PARENTS’ PERSPECTIVE ON PROBIOTICS IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN: 
A CROSS-SECTIONAL SURVEY
Katja BEZEK1, Emina FAJKOVIĆ1, Mojca STUBELJ1*
1University of Primorska, Faculty of Health Sciences, Polje 42, 6310 Izola, Slovenia
Received: Apr 11, 2022
Accepted: Nov 2, 2022
Original scientific article
*Corresponding author: Tel. + 386 41 354 160; E-mail: mojca.stubelj@fvz.upr.si
10.2478/sjph-2023-0002 Zdr Varst. 2023;62(1):5-12
5
POGLED STARŠEV NA UPORABO PROBIOTIKOV PRI PREDŠOLSKIH  
OTROCIH: PRESEČNA RAZISKAVA
© National Institute of Public Health, Slovenia. 
Bezek K, Fajković E, Stubelj M. Parents’ perspective on probiotics in preschool children: a cross-sectional survey. Zdr Varst. 2023;62(1):5-12. doi: 10.2478/sjph-2023-0002.
ABSTRACT
Keywords: 
probiotics, preschool 
period, children’s 
health, parents’ 
perspective
IZVLEČEK
Ključne besede: 
probiotiki, predšolsko 
obdobje, zdravje otrok, 
pogled staršev
Introduction: The composition of the human gut microbiota, which can also be regulated by the consumption 
of probiotics, has a significant impact on host health. The main source of probiotics can be foods such as 
fermented foods, yogurts, fermented drinks and/or probiotic supplements. While parents play a critical role 
in ensuring the well-being of their children, this cross-sectional study is focused on parents’ perspectives 
regarding the use of probiotics in the preschool period.
Methods: The self-administered online survey consisted of 24 questions arranged across two thematic sections. 
The final data analysis included 102 parents (96% F; 4% M), aged between 22 and 47. Their children were aged 
up to 6 years.
Results: The majority (52%) of the parents were familiar with the term ‘probiotics’ and 86.3% were including 
probiotics in their children’s diet at the time of the survey. The main source was probiotic food (36.3%), of 
which yoghurt was the most commonly consumed (87.2%). The inclusion of probiotic supplements in a child’s 
diet was positively correlated with parents’ consumption and level of knowledge about the term ‘probiotics’. 
Digestive tract-related disorders were the most frequently reported motive for the initial introduction of 
probiotics into children’s diet.
Conclusions: Based on our study results, parents are familiar with probiotics and include them in their children’s 
diet. However, an attempt should be made to close the gaps in parents’ knowledge that our research identified. 
Further studies are needed to determine the recommended amount of probiotic foods, as well as strategies to 
educate parents about the benefits of including probiotic foods in their children’s diet. 
Uvod: Sestavo črevesne mikrobiote lahko človek uravnava tudi z uživanjem probiotikov, kar pomembno vpliva na 
njegovo zdravje. Glavni vir probiotikov so lahko živila, kot so fermentirana živila, jogurti, fermentirane pijače 
in/ali probiotična prehranska dopolnila. Ta presečna študija je osredotočena na poglede staršev na uporabo 
probiotikov pri njihovih otrocih v predšolskem obdobju. Starši imajo namreč ključno vlogo pri izbiri hrane in 
prehranskih dopolnil.
Metode: Spletna anketa je bila sestavljena iz 24 vprašanj v dveh tematskih sklopih. V končno analizo podatkov sta 
bila vključena 102 starša (96 % Ž; 4 % M) otrok, starih do 6 let. Starost staršev je bila od 22 do 47 let.
Rezultati: Večina (52 %) staršev je poznala izraz probiotik, 86,3 % pa jih je v času raziskave tudi vključila v 
prehrano svojih otrok. Glavni vir so bila živila, ki vsebujejo žive mikroorganizme s potencialnim probiotičnim 
učinkom (36,3 %), od tega so najpogosteje zaužili jogurt (87,2 %). Vključitev probiotičnih prehranskih dopolnil 
v otrokovo prehrano je bila pozitivno povezana s porabo pri starših in nivojem znanja o pojmu probiotiki. 
Najpogosteje poročan razlog za začetno uvedbo probiotikov pri otrocih so bile motnje prebavnega trakta. 
