Ilonka Pucihar1, Branka Rotar Pance2
1Glasbena šola Vrhnika
2Univerza v Ljubljani, Akademija za glasbo
BODILY MOVEMENT AS INSEPARABLE PART OF
MUSICAL ACTIVITIES
Abstract
Bodily movement plays an important role in musical production, reproduction
and perception. Musical performance is linked to expressive movement of the
musician which co-influences the perception by the audience. The performer’s
movements and gestures, which the audience can see during the performance,
function as a special communicational means and intensify the whole musical
experience.
Research shows that musical performances which attract auditory and visual
attention and intensify the listeners’ focus cause in them physical, cognitive and
emotional-experiential activities.
This paper dedicates particular attention to bodily movements and gestures in
piano playing. In connection with holistic learning and musical activities, it
highlights the paradigm of embodied music cognition and its place in Émile
Jaques-Dalcroze’s eurhythmics. In dealing with creative musical expression, it
focuses on improvisation, while also pointing out the connection of musical
movement with musicality.
Key words: musical activities, musical movement, embodied music
cognition, creative musical expression, improvisation, musicality
Izvleèek
Telesni gib kot neloèljivi del glasbenih dejavnosti
Telesni gib ima pomembno vlogo pri glasbeni produkciji, reprodukciji in
percepciji. Glasbeno izvajanje je povezano z ekspresivno gibno izraznostjo
glasbenika, ki sovpliva na glasbeno percepcijo poslušalcev. Telesni gibi in
izvajalèeve geste, ki jih poslušalci vidijo ob izvajanju, delujejo kot posebno
komunikacijsko sredstvo in poglabljajo celostno glasbeno doživetje.
Raziskave kažejo, da glasbene izvedbe, ki pritegnejo slušno in vidno
pozornost ter poglabljajo zbranost poslušalcev, pri njih povzroèijo fiziološke,
kognitivne in èustveno-doživljajske dejavnosti.
Prispevek namenja posebno pozornost telesnemu gibu in gestam pri
pianistiènem izvajanju. V povezavi s celostnim uèenjem in glasbenimi
dejavnostmi sta izpostavljeni paradigma utelešene glasbene kognicije in njena
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Ilonka Pucihar, Branka Rotar Pance, BODILY MOVEMENT AS INSEPARABLE PART OF...
razvidnost v evritmiji Émila Jaquesa-Dalcroza. Obravnava ustvarjalnega
glasbenega izraza se osredinja na improvizacijo, izpostavljena pa je tudi
povezanost glasbenega gibanja z muzikalnostjo.
Kljuène besede: glasbene dejavnosti, telesni gib, utelešena glasbena
kognicija, ustvarjalni glasbeni izraz, improvizacija, muzikalnost
Introduction
Recently, numerous branches of science, from philosophy, natural sciences,
humanities, social sciences to arts, dedicate a lot of attention to the study of
human body. Body is conceptualised through neurophysiological, cognitive,
phenomenological, cultural and sociological aspects (Bresler, 2004). In music as
well, there is an increasing interest in the role of the body and bodily movement in
music production, reproduction and perception. It has become a forefront issue at
international scientific conferences (e.g. 2013 EPTA conference1 in Dusseldorf).
There are also more and more research studies dealing with the relationship
between music and body, particularly in connection with the expressiveness of
professional music performance. Music performance skills include bio-
mechanical aspects of playing the music fluently, but coexist with expressive
intentions manifested through bodily movements and facial expressions that
permit the communication of musical intention or meaning (Davidson, 2012).
Truslit (1938, as cited in Repp, 1993) states that music is expressivelly shaped
with the help of the performer’s body. Through objective measurements of
acoustic signals, he found out that different movement curves (open, closed,
winding movements) used by performers when they were playing short sections
of music created differences in their musical products. Davidson (1993) claims
that the performers move differently if they perform the same musical work with
different expressive intentions. The greater the expression in the intention, the
larger and broader are the movements and vice versa. In a study of movements of
clarinetists, from beginners to professional players, Rodger (2010) showed that
the amplitude of bodily movements in musical performance increased with better
knowledge and acquaintance – i.e. with better defined expressive concepts – of
the piece performed. Better technical skills also mean better movement control
and expression of musical qualities. Wanderly (2002) studied connections
between the quantity of movements and expressiveness in clarinetists. He found
out that the majority of movements which are not necessary from the technical
point of view are provoked by musical elements, prevailingly phrase structure
and meter. Influences of performers’ movements to musical perception of the
audience have also been proven (Davidson, 1993; Dahl, Friberg, 2007).
