-Abstracts.revised. pdf (accessed 10. 10. 2019). van Lier, L. 2004. The Ecology and Semiotics of Language Learning: a Sociocultural Perspective. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Vice, S. (1997). Introducing Bakhtin. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 420 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Summary School history museums & collections and teachers’ profession: the example of the Laboratory for the study and research of the history of education and teachers’ profession (LSRHETP) at the University of Crete, Greece Antonis Hourdakis, Konstantinos Karras, Angeliki Polyzou, Marina Suka This paper presents briefly the Laboratory of Study and Research of the History of Edu- cation and Teachers Profession at the University of Crete: aims, scopes, collections, archives, museum material and library. Emphasis is given to the contribution of LSRHETP to the development of a new concept of school, a school called a “school of pedagogy” and a non “digital school”, school oriented solely on technology. The main purpose of Laboratory is to give opportunities to teachers and future teachers to ‘use’ the past in order to rebuilt our return “to books” (whatever that means: critical thinking, development of a wide range of skills, practicing the eye, the hand, and the body, bringing back to school the human dimension with the best terms which start eliminates dangerously, etc.). Especially, the key-question is whether today a museum of education, and in our case a laboratory, through its continuous and interactive museum exhibition material, could help to educate a modern and effective school teacher, building on past through the rich educational residues but without fetishists them. Other key-questions we try to put forward are: did we use efficiently to benefit students the available audiovisual media in the past, how schoolbooks and all kinds of teaching supports contributed to pupils’ education? And if they finally brought the expected results? How can we bring, relying on the knowledge and experience of educational heritage, a new way of knowledge acquisition that aims at developing the human capital of pu- pils, without children to end up the same digits in a virtual environment, etc.? So, active rather than passive knowledge of the educational past will help teachers and administrators to avoid repeating errors on the teaching content and teaching methodology. 421Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations UDC 069:37(450) 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 20. 2. 2014 Rossella Andreassi* Museum of School and Popular Education (Museo della scuola e dell’educazione popolare) of the University of Molise, Italy Muzej šolstva in ljudskega izobraževanja (Museo della scuola e dell’educazione popolare) na Univerzi Molise, Italija Izvleček V prispevku bomo analizirali Muzej šolstva in ljudskega izobraževanja ("Museo della scuola e dell'istruzione popolare") Univerze v Molis- eju (Italija), njegove znanstvene in didaktične cilje ter vprašanja, povezana z muzeograf- skim prenosom dotične kulturne dediščine. Izhajajoč iz odnosa med spominom in šolsko zgodovinsko dediščino se bo prispevek osre- dotočil na posebno pobudo Muzeja šolstva, in sicer na razstavo, ki sledi 150-letni zgodovini italijanskih šol. Ključne besede: muzej, izobraževanje, italijansko šolstvo, razstava Keywords: museum, education, Italian education, exhibition 15th Symposium on School Life, part 57. Visit us / obiščite nas - Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37711 Introduction The experience of the “Museum of School and Popular Education” of the University of Molise,1 is integrated in the frame of the historiographical renova- * Rossella Andreassi, University of Molise / Università degli Studi del Molise, Italy; e-mail: andreassi@unimol.it 1 The Museum establishment has been deliberated by the University of Molise Senate on March 18th, 2013. For a more comprehensive illustration cf. Andreassi R. (2013), pp. 175-192. Abstract The paper will analyze the structure of the Museum of School and Popular Education (“Museo della scuola e dell’istruzione popo- lare”) of the University of Molise (Italy), its scientific and didactic objectives, the issues linked to the museographic transposition of this particular cultural patrimony. Moving from the relationship between memory and school historical heritage, the presentation will focus on a particular initiative promoted by the Museum of School, that is the exhibition where 150 years of history of Italian schools have been retraced. 422 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 tion of these past decades, wherein more and more relevant has been the role played by museums, centers and institutions devoted to the identification, con- servation and valorization of educational and school heritage,2 thereby including not only textbooks, but all tools having didactic purposes. The activities of the Museum are connected to those of the Center of Documentation and research on the history of school, textbooks and childhood literature - Ce.S.I.S, of the University of Molise,3 that ever since its establishment, in 2006, has been dealing with the divulgation of the research, conservation and utilization of documents related to school and education with scientific purpos- 2 Among the specialized centers established in Italy are worth being mentioned the Centers of Brescia and Macerata, respectively at the Cattolica University and the University of Macerata. Education and School Museum all over Italy are several, more than forty. For a census of Ital- ian School museums see the map by Brunelli M., Patrizi E. e Meda J. at http://www.unimc.it/ cescom/it/il-museo/rete-musei-scuola (accessed 10. 10. 2019). For a first reflection on this type of museums see Meda J. (2013b), pp. 167-198. For Meda the me- aning of educational school heritage is an evolution of the one elaborated by Ferrari M. (2008), pp. 21-26; references to school heritage can be found also in Barausse A. (2010), pp. 127-144. 3 The Ce.S.I.S. organizational chart is the following: prof. Alberto Barausse, director; dr. Rossella Andreassi, PhD, executive; Scientific Board: Augustín Escolano Benito (Director of Centro Inter- nacional de la Cultura Escolar - CEINCE), Cristina Yane Cabrera (Universidad de Sevilla), Carmela Covato (University of Roma Tre), Roberto Sani (University of Macerata), Anna Ascenzi (University of Macerata), Simonetta Polenghi (University Cattolica del Sacro Cuore of Milan). Experts: Michela D’Alessio, Rossella Andreassi, Valeria Miceli, Florindo Palladino, Valeria Viola; Unimol Department representatives: Rossano Pazzagli (Dept of Bioscience and territory), Alberto Carli (Dept of Educa- tion, Humanities and Social Sciences), Loredana Tullio (Dept of Law). “Museum of School and Popular Education” of the University of Molise, Italy. (http://musei.unimol.it/ accessed 12. 10.2019) 423Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations es. A library and a specialized archive have been established, with a patrimony of about 4.000 items mainly concerning school books, school texts written by teachers and pupils, childhood-literature books and reviews, teachers’ reviews and objects related to the material school culture.4 The collection is particularly focused on Southern Italy from mid-1880s to 1970s. A cataloguing process of the collected items has been going on for about a year. The first results of the researches carried out by the Center have been re- cently published; some others are being published thanks to a new project that brought to the creation of a book collection.5 The initiatives of Ce.S.I.S. and the Museum are part of a wider reflection on the connections between history, memory and historical-educational heritage that is headed towards a process of definition of a new school museology that in Italy is still undergoing.6 The Museum / Exhibition A new field of activity, especially related to the exhibition and conservation of school materials, has been opened in 2012 with the realization of a documen- tary-historical exhibit named “Italy at school: 150 years between history and memories”. This exhibit has been a starting point of reflection on all the issues related to the museological aspects of educational heritage; at the same time, it has con- firmed the great value of this kind of collections for the community. Indeed, it has witnessed the active involvement of those who have decided to deposit, lend or give their objects, which from personal memories have transformed into a sig- nificant part of collective memory, and have assumed the value of semiophore objects, namely bearer of non-visible meanings. The exhibit has walked through 150 years of Italian history through the reconstruction of the main historical el- ements accompanied by the reproduction of official documents as well as the exposition of original ones, besides a remarkable number of school objects. The division into 5 sections has allowed a facilitated reading both in a diachronic and synchronic key of the items exposed. Three sections narrate the rise and devel- opment of post-unitarian school, whereas the remaining two open big scenarios on the school world: one section is dedicated to the material reconstruction of a classroom, the other to the protagonists of the school world (like teachers, pu- pils, pedagogues, etc). 4 For a first presentation of the center’s partimony cf. D’Alessio M. (2010), pp. 127-146. 5 Collection directed by prof. Alberto Barausse, University of Molise entitled “Biblioteca del Cen- tro di Documentazione e Ricerca sulla Storia delle Istituzioni Scolastiche, del Libro Scolastico e della Letteratura per l’Infanzia”, published by Pensa MultiMedia, Lecce. 6 For a first reflection on the subject cf. Meda J. (2013a), pp. 9-13; Meda J. (2013b), pp. 167-198; Yanes C. (2011), pp. 19-31, Meda J. (2010), pp. 489-501; Brunelli M., Patrizi E. (2011), pp. 507-524. For the Spanish experience see Berrio R. J. (ed., 2010). 424 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 This latter section has been mainly focused on oral sources. A number of interviews with old teachers have been realized to avoid the dispersion of a pre- cious patrimony. The exposition has been further enriched with the projection of vintage images, the presentation of old copybook covers, and with an Ipad browsing the copybooks pages. At the closure of the exhibit, further extended by three months, the Uni- versity has acknowledged the value of the whole operation transforming it into a permanent exhibition, thus giving rise to the “Museum of School and Popular Education”,7 officially established in March 2013. The Museum is the starting point for projects and initiatives involving the audience as much as possible. The Museum’s interiors are designed so to allow the maximum flexibility of the space: movable boards, made in corrugated plas- tic, light and decomposable are easily expandable and extremely economical. The museum is inspired by principles of openness, especially aimed at enlarging the collection through donations, responding to principles of dyna- mism and participation. The School Museum proposes itself as the place where the community can reflect on the principle of a more conscious citizenship: by absorbing the concept of “eco-museum”, the structure wants to represent “the action carried out by a community towards its development thanks to the redis- 7 Its establishment has been deliberated by the University of Molise Senate in March 2013. Pedagogical activities with pupils, 2017. “Museum of School and Popular Education” of the University of Molise, Italy. (http://web.unimol.it/galleria2017/ CESIS_Aristarco_13_12_17/ppages/ppage4.htm, accessed 12. 10. 2019) 425Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations covery of its heritage”,8 which is what distinguishes the School Museum from a traditional one. A new research line is being carried out, both on a conceptual and active level, with the involvement of local bodies and organizations into the discovery of items of “school archaeology” in several townships, through a campaign of field surveys that have brought to the finding of “cultural veins”, like the rural school of Agnone (province of Isernia) and the multi-level school of Baranello, province of Campobasso. The main feature of the Museum, indeed, is not the merely physical space wherein the collection is kept, but to extend to the territory and its cultural herit- age; at the same time, its audience is not the single museum visitor, but the whole community, which takes upon itself the task of supervising it and make it richer, according to the contemporary concept expressed by Benito Escolano of “Living the Museum”. Within these research trend, a series of interviews have been carried out, with the intent of reviving the memories of common people, like for example the pupils of old schools; this operation has resulted in the creation of a data bank dedicated to oral sources. The didactic section The didactic section of the Museum deals with the development of its educational and participatory function through a series of initiatives aimed at promoting didactic activities and education to the reading. The audience is com- posed both by families and schoolchildren. The teaching method is based on theoretical reflections and experimentations that have been carried out at the University of Molise in the past years,9 giving special importance to interactive and participatory methods10 and developing an approach to cultural heritage of operational and explorative kind, especially based on games. The pillar on which we base our work is the distinction between divulgation and didactics. The former (as you can see from the picture) can be represented as a linear path between those who send the educational message and those who receive it. The latter, instead, is represented as a circular path which puts send- 8 M. Maggi, V. Falletti, Gli ecomusei che cosa sono, Torino, Allemandi 2000. 9 For a classification of teaching methods and reflections on didactics: cf. Andreassi R. (2000), pp.144-149; cf. Andreassi R. and Federico M. (2005), pp. 1-6, 42-50, 61-68, 79-132, comprehensive of teaching materials; for a reflection of the museum heritage and its fruition cf. Andreassi R. (2010), pp. 83-98. 10 Ivo Mattozzi and Antonio Brusa’s didactic theories have been considered for what concerns the relationship with cultural heritage and history. For an in-depth analysis: Aa.Vv., by A. Brusa and A. Ferraresi (2010); Aa.Vv., by Brusa A. and Cajani L. ( 2008); Mattozzi I. (2011). For further reflections on museums, education and learning cf. Nuzzaci A. (2008). 426 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 er and receiver in constant contact and exchange through a verification of the feedback. The museum didactics must act so that school heritage and childhood literature could be enjoyable by many: it is not sufficient to simply lower the contents and language register of the propositions to make them “educational”. Upon these reflections, some laboratorial experiences of museum didactics have been carried out. The first experience was of historical type, and was targeted to school chil- dren aged 7 to 11, entitled “La memoria… del maestro Loffredo”11 (The memory… of Mr. Loffredo the school teacher) with a degree of complexity adjusted on the age of the participants. The children got acquainted with different kinds of documentary sources through the playful device of an old teacher named Loffredo who has vague school memories and writes to children for help in recovering them. The learn- ing path proceeds in a treasure hunt fashion, through “clue cards” that need to be revealed. Cards are structured in such a way to allow schoolchildren to get in touch both with complex historical facts and documentary objects. The activity, designed according to an “explorative method”, allows the participants to acquire notions of museography and orienteering skills inside the museum thanks to the help of mute maps. Manual abilities have moreover been developed, by means of a writing lab named “The abc of the school child,”12 engaging children in experimentations with the use of fountain-pens and inkwells. 11 Historic-ludic laboratory “The memory of… Mr. Loffredo the school teacher” carried out within the exhibition “L’Italia a scuola. 150 anni tra storia e memorie” (Italy at school, 2012). 12 Writing laboratory “L’abc dello scolaro (The abc of the schoolboy)” carried out within the exhi- bition “L’Italia a scuola. 150 anni tra storia e memorie” (Italy at school, 2012). “Museum of School and Popular Education” of the University of Molise, Italy. (http://www.omegapointshop.it/1/museo_della_scuola_unimol_photo_ gallery_197992.html, accessed 12. 10. 2019) 427Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Another relevant experience proposed by the Museum’s didactic section has been the intergenerational approach to cultural heritage and school that has gathered together children and grown-ups. Furthermore, more workshops have been organized during summer time, with ludo-cultural activities for children. A great emphasis has been put recently on reading activities for children aged 5 to 8 with their parents. We tried to start a new education to reading and a narra- tion pedagogy that wants to represent a moment of fun and game, without losing sight of the deep value and the meanings of childhood history and literature.13 The first of these workshops was realized at Christmas time in 2012,14 named “Happy readers ever after … waiting for Christmas”. The learning device used is the figure of a leprechaun coming from the Southern-Italian popular tradition, named Mazzamauriello, a naughty little one who has pranked the Museums cu- rators by cutting in small pieces and mixing together pages of ancient, precious books (reproduced from the authentic ones to this purpose). By seconding this playful and theatrical device, curators have invited children to help them recom- posing the fragments. Children, therefore, explore the museum looking for the authentic ancient books that the naughty leprechaun has hidden, retraceable thanks to the reconstruction of the pages. This preliminary stage is followed by a reading session of ancient and new books having Christmas as subject, as a de- vice to keep the leprechaun good. Another education to reading experience was the multisensory workshop mixing together more languages, from poetry, to music and theatre, supported by the skills of a music therapist. It took place during Carnival and was inspired to “The Carnival of the Animals” of Camille Saint Saens.15 In occasion of the Unesco World Book and Copyright Day, the Museum has jointly participated to the project Books of May with the local Library.16 The laboratorial activity that was organized, entitled “Vecchie Storie e Nuove tra im- magini e parole”17 (New and old stories between images and words), was carried out along 4 stages where children (aged 7 to 11) have experienced with their par- ents the invention of stories, the construction of booklets, story listening and history learning. The Museum has often left its walls to move to schools, where thematic seminars are held. This experimentation is generally targeted to a young audi- 13 Cf. Sidoti B. (2008). 14 Reading and ludic laboratory: “E lessero felici e contenti…aspettando il Natale (Happy readers ever after … waiting for Christmas”, carried out in the “Museum of school and popular educa- tion”, 2012. 15 Reading and music laboratory “Il carnevale degli Animali. Liberamente ispirato alla zoologia fantastica di Camille Saint Saëns (The Carnival of animals. Inspired to the fantastic zoology of Camille Saint Saën)s” carried out in the “Museum of school and popular education”, 2013. 16 Provincial library “Pasquale Albino” of Campobasso. 17 Reading and ludic laboratory: “Vecchie Storie e Nuove tra immagini e parole” (New and old sto- ries between images and words), carried out in the “Museum of school and popular education” and at Provincial library “Pasquale Albino” of Campobasso, 2013. 428 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 ence, with captivating images and languages, and it is followed by a practical laboratorial activity aiming at assimilating the acquired information. Activities are followed by an evaluation phase, through the use of tests aiming at evaluating both the comprehension of the historical component, and the pedagogic results. Adults (parents and teachers) are given closed-ended tests, which have so far revealed the high appreciation for the initiatives; children, instead are asked to produce free compositions that are afterwards analysed; so far, they have showed an excellent acquisition of the technical vocabulary, as well a good comprehen- sion of the contents dealt with. The Museum is currently creating a network of cooperation with local bod- ies devoted to historical research (like the Regional Institution for Historical studies “Vincenzo Cuoco” of Campobasso), as well as with private organizations. The Museum experiences are becoming more and more part of the study cur- ricula of a number of Degree Courses at the University of Molise, like Primary Education, the Undergraduate Degree in Literature and Cultural Heritage, or even Graduate Degree in Archaeology and Tourism.18 We wish this to be the start 18 For a more recent presentation of the Museum's activities cf. Rossella Andreassi, Alberto Barausse, Michela D’Alessio: Museo della scuola e dell’educazione popolare Università degli Studi del Molise - Campobasso, Italia / Museum of School and Popular Education Università degli Studi del Molise - Campobasso, Italy. In: CABÁS - revista digital sobre el PHE, diciembre 2016, pp. 143-167; http:// revista.muesca.es; https://www.academia.edu/31347439/cabas.dicembre2016.pdf (accessed 10. 10. 2019) Pedagogical activities with pupils, 2017. “Museum of School and Popular Education” of the University of Molise, Italy. (http://web.unimol.it/galleria2017/ CESIS_Aristarco_13_12_17/ppages/ppage4.htm, accessed 12. 10. 