Zaključki: Rezultati naše študije kažejo, da so starši seznanjeni s probiotiki in jih vključujejo v prehrano svojih 
otrok. Kljub temu so vrzeli v znanju bile ugotovljene in treba bi jih bilo odpraviti. Zaključujemo, da je treba 
opraviti večje število kliničnih študij, na osnovi katerih bi lahko podali priporočila o dnevnem vnosu probiotičnih 
mikroorganizmov in oblikovali strategije za izobraževanje staršev o prednostih vključitve probiotičnih živil v 
prehrano otrok.
1 INTRODUCTION
The human gastrointestinal (GI) tract is colonised by a 
complex population of microorganisms that are closely 
associated with the host in terms of health and disease 
(1). Importantly, the establishment of a stable microbial 
community within the GI tract early in life plays an 
important role in directing the development of the host’s 
immune, GI and nervous systems (2). Although most studies 
focus on microbiota composition in the first 12 months 
of life (2, 3), the preschool period is a very important 
window during which children are exposed to many 
disturbances on a daily basis; in addition, children in day 
care settings are more likely to be exposed to infections 
that may often require antibiotic treatment (4). The latter 
can significantly upset GI microbiota and lead to common 
side-effects such as antibiotic-associated diarrhoea (5). 
Dysbiosis or disturbance in the gut microbiota homeostasis 
occurs as a result of the loss of beneficial members, the 
excessive growth of potentially harmful organisms or the 
loss of overall microbial diversity (6). Microbiota dysbiosis 
has also been associated with various gastrointestinal 
(7) and metabolic disorders (8), autoimmune and allergic 
diseases (9, 10), and neuropsychiatric disorders such 
as autism (11). Nevertheless, there is a growing number 
of studies that evaluate the benefits of probiotics in 
preventing or treating certain health conditions in 
children by modulating the microbiota, such as antibiotic-
related diarrhoea (12), gastrointestinal and respiratory 
infections (13), chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) 
and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) (14), atopic eczema 
(15), mental health (16), autism spectrum disorders (17) 
and obesity-related disorders (18). These clinically based 
health benefits were used to design the false or true claims 
presented to survey participants in our study. Probiotics 
are ‘live microorganisms that, when administered in 
adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host’. 
Live microorganisms refer to strains of a number of well-
studied microbial species delivered at a functional dose for 
use as foods (fermented foods, yogurts, fermented drinks) 
or supplements (19). The first aim of our study was to 
investigate parental perspectives on probiotics use and the 
amount of fermented foods and/or probiotic supplements 
consumed by their preschool-aged children. The second 
aim was to find an association between variables such as 
knowledge, opinion, level of education, health conditions, 
and the consumption of probiotic foods and supplements.
2 METHODS
2.1 Survey subjects and design
A cross-sectional study was conducted to obtain information 
on parental perspectives regarding probiotics in preschool 
children. For the study, parents of children aged up to 6 
years were invited to participate via internet sources. Each 
10.2478/sjph-2023-0002 Zdr Varst. 2023;62(1):5-12
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parent provided information on one of the children in their 
household. Only completed questionnaires were included in 
the survey data analysis. The study methods were performed 
in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. 
The survey was conducted and made available through 
the online ‘EnKlikAnketa’ portal using a free open-source 
application called 1KA (https://www.1ka.si/). The study 
protocol was approved by the Slovenian National Medical 
Ethics Committee (No 0120–631/2017/2). Written informed 
consent was obtained from all subjects participating in 
the survey. All of the participants were informed of the 
anonymity and confidentiality of the data obtained. 
2.2 Survey
The self-administered online survey, which was based 
on previously published data with modifications (24–26), 
consisted of 24 questions arranged across two thematic 
sections. The questions in the first section asked for the 
parents’ demographic information and their perspectives, 
as well as the amount of fermented foods and/or probiotic 
supplements consumed in the past month. Parents were 
also introduced to the nine claims derived from the 
literature review presented in the introduction. Parents 
were asked to mark whether they agreed or disagreed with 
the claims. The second section asked for the preschool 
child’s demographic information, followed by details about 
the amount, frequency and purpose of consumption of 
probiotic foods and/or supplements. The survey subjects 
were asked to indicate the amount and frequency of 
selected fermented foods (raw sauerkraut, raw pickled 
turnip, cheese, yoghurt, kefir, buttermilk, acidophilic milk 
and whey) as potential sources of live microorganisms. 
The amount of food consumed was determined on the 
basis of the portion size material from the national survey 
(20). For data analysis, liquid fermented foods were 
considered regardless of age, and solid fermented foods 
were considered only after 12 months of age.
2.3 Data analysis
Quantitative data analysis was performed using statistical 
software (SPSS v26; IBM, Armonk, NY, USA). To test the 
statistical significance of the differences between the 
variables, a t-test for independent variables was used. 