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1 European Piano Teachers Association
So, music is a field in which human body is crucial for the research process,
while at the same time representing a basis of knowing, cognition. Music is an
important cognitive source not only in what it teaches us about metaphysical
spheres of sensing, but above all in what it shows us on the deeply embodied and
socially and culturally incorporated character of all human knowledge and
existence. This presupposes inseparability of mind and body, material basis of
cognition and necessity of bodily experience for all human knowledge (Bowman,
2004).
The term “embodied music cognition” represents an alternative to the
historically established belief of separation of body and mind. The embodied
approach to cognition presupposes that mental processes are inseparably
connected with the body and that the essence needs to be looked for in our
activities, not in abstract concepts or ideas, which was already established by
phenomenology, the philosophical movement of the beginning of the 20th century
represented by, among others, Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, Maurice
Merleu-Ponty. The purpose of the “embodiment paradigm” is to clarify that all
human understanding has its roots in the way in which the body experiences the
world (Bowman, 2004; Bresler, 2004; Pelinski, 2005). Musical understanding
stems from the bodily feeling, experience. Embodied music cognition represents
the indispensable role of the body in our musical experience.
Bodily Movement, Music Production, Reproduction and Perception
Even though bodily movement is an essential element of musical activity, in
the western classical music tradition it is more or less disregarded. In his analysis
of the “rituals” in a classical concert hall, Small (1998, as cited in Jensenius,
2007) states, that western classical music is surrounded by many rigid rules of
conduct for both, performers and listeners. The audience is expected to sit still
and listen, engaging in as little movement and expression of emotions as possible.
The same is observed by Canetti (1962, in Bailey, 1992), who, comparing the
conductor with the head of the police, says: ‘’The immobility of the audience is as
muchpart of the conductor’s design as the obedience of the orchestra. They are
under a compulsion to keep still./…/ While he is conducting no-one may move
and as soon as he finishes they must applaud. All their desire for movement,
stimulated and heightened by the music, must be blanked up until the end of the
work and must then break loose…’’ (1962, as cited in Bailey, 1992, p. 24).
However, music provokes physiological changes in people who are drawn to
it, so that they are in a state of increased attention, awareness, interest, agitation.
The electroencephalogram shows changes in the amplitude and frequency of the
recorded brainwaves. In this state of musical excitement, the electrical resistance
of the skin decreases (its conductance increases), the pupils dilate, breathing
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becomes either faster or slower, blood pressure and pulse rate usually raise,
muscle tonus increases. Electromiograph, which records the action potential of
muscles, shows an increased activity of leg muscles while the subject listens to
music, even if they are instructed not to move (Storr, 1992). The discovery of
mirror neurons showed that we are able to understand and foresee the behaviour
of others, using the same neuron areas that are used if we want to carry out that
behaviour ourselves. So, if we see somebody grab an object with a hand, we
activate the areas in our brains that control that movement. If we hear the sounds
related to an activity performed by somebody else, we activate the relevant motor
areas of our brains and if we observe emotional states of others, we can feel
similar emotions and empathy (Molnar-Szakas et al., 2012). To listen always
means to participate, be physically involved, as well.
In fact, a sound-related experience differs from a semiotic experience in its
connection with the body, movement and activity (Bowman, 2004). Shepherd
(1987, as cited in Bowman, 2004) explains, that musical tones enter the body and
are sensed, felt and experienced inside the body in a way, that no other artistic or
cultural medium offers. Sound – i.e. the way in which the tone touches the body –
is the vibrating essence which allures the world of sound into motion, reminding
us that we are alive, feeling and experiencing. One reason for the great influence
that sound has on human body and experiencing seems to be the fact that already
in the uterus we start experiencing and interpreting the world through sound.