2019) 429Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations of a path that can conjugate the historical-educational research with the conser- vation and fruition of cultural and school heritage, towards the dissemination and sensitization to the value of it. Bibliography Andreassi R. (2000), Da una tipologia dei materiali didattici dei musei alla sperimen- tazione sul campo, in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference – Tourism and cultural heritage (Cagliari 4-8/12/98), DRI Ente Interregionale, Rome 2000, pp. 144-149. Andreassi R., Federico M. (2005), Il cammino dell’uomo attraverso i segni: lettura storico didattica dei percorsi della transumanza, Irre Molise, Campobasso 2005, pp. 1-6, 42-50, 61-68, 79-132. Andreassi R. (2010), Il patrimonio museale, in AA.VV., Zilli I. (by), Atlante delle emergen- ze culturali del Molise. Risultati, riflessioni ed implicazioni di un primo censimento, Palladino Editore, Campobasso 2010, pp. 83-98. Andreassi R. (2013), Luoghi e strumenti per la ricerca e la didattica. Il Centro per la Sto- ria delle istituzioni scolastiche, del libro per la scuola e la letteratura per l’infanzia e il Museo della scuola e dell’educazione popolare dell’Università degli Studi del Molise in La ricerca storica ed educativa oggi. Un confronto di metodi, Modelli e Programmi di ricerca, Cavallera H., Pensa MultiMedia, Lecce 2013, vol. 1, pp. 175-192. Barausse A. (2010), Alla scoperta di nuovi tesori: le carte e i libri scolastici come beni culturali, in Zilli I., (by ), Atlante delle emergenze culturali del Molise, Palladino Editore, Campobasso 2010, pp.127-144. Berrio R. J., (ed., 2010), El Patrimonio Histórico-edu cativo. Su conservación y estudio, Biblioteca Nueva – Museo de Historia de la Educación “Manuel B. Cossió”, Madrid 2010. Brunelli M., Patrizi E. (2011), School museums as tools to develop the social and civic competencies of European citizens. First research notes, in "History of Education & Children’s Literature", VI , 2 (2011), Eum Edizioni Università di Macerata, Macerata 2011, pp. 507-524. Brusa A., Cajani L. (2008), La storia è di tutti, Carrocci, Roma 2008. Brusa A., Ferraresi A. (2010), Clio si diverte: il gioco come apprendimento: la didattica ludica come intervento interdisciplinare, dalla storia alla matematica (e altre disci- pline), La Meridiana, Molfetta 2010. D’Alessio M. (2010), Il fondo dei quaderni di scuola del Centro di documentazione e ricerca sulla storia delle istituzioni scolastiche, del libro scolastico e della letteratura per l’infanzia dell’Università del Molise. In: Meda J., Montino D., Sani R., School exercise books. A complex source for a history of the approach to schooling and education in the 19th and 20th centuries, Polistampa, Florence 2010, pp. 127-146. Ferrari M. (2008), I beni culturali della scuola tra storia e pedagogia, in “Annali di storia dell’educazione e delle istituzioni scolastiche”, 15, 2008, pp. 21-26. Mattozzi I. (2011), Pensare la storia da insegnare, Cenacchi, Castel Guelfo (BO) 2011. Maggi, M., Falletti V. (2000), Gli ecomusei che cosa sono, Torino, Allemandi 2000. Meda J. (2010), “Musei della scuola e dell’educazione. Ipotesi progettuale per una sis- tematizzazione delle iniziative di raccolta, conservazione e valorizzazione dei beni culturali delle scuole” in History of Education & Children’s Literature, V, n. 2 (2010), pp. 489-501. 430 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Meda J. (2013), La ricerca storico-educativa in Italia e Spagna: bilanci e prospettive, in Proceedings of the 1st italian-spanish workshop on history of education (Berlanga de Duero, 14-16 November 2011), Meda J. and Badanelli A.M. (by), EUM, Macerata 2013, pp. 9-13. Meda J. (2013), La conservazione del patrimonio storico-educativo: il caso italiano in La historia de la cultura escolar en Italia y en Espana: balance y perspectivas Proceed- ings of the 1st italian-spanish workshop on history of education (Berlanga de Duero, 14-16 november 2011), Meda J. and Badanelli A.M. (by) EUM, Macerata 2013, pp. 167-198. Meda J. (2013), La conservazione del patrimonio storico-educativo: il caso italiano in La historia de la cultura escolar en Italia y en Espana: balance y perspectivas Proceed- ings of the 1st italian-spanish workshop on history of education (Berlanga de Duero, 14-16 november 2011), Meda J. and Badanelli A.M. (by), EUM, Macerata 2013, pp. 167-198. Nuzzaci A. (2008), Il museo come luogo per l’apprendimento, Pensa MultiMedia, Lecce 2008. Sidoti B. (2008), Giochi con le storie. Modi, esercizi e tecniche per leggere, scrivere e rac- contare, La Meridiana, Molfetta (Ba). Yanes-Cabrera C. (2011), The museum as a representation space of popular culture and educational memory, in «History of Education & Children’s Literature», VI, 2 (2011), Eum Edizioni Università di Macerata, Macerata 2011, pp. 19-31. Internet: Brunelli M., Patrizi E. e Meda J., Interactive map of school and education Museums / Schede dei Musei della scuola, http://www.unimc.it/cescom/it/il-museo/rete-mu- sei-scuola (accessed 10. 10. 2019) Exhibitions: Historic-ludic laboratory “The memory of… Mr. Loffredo the school teacher” carried out within the exhibition “L’Italia a scuola. 150 anni tra storia e memorie” (Italy at school, 150 years between history and memories) April – July 2012. “L’abc dello scolaro (The abc of the schoolboy)” in “L’Italia a scuola. 150 anni tra storia e memorie” (Italy at school, 150 years between history and memories), May 2012 for primary schools. Teaching design and contents by Andreassi R., D’Alessio M.; di- dactic production by D’Alessio M. “E lessero felici e contenti…aspettando il Natale (Happy readers ever after … waiting for Christmas”, carried out in the “Museum of school and popular education”, 14 and 19 December 2012 for children aged 5-8. Teaching design and contents by Andreassi R., D’Alessio M., Carli A.; didactic production by Andreassi R., Carli A. “Il carnevale degli Animali. Liberamente ispirato alla zoologia fantastica di Camille Saint Saëns (The Carnival of animals. Inspired to the fantastic zoology of Camille Saint Saën)s” carried out in the “Museum of school and popular education”, 8 and 12 Feb- ruary 2013 for children aged 5-8. Teaching design and contents by Andreassi R., Carli A.; didactic production by. Andreassi R, Carli A. In collaboration with the mu- sic therapist Di Nucci S. “Vecchie Storie e Nuove tra immagini e parole” (New and old stories between images and words), carried out in the “Museum of school and popular education” and at Pro- vincial library “Pasquale Albino” of Campobasso, 22-23 May 2013 for children aged 7-11. Teaching design and contents by Andreassi R., Carli A.; didactic production by Andreassi R., Carli A. In collaboration with the Provincial library “Pasquale Albino” of Campobasso. 431Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Summary Museum of School and Popular Education (Museo della scuola e dell’educazione popolare) of the University of Molise, Italy Rossella Andreassi The most recent historiographical reflection at European level on education has mostly emphasized the analysis on the material culture of it; at the same time, though, a most sig- nificant debate was emerging on the role of Museums of Education and their function for the preservation and valorization of the heritage related to the story of school and education. This is the framework of our presentation, which intends to illustrate the activities that the Museum of School and Popular Education (“Museo della scuola e dell’istruzione popolare”) of the University of Molise (Italy) is currently carrying out in this respect. The paper will analyze the Museum structure, its scientific and didactic objectives, the issues linked to the museographic transposi- tion of this particular cultural patrimony. Moving from the relationship between memory and school historical heritage, the presentation will focus on a particular initiative promoted by the Museum of School that is the exhibition where 150 years of history of Italian schools have been retraced. With the aid of video clips and images teaching/learning experiences with families and school groups carried out at the Museum will be presented. Also related upcoming projects will be illustrated. 432 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 UDC 37:069:087.5(450Torino) 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 16. 2. 2017 Francesca Mogavero* MUSLI: an integrated museum from school to children’s books in Torino MUSLI: povezovalen muzej od šole do otroških knjig v Torinu Izvleček Fundacija Tancredi di Barolo je v palači Ba- rolo ustanovila Muzej šolstva in otroške literature. Leta 2008 se je začel nov muzejski projekt, ki se je posvečal zgodovini otroške literature in tako dopolnil razstavo o zgo- dovini šolstva. Nov muzej imenovan MUSLI (Museo della Scuola e del Libro per l'Infanzia – Muzej šolstva in otroške literature) je bil dokončan v času praznovanja 150. obletnice združitve Italije in odprt 23. novembra 2011. Vsebina muzeja je povezana s šolskim mu- zejem zahvaljujoč zgodovinski tiskarni Eredi Botta. Teme o knjigah so bile vedno prisotne v šolskem muzeju. Slednji še posebej raziskuje knjigo Edmonda De Amicis z naslovom Srce (Cuore) in primerja preteklo in sodobno šolo in literaturo. Pod znamko »MUSLI: muzej za vse« se je začel projekt, ki naj bi širši javno- sti omogočal uživanje v dediščini, spodbujal dostopnost vedenja o zbirkah MUSLI in mu- zejski didaktiki. Ključne besede: šolski muzej, otroška literatura, MUSLI, Torino, Italija Key words: School museum, Children Literature, MUSLI, Turin, Italy 15th Symposium on School Life, part 21. Visit us / obiščite nas - Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37668 Abstract The Tancredi di Barolo Foundation established the Museum of School and Children’s Litera- ture in Palazzo Barolo (Turin, Italy). In 2008 started the new Museum itinerary project, dedicated to Children’s Literature’s history, to complete the exposition about school’s history. The new Museum itinerary, branded MUSLI (Museo della Scuola e del Libro per l'Infanzia - Museum of School and Children’s Literature), was completed during the 150th Italy Unifica- tion celebrations and was inaugurated on 23rd of November 2011. The new Museum itiner- ary is linked to the School Museum itinerary thanks to the Eredi Botta Historical Typogra- phy. Indeed, the book theme has always been present in the School Museum itinerary, which particularly investigates the book Cuore writ- ten by Edmondo De Amicis, comparing past and present school and literature. Under the banner “MUSLI: a Museum for everyone” a project has started with the purpose to grant an ever wider public the enjoyment of our pat- rimony, promoting an accessible knowledge of MUSLI collections and museum didactics. * Francesca Mogavero, MUSLI (Museo della Scuola e del Libro per l' Infanzia – Museum of School and Children's Literature), MA, Didactics Coordinator, Torino, Italy; e-mail: didattica@fondazionetancredidibarolo.com 433Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations A popular African proverb says: “A whole village is necessary to grow up a child”.1 The tradition of every community, the experience and the studies under- line that the educative dynamics is also a transmission of theories and practices from a generation to another, a continuous process involving every social sphere (and others too); so, modifying a little the terms, the result does not change: it is necessary a net, some connections, some links,2 to educate a person. I would like to concentrate my speech precisely on the term “link”, a very fitting concept for the cultural reality I am part of. The Foundation Tancredi di Barolo – MUSLI expresses its ability to create connections and its nationwide and Europe-wide uniqueness in its “tripartite soul” of Study Centre (Library, Archive and “Salgari Room”), School Museum Itinerary and Children’s Book Museum Itinerary: these three aspects are differ- ent for staging and features, but strictly linked, inseparable. Furthermore, like Fabiana Loparco underlines in her most recent article,3 MUSLI shows its “connec- tive nature” from its origins, making coexist in its inside the two types of “School Museum” identified by Juri Meda4 – the Museum as research and conservation of historical sources centre, and the Museum as a striking, nostalgic and delightful place of the memory. Therefore, the MUSLI is a place of exploration and discovery, in which the expert and the visitor can relate with each other, becoming the “new experimenters”, getting in touch with the collections and the locations, thanks to an innovative fruition concept and the precious contribution of multimedia. The Foundation Tancredi di Barolo was born in 2002 thanks to the rich col- lection – consisting in that year of 8.500 books, games, illustrations and teaching materials – made available by Marilena and Pompeo Vagliani, and the concession of rooms and services in Palazzo Barolo, in Turin, by Opera Barolo. Thanks to the contribution of the Public Authority and the involvement of the University of Turin, the Study Centre, the International Library of Children’s Literature (which today counts 12.000 volumes, school books, books of pleasant reading, reference books and periodicals from 1678 to the Sixties, in addition to thematic sections 1 Cecilia De Carli (a cura di), Educare attraverso l’arte. Ricerca, formazione, casi studio, Edizioni Gabriele Mazzotta, Milano, 2007, p. 15. 2 I have analyzed the connections between education, Art and urban reality in my Master Thesis (Master in Management, Marketing and Multimedia for Cultural Heritage and Activities – 2nd level – Polytechnic of Turin and COREP), entitled “Creativity Network: opportunities of appro- ach to Contemporary Art for children and young people between 3 and 14 years old”, 2012. 3 Fabiana Loparco, The MUSLI «Museo della Scuola e del Libro per l’Infanzia» (‘The School and the Children’s Book Museum’) of the Foundation Tancredi di Barolo in Turin. An institution at the forefront of the preservation and enhancement of educational and scholastic heritage, «History of Education & Children’s Literature», vol. VIII, n. 1, 2013, University of Macerata, pp. 795-818. 4 Juri Meda, Musei della scuola e dell’educazione. Ipotesi progettuale per una sistematizzazione delle iniziative di raccolta, conservazione e valorizzazione dei beni culturali delle scuole, «Hi- story of Education & Children’s Literature», vol. V, n. 2, 2010, University of Macerata, pp. 489- 501. 434 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 dedicated to music and science, great historical figures, authors, publishing houses and book series of Children’s Literature), the Archive (which collects ex- ercise-books, diaries, posters, school report cards, diplomas, essays, educational tools, educational games and other scholastic materials, sections dedicated to au- thors and illustrators for childhood, photographs, advertising etc.), the “Salgari Room” (which conserves original Italian editions and “historical” translations of the novels by Emilio Salgari and original tables) and the Museum have been started. The Foundation has got an Administration Council – composed by the Founders, Vagliani family and Opera Barolo, University of Turin and the Coun- cilors for the Culture of the City, the Province and the Region – and a Scientific Committee, which elaborates programs and initiatives, and guarantees their sci- entific principles and promotion, in collaboration with the Council and the President Pompeo Vagliani. The Foundation aims to be a support for school, offering assistance for thesis, researches and stages, organizing exhibitions, conferences, meetings, readings, creating multimedia, working as a referee in projects to recover, safeguard and value numerous funds related to scholastic and publishing history in Turin and Piedmont. Its structure is based on volunteers and a prudent management of available resources, because of the progressive decrease of public and private fundings. The MUSLI is a direct emanation of the Foundation Tancredi di Barolo. Its School Museum Itinerary, located in the most ancient wing of Palazzo Barolo, MUSLI - Museum of School and Children’s Literature in Palazzo Barolo (Torino, Italy) http://www.operabarolo.it/it/p-60/palazzo-barolo/museo-della- scuola-e-del-libro-per-infanzia-musli (accessed 15.10.2019) 435Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations originally destined to the servants (dormitory, pantry, laundry), is an engaging journey in the school of the nineteenth and twentieth century, in which the visi- tor, between striking locations and original objects, becomes a student of the past and the absolute protagonist of the visit. The four floors of the exposition – from “The classroom typical of Cuore period” to “The early twentieth century classroom”, passing by the funny vision of the school, the noble floor, “The children’s bedroom, the room dedicated to the (fun) teaching of mathematics and science, “The Mutual Teaching Hall” and “The nursery school room” – represent the metaphorical growing and learning process of the child and the historical evolution of the school, from the early experiences of primary education started by the Marquis Tancredi in Palazzo Barolo (and remembering the Marquises is already a first, essential, link with the building in which the Museum is located, and with the city and the school history). The itinerary’s aim is to put, in an active way, by direct experience and dram- atization and identification activities, the public and the school of the past close, encouraging, at the same time, a critical reading of the present, by the compari- son and the value of the tokens, materials and experiences of the pedagogical tradition of Turin and Piedmont. As proof of the interconnections between the different parts of the MUSLI, it is required to underline that the children’s book theme is all along integrated in the School Museum Itinerary, which deepens, in particular, Cuore by Edmondo De Amics, book that highlights the Turin’s role in education. The continuous reference between school and children’s book allows a per- manent and natural comparison between literature of the past and of the present, imaginary and real school. After all, in the Children’s Book Museum Itinerary the connections with the school are various too, as we will see shortly. The project of the Museum itinerary dedicated to the children’s book’s history has been started in 2008, on the occasion of the exhibition Serenant et illuminant for the 100th anniversary of the publishing house SEI. The new pole, branded MUSLI (The School and the Children’s Book Museum), was completed during 150th Italy Uni- fication celebrations and was inaugurated on 23rd November 2011. The exposition, located in the rooms at the ground floor and in the ancient basements made available by Opera Barolo, values the rich international histori- cal fund stored at the Foundation’s Archive and Library (and it is significant to remember that what appears in front of the eyes of the visitors is just the 1 per thousand of the material possessed by the Foundation). It is the most important unit dedicated to illustration and children’s and scholastic literature’s history on the territory open to the public. The link between this itinerary and the one already consolidated is repre- sented by Eredi Botta Publishing Typography, the third typographic industry of Turin in the nineteenth century, which also printed scholastic and reading books, housed in Palazzo Barolo between 1869 and 1903, and celebrated at the basement of the Children’s Book Museum Itinerary; a further connection with the School 436 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Museum Itinerary is the recreation of the typography in the classroom, accord- ing to the Freinet method, and the exposition of school newspapers; optically, in the end, the bond between school’s history and book’s history is symbolized by the ancient school desks, which In these rooms are destined to showcases, in an absolutely reversible way, showing the signs engraved by the students in the course of time too. The illustration, as artistic and educational work, where the child can also become protagonist and creator, is one of the leading themes of the set-up, and a fundamental element of the children’s book: the first room of the Children’s Book Museum Itinerary is in fact dedicated to the permanent exposition of the original tables of SEI’s Archive and a selection of original drawings possessed by the Foundation’s Archive. In the multifunctional space called “Fantastic Library” the role of Turin in the publishing for the childhood is highlighted and, through temporary exhibitions, the principal publishers for the childhood of Piedmont are remembered; a specific showcase is reserved to the “birthdays” of significant Italian and foreign editions and to the anniversaries of characters, authors and illustrators. In the “Children’s Corner” – from the name of a famous and loved radio broadcast, lead in Turin, from 1929, by the eclectic Giuseppe Eugenio Chiorino – the interaction and the mutual influence (and, so, another link) between chil- dren’s book and media is highlighted. The Didactics Room allows to translate in practice, never forgetting the playful aspect, the ideas suggested by the itinerary. The “Golden Staircase” – entitled to the most famous book series edited in Turin by UTET in the Thirties – underlines the importance of book series in the Children’s literature’s history, and leads to the basement, dedicated to the book industry and a precious exposition of animated books. In the innovative Children’s Book Museum Itinerary, the use of multimedia and advanced tech- niques for the fruition of the images – think about the Sensitive Wall and to the MUSLI - Museum of School and Children’s Literature in Palazzo Barolo (Torino, Italy) http://www.operabarolo.it/it/p-60/palazzo-barolo/museo-della- scuola-e-del-libro-per-infanzia-musli (accessed 15.10.2019) 437Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations “Flip through the Book” – makes an interesting contrast with the School Museum Itinerary, conceived as a total immersion in the past (but, in this case too, always looking to the present and to the possibilities offered by technology): numer- ous PCs, video projectors, an interactive multimedia board and well-advanced devices permit to enjoy, in an original and interactive mode, the exposed tokens, to build a personal itinerary, to listen to animated readings, pieces from the Pi- nocchio of the Durium, the history of SEI publishing and the Zia Mariù’s “Rural Libraries”, and to connect to the Manzi Center, which the Foundation has estab- lished an useful collaboration with (and here the link is concretely represented by the mouse click!).5 So far we have analyzed the internal links, that series of mutual and con- tinuous exchangings between objects, themes and contents, which made our institution unique and rich. However, the connections go also and above all over the rooms, at regional level and not only; the Foundation Tancredi di Barolo – MUSLI, in fact, is in permanent and one-to-one correspondence with the out- side: first, it gets in touch with its visitors – the school and the general public – to build together exciting activities and ad hoc projects, according to the scho- lastic programs, the interest and the age of the audience; it opens its doors to scholars, researchers and students; it discusses with media, the other museums, publishing houses, libraries, Universities and Institutional Authorities to realize exhibitions, publications and activities. Our last events, on the occasion of the Foundation’s 10th anniversary cel- ebrations and the cultural exhibition “The Books’ May” (in collaboration with the Library of the Regional Council of Piedmont) are a proof of the ideas and offers exchangings which exist between our institution and the other realities, allowing a stimulating enrichment and an useful convergence of know-how and experiences. “A world of fables. Two hundred years of the first edition of the Kinder und Hausmarchen by Grimm Brothers (1812-2012)”, “Christmas’ Fantasies. Fests, characters, songs and games in the children’s books between nineteenth and twentieth century (event on the occasion of the exhibition “Royal Christmas”, promoted by Palazzo Reale of Turin, Castello di Racconigi, Castello di Aglié e MUSLI), “Meeting with Roberto Innocenti at the MUSLI”, “Boots and mittens. On the tracks of the cat (and the kitty) in the children’s book’s history”, “Visions of the future: Jules Verne and the others” (exhibition of books, posters, periodi- cals, objects, games, realized by Piero Gondolo della Riva and Pompeo Vagliani on the occasion of the General Assembly of the Société Jules Verne’s of Paris of 2013) and “Sailing with Salgari” are just some examples. 5 For a more detailed description of the itineraries, the collections and the sections, see Pompeo Vagliani, Il Viaggio Incantato. Guida al Museo della Scuola e del Libro per l’Infanzia di Palazzo Barolo, CLS Arti Grafiche, Carmagnola (To), 2011. 