Although the assumption of normal distribution of the 
observed variables was not justified, the nonparametric 
tests referred to as the Mann-Whitney U test or Kruskal-
Wallis test were used. The level of statistical significance 
was set at p<0.05. The Spearman correlation test was 
used to assess the relationships between variables such as 
parents’ level of education, their knowledge of the term 
‘probiotics’, the source of probiotics in a child’s diet, the 
amount of fermented foods consumed and any changes 
observed after the use of probiotics. A correlation was 
considered strong if rs approached 1, moderate if rs 
10.2478/sjph-2023-0002 Zdr Varst. 2023;62(1):5-12
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was close to 0.5, and weak if rs was close to zero. The 
significance level for correlations was set at p<0.05 to 
indicate a statistically significant correlation. 
3 RESULTS
3.1 Survey subjects
Of the 144 parents who followed the link to the survey, 
102 (96% F; 4% M) were included in the final data analysis. 
They ranged in age from 22 to 47. Complete information 
about the parents and children who participated in the 
survey is presented in Table 1. The highest proportion 
(55.9%) of parents were from the 30–39 age group, had 
a Master’s degree (36.3%) and lived in a three- or four-
person household (84.3%). Parents provided information 
on one of their preschool children. Cumulatively, 56.9% 
were girls and 43.1% were boys. The age of the children 
ranged from two months to five years, with most between 
one and two years of age (32.3%). The majority of children 
were born vaginally (80.4%) and breastfed for the first 
months of life (65.7%). 
3.2 Parental perspectives on and habits of consumption 
of probiotics 
Parental perspectives and information on probiotics 
consumption are presented in Table 2. The majority of 
parents were familiar with the term (52%), and even 
knew how to explain it and to explain the benefits of 
probiotics consumption (44%). The most common sources 
of information about probiotics were books or magazines 
(18.4%) followed by online sources (18%). The latter was 
also the most frequently reported encouragement factor 
for probiotics consumption. Overall, 88.2% of parents 
confirmed that they included probiotic foods in their diet, 
while 41.2% of them also consumed probiotic supplements 
themselves. There was a statistically significant moderate 
positive correlation between knowledge of the correct 
definition of probiotics and variables such as level of 
education (rs=0.371; p<0.001), and parental consumption 
of probiotic supplements (rs=0.393; p<0.001). There 
was also a weak positive correlation between opinions 
about the influence of probiotics on host well-being and 
parental consumption of probiotics (rs=0.344; p=0.02). In 
addition, there was a statistically significant moderate 
positive correlation between parents’ opinions about the 
health benefits of probiotics consumption and whether 
they considered them to be beneficial for their children 
(rs=0.569; p<0.001). Nevertheless, 88.2% of parents 
considered probiotics consumption to be beneficial for 
their children and the vast majority (86.3%) also included 
probiotics in their children’s diet. 
Gender of parents
Female
Male
Age group
20–29
30–39
40–49
Level of education
Primary school
Secondary school
College
Master’s degree
Doctoral degree
Number of household members
2
3
4
5
6
Gender of child  
Female
Male 
Child age (years)
0–1
1–2
2–3
3–4
4–5
5–6
Type of delivery
Vaginal delivery
Caesarean section
Type of feeding in first 
months of life
Exclusively breastfeeding 
Combination of breastfeeding 
and milk formulas 
Exclusively milk formulas
Characteristics N (%)
 
98 (96.1)
4 (3.9)
38 (37.2)
57 (55.9)
7 (6.9)
1 (0.9)
30 (29.4)
33 (32.5)
37 (36.3)
1 (0.9)
3 (2.9)
45 (44.1)
41 (40.2)
12 (11.8)
1 (1)
58 (56.9)
44 (43.1)
7 (6.9)
33 (32.3)
12 (11.8)
12 (11.8)
14 (13.7)
24 (23.5)
82 (80.4)
20 (19.6)
67 (65.7)
30 (29.4)
5 (4.9)
Table 1. Survey subjects’ characteristics.