The brain and the body are certainly deeply connected and the neuron system
of production and perception connects us among each other. Bodily movement is
an integral part not only of musical performance but of perception as well. This is
important if we want to understand the various movements of musicians with
different intentions, directed, among other, also towards the audience.
Bodily Movement and Gestures as Means of Communication
The most obvious aspect of the connection of western classical music with
bodily movement is the production of tone on traditional acoustic instruments.
Certain characteristics of movement will influence the pitch, timbre, intensity and
duration of the tone, as well as the relationships between tones. However,
musicians also move in a way which is not directly linked to the production of
tone, but serves the purpose of communication. A study on speech (McNeill et al.,
2002, as cited in Dahl, Friberg, 2007) revealed that speech and gestures derive
from the same semantic source. Therefore, they are not subordinate to each other,
but equally expressive. Given the fact that speech and music have a lot in
common (Berkowitz, 2010; Juslin, Laukka, 2003), there is a high probability that
the same principles apply to music (Dahl, Friberg, 2007).
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In the text books we also often come across the term gesture, the definitions of
which are various, but their common denominator is direct or indirect connection
with human physical behaviour (Cadoz, Wanderley, 2000). According to the
American philosopher S. Lange (1973, as cited in Krofliè, 1999, p.28), by
linguistic definition this expression means an “expressive movement”, while
expressiveness, in her opinion, has two meanings:
1. expression of one self in existing subjective conditions, what she calls
“symptomatic expressive movement”,
2. logical expression in more or less factual conditions, what she calls
“symbolic expressive movement”. A sign always functions as a symptom and as a
symbol. Similarly to word, movement is either self-expressive (spontaneous),
symbolically expressive, or both (Krofliè, 1999).
The term musical gesture in most cases denotes abstract musical cha-
racteristics which are not in direct connection with physical movement, while the
term performer’s gesture relates to an instrumentalist’s technique. Performer’s
gesture includes physical motions which are necessary for production of tone on a
certain instrument, and also those movements which are integral part of musical
performance, even though they might not be in direct connection with production
of tone (Wanderley, 2002). Other authors call the former movement instrumental
gesture (Cadoz, Wanderley, 2000) or effective gesture (Delalande, 1988, as cited
in Cadoz, Wanderley, 2000), and the latter ancillary gesture (Wanderley,
Depalle, 2004), accompanist gesture (Delalande, 1988, as cited in Jensenius,
2007) or non-obvious gesture (Wanderley, 2002). Davidson and Correia (2002)
call the latter body language and point out four aspects of it that can be seen
during musical performance:
1. communication with other performers,
2. individual interpretation of narrative or expressive/emotive musical
elements,
3. performer’s own experience and behaviours,
4. interaction with or entertainment of the audience.
The audience perceives musical performance auditorily and visually.
Davidson (1993) found out that the subjects of the study were equally successful
in assessing the performer’s expressive intentions regardless of whether they
listened, watched or both. Those without any music education did even better
when they only watched than in the other two modes.
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Bodily Movement and Gestures in Piano Playing
In a study of Glenn Gould’s playing technique, François Delalande (1988, as
cited in Cadoz, Wanderley, 2000) suggests a three-level division of the notion of
gesture:
– effective gesture; necessary to mechanically produce the sound (e.g. press a
key).
– accompanist gesture; body movements associated to effective gestures -
chest, elbow movements, mimics, etc.). Delalande suggests that
accompanist gestures should not be analyzed strictly from a motor control
point of view - he considers that its function is as related to imagination as
to the effective production of the sound.
– figurative gesture – mental representation (perception) without a clear
correspondence to a physical movement, communicated only through tone
(e.g. melodic balance).
The first two proposed levels correspond to physical actions of the
instrumentalist, whilst the third is completely symbolic.
Jensenius (2007) divides bodily movements related to music into four
functional categories:
1. Sound producing actions (as they are goal-directed, the author uses the
term action instead of movement), that actually produce the sound. These
are further subdivided into actions of excitation (e.g. pressing a key on the
piano) and modification (e.g. using a piano pedal).