438 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Among the new projects, we remember the recent conferments of the Tancredi Vigliardi Paravia fund – composed by documents, furniture, pictures, books, photographs – and the SEI’s illustrations, which new didactics activities, exhibitions and set-ups are going to be projected on, and “Classroom Memories”, a “cross media” project (here is another case of link and mix) in collaboration with RAI Radio 3 and DocAbout Association, which consists in a research in the scholastic archives and the collect of scholastic tokens from the Second Postwar to the Seventies, by the interviews taken to the families by students of a selec- tion of primary schools of Turin, with the purpose to realize a series of radio broadcasts and a multimedia platform about school’s history. Because of its rela- tionship-wise nature, the Foundation Tancredi di Barolo – MUSLI’s preeminent aim is to reach an ever larger user base; so, particular attention is reserved to the accessibility, according to the itineraries’ characteristics. Under the banner “MUSLI: a Museum for everyone” a project has started with the purpose to grant an ever wider public the enjoyment of our patrimony, promoting an accessible knowledge of the collections and Museum Didactics. The School Museum Itinerary, by virtue of the almost total absence of show- cases and prohibitions, offers a total sensorial experience, allows the visitor to touch the majority of the exposed objects, to explore the rooms according to his personal time and interest, to sit on the ancient school desks and to enjoy the atmosphere of the past. The Children’s Book Museum Itinerary, more open to technology, is equipped with emplacements with large touch screens adjustable in height, by MUSLI - Museum of School and Children’s Literature in Palazzo Barolo (Torino, Italy) http://www.operabarolo.it/it/p-60/palazzo-barolo/museo-della- scuola-e-del-libro-per-infanzia-musli (accessed 15.10.2019) 439Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations which it is possible to enjoy the materials, properly translated in a tactile way , in an alternative and complete mode, to reproduce the animations of leverage books, to listen to music and fables. In addition, ancient and modern supports and tactile books, an A3 format table, in black and Braille, giving a general idea of the two itineraries, maps in relief of the single floors, produced with Minolta method, are available; other facilities and new programs are now in elaboration and will be active from the next school year, while a research about the disa- bled child in the children’s literature between nineteenth and twentieth century has been already completed, on the occasion of the exhibition “Forbidden not browse”, realized by Area Onlus in 2012. A lot has been already done, but very much could be furthermore realized: this is the reason why all our staff is constantly updated, not only through inter- nal meetings, but also thanks to lessons and in-depth courses organized on the territory, as, for example, the course “Museum operators and disability”, promot- ed by the Foundation CRT, the Foundation Paideia and the Foundation Feyles, and the course “Seeing with the hands to know art”, offered by U.N.I.Vo.C. – Ital- ian National Union of Volunteers Pro Blind People. An important comparison moment took place on 1st December 2012, on the occasion of the Open Day realized in collaboration with the institutions that are helping us in our formation: an afternoon for the families with disabled children (and not only), full of proposals (pop-up books to browse and experience, the Braille printing, the creation of a little Pinocchio from a clothes peg…), consider- able advices and emotion. The MUSLI is an enchanted, fascinated and striking journey… And everyone can and must be captured by its magic! Bibliography Cecilia De Carli (a cura di), Educare attraverso l’arte. Ricerca, formazione, casi studio, Edizioni Gabriele Mazzotta, Milano, 2007. Juri Meda, Musei della scuola e dell’educazione. Ipotesi progettuale per una sistematiz- zazione delle iniziative di raccolta, conservazione e valorizzazione dei beni culturali delle scuole, «History of Education & Children’s Literature», vol. V, n. 2, 2010, Uni- versity of Macerata, pp. 489-501. Pompeo Vagliani, Il Viaggio Incantato. Guida al Museo della Scuola e del Libro per l’Infanzia di Palazzo Barolo, CLS Arti Grafiche, Carmagnola (To), 2011. Francesca Mogavero, Creativity Network: opportunities of approach to Contemporary Art for children and young people between 3 and 14 years old”. (Master in Management, Marketing and Multimedia for Cultural Heritage and Activities – 2nd level – Poly- technic of Turin and COREP), 2012. Fabiana Loparco, The MUSLI «Museo della Scuola e del Libro per l’Infanzia» (‘The School and the Children’s Book Museum’) of the Foundation Tancredi di Barolo in Turin. An institution at the forefront of the preservation and enhancement of educational and scholastic heritage, «History of Education & Children’s Literature», vol. VIII, n. 1, 2013, University of Macerata, pp. 795-818. 440 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Summary MUSLI: an integrated museum from school to children’s books in Torino Francesca Mogavero The Tancredi di Barolo Foundation, created in 2002 by Pompeo Vagliani, established the Museum of School and Children’s Literature in Palazzo Barolo (Turin, Italy). In 2008 started the new Museum itinerary project, dedicated to Children’s Literature’s history, to complete the exposition about school’s history. The new Museum itinerary, branded MUSLI (Museo Scuola Libro Infanzia - Museum of School and Children’s Literature), was completed during the 150th Italy Unification celebrations and was inaugurated on 23rd of November 2011. The exposition valorizes the rich international historical fund, composed by 12 thousands items (books, original drawings, toys and games from XVIII to half XX centuries) and stored at Foundation’s archive and library. It is the most important centre dedicated to illustration and children’s and scholastic literature’s history on the territory open to the public. The new Museum itinerary is linked to the School Museum itinerary thanks to the pres- ence in Palazzo Barolo, from 1869 to 1903, of the Eredi Botta Historical Typography, the third most important typographic factory of Turin in XIX century, that printed scholastic texts and reading books too; the recalling of Freinet scholastic typography and the exposition of school newspapers make another connection to School Museum itinerary. Indeed, the book theme has been always present in the School Museum itinerary, which particularly investigates the book Cuore written by Edmondo De Amicis, comparing past and present school (and literature), reality and imagination, persistently and in a captivating way. In the Book Museum itinerary the disability is particularly minded: under the banner “MUSLI: a Museum for everyone” a project has started with the purpose to grant an ever wider public the enjoyment of our patrimony, promoting an accessible knowledge of MUSLI collections and museum didactics. 441Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations UDC 069:37:32:008(495) 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 26. 3. 2019 Maria Drakaki* Museums of education as fields of cultural management. Comparative analysis in Greece Šolski muzeji kot področja kulturnega upravljanja. Primerjalna analiza v Grčiji. Izvleček Prispevek poskuša prikazati šolske muzeje v Grčiji kot tudi strategije, ki jim sledijo, in predstaviti njihovo razlagalno izobraževalno in družbeno delo. Sklepi prispevka povzema- jo značilnosti muzejev, ki so se odzvali na raziskavo, in predlagajo sistemski pristop. Prispevek priporoča vzpostavitev mreže, ki bo izvajala kulturne strategije v skladu z visoko kakovostnimi načrti, ki temeljijo na znano- stih kulturnega upravljanja in izobraževanja. Strategije razvoja kulture bodo izhajale iz centra, ki bo zagotovil potrebna sredstva, in bodo hkrati prilagojene ter pripravljene ob po- moči in sodelovanju lokalnih skupnosti. Ključne besede: šolski muzeji, kulturna politika, Grčija, Key words: museums of education, cultural policy, Greece 15th Symposium on school life, part 4: Maria Drakaki, Greece (presented by T. Palaić). Visit us / obiščite nas – Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37647 Abstract The present paper is an attempt to map the thematic museums of education that exist in Greece, as well as to record the policies they follow and reveal their explanatory educa- tional and social work. The conclusions of this paper summarize the characteristics of the museums that were responsive to this research and suggest a model of systemic approach. What is strongly suggested is the creation of a network that will perform cultural politics ac- cording to high-standard specifications based on the sciences of cultural management and education. This cultural politics will derive from the center that will provide the necessary means but will be adapted and accomplished only with the help and co-operation of the lo- cal societies. * Maria Drakaki, President of the Association of the Friends of the School Life Museum of the Municipality of Chania, Crete, Greece; e-mail: mariadrakaki1@yahoo.com 442 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Introduction In the early 21st century, in combination with the redefinition of the role of the museum that dictates its structure as a reflection and rationalization of the very climate of prevailing liquidity in modern society, a growing tendency towards the creation of museums dedicated to education, literacy and school life is observed in Greece. The history of Hellenism is connected with the history of education already from antiquity years. Education in the course of history from ancient to modern Greek history includes concrete, tangible and intangible testimonies of how each generation functioned within it forming images, representations and symbols. The history of education highlights detailed interpretative approaches of the so- cial role of the school as it historically formed. Additionally, various educational problems and specific historical periods are discussed, or reform phenomena or local educational stories are analyzed. Scientific research has shown that regarding educational matters the in- terpretation of the present and therefore the planning of the future must be based on adequate knowledge of the past. The thematic Museums that focus on the history of education reflect the way in which societies perceive their edu- cational past and define themselves in present time, something that deserves particular research interest since, as it is actually the case with the Museum as a cultural phenomenon and institution, they are characterized by deviations in the formulation of policies, objectives and ideologies and consequently in the implementation of specific practices and strategies. The educational system of a country is an integrated system that is in direct relation with the social, political and economic system of the country and which includes smaller components, such as the school and the classroom. The ten- dency towards the creation of Museums of Education is related to the necessity of highlighting the role of education in social matters through the institutions and mainly through the educator’s personal response to the realities of education in the school and the classroom. For, despite the fact that the very role of the edu- cator is determined by a variety of institutional standards, by the organization of the social relations within the particular educational system, by the formal and informal school curriculum, by the commitments of cultural codes, by the prevailing atmosphere of the market values and the expectations of the reference groups, what ultimately sets the seal in everyday teaching practice is the educa- tor’s personal response to the realities of the institution. As a result, the investigation of the diverse pedagogical process creates a very interesting and particularly broad field of educational practice research which the educational museums can approach through the collection, recording, maintenance, research and presentation of evidence of school life in the past and their connection to the current educational reality, as well as the presentation of them as a significant parameter for the future of education. 443Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations However, in Greece the ever growing trend towards the creation of Edu- cation Museums under various names that highlight concepts such as literacy, school life, history of education, combined with the vague state museum poli- cy and the until recently absence of an institutional framework regulating the operation and the conditions under which the recognition and certification of them would be allowed, dictates a dialogue, a dialogue that highlights the impor- tance of the question regarding the organization, strategy, management of these museums nowadays. For this reason, the articulation of Museology and Culture Management Sciences, History of Education and Sciences of Education in gen- eral can be useful and meaningful to the museums of this kind, only if it works effectively in shaping interests, skills and questioning within the frame of values of pluralism, rational thinking, documentation, critical thinking and account- ability, namely only if they offer reflective perspective to the approach of cultural practices and creations. The Concept of Cultural Management - Brief Description of Research The concept of cultural management is within a context of multi-form plan- ning that brings people together in an organizational culture web and guides them towards predetermined cultural goals (Mendis, 2005) The function of the museum is determined both by the professional managers of the organizational system of the museum, and by the types of the museums based on the cultural character, the principles of general (public) interest and their active participation in the digital dimension of the cultural scene in the society of information and knowledge. (Gantzias, G., 2017). For example, nowadays, there are three different distinct types of museums with respectively different distinct cultural characters, as they are recognized by Irene Nakou (Nakou, 2001, p. 145): the Traditional Type: the interest of the museum focuses on objects. The Modern Type: the interest of the museum focuses on the objects and on the public. The Postmodern Type: the interest of the museum focuses on serving the public. Almost across Europe these three types of museums coexist, while in Greece most museums retain the traditional character, although there are efforts to modernize them, for example by setting up the Museums Council (Article 51 of Law 3028/2002)1. The museums are also categorized on the basis of the collections they present, the entities that establish and manage them, the range of their collection, the social group they serve and the exhibition space (Nousia A., 2003). 1 This advises on issues of state museum policy with presentations on the principles of this policy and the support and specialization measures of it, advises on more general issues of museums following questions by the Ministry of Culture, as well as on specific issues concerning the museums, on the cooperation among the museums and the coordination of their activities, on the implementation of the statutory certification system, on the establishment of state museums as special regional services of the Ministry of Culture and so on (Voudouris, 2003, pp. 281-283). 444 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 The research presented was part of my duties in the postgraduate program "Management of Culture Organizations" of the Greek Open University which I completed in 2011. There has been an attempt to map the thematic Museums of Education op- erating in Greece, in order to record the policies and practices adopted and to highlight their interpretative, educational and social work. As in any scientific and professional field, similarly so in the multitudinous world of museums it is not only legitimate but also imperative to search for examples of best practice which will provide inspiration, stimulation, expertise and constructive coopera- tion in the process of organizing some other new or developing museum. Moreover, I am involved as a founding member in the creation of the Mu- seum of School Life, a museum which opened in 2006 under the auspices of the Prefecture of Chania and operates today under the responsibility of the Mu- nicipality of Chania with emphasis on its educational function and voluntary contribution and has as a vision to become a vibrant core that will link creatively the pedagogical events of yesterday, today and tomorrow and will serve the values of lifelong learning. Throughout the journey of writing my post-graduate thesis, the comparative analysis of thematic education museums appearing in Greece in the last 20 years and the investigation for examples of best practice in similar mu- School Life Museum of the Municipality of Chania, Crete, Greece. (accessed 10. 10. 2019, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:School_Life_Museum_(2).JPG 445Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations seums internationally which have been based on modern museological theory and are developing on the principle of the necessity of cultural management in the museum organizations has been attempted. In the research part the qualitative method was chosen as it was considered the most appropriate regarding gathering information, attitudes and perceptions of stakeholders about the particular phenomenon of emergence and growth of educational museums in Greece. Using the structured interview as a tool, a com- parative study of museums in Greece which occur under various names as Museums touching matters of education took place. The research attempted to highlight the following aspects as very essential ones for their further fruitful function: • their comparative analysis in order to determine the degree of their respon- siveness to the demands of the modern role of the museum based on the definition of ICOM and the command of lifelong education • the strengths and weaknesses which the museums themselves spot in rela- tion to their status and identity • the identification of examples of best practice and of elements that consti- tute the criteria of best practice • the degree of their social awareness and commitment to the development of partnerships among them In summary, the steps followed in the qualitative method adopted are: • Each one of the interviews was divided into conceptual modules • All the data of each interview which were included in each conceptual module section were grouped in order for them to constitute the thematic categories • The same procedure was followed in all interviews • Similar elements of individual interviews were consolidated to form wider conceptual categories • The discordant elements of interviews were isolated to be interpreted • There was an attempt to edit the researcher’s comments which were collect- ed during the interviews, in order for them to be integrated in the thematic framework of the interviews • The researcher, by analyzing content and following the inductive logic, tried to incorporate the theme areas that emerged from all the interviews and to incorporate them in the theoretical framework in order for her assumptions and research questions to be supported or not. The Museums Education in Greece – The Research Questions The majority of the Museums of Education in Greece are products of a particular historical period and social situation as is noticed from their starting point (collective initiatives, universities as privileged fields for meeting research and its direct application, expression of the people’s culture). However, the cur- 446 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 rent "museum reality" appears very different, as the conditions that spawned and fueled the development of these trends have either disappeared or have been radically transformed. For the purposes of the approach attempted in this research it is necessary to delineate three, in contradictory and paradoxical way, parallel associated phe- nomena which form the current "reality" of the museum: Phenomenon One: The number of museums is constantly increasing in Western societies and worldwide. The upsurge of interest of the past is a conse- quence of the phenomenon that Huyssen (1995) described as culture of amnesia attributing as the opposite of the erosion of the historical consciousness the ex- plosion of memory. The cultural, social, gender, ethnic, national identities are now discussed with the use of terms of memory. (Kaftantzoglou, p. 34) "Search, rescue, excitation of collective memory, not at within the frame of events, but within the frame of long time, investigation of this memory, less in the texts and more in speech, images, gestures, rituals and festive. This is a reversal of the historical gaze- a reversal shared by the general public who is possessed by the persistent fear of loss of memory, a collective amnesia "(Goff, G., p. 139). The up- surge of interest for the past, the "fashion" of historical heritage , the movements defending local, ethnic and minority identities fuel the so-called "explosion of the museum" as the primary institution for the projection of the past, heritage, memory and identity. Phenomenon Two: The survival of museums in their traditional form tends to become obsolete. Funding from public bodies is continuously decreas- ing. At the same time, newly emerging and rapidly growing sectors-companies in the tourism, recreation, culture and information industry provide services and products -theme parks, cultural centers, websites, virtual museums which compete with and often prove more attractive than the Museum. Finally, appre- ciable percentages of the social body, which, according to any definition of the museum, is the recipient of the activity of the institution, express indifference and even aversion to the idea of a visit to museums, as is documented in polls in various countries (Merriman, Negri, Hooper - Greenhill ). Phenomenon Three: After a long period of indifference to the institution, the social sciences and the cultural studies have, in the previous two decades, focused their interest on museum studies and cultural management. If we look at them separately, each of these developments has implications on one of the functions of the museum. Their combination, however, raises critical questions that affect all types of museums, especially the Museums of Education which particularly because of their themes (education is a dynamic process that evolves depending on the social, political, historical context) cannot remain trapped in traditional orientations. The questions focus on the need for reorganization and redirection of the Museum at many levels, from the signal- ing of the objects exhibited, its relations with the public, its teaching practices 447Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations -in the broadest sense of the term, the choices of its thematic exhibitions, to its building and technology infrastructure. Consequently and based on the three phenomena presented before we can assume that the persistence to preserve historical memory and historical educa- tional heritage, the adherence to the past, the lack of public funding, as opposed to the competition in the field of leisure industry and the rapid development of museum-cultural studies underlie the risk of application of amateurism at the birth and journey of the Museums of Education found in our country. Under these circumstances and given the relevant developments in the field of museums, the question of how these Museums of Education form, operate, survive and develop is a core question in our