10.2478/sjph-2023-0002 Zdr Varst. 2023;62(1):5-12
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Parental knowledge of the term ‘probiotic’
Knows how to explain the term and the benefits of probiotics consumption 
Familiar with the term and with the benefits of probiotics consumption
Has heard about the term ‘probiotics’, but is not familiar with the benefits of consumption 
Unfamiliar with the term and with the benefits of consumption 
Source of information on probiotics
Family members 
Friends or acquaintances
Medical doctor
Pharmacist
Media advertising
Through education
Workplace 
Books or magazines 
Online
Bioresonance therapy 
Encouragement factor for probiotics consumption 
Family members
Friends or acquaintances
Medical doctor
Pharmacist 
Media advertising
Books or magazines
Health food shop
Online sources
Other (by themselves, bio resonance therapy)
Source of parental consumption of probiotics
Probiotic foods
Probiotic supplements
Do you consider probiotics consumption to be beneficial for your children?
Yes
No
I don’t have enough information
Are you currently including probiotics in your children’s diet? 
Yes
No
Sources of probiotics consumption by children (N = 88)
Probiotic foods
Probiotic supplements 
Combinations of probiotic foods and supplements
Other (breastfeeding, milk formulas)
Children’s first encounter with probiotic supplements (N = 92)
During pregnancy
Breastfeeding, milk formulas  
Introduction of solid food
Antibiotic treatment
Other (digestive disorders, colic, allergy) 
Characteristics N (%)
 
45 (44.1)
53 (52)
4 (3.9)
0 (0)
23 (7.8)
31 (10.6)
28 (9.5)
25 (8.5)
38 (12.9)
26 (8.8)
14 (4.8)
54 (18.4)
53 (18)
2 (0.7)
18 (14.4)
20 (16)
16 (12.8)
7 (5.6)
13 (10.4)
9 (7.2)
8 (6.4)
27 (21.6) 
7 (6.8)
90 (88.2)
42 (41.2)
90 (88.2)
6 (5.9)
6 (5.9)
88 (86.3)
14 (13.7)
37 (36.3)
13 (12.8)
29 (28.4)
9 (8.8)
12 (11.8)
21 (20.6)
25 (24.5)
26 (25.5)
8 (7.8)
Table 2. Parental perspective and data on probiotics consumption.
Regarding the responses to the claims derived from 
the literature review (Table 3), the average percentage 
of agreement with true claims was 92.2±3.8% and 
disagreement with false claims was 77.8±8.6%. The largest 
proportion of parents (96.1%) agreed with the claims: 
‘The use of probiotics regulates digestion’ and ‘Nutrition 
has a significant impact on the composition of the gut 
microbiota’. Surprisingly, 29.4% of parents agreed with the 
false statement ‘Probiotics are indigestible fibres in foods 
that have a beneficial effect on digestion’, even though 
the correct definition of probiotics was provided in the 
questionnaire.
Probiotics work immediately after consumption.
It is recommended that probiotics be consumed during antibiotic treatment.
The use of probiotics regulates digestion.
The use of probiotics reduces the incidence and duration of diarrhoea.
Probiotics have positive benefits only on digestive tract health. 
The composition of the gut microbiota is determined at 
birth and remains the same throughout life.
Consumption of probiotics strengthens the immune system.
Nutrition has a significant impact on the composition of the gut microbiota.
Probiotics are indigestible fibres in foods that have a beneficial effect on digestion.
Consumption of liquid fermented products (N=90) 
Yogurt 
Kefir
Buttermilk
Acidophilus milk
Whey
Total:
Consumption of solid fermented products (N=85)
Sauerkraut
Sour turnip
Cheese
Total:
Statement True (T)
False (F)
Agree 
N (%)
Disagree 
N (%)
F
T
T
T
F
F 
T
T
F
M±SD (mL/day) 
115.7±134.9
51.5±73.8
55.8±81.5
48.0±70.0
36.9±83.7
161.0±212.5
M±SD (g/day)
8.7±20.5
4.7±7.4
12.6±13.4
19.1±29.8
24 (23.5)
93 (91.2)
98 (96.1)
91 (89.2)
25 (24.5)
13 (12.7) 
90 (88.2)
98 (96.1)
30 (29.4)
N (%) 
89 (87.2)
33 (32.4)
16 (15.7)
23 (22.5)
12 (11.4)
90 (88.2)
N (%)
44 (43.1)
23 (22.5)
82 (80.4)
85 (83.3)
78 (76.5)
9 (8.8)
4 (3.9)
11 (10.8)
77 (75.5)
89 (87.3) 
12 (11.8)
4 (3.9)
72 (70.6)
Table 3.
Table 4.
Parents’ agreement with the statements about probiotics derived from the literature review.
Average amount of probiotic foods consumed by preschool children.