2. Ancillary movements are not directly involved in sound production but
still have an important impact on the resultant sound. They can be support
(e.g. pressing a piano key involves not only the finger, but also the hand,
arm and upper body), phrasing (the performer bends forwards to
accentuate a salient point in the melody) and entertained movements –
movements synchronised with the music, accentuating musical features
(e.g. tapping a foot, nodding the head or moving the whole upper body in
synchrony with the music).
3. Sound-accompanying movements are not part of the sound-production,
but rather follow qualities in the sound or music by sound tracing (e.g.
tracing the melody of a song in the air with a hand) or mimicking.
4. Communicative movements are intended to be communicative; they may
be performer–performer, performer–perceiver or endogenous types of
communication. An example of endogenous communicative movements
is the interpretation of Gould’s movements as him conducting himself
(Delalande, 1988, as cited in Jensenius, 2007).
The complex piano playing technique requires several skills. Coordination of
the left and the right hand, feet (when using the pedals), sight and hearing is very
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important. Fingers have to develop sensitivity and autonomy. It is necessary to
know that there are no muscles in fingers. The muscles that control the fingers are
mostly located in the lower part of the arm. Tendons spread out of these muscles
and move the fingers. The straining of fingers causes tension in the forearms,
which prevents free flow of energy into the hands. The consequences are fatigue,
limited finger speed and poorer expressiveness. Tense neck and shoulders can
also press the nerves leading to the arms, causing pain or torpidity in the arms.
The tension in the arms is minimal when the fingers rest on the keys and the wrist
is flexible, moving in synchrony with fingers. From the very beginning, an
effective body posture has to combine strength, flexibility and the ability to relax
the weight of the arm in order to produce a rich sound. Spatial awareness enables
free playing, larger movements and performance of larger skips without watching
the hands. This requires just the right input of energy in order to land on the right
spot, with the right weight and freedom of movement which can involve only the
forearm, the whole arm or the entire body. Free movement of shoulder blades
enables a more free and accurate playing.
The body has to respond quickly to various visual, auditory and kinaesthetic
instructions regarding the needs of music and the way it is experienced, but the
energy used must not be excessive in order not to cause tension. Musicians are
often not aware of how we use our bodies. It is even more difficult because of the
emotional nature of music. Parts of brain responsible for processing emotions
influence the body through two basic mechanisms:
1. Release of chemical molecules into blood; this affects various body parts,
2. Extending neuron activity to various brain centres and muscles.
Through these two mechanisms an emotional experience is connected to
numerous physiological responses, from muscle contractions, changes in
breathing and heart rhythm, changes in blood circulation, sweating (Trainor,
Schmidt, 2003). In a wave of emotions we can tighten our arms, neck, back,
preventing music from flowing freely through the body. It is important to resist
these tendencies, and at the same time remain open to the plenitude of emotions.
Intensive expression does not come by straining the physiological mechanism
which produces sound, but by releasing this mechanism, so that it can function
effectively. Keeping dynamic (not static) balance enables the body to easily
respond to the requirements of music and the instrument at any moment. The aim
is to have flexible spine and open chest. If the chest is open, the heart and the
lungs have enough space for their operation, blood and oxygen circulation feed
the body, improving its operation. So the vital energy of the heart, organs and
glands becomes available for musical expression (Bruser, 1997).
The aim of performers’ movements is to effectively and suitably express
various musical qualities; at the same time the performers develop their own
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personal, idiosyncratic movements in line with the conceptions they draw from
their knowledge, experience, musical style, cultural and social environment,
which is reflected in their musical and motor expression. Clarke (2012) states that
physical actions in musical performance “lie” on an uninterrupted spectrum from
ergonomics to choreography. Ergonomics means that performers try to produce
sounds with comfortable movements, while, on the other side of the spectrum, the
“choreography” of the performer’s movements represents a potentially strong
and convincing way of communicating with the audience. It is difficult to
determine, to what extent these movements are intentional, acquired or
unconscious, or how much they influence expressiveness.