survey. Another important question is the scope of their management in all their functions and in accordance with the Code of Ethics of ICOM. Finally, an important question is the possibility of blocking of the awareness and action of contemporary orientation and the tactics adopted to connect the past with the present and the future of the educational reality. The Research Conclusions The comparative qualitative analysis of the interview data, the speech ar- ticulated by the managers of the Museums that participated in the research, formulate the following conclusions: The Museums’ contemporary image shows overlapping actions which are differentiated, partly lined with the local history of the area. However, a minor number of them plan their communication with the rest of or similar museums and they remain trapped in the educational past and the restricted boundaries of the local community under the fear of sterile competitiveness and exclusivity. Only one of them stands out for its tendency to organize temporary exhibitions curated by professional museologists with issues referring to the present and the future of education. While the statutes of the museums are dominated by the goal of lifelong learning as a key component of modern education, the museums do not seem to support this goal actively. The difficulties in finding resources, infrastructure and personnel in combination with the anxiety about the beginning, as well as the ef- forts towards consolidation of the anointing of the museum in the minds of their audience, marginalize this objective undermining their specifications and their perspective to be included in the list of the recognized museums in the country. Lifelong learning is an opportunity for the flexible and effective "solution" for all the deficiencies and shortcomings of the education system, which is possi- ble to be utilized by the museums in general, and especially those of education, 448 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 through the informal education they provide.2 The proposal of informal educa- tion with the aim of experiential receipt of knowledge through art could offer a lot to the methodology of formal education. The museum is one of the institu- tions that reflect the ideal of lifelong learning because "in this, the education is a right of all humans and can be enjoyed throughout their whole life, without any limitation, depending on their personal choices" (Kokkos 1999, p. 25). The belief of the creators that the initiation can rely merely on the willing- ness and the passion of a team of volunteers that will support the idea, works in most cases as a deterrent to the organization, development and sustainabil- ity of the museum. The creators, trapped in their idea, develop 'introspective' behaviors that preclude scientific dialogue and lead to amateurism. Although they emphasize the need for recruiting museum professionals who will have the knowledge and the skills to address the issue of the sustainability of the organi- zations, it is only seldom that their actions are directed towards this end. The educational process is an act of transmission which is not always carried out in a rigorous academic framework and which mobilizes knowledge between a trainer and a trainee. These two factors should be highlighted on an equal basis through the actions of the particular museums and not primarily the trainer and secondarily the trainee as is the case most often. In other words, the necessity of redefining their exhibition policy which is clearly linked with the clarification of their mission is realized. The Museums of Education approached through the present study need to make a lot more steps to be able to claim the title of the modern type museum. They are in an "embryonic" stage and although their intentions and visions are 2 The museum experience is a predominantly educational experience with other components of course, those characterizing the informal education. "The terms of formal and informal education do not qualitatively characterize the educational process, but they simply describe the contribution of the practice that has to be followed by education” (Kakouras-Chroni G., 2002, p. 126). School Life Museum of the Municipality of Chania, Crete, Greece. (web sources, accessed 10. 10. 2019) 449Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations recorded as high, it is clear that currently they do not satisfy the requirements of the museum. The areas that they should focused on in order to adequately meet the needs of modern times are specified in the latest answer given in the interview of the former director of the National Museum of Education of Rouen in France, Mr. Yves Gaulupeau, (which was from the writer in the frame of the study, but is not listed for reasons of economy of space and time) who refers to the recognition of a Museum Education as a model of best practice: "The museum should have planning, activities, exhibitions, publications, events taking into consideration the diversity of the audience. In all cases, it must aim for diversity of audience with topics orientated to contemporary reality and the demands of today. There is not best practice without the personal investment, the intellect, the curiosity of profes- sionals, the cohesion in the team functioning in the Museum no matter what the audience’s profile is. There is no ideal place regarding the collection and preserva- tion of educational heritage which is not recorded in the consciousness for a long period of time if it is not based on the material’s infrastructure which is such as to ensure the sustainability of the Museum as well as funding for the specialized firms. Finally, I would light to highlight the importance of collections in quality and quantity as well as the thematic cohesion. These collections should be subject to a rigorous procedure of recording and preventive maintenance and expertise that will enable the on line digitization and opening of the Museum in research.” Proposals for the future As a result, what is necessary is the dialogue and convergence of historical sciences, educational sciences and cultural studies in order for the thematic mu- seums that appear rapidly in Greece claiming the title of the museum education or literacy, bearing various names, to seek new contemporary directions and to connect in a fruitful way the past with the present and the future of education. The articulation of the discussion about the history and proliferation of histori- cal objects, the modern pedagogical theories combined with the concern that has developed regarding the mission and operation of the museum and the necessity of cultural management can become an important factor in the formation of the mission and the work of these museums, which, for the majority of the muse- ums, is for the time being characterized by lack of clarity. There is a need for a scientifically organized and established exploration of the relationship between these museums and the public, the social body, which, according to any proclamation, every statute and every definition they serve. These surveys form a body of information extremely useful for their management as well as for the wider, at a national level, museological policy and their findings significantly contribute to the evaluation of the presence and the action of the museum and identify the public’s expectations from its existence. The necessity and the benefits of a comprehensive research approach to the audience of the museums of education of our country would probably be useful to be identified through a research proposal will be materialized by professional researchers. 450 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 In order to attract all social groups’ interest in the history of education the particular museums will have to escape from the isolation of their four walls and to become related to the lives of their citizens and to approach issues which are not confined to the school environment. The enrichment of the exhibitions’ the- matic should be a result of policies orientated towards all aspects of education: school, non-school, in the past, in the present, on the tangible and intangible traces of it. They should put prospects in contemporary education issues, they should open to society without succumbing to dominant policies relating to edu- cation. They should become experimental sites which are linked to the present and evolvable. Their transformation in living witnesses is more effective than being “dressed up dolls” in their reports of the past. The collection of intangible heritage is scarce in the collection tactics adopt- ed. The presentation and use of historical classes, namely their representation should be accompanied with experienced speech (oral testimonies collected with the use of specific methodology) which might make the historical form of the educational process better understandable. The presentation of teaching is cur- rently limited spatially in these museums. The systematic comparison between classes from different eras would be particularly enlightening. In addition, geo- graphic comparisons beyond the national dimension could be presented in their exhibitions. Finally, it would be fruitful if these museums were addressed by the state through a systemic approach which will submit them to a strategic plan with universal cultural management principles, will identify distinct roles and areas of research, possible specialization in theoretical fields of education, determining degrees of evaluation and certification by a multidisciplinary management au- thority; always, at the same time, providing a level of freedom which will highlight the needs and interests of the local community which these museums originate from and with the aim of strengthening the development of the necessary ini- tiatives. The detailed presentation of such a model of a museum of education network could be a basis of concern for further investigation and would clearly allow the strengthening of each museum and its development in accordance with the requirements of its modern role. Sources and Literature In Greek: Antzoulatou-Retsila E. (2005), Cultural and Museological Blendings, Papazissi. Athens Goff L.Z. (1998), History and Memory, ed. Nefeli. Athens Didaskalou-Skouteri El. (2003), For an anthropology of collecting in Ethnographics, Mu- seums and Popular Culture vol. 12-13, Peloponnesian Folklore Foundation, pp. 47-81, Nafplion Kakourou -Chroni G. (2002), Curriculum and arts at Glytsi E. Zafirakou A. Kakourou- Chroni G. Pikopoulou Tsolaki D. The dimensions of cultural phenomena (pp. 113-155) Volume C., Culture and Education, Patras Hellenic Open University 451Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Kaftantzoglou R. (2003) Folklore Museums, Popular Culture and the audience of the mu- seums in Ethnographics, Museums and Popular Culture vol. 12-13, Peloponnesian Folklore Foundation, Nafplion, pp. 33-46 Kokkos Al. ed. (2006), The transformative Learning, translation Lack Mezirow and col- leauges, METAICHMIO Kollia- Paraskevopoulou Efr-Al. (2008), Methodology of qualitative research in social studies and interviews in the Open Education-The Journal for Open and Distance Education Technology , Volume 4, Number 1, 2008 Ethics Code of ICOM for Museums, ICOM, Athens 2009 Pantazidis D. (2003), Communication Places, An aesthetic implementation for the cultural management and the educational programmes, Grafes, Athens Paschalidis, Gr. (2002), Basic Concepts and Issues in the Study of the Culture and the Art in Velopoulou Agg. (ed) The Dimensions of the Cultural Phenomena, Introduction to Culture, vol. A, Hellenic Open University, Patras, pp. 19-86 Pavlogeorgatos, G. & Konstantoglou, M. (2005), “Cultural Tourism: The Case of Greece” in Vernicos, N., Daskalopoulou, S. Mpantimaroudis, F., Mpoumparis, N., Papageor- giou D., (ed), Cultural Industries- Procedures, Service, Goods, Kritiki, Athens, pp. 59-84 Pikopoulou – Tsolaki D. (2002), Culture as an alternative way of education and entertain- ment in museums. Methods of acquainting the public with the art museums in Glitsis E. – Zafeirakou A., Kakourou- Chroni G., Pikopoulou D., Tsolaki, The Dimensions of the Cultural Phenomena, Culture and Education, vol. C, Hellenic Open University, Patras, pp. 57-111 Retsila- Antzoulatou, Evr. (1995), Museological Contemplations. Approaches- Applica- tions, Athens- Arta: Friends of Music Association, SKOUFAS Brunner J. (2007), The culture of education, Introduction and edition by Veikou Chr., translated by Vougiouka A., Greek Letters, Athens Hooper-Greenhill E. (1992), Τhe Museum and its Predecessors, translation Pappas And., Cultural Foundation of Piraeus Group Robson C. (2006), The research of the real world, Gutenberg, Athens In foreign languages: Boyer M, (2009), Les collections et les muséographies des musées de l'école et de l'Éducation en Europe. Étude comparative à partir d’exemples significant ( Soutenue le 30 septem- bre 2009) Borg W.R. (1981), Applying educational research: A practical guide for teachers. New York: Longman Kitwood T.M. (1977), Values in adolescent life: towards a critical description, School of research in education: University of Bradford Merriman N. (1989), Museum visiting as a cultural phenomenon in Vergo P., (ed), The new museology, London: Reaction Books, pp. 149-172 Tuckman B.W. (1972), Conducting educational research. New York: Harcourt Brace Jo- vanovich Internet source Gantzias, George (2017), Cultural Management and Cultural Activities: The Model “Dy- namic Perception of Cultural Activities”. In: Handbook of Research on Policies and Practices for Sustainable Economic Growth and Regional Development, https:// www.igi-global.com/chapter/cultural-management-and-cultural-activities/180190 (accessed 10. 3. 2019) 452 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Summary Museums of education as fields of cultural management. Comparative analysis in Greece Maria Drakaki The present paper is an attempt to map the thematic museums of education that exist in Greece, as well as to record the policies they follow and reveal their explanatory educational and social work. What is also attempted through this paper, is the comparative analysis of the edu- cational –oriented museums that appear the last 20 years in Greece. The dialogue tries to show off the following aspects as crucial to their further constructive function: a) The rate of their correspondence to the demands of the modern role of the museum, based on the definition of the ICOM and the orders of for-life education b) the abilities and weaknesses that the museums themselves trace, in reference to their grounds and identity c) the rate of social sensitivity and their commitment to the development of co-operation among them. The conclusions of this paper summarize the characteristics of the museums that were responsive to this research and suggest a model of systemic approach. This model will subject the museums to strategic planning according to unified principles of cultural management and will define specific roles and areas of research, as well as possible specialization in theoretical sections of education, determining standards of control and certification by a scientific and ad- ministrative authority. It is important to emphasize that this model is going to provide degrees of freedom that will highlight the needs and interests of the local society, where these museums belong to, setting as a goal the strength of the development of necessary initiatives. What is strongly suggested is the creation of a network that will perform cultural poli- tics according to high-standard specifications based on the sciences of cultural management and education. This cultural politics will derive from the centre that will provide the necessary means but will be adapted and accomplished only with the help and co-operation of the local societies. 453Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations UDC 374.7:37.014.22(669.1) 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 15. 10. 2014 Moses S. Jayeola-Omoyeni* Museum – Center for adult literacy education delivery in Nigeria, 2000-2010: Evaluation Muzej kot center za opismenjevanje odraslih v Nigeriji, 2000–2010: evalvacija Izvleček Glavna težava, ki vpliva na učinkovito spod- bujanje opismenjevanja odraslih v Nigeriji, je izpis udeležencev iz centrov za opismenjeva- nje po prvotnem vpisu. Na podlagi raziskave, ki je bila opravljena in je predstavljena v pri- čujočem prispevku, so posamezni muzeji v zveznih državah Ekiti, Ondo in Osun pre- vzeli vlogo centra za opismenjevanje, da bi dopolnili državne in druge tovrstne centre. Ključne besede: Nigerija, opismenjevanje, izobraževanje odraslih Keywords: Nigeria, literacy education, adult education 15th Symposium on School Life, part 33. Visit us / obiščite nas – Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37683 Introduction This article reports an adult literacy education project embarked upon in three states of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, between 2000 and 2010 to show the place and importance of museums in promoting adult literacy education. The article concludes that people should not see the museums only as the house of or for antiquities, but as valuable literacy centers. It recommends the use and integration as effective sources for promoting adult literacy education in Nigeria. The primary purpose of teaching and learning any where in the world ac- cording to UNESCO (1992) is to provide the learners to programming objectives Abstract The main problem affecting the effective promotion of adult literacy education in Ni- geria, is that of the withdrawal of participants from the literacy centers after the initial en- rolment. From the research conducted and being reported in this paper, some community museums in Ekiti, Ondo and Osun states of Nigeria, were used as literacy centers to com- plement the conventional literacy centers of the government and other agencies. * Moses Sunday Jayeola-Omoyeni, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo, Ondo State, Nigeria, e-mail: jayeomoyeni5@yahoo.com 454 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 that would broaden the horizon of the learners, acquaint them with the local, national and international issues and familiarize them with the cultural and technological environment. For the services to be acceptable and meaningful, it contents must be relevant to the society. It must be related to the lives of the learner and must show a considerable understanding of the history, hopes, liv- ing-conditions, political, social and cultural activities. The British colonial masters discovered that Nigeria had a high rate of adult illiteracy and thus launched the first Mass Literacy Campaign in 1946. Efforts at combating the scourge of high rate of adult illiteracy, by government, non-gov- ernmental and voluntary organizations, UNESCO and other bodies to promote adult literacy education in Nigeria, did not yield any appreciable results. Schools, open fields, market places, churches etc were used as literacy centres to reach and teach the illiterates how to read and write in the printed words. The main problem affecting the effective promotion of adult literacy education in Nigeria is that of the withdrawal of participants from the literacy centres after the initial enrolments. The purpose of this article is to: · report how museums were used as adult literacy education centres where participants were sustained to acquire literacy skills; · show that most of the artifacts in the museums are items found in the local environment and could be used as literacy teaching material aids in learn- ing; · compare the result of a ten-year informal teaching and learning at the mu- seums with governments” conventional formal type. Consequent upon these the project would: stimulate the interest of peo- ple in museum collections; facilitate more illiterate people to become literates without any significant drop-out; generate the interest of the literate people in reducing adult illiteracy by using the method to complement government efforts. Nigerian literacy education background The examination of literacy education background in Nigeria from 1842, when the first formal system of education was established, showed a very poor school attendance as a result of inadequate establishment of schools in what was then known as the Northern and Southern protectorates. Nigeria was basi- cally influenced by the Christian Missionary form of “western education”. The Christian missionaries introduced the roman alphabets in teaching, reading and writing in the established schools. A person who is unable to read, write or communicate in the roman scripts is considered as an illiterate. There was thus, an army of illiterates in Nigeria as a result of education conflicts and inadequate schooling facilities for both the children and adults. 455Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations The colonial government launched the first Mass Literacy Campaign in 1946 in the regional capitals of Lagos, Ibadan, Enugu and Kaduna. This according to Jayeola-Omoyeni and Ajayi (2012), was designed to sensitize the provincial and the district governments, to launch adult literacy programme to enable the out- of-school adult illiterates have access to literacy education. Several efforts were made to reduce adult illiteracy in Nigeria. One of such efforts was for government to establish literacy centres in market places, plantation farms and so on, to en- able more illiterate traders and farmers to become literates. In addition, mass literacy campaigns were launched and relaunched severally in Nigeria under the military and civilian administrations. The problem of adult literacy in Nigeria is that of enrolment and withdraw- al. Illiterate adults always enrol at the literacy centres, but the majority withdrew after a few weeks into the programme. Various strategies were used to ensure that adult learners were sustained to learn at the various learning centres – Jayeola- Omoyeni (1998 and 2003). Table I: Statistical information on literacy in Nigeria Year Nigeria population Literacy in Roman script Illiteracy in Roman script % Literate adults % Illiterate adults 1991 88,992,220 33,817,044 55,175,176 38 61.62 2006 140,003,452 61,601,468 78,401,984 44 56 Source: The Nigeria Population Census, % calculation is that of the author. Education in Nigeria - Age of Awareness – Medium (https://medium.com/age-of- awareness/education-in-nigeria-5cac3967857f, accessed 10. 10. 2019) 456 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 As shown in Table 1, there is a high rate of illiteracy in Nigeria. Literacy ac- cording to Eldred (2010) is a significant bench-mark for a country to develop. Okonjo–Iwealla (2013) indicates that about 10.6 million children never being to school presently in Nigeria. It is expected that this population would further increase the high rate of adult illiteracy in the country. This confirms the pro- jection of Callaway (1985), Aminu (1988), Fafunwa (1992), Tugbiyele (1993) and Jayeola-Omoyeni (2003) among others that concurred and indicated a rise in adult illiteracy despite the UNESCO, religious bodies and voluntary organiza- tions’ adult literacy interventions, if drastic and realistic actions are not taken to address the issue. There is thus the need to research into the poor level of literacy to find what could be done to reduce illiteracy. Museums in Nigeria In Nigeria when we mention the word museum, there are various interpre- tations and opinions given to it by both the literate and illiterate Nigerians, who are ignorant of the asking roles of a museum. Many Nigerians see the museum as a “no-go-area where government properties are kept”. Before colonialism in Nigeria, what could be regarded as museums was the traditional shrine – fam- ily, community and ancestral shrines – set aside for the “calling” of the deities when there were problems. Such shrines were exclusively preserved, and only Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo, Nigeria (https://schoolings.org/, accessed 10. 