Legend: T - true; F - false
3.3 Consumption of probiotics in the preschool period
For parents (86.3%) who were including probiotics in their 
children’s diet at the time of the survey, the main source 
was probiotic food (36.3%), followed by a combination 
of probiotic food and supplements (28.4%). The lowest 
proportion was observed in relation to the consumption 
of probiotic supplements only (12.8%) (Table 2). However, 
the highest proportion of probiotics consumption was 
found among children aged between one and two (35.2%), 
followed by those aged between five and six (23.8%) and 
between four and five (13.6%). The most common reasons 
for introducing probiotics into children’s diets in the 
form of fermented foods or supplements were to achieve 
better health outcomes, as follows: diarrhoea (44.1%), 
antibiotic treatment (42.1%), constipation (35.4%) and 
maintenance of gut health (32.3%). Since probiotic foods 
are the most common source of probiotics consumption 
among children, the amount of selected fermented foods 
consumed was investigated. The percentage of probiotic 
foods consumed shows the proportion of children who 
consumed individual probiotic foods in the past month. 
Cumulatively, children most frequently consumed plain 
or fruit yoghurt (87.2%; N=89), cheese (83.3%; N=85), and 
raw sauerkraut (43.1%; N=44) (Table 4). From the amount 
and frequency of consumption of probiotic foods in the 
last month, the mean amounts per day were calculated 
(161±212.5 mL and 19.06±29.8 g/day). The median amount 
of daily consumption was 71.4 mL for yoghurt, 21.4 mL 
for kefir, buttermilk and acidophilus milk, and 7.1 mL for 
whey. For solid fermented foods, the median amount 
was 8.6 g for cheese, 2.9 g for raw sauerkraut and 2.1 
g for raw pickled turnip. There were 44 children who 
consumed at least 100 g/mL of fermented foods daily. 
There was a statistically significant moderate positive 
correlation between the consumption of probiotics (food 
or supplements) between parents and children (rs=0.383; 
p<0.001) during the study period. As expected, there was 
also a statistically significant moderate positive correlation 
between the amount of liquid and solid fermented foods 
consumed by children (rs=0.468; p<0.001). Interestingly, 
there was also a statistically significant moderate positive 
correlation between parents’ knowledge of the term 
‘probiotics’ and children’s consumption of pickled turnip 
(rs=0.461; p=0.027).
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4 DISCUSSION
Nutrition in the first years of life is one of the most important 
factors that affect a child’s well-being, development and 
health. The first years of a child’s life are also recognised 
as an important period in the development of healthy gut 
microbiota. While the composition of the gut microbiota 
is constantly and rapidly changing during this period, it is 
often exposed to stressors that can lead to dysbiosis (21, 
22). While antibiotics are recognised as a key contributor 
to gut microbiota dysbiosis leading to various diseases, 
as reviewed by Vangay et al. (24), this is also the most 
commonly prescribed class of drugs in the child population 
(23, 24). Since it has been shown that consumption of 
probiotics can successfully reverse established microbial 
dysbiosis, they are commonly used as a strategy to 
modulate the gut microbiota (25). Probiotics are live 
microorganisms naturally present and/or added to food 
or dietary supplements. When administrated in adequate 
amounts, they have a favourable effect on host health 
(26, 27). As shown in our study, disorders associated with 
the digestive tract were the most frequently cited motive 
for the initial introduction of probiotics into children’s 
diets, with antibiotic treatment (25.5%) in first place. 