However, for the development of a musician it is necessary that the body
learns the language of music through integration of its elements and develops the
necessary skills to perform it, since the body is the source, instrument and basis of
understanding.
Embodied Music Cognition – the Basis of Holistic Music Activity and
Education
The body had an important role in many old philosophies and cultures. In
Hinduism, the body leads to the freedom of mind. In the philosophy of yoga the
connection of body and mind is crucial for the spiritual freedom. Body is the basic
element of various Buddhist traditions and practices. Western philosophy and
spirituality often ignored the body or even condemned it. Dewey (1929, as cited
in Bresler, 2004) attributes a great deal of influence for this to Christianity which
emphasises the dichotomy of body and soul, with the body being seen as earthly,
lustful, passionate, corruptible, averting attention from the eternal, incorruptible
spirit. Currently the notion of “embodiment” has been gaining recognition. It can
be defined as integration of the physical or biological body and the
phenomenological or experimental body into a network which includes thinking,
sensing, feeling, acting and interaction with the World (Bresler, 2004). Based on
the arguments of embodied phenomenology (Pelinski, 2005) and the evidence of
cognitive neuroscience (Molnar-Szakas et al., 2012), music researchers have
slowly been laying the foundations of the paradigm of embodied music cognition.
The idea that the soul differs from the body was strongly present already in the
Ancient Greek philosophy, with Plato privileging the mind. The western culture
used to comprehend the mind as the source of human superior achievements and
overcoming the biological, bestial in the human being. In the western philosophy,
Descartes strengthened the belief that the mental and physical spheres are
separated and that only what the mind comprehends is reliable, while the senses
and feelings are deceptive. However, French philosophers, influenced by
Nietzsche, started emphasizing knowledge which originates directly in the body.
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For Nietzsche the embodied form of mind, connected with passions, is much
deeper than superficial rationality. Maurice Merleau-Ponty emphasises the
importance of experience. According to him, all human knowledge springs up
from physical roots. The mind is inseparably biological and embodied. All we
know originates in the material and experiential world (Bowman, 2004).
According to the embodied cognition paradigm, the cognitive, sensory and
motor processes are inseparably connected in us. Cognitive abilities develop on
the basis of enhanced neural connections between the senses and the motor
system. Therefore, the mind is not in the brain, but rather in the vast neural
network, spread around the body, and it extents beyond the physical body into the
social and cultural environment which influences the body and shapes human
experience. Thus, the body and the culture are components of the mind (Bowman,
2004).
Findings in neuroscience show that all psychical processes involve chemical
activities in the body. Therefore, the division into sensory, memory, cognitive,
emotional and motivational processes, does not make sense, since all our
perceptions, ideas, thoughts occur as relationships between molecules and as
intercellular activities. In the core of all this are feelings which function in
relation to what we experience as important for our psychical, physical and social
survival. The main goal of our perception is survival, so senses which function
impersonally are useless in terms of personal survival. This means that cognitive
brain operations are emotionally coloured. The brain eliminates what is not
emotionally coloured as not important for our lives, consequently also for
processing, and it does not activate the motivation for acting or for a longer
lasting attachment (Rebula, 2013).
Trainor and Schmidt (2003) found out that despite the fact, that in the modern
world adults music does not evoke the same reactions as other emotional stimuli,
there are many evidence proving that music activates the same cortical,
subcortical and autonomous centres as emotions. They presume the reason
behind this is that music activates crucial survival centres of the nervous system,
even though it does not itself have a survival function in the evolution of child
development and care. For a long period, children are helpless and depend on
their carers. Emotional ties and communication are crucial for their survival. The
carers use music for babies and “musical speech” for emotional communication
before babies understand the language. When a loving mother talks to her baby,
her voice assumes melodic, singing qualities. In this communication, words are
not important, the melody is the message (Fernald, 1989, as cited in Trevarthen,
2012). Perhaps music preserves its survival role in adults as well, in the sense that
it is an emotion-experiencing “exercise” containing no risks of the consequences
of reactions to these emotions (Trainor, Schmidt 2003).
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Whatever the case, emotions have an important role in music education.