10. 2019) 457Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations the elders in that community had the absolute power to “invoke” the spirit of the deities. Such was the traditional and early form of museums we had in Nigeria. However, the modern “civilization” has changed all that. Museums now house the shrine exhibits, pictures, diagrams, maps, various articles of trade, art-works of the related neighborhood, cultural attributes of the communities, sculpturing, types of cloth associated with a particular area, previous writings, portraits of heroes and heroines. All these are housed in the modern museums and exhibited to researchers. The first known museum in Nigeria was established in 1930 at Esie, in the present - day Kwara State. However, there are about 60 National Museums in the 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. There are palace museums, monumental buildings , first storey building in a town, local government areas and so on. All these are preserved and people come to the premises on daily basis to relax like the National Parks in the advanced countries of the world. Since 1930, Museum development in Nigeria has been consolidated and ex- panded. The following museums were opened in the year against each of them: Jos – 1945, Ile-Ife – 1954, Lagos – 1957, Oron – 1958, Benin – 1960, Kano – 1960, Owo – 1968. It is noted that the citing of the early museums tended to be in- formed by the sources of the collections in them. The Jos Museum, for example, houses many Nok terracottas while Ife, Oron and Benin museums house most of the iferine heads and figures, Ikom monoliths and Benin bronzes. Museum’s conventional activities According to Kerri (1994), the modern museum in Nigeria is an institu- tion that cares for and conserves a collection of artifacts and other objects of artistic, cultural or historical importance. Museum, especially the Natural his- tory museum, encourages researching, teaching and collections covering botany, entomology, mineralogy, zoology, etc. Modern museum fuels creativity, ignites minds and provides inspiration for the people of the environment where such museum is located. Museum provides and generates according to Ambrose and Paine (1994), cultural and economic renaissance, in its area of location. This is probably one of the reasons that led the author to successfully use some of the community museums as learning centres for the delivery of adult literacy educa- tion in Nigeria. Museums should be disturbed all the time. More activities should be going on within and outside the premises. In many African countries – Kenya, South Africa, Uganda, Ghana, Morocco etc., many of their museums are always bee of activities. In essence the Nigerian museums as opined by Agbontaen (2002) should not be seen as “no-go-area”. The Museum should be seen as a place for social activities where such museum is located. 458 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Project – literacy teaching and learning at the museum The author with the assistance of Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) graduate was inspired and introduced a learning centre informally at the monu- mental museum in Ikere-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria. As an experiment, teaching and learning started with 8 participants in 1999 and having recorded a success story, the experiment metamorphosed to an exciting project to basically com- plement the conventional adult literacy delivery of the government and other agencies. Between 2000 and 2010, the author as the chief facilitator worked with the 13 Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) graduates in Ekiti, Ondo and Osun States of Nigeria, to recruit and teach the illiterate participants. For ten years, the project was on-going and more people were enrolled each year. There was only an insignificant drop-out basically as a result of death and sickness. Success stories were recorded each year in each of the selected states. There was a steady increase of about 1.6% recorded altogether. At the end of ten years a total figure of 4,084 participants had enrolled from which 3,857 (94.4%) participated fully to becoming literates at the record time of nine months. The illiterates were usually inspired and galvanized to stay at the museum premises to learn. The total enrolment in the conventional literacy program in the selected three states and for a ten-year period was 37,648 with only 8,467 (22.5%) sustained to a nine-month full participation. About 29,181 enrollees had withdrawn! Methodology. The teaching methodology was exciting. The facilitators used many of the artifacts in the museums as instructional aids or materials. The 15th Symposium in Ljubljana, 2013. Moses S. Jayeola-Omoyeni in the discussion. (photo M. Javoršek) 459Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations participants gained immensely in the program as about 163 participants showed interest in sculpturing, and 34 showed active interest in dyeing and tying as a vocation. The participants spent between six and seven months to acquire pro- ficiency in reading and writing in Yoruba language – being the language of the environment. The learners were sustained at the learning centres because of the ways the instructors facilitated teaching and learning as: · Adequate motivation was provided for the learners – refreshments etc., were provided all the time while the project lasted. The participants will- ingly contributed money for refreshments at the museum centres. · There was no examination to assess their proficiency. Proficiency was as- sessed by given them tasks to do. All these and many more enhanced the enthusiasm of the participants. Such that the drop-outs recorded were those who were sick or dead. Finance. Writing materials, stationery items and refreshments for the par- ticipants, cost about 20,000 Nigerian money (141 US dollars).Transportation and other allowances for the facilitators cost 50,000 Nigerian money (350 US dollars). A total amount of seventy thousand 70,000 Nigeria money (491US dollars), was spent to make 3,857 participants become literates through the use of the commu- nity museums. Whereas, to become literate by the government sponsored adult literacy education program for the same period cost the government 6 million Nigeria money (40,000 US dollars)! Comparison · The result of the conventional literacy programorganized by government and government agencies, had not been impressive because of yearly mas- sive withdrawal of participants. · There was no female participant throughout the ten-years of duration of the project. This was so because women did not come to the museums for relaxation like men. · The number of drop-outs was higher in the government’s literacy delivery centres of the Federal and state government under reference. · There was no examination procedure for the museum’s literacy education participants. Hence, the participants showed more enthusiasm to stay and learn and become literates. · The most prominent handicap to the promotion of adult literacy i.e. the mass withdrawal of participants, was not significantly present during the ten years teaching and learning at the museums. · The cost of promoting literacy, at the museums was significantly low. 460 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Achievement. The project achieved the following among others: · helping illiterate adults to become literates, through the use of community museums as the literacy centres; · helping the participants out of the superstitious beliefs attached to muse- ums; · empowering the participants to be functional, more creative in vocational education; · supporting the Nigerian government in her efforts to drastically reduce adult illiteracy; · adding values to adult literacy and sustaining the participants to becoming literates in their own rights. Conclusion and recommendation Innovation of any kind requires creativity, commitment and effort. As edu- cators, we can choose to continue to be part of a system which is failing or we can chosoe to be innovative agents of change. The museums were seen before the project as an institution for the educated ones where the illiterate people cannot enter at will. Whereas, the museum is the place where people’s art-works, cul- tural history and traditions are preserved from extinction. The importance of education: distribution of educational materials in Ondo state to the students by authorities (http://www.ondostate.gov.ng/Home/NewsItem/Mrs-- Akeredolu-distributes-educational-materials-to-students, accessed, 10. 10. 2019) 461Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Based on the outcomes of the project being reported in this article, the fol- lowing recommendations are advanced. · The Nigerian government should adopt the museums as a valuable source for promoting adult literacy education. Literacy education delivery using the museum as alternative should be included in the Educational Policy of government. · Government should ensure that museums are adequately updated with new collections. The premises should be made more attractive to the people. · Museums should be seen and appreciated as the peoples’ house of “stored wisdom”. People should have adequate access to them to acquire the history and cultural knowledge of the environment. · Researchers must be encouraged to support government to drastically re- duce the scourge of illiteracies in Nigeria. · Museums should be seen as a centre of integration, places where what be- longs together comes together, where people learn together, from and with one another, through discussion and dialogue on their arts and cultures. · Adult literacy education should continually take place informally as for- mality of such education may breed rigidity which may always lead to withdrawal of participants. Bibliography Afigbo, A. (1984). 70% of Adults are Illiterate, Daily Times, Lagos: Daily Times Publication March 28. P.I. Agbontaen, E. (2002. The Use of Benin Cultural Objects for Educational Programmes in Museums, Nigerian Heritage, 2, pp. 120-124. Ambrose, T. and Paine, C. (1994). Museum Basic, London: Routledge. Aminu, J. (1988). Illiteracy on the Increase, Daily Times, Lagos: Daily Times Publishers Thursday, 8 December, p. 1. Callaway, A. (1985). UNESCO Predicts Rise in Number of Illiteracy, The Guardian, Lagos: Guardian Press, p.14. Egonwa, D.D. (2010). The Evolution of the Concept of National Synthesis in Nigeria, Jour- nal of Art, 8, (1&2), pp. 52-60. Eldred, J. (2010). Adults Learning, Literacy and International Development, Hope or Hy- pocrisy? Adult Education and Development, (75) pp. 101-104. Filani, K. (2003). Museums in Nigeria. Historical Antecedents and Current Practice, Da- kar-Art, Minorities, Majorities, pp. 1-8. Jayeola-Omoyeni, M.S. (1998). Promoting Adult Literacy Education through Socio-Eco- nomic and Cultural Group, Journal of Education Improvement, 1, pp. 13-19. Jayeola-Omoyeni, M.S. (2003). Milestone in Adult Functional Literacy Education in Nige- ria, Ondo: Yemi Publishing Services. Jayeola-Omoyeni, M.S. and Ajayi A.I., (2012). UNESCO’S Support for Adult Literacy Edu- cation in Nigeria, 1946-2010: Impact Assessment, European Scientific Journal, (8) 15, pp. 238-252. Kerri, H.O. (1994). Developing Museums, the Nigerian Experience, Nigerian Heritage, 3, pp. 59-68. 462 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Laurentien, P. (2011). Education Without Borders, Adult Education and Development, 77, pp. 21-26. Okonjo-Iwealla, N. (2013). 10.6 Nigerian Children Never Being to School. The Guardian, Lagos: Guardian Press. Purcell, C. (2013). Open Skies. p. 61 Tugbiyele, E.A. (1993). Literacy for National Survival and Political Stability, Education Today, pp. 48-49. UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2000). Statistics Document Education for All – 2000, As- sessment, and Development (55), pp. 119-128. UNESCO, (1992). A Literate World, Paris: International Bureau of Education. UNESCO, (2009). Education for All Global Monitoring Report, Paris: UNESCO Press. Webster Dictionary (2004). Summary Museum – Center for adult literacy education delivery in Nigeria, 2000-2010: Evaluation Moses S. Jayeola-Omoyeni The European colonial masters discovered that Nigeria had a high rate of adult illiteracy and thus launched the first Mass Literacy Campaign in 1946. Efforts at combating the scourge of high rate of adult illiteracy by government, non-governmental and voluntary organizations, Unesco and other bodies to promote adult literacy education in Nigeria, did not yield any appre- ciable results. Open fields, market places etc., were used as literacy centers to reach and teach the illiterates how to read and write in the printed word. The main problem affecting the effective promotion of adult literacy education in Nigeria, is that of the withdrawal of participants from the literacy centers after the initial enrolment. From the research conducted and being reported in this paper, some community museums in Ekiti, Ondo and Osun states of Nigeria, were used as literacy centers to complement the conventional literacy centers of the government and other agencies. Between 2000 and 2010, a total enrolment in the conventional literacy programme in those three states in Nigeria, was 37,648 with only 8,467 (22.5%) sustained to a nine month annual literacy graduation. But at the museum literacy centers in the three states, a total enrol- ment of 4,084 from which 3,857 (94.4%) participants were sustained. It is therefore seen that the community museums could be a valuable literacy center and thus recommended its use and integration as effective sources for promoting adult literacy education in Nigeria. 463Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations UDC 37:069:378.4(460.15) 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 4. 4. 2019 Paulí Dávila Balsera,* Luis Mª Naya Garmendia** A Project about a Museum of education in the Basque Country Projekt Muzeja izobraževanja v Baskiji Izvleček Baskovska univerza se je pridružila drugim univerzam in ustanovila Baskovski šolski muzej - "Euskal Hezkuntzaren Museoa". Že pred ustanovitvijo muzeja je v Baskiji delo- val Dokumentacijski center za zgodovino šolstva, ki ga je spodbujala skupina za zgo- dovinske študije in primerjalno izobraževanje, katere člana sta avtorja pričujočega prispev- ka (http://www.ehu.eus/euskal-hezkuntza/ espanol/). Baskovski šolski muzej je zasno- van na različnih vsebinah, ki nam pomagajo razumeti, razložiti in prenašati različne zna- čilnosti izobraževanja v Baskiji. Posamezne sobe so opremljene z gradivom, ki se nanaša na: »ikastole« (šole, ki izvajajo pouk izključ- no v baskovščini), obnovo šolstva, podeželske šole itd. Ravno tako pa so opremljene s klasič- nimi elementi šolskega muzeja. Abstract The University of the Basque Country joins the line opened by other universities, and launches the Museum of Education of the Basque Country - “Euskal Hezkuntzaren Mu- seoa”, in the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). The creation of this museum is preceded by the existence of a Documenta- tion Centre on the History of Education in the Basque Country, promoted by the group of Historical Studies and Comparative Educa- tion, whose members are the authors of this contribution (http://www.ehu.eus/euskal- hezkuntza/espanol/). This museum is being structured around a series of topics to help us understand, explain and transmit the dif- ferential characteristics of education in the Basque Country. In this sense, some rooms are being planned with material relating to: “ikastolas” (schools providing teaching exclu- sively in Basque), educational renewal, rural schools, etc.; as well as all the classic elements of a school museum. * Paulí Dávila Balsera, Professor of the History of Education at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) Faculty of Education, Philosophy and Anthropology, Avda. de Tolosa, 70, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián; pauli.davila@ehu.eus ** Luis Mª Naya Garmendia, Professor of the History of Education at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) Faculty of Education, Philosophy and Anthropology, Avda. de Tolosa, 70, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián; luisma.naya@ehu.eus 464 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Ključne besede: šolski muzej, univerza, Baskija, Donostia-San Sebastián, Key words: museum of education, university, Donostia-San Sebastián, Basque Country 15th Symposium on School Life, part 17: Visit us / obiščite nas – Sistory.si: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37664 In the educational field, the recovery of historical-educational memory is being undertaken through valuing, promoting and safeguarding school her- itage.1 In the Western context, the inauguration, under a variety of names, of school and educational museums, museums of toys and games and children’s museums, etc., is increasingly more common. These museums have a marked institutional dependence: universities, trusts, local authorities, private bodies, cultural associations, etc. Within this wide-ranging provision, the inauguration of educational museums in universities is a model that is being developed at a number of European universities and research centres (Padua, Crete, Rouen, Salamanca, Seville, Murcia, amongst others). The University of the Basque Coun- try (UPV/EHU), through the Group for Historical and Comparative Studies in Education-Garaian, has begun the task of launching “The Museum of Education of the Basque Country - Euskal Herriko Hezkuntzaren Museoa”. In this article, we present the background of the project and the steps taken to date, focusing on its construction as a university museum and on the contributions to the project from various public and private bodies. 1. The Museum of Education of University of the Basque Country There is a wide range as regards Spanish museums of school education, some of which are traditionally physical and depend on universities such as Sala- manca, Murcia, Madrid or Seville. The University of the Basque Country (UPV/ EHU), as stated in the first article of its Statutes, directs its activity to “meeting the needs of Basque society and to the consequences of its history and its so- cioeconomic, political and cultural transformations, thus spreading knowledge of universal culture and science, with special emphasis on Basque culture and language”. This enables us to define some of the characteristic features of our university and its commitment to the society in which it finds itself rooted. Tak- ing part in the “enrichment of the intellectual, humanistic, cultural and scientific heritage of Basque society” is, according to its Statutes, an essential function of the UPV/EHU (Article 4). 1 This article is the result of a research project financed by the Spanish Ministry for Science and Education, project number EDU-2010-15218. The authors are members of the Group for Histo- rical and Comparative Studies in Education – Garaian, recognized by the Basque Government, registry number IT 911-16 and of the Unity of Education and Research “Education, Culture and Society (UFI 11/54)” of the University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU. Email: pauli.davila@ ehu.eus; luisma.naya@ehu.eus 465Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations The University 2012-2017 Strategic Plan also highlights this aspect, defining the UPV/EHU as “a university which is public, research-orientated, rooted in Basque society, open to the world, with an intellectual leadership, and which has ethical and social commitment”. This initial declaration is reinforced in the Pillar of Social Commitment, this being understood as one of the aspects on which the University will be focusing in the upcoming years. In concrete, the UPV/EHU assumes its responsibility as a body committed to society, pledged to favouring activities of scientific dissemination and to the social promotion of science, tech- nology, the arts, humanities, and in collaboration with other bodies. The above arguments reinforce the fact that the UPV/EHU is the funda- mental reference in the Basque Country (Euskal Herria) regarding studies of a historical-educational nature. The creation of the Museum, to the extent that it is a space for the conservation, research and interpretation of historical-educa- tional heritage, projects this image, both at the University level as well amongst Basque society as a whole. The creation of a Museum of Education of the Basque Country responds to the importance of these spaces and centres for historical memory – including educational memory- , and of pedagogic museums in general, of great relevance and tradition in Europe and which, as we have pointed out, is a phenomenon be- ing consolidated in university bodies. The creation of the Museum at the UPV/EHU involves institutional back- ing in the form of the signing of contracts with other bodies for recovering or restoring material, for organising scientific events and meetings involving the cooperation of specialists or for establishing academic relations with interna- tional-level pedagogic museums. In this way, a number of exhibitions linked to historical-educational topics have been organised in university spaces on school exercise books, children of the Spanish Civil War, women and education, etc. Museum of Education of the Basque Country / Euskal Hezkuntzaren Museoa, Opening ceremony, 24. 10. 2016 (https://www.ehu.eus/eu/web/museoeducacion, accessed 10. 10. 2019) 466 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 The principal objective of the Museum is to recover, safeguard and make known both the historical memory of education in the Basque Country as well as to undertake the habitual uses and aims of pedagogic museums (cataloguing and conservation of historical-educational heritage), added to which are academic studies, research and teaching use. The Museum of Education of the Basque Country is a response to the need to preserve, study and disseminate the memory and the historical-educational heritage of the Basque Country, making it a training space for everything in- volving the history of material culture of educational institutions and of school practices in the contemporary history of the Basque Country, besides being an exhibition space aimed at the country’s schools and open to the public at large. The Museum also aims to stimulate gifts or donations of items or collections from private individuals or from institutions, both public and private; to create an au- dio-visual and visual archive of school images and interviews with or life histories of the lives of teachers, pupils or persons who have had a connection with train- ing or teaching activities; to promote the creation of specific collections such as school manuals, exercise books and workbooks and educational-scientific mate- rial; to cooperate with any other body promoting the same objectives and, above all, with those institutions which have historical-educational collections. Also highlighted amongst other activities is the organisation of courses, seminars or cycles of conferences linked to the study, reconstruction and dissemination of educational memory In drawing up this project, techniques in documenting and cataloguing of school and educational material were taken into account, adapting such items to the characteristics of a physical museum. To this end, we used the previous experience of a Centre for Documentation on Education in the Basque Country, an initiative from the same research team. The sources employed correspond to the cataloguing of school and educational material, following the model of this type of museum. 