Parents also indicated that probiotic supplementation 
in children’s diet resulted as changed stool consistency, 
relief from constipation, reduction in gas and bloating, 
faster overcoming of colds, reduction in diarrhoea 
frequency, improvement in mood, and faster overcoming 
of allergies. Exposure to probiotics during pregnancy and 
early infancy could reduce the risk of developing various 
health problems, such as atopic dermatitis (28), necrotising 
enterocolitis (29) antibiotic-associated diarrhoea (30) 
and paediatric acute infectious diarrhoea (31, 32). As 
reviewed by Sestito et al., there is still a lack of evidence 
on the use of probiotic supplements to prevent allergic 
diseases. However, the World Allergy Organization (WAO), 
recommends probiotics during pregnancy and lactation 
for mothers at high risk of allergic disease in the case 
of atopic dermatitis (33). In our study, 8.8% of parents 
of children who suffered from food allergies and 6.9% 
of parents of children who suffered from skin allergies 
always used probiotics. While parents play a critical role 
in ensuring the well-being of their children, this cross-
sectional study focused on parental perspectives regarding 
the use of probiotics in the preschool period. Our study 
results showed that parents were familiar with probiotics 
(all parents had heard the term before) and only 4% were 
unfamiliar with the benefits of probiotics consumption 
(Table 2). This was also evident in parents’ perspectives 
on, and their agreement with the statement about, the 
benefits of probiotics for their children. In a previous 
study on maternal perspective (N=413), which included 
children aged up to two years, most mothers believed 
that probiotics were beneficial (73.1%), 9.7% of mothers 
had a neutral opinion and 15% reported not having enough 
information. However, the use of probiotics in children 
was lower compared to their mothers (50.8% vs. 89%), 
suggesting that mothers are more concerned about the 
use of probiotics in younger children (34). In addition, 
Andersen et al. (35) showed that parents were willing to 
take probiotics on the recommendation of a physician 
and other healthcare professionals, or when a child might 
benefit from taking probiotics, but were sceptical about 
preventive use (35). In our study, only a small proportion 
(12.8%) of parents were encouraged to consume probiotics 
by a physician (Table 2). However, there was no significant 
parental reluctance regarding the use of probiotics in 
their children’s diet, while 88.2% of parents agreed that 
probiotics were beneficial for their children. Accordingly, 
86.3% of parents reported that probiotics were a part of 
their children’s diet, while almost all parents consumed 
fermented foods at least once a month (88.2%) and 41.2% 
also/or consumed probiotic supplements (Table 2). There 
was also a statistically significant positive correlation 
between parental views regarding their children’s use 
of probiotics and parental educational level (rs=0.371; 
p<0.001), parental use of probiotic supplements (rs=0.393; 
p<0.001) and use by their children (rs=0.305; p=0.002), 
and children’s consumption of pickled turnip (rs=0.461; 
p=0.027). Fermented dairy products such as yoghurt, 
fermented milk and cheese still remain the most common 
vehicle for the delivery of probiotics, although many non-
dairy products have also been traditionally consumed 
for centuries (36). Although several epidemiological 
studies have reported health benefits from yoghurt and 
other fermented foods (37), it is important to distinguish 
between probiotic microorganisms and fermentation-
associated microbes, the latter seldom being adequately 
defined. Unless isolated and defined, it is impossible to 
assess the potential probiotic properties of the relevant 
strain (38). In our study, fermented food was also the 
most common source of probiotics in children’s diet 
(36.3%), followed by combined intake with probiotic 
supplements (28.4%) and solely by probiotic supplement 
(12.8%). However, the highest proportion of probiotics 
consumption was observed in children aged between one 
and two years (35.2%), followed by those between five and 
six (23.8%) and those aged between four and five (13.6%). 
The highest prevalence of consumption of probiotic 
supplements only (44.4%) was observed among children 
aged between one and two. There was a statistically 
significant positive correlation between the inclusion of 
probiotic supplements in the child’s diet and their use 
in the parents’ diet (rs=0.460; p<0.001), as well as the 
parent’s level of knowledge about the term ‘probiotics’ 
(rs=0.305; p=0.002). It is generally accepted that probiotic 
products should have a minimum concentration of 106 CFU/
mL or gram to confer health benefits to the host (39). 
Therefore, an adequate amount of probiotics to maintain 
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10
the balance of the gut microbiota can be achieved regularly 
with approximately 100 g/day, which delivers about 109 
viable cells into the intestinal daily probiotic food intake 
(40). As shown before, increased dietary variety and the 
increased intake of probiotic and prebiotic food can be 
successfully achieved by microbiota modulation-focused 
dietary intervention in the perinatal period (41). Although 
the parents in our study noted an improvement in their 
children’s well-being after the consumption of probiotics, 
no guidance or recommendations exist for this vulnerable 
age group. When making recommendations to parents 
as consumers, it is important to take into account their 
personal traits as well their taste predispositions (42). In 
our opinion, the preschool period should be considered to 
be an opportunity for more frequent and diverse inclusion 
of probiotic foods. This not only positively affects host 
well-being, but also introduces foods with different tastes 
and textures.
5 CONCLUSION
Further studies are needed to determine the recommended 
amount of probiotic foods, as well as strategies to educate 
parents about the benefits of including probiotic foods in 
children’s daily diets.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST 
The authors declare that no conflicts of interest exist. 
FUNDING 
There is no financial interest or risk. 
ETHICAL APROVAL
The study protocol was approved by the Slovenian 
National Medical Ethics Committee (No 0120–631/2017/2). 
Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects 
participating in the survey. The questionnaire was 
anonymous. The data collected was used solely for the 
purpose of the purpose.
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