Music teachers have to bear in mind that musical thinking develops on the basis
of experiencing and performing musical contents (Sicherl-Kafol, 2001).
Emotions cannot be avoided in other educational areas either, as emotionally
neutral education is not possible at all (Rebula, 2011). Everything we think and
say is emotionally marked, and so are the cognitive operations of student’s brains
during a lesson. No entry into our memory can be emotionally neutral.
Music performance requires understanding of rhythm, melody, harmony,
tempo, meter, dynamics, sound quality and quantity, phrasing, relations, clarity,
style. This calls for holistic approach, uniting body and mind (Camp, 1992).
Lowen (1975) already points out that the educational process is still divided
into mental and physical education, detached from one another. He says that we
fill a child’s head with information that cannot turn into knowledge without
experience, which in turn is physical. Similarly, Gardner (1995) claims that there
is no clear cut division between physical activities and thinking skills; it is about
looking for balance between them. Since the end of 20th century researchers have
been putting more and more emphasis on physical action and cognition through
action in music education (Juntunen, 2004).
Émile Jaques-Dalcroze’s Eurhythmics
Émile Jacques-Dalcroze was the founder of eurhythmics – a method
integrating and enhancing the connection between body and mind through
kinaesthetic awareness of musical activity. According to him, before meeting all
the technical, emotional and intellectual requirements of music, a child should be
acquainted with the whole variety of sounds of the selected instrument, e.g.
piano. The ear controls the fingers. This acquaintance is possible if all musical
aspects (rhythm, tempo, dynamics, etc.) are learned through movement (Vann,
2006).
Even though the topic of embodied music cognition is not well researched yet,
Dalcroze’s eurhythmics offers a practical example of learning music on the basis
of physical experience. In eurhythmics, music is learned by researching,
experiencing, analysing and creating in order to enhance connections between
mind and body and communication between acting, thinking and feeling
(Jacques-Dalcroze, 1915).
Delcroze discovered ways to harmonise the sensory system, the emotional
suggestive influence, memory and creative function (Schnebly-Black, Moore,
1992). However, in his approach, physical experience is not just a means of
embodied cognition, but it is important on its own; the experience of moving
according to music enrich human life (Juntunen, 2004).
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Dalcroze’s approach includes exercises which combine listening, movement,
singing, thinking, improvisation, imagining – a variety of activities involving
mind and body, aimed at researching a certain musical area, topic or
phenomenon. In this exercises, the body is the instrument integrating music and
bodily movement. There are no determined movements connected to a certain
musical phenomenon. Students listen to music with and through movements
which often reflect the musical tones they listen to or imagine (i.e. they listen with
the so called “inner ear”; Juntunen, 2004). When movement becomes a reference
for sound, the abstract concepts become concrete (Findlay, 1971), which is of
great importance for children. Behaviour is inseparable from action; behaviour is
action and always involves the body.
Improvisation as Embodied Type of Musical Performance
Improvisation is an extraordinary skill of human cognition. It is a very
specialised case of general human behaviour: spontaneous combining of
elements, based on certain rules, in order to create new sequences, suitable in a
certain point of time and context (Berkowitz, 2010). Pressing (1987) describes
the cognitive process necessary for musical improvisation as the ability of the
improviser for a sensory and perceptive encoding in real time of performance,
optimum attention distribution, interpretation of what is happening, decision
taking, anticipation, memorising and recall, error correction, movement control
and at the same time the ability to integrate all these processes into a optimally
fluent series of musical statements which reflect a personal view of musical
organisation and the ability to influence the audience. These are abstract
components and it is difficult to verify how they actually function in an individual
case (Clarke, 2012). Clarke also states that improvisation is a much more
physical, embodied and socially situated type of musical performance as Pressing
believes.
In his book Ways of the Hand, jazz pianist David Sudnow (2001) rejects the
idea that only the central control in the brain “tells” the body where to go and
what to do and emphasises the sensorimotor awareness which is embodied in the
relationship between the pianist’s hands and the keyboard. For a pianist who
improvises there is as much improvisational knowledge in the interaction of the
hands, and the entire body connected with them, with the keyboard, as in the
brain. The hands choose as much as the pianist himself. Dalcroze (1932, as cited
in Bachmann, 2002) says that the hand is our most intelligent and sensitive organ.