2. Antecedents for the Museum The Museum project emerged from the Group for Historical and Comparative Studies in Education -Garaian, which had been managing the above-mentioned Centre for Documentation on the History of Education in the Basque Country for a number of years, thus representing a clear precursor to the Museum. The material deposited at the Centre involves a wide-ranging documentary collec- tion which was started at the beginning of the eighties by its principal promoter, Dr. Paulí Dávila, who began classifying all the documentation obtained from the various research projects undertaken by himself and by other colleagues at the Department of Theory and History of Education at the UPV/EHU. Arising from this classification of documentary and bibliographical material was a database which facilitated the search and recovery of the collections deposited. 467Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations The Centre currently has a considerable volume of documentation about the history of education in the Basque Country (more than 3,500 documents). All this has been photocopied, originating from various provincial and local archives in the Basque Country as well as from the General Archive of the Administration of Spain, the University Archive of Valladolid, the National History Archive, etc. It also has collections from Secondary High Schools, Teacher Training Colleges, Art Schools and Professional Colleges, as well as from private colleges (Dávila and Naya, 2009). The documentation is very varied and encompasses copies of Minutes of provincial institutions – in more or less complete series –; correspondence between provincial governments; inspectors’ reports, files on teachers, corre- spondence between different institutions, reports from High Schools and other schools, rules of private colleges, statistics, reports from Boards of Governors, statistics on literacy, texts on the teaching of Basque, and documentation on the Real Sociedad Bascongada de Amigos del País (Royal Basque Society of Friends of the Country), etc. As we have pointed out above, this documentation arose from previous research, and while obtained with a specific objective in mind, has not impeded using wider-ranging descriptors when classifying it, in order to Museum of Education of the Basque Country / Euskal Hezkuntzaren Museoa, Exhibition 2017: The Most Important Think. Portraits of an escape. Refugees yesterday and today (https://www.ehu.eus/eu/web/museoeducacion, accessed 10. 10. 2019) 468 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 facilitate the use of these documents for ends other than those established for the initial investigation. The Centre does not depend solely on this type of material; it also possess- es a series of theses, research reports and monographic works in this field. We should point out, moreover, that, together with all this material from primary sources, the Centre has an important bibliographic collection which contains, above all, works on the History of Education in the Basque Country , a general bibliography of the History of Education, books of statistics, various yearbooks referring to the Basque Country, contemporaneous history and educational jour- nals, etc. It also has audio-visual material and audio tapes with interviews, which act as support for a number of lines of research. Also deposited at the Centre is an important bibliographic collection, donated by the Teresian Institution and made up of classic Spanish and international educational texts, the history of education, reports, regulations, legislation, educational programmes and text- books. This material encompasses a XX-century timeframe between the 1920s and the 1960s. To date the principal users of the Centre have been degree students in Edu- cation studying the subject of History of Education in the Basque Country, as well as students on master’s and PhD programmes and doing research in this field. The possibility of having primary-source documentation in situ is a great advantage and incentive to stimulating historical research and, in many cases; the monographical work undertaken is complemented with other documenta- tion located by the students themselves. All the documentation may be consulted on the http://www.ehu.eus/euskal-hezkuntza/espanol/ web page, hosted on the UPV/EHU server. When the space is up and running, the Centre will be trans- ferred from the Central library at the Gipuzkoa Campus to the Museum site in Donostia-San Sebastian, although an important volume of old school texts and manual has already been deposited there. 3. Anticipated organisation and tasks undertaken The Group for Historical and Comparative Studies in Education-Garaian currently has a space of about 250 m2 in a villa which is the property of the UPV/ EHU and which is currently completing the appropriate formalities with the Uni- versity’s Legal Services for the approval of the Museum’s Statutes. 3.1. Organisation of the Museum The space adjudicated for the Museum of Education of the Basque Country is divided into six rooms, the largest being 80 m2 and the smallest 25 m2. In the initial design of these, the following distribution has been established: • School classroom We have recovered eight school double desks from the Francoist period, to- gether with a teacher’s desk, two double blackboards, and various other items. With all these elements we have recreated a classroom from the 50s-60s. This is 469Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations an important element as it will enable visitors to situate themselves in a school model and which, either can be recalled by themselves through personal experi- ence or, being teaching degree students, will know of it through classes in the history of education. We have also received more modern material, corresponding to the edu- cational reform of the 1970s, and which has been installed next to the previously mentioned material, in such a way that visitors can see at a glance the structural changes that have taken place in school furniture. This same space hosts a great quantity of encyclopaedias and textbooks used from the 1920s to the 1970s, all of these catalogued and classified; they will be available for all those interested on the Museum of Education of the Basque Country website. This section aims to extend the collection with the incorporation of photographs and uniforms from various schools in the city of Donostia-San Sebastian. • The “Second Republic” space The Space known as the “Second Republic” aims to bring together the educational activities and child protection programmes undertaken by the Basque Government in its short-lived existence (8 months). With reference to the assistance given to and the protection of children the actions of the Basque Government were adapted to the wartime conditions of the period. One of its first actions was to organise the evacuation of children from war zones and their transfer to “colonies” established in a number of European countries and Mexico, Museum of Education of the Basque Country / Euskal Hezkuntzaren Museoa, est. 2014, opened 2016 (Juan Carlos Ruiz/ Argazki press, https://www.berria.eus/paperekoa/1976/038/001/2016-10-26/hezkuntzak_ badauka_memoria.htm ; accessed 10. 10. 2019) 470 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 the most numerous being sent to the United Kingdom, nearly 4,000 children who, shipped from the Port of Santurce, arrived on Sunday the 23rd of May, 1937 in Southampton, from where they were immediately transferred to a camp at North Stoneham and then dispersed to different colonies in England, Wales, and Scotland. Some of these children returned to the Basque Country at the end of the Civil War, and a significant number, for different reasons, stayed permanently in the UK and subsequently organised themselves around the Basque Children of ’37 Association, which is still functioning and the members still known as “niños” in the United Kingdom. To this end, we have 15 panels which record the odyssey that these children struggled through. As regards the educational actions of the Basque Government in the Sec- ond Republic, one of the main elements was the development of a new University, a very complicated task in times of war, but an objective that was achieved, al- though for a brief period of time. To this end, we have a series of panels which explain the progress and significance of the first “Basque University”. This room is completed with a series of photographs of rural schools and urban neighbour- hood schools which were very successful for their time. • The first ikastolas space During the Francoist period, a number of schools emerged in various locations in the Basque Country and which operated in an irregular manner – although it was not allowed, they taught in the Basque language. We are in the process of recreating one of these “etxe-eskola” (home-schools), in which funda- mentally active teaching was carried out, with a large input of walks and informal learning. To this end, we have a number of school exercise books used therein and with photographs of and testimonies from those who were pupils at this kind of school. • Scientific instruments in education These instruments, which have come from various public and private cen- tres, will enable us to familiarise ourselves with the school culture of the time. Research into scientific material reflects specific pedagogic intentions (Bernal and López, 2007) and the level of provision of instruments has been an element of “distinction” for certain schools. We have obtained part of this material from some of these schools on permanent loan. Besides these spaces, the implementation of which is currently under way, the creation of spaces around pedagogic renewal is also being planned – bringing together work undertaken by Educational Renewal Movements in the Basque Country: school voices with stories about the lives of schoolmasters and school- mistresses; extramural activities (drum parades, beach football, and so on); a chronology of educational legislation, etc. Finally, with the transfer of the Documentation Centre, mentioned above, and the collections from various donations, what we have here is a significant source of resources for the study of the History of Education in the Basque Coun- try, creating a museum with the projected targets. 471Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations 4. Conclusion. The creation of the Museum of Education in the heart of the University of the Basque Country links up with the work, recently initiated, of a number of Spanish universities, which have launched this kind of project. The Group has promoted this Museum for Historical and Comparative Studies in Educa- tion-Garaian, recognised by the Basque Government. Amongst the objectives of this group is the recovery of historical-educational heritage, a goal which is be- ing achieved through implementing an exhibition space and a series of diverse material items related to classroom layout, school copybooks, maps, scientific material, etc. and which represents important educational heritage of the Basque Country. One of the most relevant aspects of this Museum is the incorporation of Centre for Documentation on Education in the Basque Country, thus most appropriately complementing the objectives of a Museum of Education. The presentation we have carried out is adapted to the reality of the project while, within the strategic plan undertaken in order to implement the Museum, we have a series of educational and didactic use proposals which will enable the entity to be a reference for museums in the Basque Country. Also of increasingly great interest is the teaching use to which both the Museum and the Documentation Centre is being put, in order to favour research projects and course work for Teacher Training and Education degree students. Bibliography Bernal, J. M. y López, J. D. (2007). Los museos educativos y el material científico-ped- agógico construido en la escuela. In Escolano, A.: La cultura material de la escuela. CEINCE: Salamanca, pp. 155-168. Dávila, P. y Naya, L. Mª (2009). El centro de documentación sobre historia de la educación en Euskal Herria en internet: una experiencia innovadora. Sociedad Española de Historia de la Educación: El patrimonio histórico-educativo y la enseñanza de la historia de la educación, Murcia: SEDHE, pp. 111-123. Davila, P. y Naya, L. Mª (2012). El Patrimonio Pedagógico y Científico de los Museos de La Salle en España. Moreno, P. L. y Sebastián, A.: Patrimonio y Etnografía de la escuela en España y Portugal durante el Siglo XX. Murcia: Sociedad Española para el Estudio del Patrimonio Histórico-Educativo (SEPHE) y Centro de Estudios sobre la Memo- ria Educativa (CEME) de la Universidad de Murcia, pp. 597-609. Martín, B. (2007). El museo pedagógico de la Universidad de Salamanca. Foro de Edu- cación (9): 349-358 Ruiz, J. (2010). El patrimonio histórico-educativo. Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva. Ruiz, J. (2012). La Sociedad para el Estudio del Patrimonio Histórico-Educativo. SEPHE. Revista de Ciencias de la Educación (231): 273-277. Museum of Education of the Basque Country / Euskal Hezkuntzaren Museoa – La Es- cuela de Ayer y de Hoy: Propuestas para el Futuro, - Short presentation of Museum: https://vimeo.com/310079502, accessed 10. 10. 2019) 472 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Summary A project about a Museum of education in the Basque Country Paulí Dávila Balsera, Luis Mª Naya Garmendia In the current museum panoramic in Spain, school museums installed on university head- quarters are achieving an increasingly important presence. In different parts of Spain (Albacete, Galicia, Cantabria, etc.) there are education-related museums with different names such as School Museum, Children's Museum, etc. There are also other types of museums which can be personal or private (toy museum); or museums installed in both private and public schools. With respect to the museums installed in universities, it is necessary to highlight the ones placed in Murcia, La Laguna, Seville, Salamanca, Huelva, etc. Some of them have a remarkable presence on the Internet, working as virtual museums. To this line opened by other universities, it has to be joined the recent launch of a Museum of Education of the Basque Country - “Euskal Hezkuntzaren Museoa”, in the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). The creation of this museum is preceded by the existence of a Documentation Centre on the History of Education in the Basque Country, promoted by the group of Historical Studies and Comparative Education, whose members are the authors of this contribution http://www.ehu.eus/euskal-hezkuntza/euskara/. This museum is being structured around a series of topics to help us understand, explain and transmit the differential charac- teristics of education in the Basque Country. In this sense, some rooms are being planned with material relating to: “ikastolas” (schools providing teaching exclusively in Basque), educational renewal, rural schools, etc.; as well as all the classic elements of a school museum. 473Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations 15th Symposium attendees participating in an old lesson at the Slovenian School Museum, Ljubljana. (Photo: Ksenija Guzej, Marijan Javoršek, SŠM) 474 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 UDC 37:069(594Yogyakarta) 1.08 Published Scientific Conference Contribution Received: 11. 3. 2014 Tina Palaić* When the “West” meets the “East”: School museum in Yogyakarta, Indonesia Ko se “Zahod” sreča z “Vzhodom”: Šolski muzej v Jogjakarti, Indonezija Certainly, travel is more than the seeing of sights; it is a change that goes on, deep and permanent, in the ideas of living. Miriam Beard Izvleček Šolski muzej v Jogjakarti – Museum Pendidi- kan Indonesia (MPI) je prvi nacionalni šolski muzej v Indoneziji. Državna univerza v Jo- gjakarti (Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta) ga je ustanovila 8. julija 2008. Gre za zelo mlad muzej, mladost pa še nič ne pove o njihovih aktivnostih in ciljih. MPI ima velike načrte: predstaviti želi zgodovino izobraževanja v celotni državi. V ozadju tega cilja zasledimo uradni nacionalni slogan »Bhinneka Tunggal Ika«, kar pomeni »enotnost v različnosti«. V Indoneziji sobiva več kot tristo etničnih skupin. Za krepitev nacionalne identitete je trebna spoštovati različnost in dati vrednost kulturi in zgodovini izobraževanja vsake etnične skupine. Razstavna zbirka muzeja je še skromna, a načrtujejo nove raziskave in pripravo dodatnih razstav ter aktivnosti. Kot gost MPI-ja sem se udeležila festivala muze- jev, ki je potekal od 23. do 28. septembra 2012 v Jogjakarti. Abstract The School Museum in Yogyakarta – Mu- seum Pendidikan Indonesia (MPI) is the first national school museum in Indonesia. It was established on 8th of July in 2008 by the Yog- yakarta State University (Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta). It is very a young museum but this tells nothing about its activities and goals. MPI has great plan: it tries to present the history of education of the entire country. Behind its aim lies the official national slogan »Bhinneka Tunggal Ika«, which means “Unity in Diversity”. There are over 300 ethnic groups in Indonesia. As my interlocutor pointed out to strengthen national identity they have to respect diversity and give value to the cultures and education histories of each ethnic group. For now the exhibition collection is modest, but MPI is planning to conduct new research- es and prepare additional exhibitions and activities. As a guest of the MPI I attended the festival of museums, which was held from 23rd to 28th of September 2012 in Yogyakarta. * Tina Palaić, Slovene Ethnographic Museum, Ljubljana; ethnologist and cultural anthropologist, pedagogue; e-mail: tina.palaic@etno-muzej.si 475Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Ključne besede: šolski muzej, univerza, Jogjakarta, Indonezija, Museum Pendidikan Indonesia Key words: school museum, university, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, Museum Pendidikan Indonesia 15th Symposium on School Life, part 19. Visit us / obiščite nas – Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37666 For me it is important from time to time to step out of the frame of my own culture from time to time, to create a distance to it and to revalue my position and my understanding of life premises. I see travelling primarily as a possibility for cooperation and integration with other people, which can bring new knowl- edge and deepen my understanding. This was also the case with my travelling to Indonesia in September 2012. Besides visiting the great Borobudur temple, the wonderful Mount Bromo in Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park and oth- er interesting places, I have worked in a School museum (in Bahasa Indonesia: Museum Pendidikan Indonesia) and attended the festival of museums in Yogya- karta. With this presentation I want to share my experience and insights in the field of museology especially in Yogyakarta which I believe is less known in the West. The paper shortly presents the Museum Pendidikan Indonesia (MPI) and shows the importance of the festival of museums, which can be understood as an idea for the presentation of museums and their work in the public space. This kind of interventions in the public space can present one idea of connecting mu- seums and education in a new, attractive way. “Never ending Asia” Indonesia is a country in Southeast Asia. It has a long and diverse history. It has been a Portuguese and Dutch colony, during the Second World War it was occupied by Japan. After the war The Netherlands tried to re-establish their rule, but they faced the international pressure and after four years of sometimes brutal fighting had to recognize Indonesian independence in December 1949. It is interesting that the majority of the Indonesian population is barely aware of their historical link with the Netherlands.1 Indonesia is an archipelago compris- ing approximately 17,508 islands. It is the world’s fourth most populous country with over 251 million people, most of them Muslims – around 86% of popula- tion. It is especially interesting in the terms of museology, education and cultural policy that there are around 300 distinct native ethnic groups and 742 different languages and dialects. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and 1 Paul Doolan, »Time for Dutch Courage in Indonesia,« History Today 47, no. 3 (1997): http:// www.historytoday.com/paul-doolan/time-dutch-courage-indonesia. 476 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 president. The capital city is Jakarta. The main tourist spot in Indonesia is the island of Bali; on the second place is the city of Yogyakarta2. I have worked with the MPI in the city of Yogyakarta, which is considered to be the cultural, historical and educational center of the main island of Java. Yogyakarta impressed me with its cultural offer and the vividness of the city was amazing. The nick name of the city is shortly Yogya. Because it offers many attrac- tions it is also known as »Never Ending Asia«. It is possible to explore traditional crafts, such as batik textile and silver jewelry, traditional and modern art, for example puppet shows and ballet performances. There are also a lot of different festivals which co-create cultural life of the city. They organize numerous festi- vals, for example fashion festival, cultural festival, festival of arts, of technology, culinary festival and also festival of museums.3 2 Central Intelligence Agency, »The World Factbook: Indonesia,« https://www.cia.gov/library/ publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html (accessed 11. 03. 2014). 3 Indonesia travel, »Discover Indonesia,« http://www.indonesia.travel/en/discover-indonesia/ region-detail/33/di-yogyakarta (accessed 11. 03. 2014). School Museum in Yogyakarta / MPI - Museum Pendidikan Indonesia. (Photo: Tina Palaić) 477Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Museums in Indonesia The concept of the 'museum' has long been attributed to the European ide- als of late Renaissance culture and the Enlightenment. Museums today are not restricted to the bounds of Western civilization; in fact in almost every coun- try in the world we can find at least one of these institutions. The development of museums in non-Western countries was and continues to be influenced by the mission, principles, philosophies and practices of historically Western mu- seums.4 The number of museums in Indonesia started to increase during the first National Development Plan in the 1970s, when President Suharto directed considerable resources towards a rejuvenation of national institutions, including museums. Currently there are approximately 275 museums in Indonesia.5 There are many problems that Indonesian museums nowadays still face. In an article Appropriate museology in theory and practice by Christina F. Kreps6 we can read, that museum workers remain poorly trained, collections poorly cared for and poorly managed, museums inadequately funded and that they operate with limited material resources. While much has changed in Indonesia and with- in the Indonesian museum profession since 1989, museums still tend to not be well integrated into local communities or of much interest to their members. School museum in Yogyakarta (MPI) Before I went to Indonesia I contacted few different organizations. Some were connected with the field of museology and other with the field of domestic violence and child abuse, which is my other field of interest. I received two an- swers and after some conversation I decided to collaborate with the MPI. My aim was to get knowledge about the history of education in Indonesia; I also wanted to get to know their exhibitions and work processes. I was lucky because at the time of my visit they were also preparing the program for the festival of muse- ums, which was held in Yogyakarta from 23rd to 28th of September. With their invitation I attended the festival of museums. MPI is the first national school museum in Indonesia. It was established on 8th of July in 2008 by the Yogyakarta State University, which in greater part also 4 Angelina Ong, »Museums in Non-Western Contexts: Challenging the Popular Paradigm,« http://museumstudies.columbian.gwu.edu/sites/museumstudies.columbian.gwu.edu/files/ downloads/museumsinnon-westerncontexts.pdf (2007), (accessed 10. 03. 2014). 5 Hubert J. Gijzen, »The Practical Guide for Museum Revitalisation in Indonesia. UNESCO and Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Indonesia,« http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0019/001920/192097m.pdf; (2011), (accessed 11. 03. 2014). 6 Christina F. Kreps, »Appropriate museology in theory and practice,« Museum Management and Curatorship 23, no. 1 (2008): 23-41. 478 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 finances the museum. MPI is the member of Barahmus,7 Yogyakarta association of museums, which was established in 1971 and links 32 museums of this city. Barahmus is also co-organizer of the festival of museums in Yogyakarta. There are many local museums in Yogyakarta and elsewhere in Indonesia, which present chosen parts of the history of education. For example they show the development of education in the local environment, specific educational institutions, some people who are important for the field of education … But my interlocutor, Mr. Asnan Arifin, coordinator in the field of education and information in MPI, said, that his institution has greater goal: it tries to present the history of education of the entire country. They would like to offer information about the history of edu- cation and about cultures of all ethnic groups in Indonesia. In his view they have to respect diversity and give value to the cultures and education histories of each ethnic group in order to strengthen national identity. Behind this aim lies the of- ficial national slogan »Bhinneka Tunggal Ika«, which means “Unity in Diversity”. The main exhibition at the MPI tries to present the basic picture of the history of education in Indonesia since independence (1949). They use three ex- 7 Barahmus, http://gudeg.net/id/directory/12/1776/Barahmus-(Badan-Musyawarah-Musea)- Yogyakarta.html#.Ux7IwPl5Osl; (accessed 11. 03. 2014). Explaining the history of education in Indonesia on the carnival of museums. (Photo: Tina Palaić) 479Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations hibition rooms for it. In the first room, we can see photos of all the ministers of education since 1949 onwards. There it is also possible to see “an old class- room” with two blackboards, some school desks and an interesting school bell. In the second room it is possible to see photos of important people in the national history of education. Some photos are presenting different school conditions. It is also possible to see some school documents and school books. The third exhibition room is the most thematically unified. There it is possible to explore different technical equipment, used in schools. At the reception we can find the most popular exhibit, a bicycle is the symbol of teachers in Indonesia. MPI has many plans for the future. They are planning to establish a library and a room for preservation. They also want to prepare pedagogical activities for visitors, such as lessons from the past and different workshops, where partici- pants will not just get new knowledge but will also produce it. What is clear is the fact that more researches and additional materials are needed to accomplish the mission to become the museum which presents the history of education of all the Indonesia. The MPI is also struggling with staff shortages. Only few people are employed and the important part of work is made by volunteers. Mr. Asnan proudly called those students, who help with the activities at the MPI, “Sahabat museum”, which means friend of the museum. The MPI permanent exhibition on education in Indonesia. (Photo: Tina Palaić) 480 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Festival of museums: “Museum goes to Istana” As a guest of the MPI I attended the festival of museums, which was held from 23rd to 28th of September in Yogyakarta. The theme of the festival was “museum goes to Istana”, which means Sultan’s palace. This name was chosen because the central happening took place in the Sultan’s palace in Yogyakarta. As I mentioned before, integration of museums in the local environment is one of the problems in the field of museology in Indonesia. There are 42 museums in Yogyakarta, but local people usually do not visit them. With the festival of muse- ums they bring museums to the people. Popularization of museums is the main aim of this festival and in fact it attracted many people who see it as a source of fun and new information. The festival started with the carnival of museums. 28 museums from Yog- yakarta and 5 from the capital city, Jakarta, started with the carnival at the main street of the city, called Malioboro. During of the carnival it was closed for the traffic. Personnel and volunteers from the MPI prepared a presentation of the museum for the carnival and included me as a special guest. Every member of the group had his or her own role. Most of the volunteers were teachers, dressed in traditional clothes, pushing bicycles by their side. Mr. Asnan Arifin from the MPI presented Ahmad Dahlan, a prominent historical figure, very important for the field of education. Due to his strong efforts religious teaching was given in public The old classroom in School Museum in Yogyakarta / MPI - Museum Pendidikan Indonesia. (Photo: Tina Palaić) 481Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations schools and general knowledge was given in religious schools. Three historical women figures were also presented at the carnival: one is princess Kartini, who was fighting for the independence and position for Javanese women. She also es- tablished the Javanese girls’ school. In 1964 she was declared a national heroine. One volunteer presented Raden Dewi Sartika, who implemented the first women school and was also declared a national heroine. I presented Rosa Abendanon, female friend of princess Kartini from Netherlands, who influenced Kartini with her philosophy about women rights. We can see the carnival of museums at the main street of the city as a show of museums. Museums presented their exhibits and activities in very imaginative ways. It was an intervention of museums in the public space, which connected museology with education. The carnival ended in the Sultan’s palace, where mu- seums provided information about their collections and activities. Over the next six days there were many visitors, school pupils, adults and also tourists, who were excited about the variety of offer at the event. MPI presented some exhibits from the school history. It also offered visitors the possibility to write on an slates with the traditional pen in the environment of old classroom. Visitors were reminded of their own school experiences and shared stories of their childhood and education. The stall of the Museum of volcano Merapi was also very interesting. They had a model of the volcano Merapi, and from time to time there was a small eruption. Bicycle was regarded as one of the most important accessory for teachers because it was their only means of transportation. (Photo: Tina Palaić) 482 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Volcano Merapi is located about 30 km north of the city of Yogyakarta and is con- sidered as the most active volcano in Indonesia, with regular eruptions from 1548. The stall of the Museum Affandi was one of the most visited stall at the festi- val. A very tall men with a pipe in one hand and yellow tempera in another attracted most visitors. This man presented Affandi, a very important Indonesian painter, who lived also in Yogyakarta. He turned his own home in Yogyakarta into museum, which is still open today. Tempera in his hand illustrates his style of painting. He was not using a brush but he put color on the canvas directly from the tempera. Museum of puppets exhibited many different puppets. Museum worker at the stall tried to explain everything about puppets to me. After it I decided to visit one of the puppets museums in Yogyakarta to see the puppet show. A pup- pet shows – or wayang kulit - are a very important part of the cultural tradition of Indonesia. The term wayang is a Javanese word, used to describe puppet theatre or sometimes the puppet itself. Wayang means shadow what is connected with the style of the show. It is possible to watch the puppet show from both sides of the canvas – to see puppets as shadows or you can watch the performance from the back of the puppeteer. Puppet show usually presents stories from the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. UNESCO designated wayang kulit, a shadow puppet theatre as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2003. In return for the acknowledgment, UNESCO required Indonesians to preserve their heritage. MPI group at the carnival of museums. (Photo: Robby) 483Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Conclusion I was impressed by the cultural offer and the pace of the city of Yogyakarta. For the wholeness of the experience it was very important that I collaborated with the personnel and volunteers of the MPI. With attendance at the festival of museums I gained new acquaintances in the field of museology and pedagogy who presented their views and perspectives of museology in Indonesia. That en- couraged me to think about new ways of promoting museum content in Slovenia. With this article I wanted to present my experience and insights in the field of museology in Indonesia, which in my opinion is not so known in Slovenia, and encouraged people who work in the field of museology to think about the variety of possibilities to bring museums closer to the people. Bibliography Barahmus, http://gudeg.net/id/directory/12/1776/Barahmus-(Badan-Musyawarah-Musea)- Yogyakarta.html#.Ux7IwPl5Osl; (accessed 11. 03. 2014). Central Intelligence Agency, »The World Factbook: Indonesia,« https://www.cia.gov/ library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html (accessed 11. 03. 2014). Doolan, Paul. »Time for Dutch Courage in Indonesia.« History Today 47, no. 3. (1997). http://www.historytoday.com/paul-doolan/time-dutch-courage-indonesia (ac- cessed 11. 03. 2014). Gijzen, Hubert J. »The Practical Guide for Museum Revitalisation in Indonesia. UNESCO and Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Indonesia.« http://unesdoc. unesco.org/images/0019/001920/192097m.pdf; (2011), (accessed 11. 03. 2014). Indonesia travel, »Discover Indonesia.« http://www.indonesia.travel/en/discover- indonesia/region-detail/33/di-yogyakarta (accessed 11. 03. 2014). Kreps, F. Christina. »Appropriate museology in theory and practice,« Museum Manage- ment and Curatorship 23, no. 1 (2008), pp. 23-41. Ong, Angelina. »Museums in Non-Western Contexts: Challenging the Popular Paradigm.« http://museumstudies.columbian.gwu.edu/sites/museumstudies.columbian.gwu. edu/files/downloads/museumsinnon-westerncontexts.pdf (2007), (accessed 10. 03. 2014). Summary When the “West” meets the “East”: School museum in Yogyakarta, Indonesia Tina Palaić When someone combines work and pleasure only good things can happen. That was the case with my travel to Indonesia, where I went in September 2012. I love to travel and see new places but usually this is not enough for me. I also want to work with local people and get to know their concepts of life. Besides visiting the great Borobudur temple and the wonderful 484 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Mount Bromo in Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park I have met very nice and friendly people at the School Museum in Yogyakarta – Museum Pendidikan Indonesia (MPI). MPI is the first national school museum in Indonesia. It was established on 8th of July in 2008 by the Yogyakarta State University (Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta). It is very young mu- seum but this tells nothing about its activities and goals. MPI has great plan: it tries to present the history of education of the entire country. Behind its aim lies the official national slogan »Bhinneka Tunggal Ika«, which means “Unity in Diversity”. There are over 300 ethnic groups in Indonesia. As my interlocutor pointed out to strengthen national identity they have to respect diversity and give value to the cultures and education histories of each ethnic group. For now the exhibition collection is modest, but MOI is planning to conduct new researches and prepare additional exhibitions and activities. As a guest of the MPI I attended the festival of museums, which was held from 23rd to 28th of September in Yogyakarta. The theme of the festival was “museum goes to Istana”, which me- ans Sultan’s palace. 28 museums from Yogya and 5 from the capital city, Jakarta, started with the carnival of museums at the main street of the city, called Malioboro. They presented their activities and materials in a very imaginative ways. The carnival ended in Sultan’s palace where the central happening took place. Povzetek Ko se “Zahod” sreča z “Vzhodom”: Šolski muzej v Jogjakarti, Indonezija Tina Palaić Kadar združimo delo z užitkom, zmeraj kaj dobrega nastane. Tako je bilo tudi v prime- ru mojega potovanja v Indonezijo, kamor sem odšla v septembru leta 2012. Zelo rada potujem in obiščem nove kraje, vendar običajno zame to ni dovolj. Med obiskom tuje dežele mi je po- membno tudi, da sodelujem z domačini in spoznavam njihove življenjske koncepte. Poleg ogleda veličastnega templja Borobudur in čudovitega vulkana Bromo v Nacionalnem parku Bromo Tengger Semeru sem spoznala zelo prijetne ljudi v Šolskem muzeju v Yogyakarti – v Museum Pendidikan Indonesia (MPI). MPI je prvi nacionalni šolski muzej v Indoneziji. 8. julija 2008 ga je ustanovila Državna univerza v Jogjakarti (Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta). Gre za zelo mlad muzej, mladost pa še nič ne pove o njihovih aktivnostih in ciljih. MPI ima velike načrte: predstaviti želi zgodovino izobraževanja v celotni državi. V ozadju tega cilja zasledimo uradni nacionalni slogan »Bhinne- ka Tunggal Ika«, kar pomeni »enotnost v različnosti«. V Indoneziji sobiva več kot tristo etničnih skupin. Kot je poudaril moj sogovornik, je za krepitev nacionalne identitete treba spoštovati različnost in dati vrednost kulturi in zgodovini izobraževanja vsake etnične skupine. Razstav- na zbirka muzeja je še skromna, a načrtujejo nove raziskave in pripravo dodatnih razstav ter aktivnosti. Kot gost MPI-ja sem se udeležila festivala muzejev, ki je potekal od 23. do 28. septembra v Jogjakarti. Tema festivala je bila »muzej gre v palačo«, s čimer je bila mišljena sultanova palača v Jogjakarti. 28 muzejev iz Jogjakarte in 5 iz glavnega mesta, Jakarte, je festival pričelo s karne- valom muzejev na začetku glavne ulice mesta, imenovane Malioboro. Aktivnosti in muzejske eksponate so predstavili na zelo domiselen način. Karneval se je zaključil v sultanovi palači, kjer je naslednje dni potekalo osrednje dogajanje festivala. 485Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations 15th Symposium attendees participating in an old lesson at the Slovenian School Museum (Photo: K. Guzej, M. Javoršek, SŠM) 486 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Symposium participants in front of the Intermunicipal museum of Kamnik in the Castle of Zaprice. Excursion. (Photo: K. Guzej, M. Javoršek, SŠM) 15th Symposium participants at Bled Castle (Excursion). 487Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations 1.02 Review Article UDC 37:069:005.745:303.094.8 Received: 17. 10. 2019 Branko Šuštar,* Maja Hakl Saje** Between Ljubljana and Crete – International Symposium on School Life and School History Museums & Collections from Slovenia 2013 (15th Symposium) to Greece 2021 (19th Symposium) Med Ljubljano in Kreto - Simpoziji šolskih muzejev in šolsko- zgodovinskih zbirk od Slovenije 2013 (15. simpozij) do Grčije 2021 (19. simpozij) Izvleček Tradicionalni simpoziji šolskih muzejev in šolsko zgodovinski zbirk potekaja kot bi- enalna srečanja od leta 1984 z namenom mednarodnega sodelovanja in izmenjave znanja in muzejskih izkušenj. Simpoziji pove- zujejo muzeje in zbirke pa tudi raziskovalce z univerz in inštitutov na temo zgodovine šol- stva. Prispevek kratko predstavlja poti do 15. simpozija v Ljubljani in razvoj mednarodnih simpozijev šolskih muzejev od leta 2013 na- prej in opozarja na osrednje vsebinske teme in značilnosti simpozijev v Sloveniji (15, Lju- bljana 2013), Avstraliji (16, Ballarat, Victoria 2015), na Nizozemskem (17, Dordrecht 2017) in na Danskem (18, Copenhagen 2019). Ta pre- gled sklene Call for papers/povabilo v Grčijo na naslednji simpozij (19, Retymno 2021). Abstract The traditional symposia on School Life and School History Museums & Collections have been held as biennial meetings since 1984 with the aim of international cooperation and ex- change of knowledge and museum experience. The symposia connect museums and collec- tions as well as researchers from universities and institutes on the history of education. The paper briefly presents the paths to the 15th Symposium in Ljubljana and the development of international school museum symposia from 2013 onwards and highlights the main topics and characteristics of the symposia in Slovenia (15th, Ljubljana 2013), Australia (16th, Ballarat, Victoria 2015), the Netherlands (17th, Dordrecht 2017) and Denmark (18th, Copenhagen 2019). It concludes with the Call for Papers for the next symposium in Greece (19th Retymno 2021). * Branko Šuštar, PhD, museum councillor at Slovenian School Museum, Ljubljana, Slovenia; e-mail: branko.sustar@guest.arnes.si ** Maja Hakl Saje, BA, Office for Movable Cultural Heritage and Museums, National Museum of Slovenia, Ljubljana; e-mail: maja.hakl.saje@nms.si 488 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Ključne besede: šolski muzeji, muzeji izobraževanja, simpoziji, povezovanje, Ljubljana, Ballarat, Dordrecht, Copenhagen, Retymno Key words: School museums, museums of education, symposia, connecting, Ljubljana, Ballarat, Dordrecht, Copenhagen, Retymno Introduction - Paths to the symposium in Ljubljana in 2013 The symposia on School Life and School History Museums & Collections are international meetings that have been held since 1984 and the Slovenian School Museum has been involved in this form of international museum coop- eration since the 1980s: first with one, since 1995 with two associates, since 1999 for the first time with three. The symposium in Ljubljana was actually announced already before the year 2000, as international expectations also reinforced the long-standing active participation of the Slovenian School Museum at these international meetings of school museums.1 This was mentioned very directly again by the participants of the symposium in Norway 2007 as they expected more participation in Ljubljana from the Austrian and Italian territories, as well as from Eastern European countries.2 Many school museums operate as associa- tions or foundations, and far fewer are public museums with professional staff funded by the state, a region or city. The Slovenian School Museum, as one of the still active traditional museums of education (est. 1898 & 1938), is a national museum for the history of education and has international connections, also due to the journal School Chronicle. After the renovation of the museum in 2004- 2006, there was no longer any reason to avoid the organizational work that I undertook with the cooperation and experience of the HAS-Historical Associa- tion of Slovenia (which organized the Conference of History of Childhood in 2012),3 ICOM Slovenia and the Slovenian School Museum, and in particular with the members of the International Program and Scientific Committee4 and the Organizing Committee.5 1 International symposiums of school museums have been covered by the journal of the Slove- nian School Museum since 1989 (J. Ciperle, Mednarodni simpozij šolski muzej / International Symposium of School Museums, Zbornik za zgodovino šolstva in prosvete, vol. 22, 1989, pp. 76-77; see later reports in : Šolska kronika/School Chronicle). 2 School history - school museums and identity, 12th International Symposium on School Life and School History Museums & Collections in Bergen, Norway. Šolska kronika /School Chron- icle, Vol. 17(41), No. 1 (2008), pp. 168-174, especially p. 174. 3 Zgodovina otroštva / History of Childhood, Ljubljana: ZZDS, 2012, pp. 746; http://hdl.handle.net/11686/31016 4 Programme & Scientific Committee. In: Book of Abstracts Symposium 2013, p. 12; http://www.ssolski-muzej.si/files/Symposium/symposiumbook2013 5 I am especially grateful to the historian and museum professional Mrs. Maja Hakl Saje, the secretary of the Committee of Symposium 2013, for all the organizational and substantive co- operation. (B. Šuštar as coordinator of Symposium 2013). 489Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations The school museum symposia were initially mostly German-speaking, but open to international cooperation at all times. Following the first predominantly English speaking symposium at the School Museum in Bergen, Norway (12th - 2007, Bergen; Identities of school museums)6 with about 60 participants, the next symposium was organized by the French National Museum of Education (13th - 2009, Rouen, France; Pictures and teaching: international perspectives)7 Pictures and teaching: international perspectives) and subsequently by the The Free University of Bozen-Bolzano and its Faculty of Education in Brixen, with the Research and Documentation Center South Tyrol's educational history in the Multilingual Northern Italy (14th - 2011 Brixen / Bressanone, South Tyrol, Italy; Exploration into childhood. Time witnesses as cultural memory and their mean- ing to the history and museum of education).8 In 2013, it was Ljubljana's turn. The Symposium on Teachers' Associations and Museums (15th - 2013, Ljubljana, Creating links in education) took place on the last days of June. 2013 was also a special year due to two anniversary cele- brations: the 115th anniversary of the (first) founding of the Slovenian School 6 Symposium 2007, Bergen, http://www.old.bymuseet.no/index.php?vis=247&spr=en (accessed 15. 10. 2019) 7 Simposium 2009, Rouen, Pictures and teaching: international perspectives, http://www.inrp.fr/images/musee/pdf/symposium-program-en.pdf (accessed 15. 10. 2019) 8 Expedition in die Kindheit / Exploration into childhood. Time witnesses as cultural memory and their meaning to the history and museum of education. In: H-Soz-Kult, 13.05.2011, www.hsozkult.de/event/id/termine-16409 15th International Symposium in Ljubljana (Excursion) 490 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 Museum and the 30th anniversary of the biennial symposia of school museums (1st - 1984, Michelstetten, Austria). The first symposia were mainly held in German-speaking countries at the initiative of R. Lukschanderl (Rudolf Lukschanderl,9 Lower Austrian School Mu- seum / Niederösterreichisches Schulmuseum) and his generation of museum professionals from different school museums and researchers of educational history from universities and institutes. The bulletin of the Slovenian School Mu- seum “School Chronicle” regularly reported on international symposia of school museums, so we were aware of the importance of the tradition of international museum networking. At the beginning of the 2013 Ljubljana Symposium, we were also able to draw attention to the founder of our symposia and to the 30- year development of international school museum symposia.10 About the 15th Symposium 2013 as the most important international event in the field of the history of education in Slovenia so far, School Views/Šolski 9 Šuštar, B., Rudolf Lukschanderl (1927-1990) ustanovitelj šolskega muzeja v Michelstettnu (Avstrija) in začetnik mednarodnih simpozijev šolskih muzejev / Rudolf Lukschanderl (1927- 1990), the founder of the school museum in Michelstetten (Austria) and the in initiator of symposia for school museums), Šolska kronika/School Chronicle, 2011, No. 1-2, pp. 164-169. 10 Šuštar, B., Welcome to the 15th Symposium: How do school/education museums and our Sym- posiums forge links among us? In: Book of Abstracts Symposium 2013, p. 5; 15 Symposiums in 30 years 1984-2013, p. 8; http://www.ssolski-muzej.si/files/Symposium/symposiumbook2013.pdf (accessed 15. 10. 2019) 15th International Symposium in Ljubljana (Photo: SŠM) 491Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations razgledi11 (a biweekly Slovenian periodical for teachers and other education professionals), as well as the School Chronicle/Šolska kronika,12 Bulletin of the Slovenian Ethnological Society/Glasnik Slovenskega etnološkega društva13 and the central journal in the field of museology Argo14 reported; much information is still available today at the symposium’s website. Around 115 participants from 25 countries across Europe (from Norway and Finland to the Netherlands, Por- tugal and Greece and more) and some other continents (from Australia, Turkey, Brazil, Nigeria and Japan) delivered 68 lectures.15 The symposium featured more than 60 lectures (most of them available online),16 in the thematic issue of the School Chronicle 2019, No. 3 however, 17 selected papers have been published, covering both main topics of the symposium: teachers and their associations and pedagogical museums / museums of education / school museums, as well as their links with teachers' associations and with the tradition and the modernity of education. The published contributions are also diverse in geographical terms, touching on the pedagogical pasts of Finland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slo- venia, Italy, Serbia, Greece and Spain as well as Nigeria and Indonesia. The 16th Symposium moved to Australia (2015 Ballarat, Victoria). It was organized in Ballarat, South Australia (Victoria) by the Sovereign Hill Muse- ums Association and specifically by the Sovereign Hill Costumed School and its principal, Michael Ward. The decision to hold the symposium in Australia was made at the 2011 Brixen Symposium. This was motivated by Michael Ward's (Principal, The Sovereign Hill Schools) longstanding participation in school museum symposia, interesting museum content and attractive presentations, and the international (not just European) museum networking of school mu- 11 Učiteljska društva in šolski muzeji. Povezovanje v izobraževanju / Teachers assocations and school museums. Creating links in education) Šolski razgledi/School Views, 28. 10. 2013, No. 16, p. 14; http://www.ssolski-muzej.si/files/datoteke/solskirazgledi18.10.2013.pdf (accessed 15. 10. 2019) 12 Hakl Saje, M., Šuštar, B.: 15th International Symposium on School Life and School History Mu- seums & Collections, Ljubljana 2013 / Creating links in education. Teachers and their associa- tions as promoters of pedagogic development (historical and museum aspects) (report). Šolska kronika / School Chronicle, vol. 22 = 46, No. 3 (2013), pp. 668-681; (accessed 15. 10. 2019) https://www.dlib.si/details/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-4UW1A4ZU?&language=eng 13 Balkovec Debevec, M., Dediščina šolstva na 15. mednarodnem simpoziju šolskih muzejev: Lju- bljana, 26.-29. junij 2013 / The Heritage of Educational System at the 15th International Sympo- sium of School Museums, Bulletin of the Slovene Ethnological Society, 2013, vol. 53, No. 3/4, pp. 83-84; https://www.dlib.si/stream/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-97EOIHJM/837bd24d-bdb5-4e8b-874a- 13d681101788/PDF (accessed 15. 10. 2019) 14 Ribarič, M, Povezovanje v izobraževanju / Connection in education. Argo, journal of the Slo- vene museums 57, No. 1 (2014), pp. 94-97. 15 Symposium 2013, Programme, http://sistory.si/publikacije/prenos/?target=pdf&urn=SISTORY:ID:20272 16 Video of each presentation at the 2013 Symposium is available at the History of Slovenia portal – Sistory: https://www.sistory.si/11686/20243 492 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 seums. The experience of operating a costumed school as part of the Sovereign Hill Museums offer is interesting and noted by both the museum and pedagogi- cal public.17 Also at the Ljubljana Symposium, Michael Ward, Ann Campbell and Linda Borner, dressed as former teachers attractively invited participants to the 16th symposium in Ballarat in March 2015.18 The museum colleagues at Sovereign Hill in Ballarat were proud to be able to make the symposium a memorable ex- perience as the first museum outside Europe. Although the attendance was not as numerous as it was before due to high travel costs, the 50-60 participants nevertheless adequately represented the international museum audience. In addition to several German-speaking participants, there were also participants from Norway, Denmark, Estonia, Slovakia and Italy, and among the locals was a representative from the Australian National Museum of Education which is a Centre at the University of Canberra. The Australian Museum Program of- fers a unique historical learning environment, as highlighted in the invitation.19 They also designed the content of the symposium according to their experience and sorted around 15 lectures into five topics: The Effectiveness of Role Play, The Teaching of History, Museums - How do you present, Lobbying and The History of Education from a University Perspective. As reported by the Courier 17 Margaret Zeegers, Associate Professor, School of Education, University of Ballarat: An Affec- tive Pedagogy Success Story: Sovereign Hill Museum School. Research Report Ballarat 2011, https://www.sovereignhill.com.au/media/uploads/Pedagogical_success_story.pdf (accessed 15. 10. 2019); M. Zeegers, D. Barron: Communities of Interest: Three Unique Case Studies in Wider University and School Partnerships in Australia. International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 6(6) 2012, pp. 1492- 1496, https://publications.waset.org/9038/commu- nities-of-interest-three-unique-case-studies-in-wider-university-and-school-partnerships-in- australia (accessed 15. 10. 2019) 18 Ward, M., Campbell, A., Borner, L.: Presentation of the following symposium in Australia, Bal- larat 2015. 15th Symposium on school life, part 40. Visit us / obiščite nas – Sistory: http://hdl.handle.net/11686/37691 19 Invitation, IASMC 2015, https://www.ische.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/IASMC2015_16th IS_Invite.pdf (accessed 15. 10. 2019) 16th International Symposium in Ballarat (Photo: web) 493Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations newspaper on March 25, 2015, the symposium was opened by Ballarat-affiliated historian Professor Geoffrey Blainey.20 Following the Australian Symposium, the 17th Symposium 2017 was hosted by the Dutch National Museum of Education (Nationaal Onderwijsmuseum), which introduced itself after moving from a traditional location in Rotterdam to a new easily accessible location in the ancient city of Dordrecht. The 1939 build- ing, nicknamed Holland, is also architecturally interesting and its open space is designed for exhibitions. Tijs van Ruiten, the director of the museum who also spoke about the plans of the new museum at the Ljubljana Symposium,21 created the new image of the Dutch museum during its relocation. In July 2017 he also organized the 17th symposium with his colleague Linda Terpstra and the team of museum. The topic of the symposium was “Looking Back to the Future, Pre- senting School History for a New Era”. The interesting and diverse symposium program, as well as most of the sixteen lectures are presented at the conference’s website in the form of power point presentations. 22 The symposium gathered 20 Historian opens 16th International Symposium on School Life at Sovereign Hill, https://www.thecourier.com.au/story/2973143/historian-opens-16th-international-symposium- on-school-life-at-sovereign-hill/ 21 Tijs van Ruiten, The Netherlands, The past, the future, now! A schoolmuseum for the 21 centu- ry, 15th Symposium on School Life, 2013, part 20: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8IM0JIHi9k; (accessed 14. 10. 2019) 22 The 17th International Symposium for School History Museums & Collections in Dordrecht in July 2017, https://www.onderwijsmuseum.nl/symposium-2017; (accessed 15. 10. 2019) 17th International Symposium in Dordrecht, 2017. (Photo 2017, 2019: bš) 494 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 about 30 participants from eleven countries, and three contributions were pre- sented by colleagues from Slovenia. A brief report on the symposium is available in the School Chronicle/Šolska kronika (No. 3, 2017).23 The 18th Symposium was also focused on the modern present and the fu- ture. It took place this year (2019) in Copenhagen, Denmark (University Campus Emdrup).24 The symposium on the theme of digitalization was organised by Aarhus University – Danish School of Education (DPU), its pedagogical library as part of the Aarhus University Library, and the Royal Danish Library, and included in the project Skolehistorie, which is where the website of the conference can be found at http://skolehistorie.au.dk/en/. Under the title “Challenges for school museums and history of education in a time of globalization and digitization” the symposium, attended by 50 to 60 people from museums and other institutions from 12 European countries, was led by Ning de Coninck-Smith, Professor DPU, and member of the project Skole- 23 Ribarič, M., 17. mednarodni simpozij šolskih muzejev na Nizozemskem / 17th International Symposium on School Museums in the Netherlands, Onderwijsmuseum, Dordecht, Holland, 5. 7.-8. 7. 2017, Šolska kronika / School Chronicle, 26, No. 3 (2017), pp. 429-430. 24 Šuštar, B., Šolski muzeji in digitalizacija. Izzivi šolskih muzejev in zgodovine izobraževanja v času globalizacije in digitalizacije, 18. simpozij šolskih muzejev in zbirk zgodovine izobraževanja, København 2019 / School museums and digitalization. Challenges for the school museums and history of education in a time of globalization and digitization, The 18th sym- posium for school museums and history of education collections, Copenhagen 2019, Šolska kronika/School Chronicle 28, No. 1-2 (2019), pp. 256-273. 17th International Symposium in Dordrecht, 2017. 495Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations historie. The three-day event dealt with the theme of digitalization with four key speakers from outside museum circles: three from the host-country who, adapt- ing the subject to a conference for school museums, presented the rich content from the viewpoint of a digitalization expert, conservation-librarianship and mu- seum science. The contribution by the German historian presented illustrated children's literature. The two introductory addresses (also mentioning the de- velopment of our symposia from 1984) and the talks by the three key Danish speakers, which enabled the participants from various, usually small school mu- seums, to meet with the wider issue of digitalization from the viewpoint of the extensive experiences from larger cultural institutions, are fully accessible on the conference’s website (and on You-Tube). This is also where a documentary film can be found, made after the closure of the Danish School Museum in 2008, featuring the last director of the museum, Dr Keld Grinder-Hansen (1959-2019), who died just over a month before the symposi- um. The film presents the care taken of the extensive collections on education from the closed museum, especially wall charts. In a way, the web portal Skolehistorie also continues the museum’s work on the history of Danish education. Speakers from individual school museums and other institutions connected with the his- tory of education presented the beginnings and their subsequent experiences of including digital presentations in their museum work. Twelve abstracts are availa- 17th International Symposium in Dordrecht, 2017. 496 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 ble on the symposium’s website25 and some other information on the conference in the report in the first issue of the 2019 journal School Chronicle/Šolska kronika.26 Conclusion The international symposia of school museums, promoted in the mid-1980s primarily through contacts with museums and universities in German-speaking countries, remain an important international museum and research hub in the cultural heritage of education. Meeting representatives of many different muse- ums of education and researchers of the pedagogical past is in favor of broadening the museum and scientific horizons of all participants. The 2013 Symposium in Ljubljana continued with the traditionally wide, more mass meeting of experts from museums and universities. Also, by publishing the results of the sympo- sium in this publication, we follow the successful examples of some previous symposia, such as the 3rd in 1988 in Nürenberg (in the journal Mitteilungen & 25 The 18th symposium for school museums and history of education collections 2019, https:// skolehistorie.au.dk/en/netvaerk/18th-symposium-for-school-museums-and-history-of- education-collections/ 26 Šuštar, B. School museums and digitalization. Challenges for the school museums and history of education in a time of globalization and digitization. The 18th symposium for school muse- ums and history of education collections, Copenhagen 2019 - Summary, Šolska kronika/School Chronicle 28, No. 1-2 (2019), pp. 272-273. 18th International Symposium in Copenhagen, 2019. 497Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Materialien, 28, No. 5, 1989) or thereafter the 6th in 1995 in Rostock27 and the 7th in 1997 in Leeds,28 the 10th symposium in Bremen in 2003 (Show what you've got! Presentation of School History in the Museum).29 A publication was also pub- lished after the 11th symposium, organized by the Foundation School Museum Mühlebach in Amriswill in 2005 in Ittingen, Switzerland, on The Role of School Museum and the 21st Century.30 With special thanks, the Ljubljana Symposium also brought attention to some committed (enthusiastic) colleagues from previ- ous symposia who accepted notable organizational and editorial work.31 The Ljubljana Symposium, on one hand, also emphasized the importance of education in the native language (such is the cover of the first Slovene grammar of 1584 with the biblical thought »Omnis lingua confitebitur Deo / Every tongue shall confess to God« 32). In preparing the symposium, this was symbolically tak- en into account by abstracts in English and in the author's native language. In spite of international English being the working language of the symposium, the so-called Babylonian sections (with the possibility of presenting papers in Ro- mance, Germanic and Slavic languages) enabled wider participation. Above all, in cooperation with the Institute for Contemporary History in Ljubljana we made the lectures widely available after the symposium. Video of each presentation at the 2013 Symposium is available at the History of Slovenia portal – Sistory: http:// hdl.handle.net/11686/20243 For some, the symposium is primarily about confronting the internation- ally comparable work of related museum institutions, for others the comparative treatment of scientific issues in the history of education, but all are encouraged to seek the answers to the challenges of modern times, including those brought about us by digitization and greater accessibility of material and results of mu- seum work. In the content and organization of the symposia of school museums, the role of both museums or documentation centers for the history of education at universities is important, as well as the role of individual active school museums, which represent their work and link museum and research practices with a choice 27 Mitteilungen & Materialien, Berlin: Arbeitsgruppe Pädagogisches Museum e.V., 1996, No. 45. 28 Documentation Leeds 1997, 7th International Symposium for School Museums and School History Collections; Leeds, England, Leeds, Bremen, 1999. 29 Zeigt her, was ihr habt! /Show what: Präsentieren von Schulgeschichte im Museum ; Dokumen- tation des "10. Internationalen Symposiums für Schulmuseen und Schulgeschichtliche Sam- mlungen", 24. bis 27. Juli 2003 Bremen, Münster: Lit, 2004. 30 Zur Rolle von Schul- und Kindermuseen im 21. Jahrhundert. Internationales Symposium für Schulmuseen und Schulgeschichtliche Sammlungen (11; 2005; Kartause Ittingen); Zeitschrift für Museum und Bildung 67/2007, Berlin; Münster: Lit, 2008. Inhalt, http://bvbr.bib-bvb. de:8991/exlibris/aleph/a22_1/apache_media/8X249QCDSUHC3B588YDK33KIKDE9MU.pdf 31 Book of Abstracts, 2013, p. 11; http://www.ssolski-muzej.si/files/Symposium/symposiumbook2013.pdf 32 Book of Abstracts, 2013, p. 26. http://www.ssolski-muzej.si/files/Symposium/symposiumbook2013.pdf 498 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 of topics. This was also showed with the symposium in Australia (2015 Ballarat), where an active museum with an exceptional experience of the school's past was presented, and also related the topic of research with university researchers. Also interesting was the case of a symposium based on history, but forward-looking, as experienced in the organization of the newly erected and remodeled National Museum of Education in the Netherlands (2017 Dordrecht). In terms of content, the symposium covered topics ranging from digitization to the presentation of the exhibition work of individual school museums and their international exhi- bition cooperation.33 The 2019 Symposium in Copenhagen was also accompanied by difference. The symposium was not organized by a museum since the Danish School Mu- seum was closed in late 2008, but by the heirs of its remarkable cultural heritage linked to the Aarhus University Library and the Danish Educational History Project on the Skolehistorie online platform,34 which enables digital access to museum and others content related to educational history. The website features key speakers and some lecture summaries.35 Like in 2019, the 2021 symposium will be in university hands as well! The organization of the next 19th Symposium will be organized by the Greek School Museum Xeniseum, which is part of the University of Crete and its broad pedagog- ical and cultural activities. The preparations started very early with the invitation of Prof. Dr Antonis Hourdakis (Head of University Museum of Education - Xeni- seum & Director of Lifelong Learning Center of Crete University, Greece). The content is set very broadly, directing us with museum and school-historical top- ics to networking and learning environments towards an open and sustainable society. The symposium of school museums also awaits new opportunities in the future to link the museum and pedagogical aspects of the operation of museums of education, universities and institutes. 33 Symposium 2017, 17th International Symposium for School History Museums & Collections in Dordrecht in July 2017, https://www.onderwijsmuseum.nl/symposium-2017 (accessed 15. 10. 2019) 34 Skolehistorie, The Danish educational History, https://skolehistorie.au.dk/en/ (accessed 15. 10. 2019) 35 Challenges for the school museums and history of education in a time of globalization and digitization. The 18th symposium for school museums and history of education collections, https://skolehistorie.au.dk/en/netvaerk/18th-symposium-for-school-museums-and-history- of-education-collections/ (accessed,16. 10. 2019) 499Creating links in education. Teachers and their associations Invitation to the 19th Symposium on School Life and School History Museums & Collections in Rethymno, Crete, Greece36 Povabilo na 19. simpozij šolskih muzejev in šolsko-zgodovinskih zbirk v Rethymno na Kreti Our Greek colleagues, who in 2019 participated at the symposium in Copen- hagen with two contributions from Crete, have already sent out a call for papers to inform international public interested in the history of education (ISCHE)37 and submitted the theme: “School Museums, Museum Education and Educa- tional History: Creating Learning Experiences and Building Bridges for Open and Sustainable Societies.” The conference will be organized in the City of Rethymno by the University of Crete & the University Museum of Education – Xeniseum.38 Save the date for the 19th International Symposium on School Museums and His- tory of Education Collections - Tuesday 25th to Friday 28th May, 2021! 19th International Symposium on School Museums and Collections of Educational History. (photo: web) 36 The 19th International Symposium on School Museums and Collections of Educational History, https://www.kemeiede.org/en/component/spsimpleportfolio/item/40-the-19th-international- symposium-on-school-museums-and (accessed 15. 10. 2019) 37 Call for Papers - The 19th International Symposium, https://www.ische.org/call-for-papers- -the-19th-international-symposium-on-school-museums-and-collections-of-educational- history/ (accessed 15. 10. 2019) 38 Call for Papers - The 19th International Symposium on School Museums and Collections of Educational History, http://www.sipse.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/School-Museums- Symposium-2021.pdf (accessed 15. 10. 2019) 508 Šolska kronika / School Chronicle • 3 • 2019 15th Symposium participants at the Ljubljana Castle. CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Ljubljana 37.011.3-051(082) 061.2:37.011.3-051(082) 069:37.01(082) INTERNATIONAL Symposium on School Life and School History Museums & Collections (15 ; 2013 ; Ljubljana) Creating links in education : teachers and their associations as promoters of pedagogic development (historical and museum aspects) = Povezovanje v izobraževanju : učiteljstvo in njihova društva kot spodbujevalci pedagoškega razvoja (zgodovinski in muzejski pogledi) / 15th International Symposium on School Life and School History Museums & Collections = 15. mednarodni simpozij šolskih muzejev in šolsko-zgodovinskih zbirk, Ljubljana, 26-29. 6. 2013 ; edited by, uredila Branko Šuštar & Maja Hakl Saje ; [prevodi avtorji, prevodi izvlečkov Maja Hakl Saje]. - Ljubljana : Slovenski šolski muzej = Slovenian School Museum : Zveza zgodovinskih društev Slovenije = Historical Association of Slovenia, 2019. - (Šolska kronika : revija za zgodovino šolstva in vzgoje ; 2019, 3) ISBN 978-961-6764-17-9 (Slovenski šolski muzej) 1. Gl. stv. nasl. 2. Vzp. stv. nasl. 3. Šuštar, Branko COBISS.SI-ID 303039488 School Chronicle - Instructions to contributors: http://www.ssolski-muzej.si/slo/aboutmuseum.php?page=66 Šolska kronika / Navodila avtorjem in avtoricam: http://www.ssolski-muzej.si/slo/aboutmuseum.php?page=67