Bruser (1997) also emphasises the intelligence of the body, saying that instead of
forcing the body to control the instrument, we should rather trust the inner
coordination and musicality and let ourselves move spontaneously. We should let
the body create music, as it has a wonderful intelligence of its own.
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Creative Musical Expression
Creative musical expression is an inseparable part of improvisation and of
creative activity itself. However, musical creativity is equally recognised in
composing, as well as in performing of written music and listening to music.
Both, improvisation and composition are about creating “new” music, the
difference being that with composition, review and reconsideration are possible
during the creative process, while this is not possible with improvisation, since it
means creating music in "real" time (Johnson-Laird, 1987). So, the difference is
in the creative process as well as in the product and consequently also in the way
of expressing creativity. However, it is because it is happening in real time that
improvisation offers immediate and direct insight into the creative expression,
inseparable from the body. This last aspect offers parallels between improvisation
and performance of written music
In the western classical tradition, performance of written music is generally
considered a creative activity (Clarke, 2012; Neuhaus, 2002; Persson, 2001). The
ability to create a unique and convincing interpretation is highly valued (Chaffin
et al., 2006). Creative expression is a complex notion and phenomenon which
Chaffin et al. (2006) substantiate with the following arguments: If the performer
thinks prevailingly about the basic technical elements, the possibilities for
creativity are limited. If the performer is focused on the interpretative elements
and how the music sounds, the possibilities for creativity are somewhat higher,
yet still limited. The goal of musical performance is to evoke musical feelings,
and this is best achieved if the performer focuses on the expression. Therefore, a
musical performance is most likely to be creative when the performer
concentrates on expressive elements. This makes it possible to direct the musical
performance into unique possibilities to achieve the maximum effect on the
audience.
Keller (1990, as cited in Clarke, 2012) describes performance of written music
as improvisational conclusion of a composition. Literature on expressiveness in
musical performance only shows in what ways the improvisational flexibility of a
performance is organised and achieved. Improvisation itself enables a level of
spontaneous innovation that differs from performance of written music, which
makes improvisation the most visible example of creativity in musical
performance (Clarke, 2012).
Kratus (1996, as cited in Hsieh, 2012) defines abilities and knowledge
necessary for improvisation:
1. The ability to internalise music in the short time of the actual duration of
the improvisation;
2. Adequate knowledge of the analysis of musical structures,
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3. The ability to manipulate the instrument or voice for a convincing and
fluent attainment of musical intentions,
4. Adequate knowledge of improvisation shaping strategies and adaptability
of strategy changing,
5. The ability of transforming style conventions into the development of
one’s own style.
We can find differences between performing written and improvised music in
Kratus’s points 1 and 4 which apply directly to the immediate formation or
creation of musical material (i.e. improvisational strategies), while the remaining
three points are common to both activities. Even though Kratus deals with
professional improvisation by adults, he nevertheless emphasises important
components that have to be holistically developed from a child’s first contacts
with the instrument, to enable the child to integrate them deeply and permanently.
A child’s ability to create with the memorised – i.e. integrated experience
strongly depends on their ability to imagine motor, auditory or visual experience.
A new combination of the memorised experience is part of the creative process
(Findlay, 1971). In his study, Hsieh (2012) concludes that development of
improvisation abilities in adult musicians is closely connected with the growth of
musical experience and knowledge.
One of the main goals of music education is the development of creative
expression and communication in a new, aesthetically evaluated and original
way, not just because today we expect from our artists important creative
achievements, but also because of the importance of lifelong creativity
(Williamon et al., 2006). If children are given the opportunity to discover the
world in an investigative way, they will accumulate priceless creative capital
which they will be able to draw from later in their lives (Gardner, 1993, as cited in
Tafuri, 2006). Tafuri (2006) found out in a study that the more children are
offered encouraging suggestions to express their ideas by using the learned rules,
the better the development of their creative musical thinking. To boost the
development of every individual’s creative potential she suggests research of
sound, analyses of processes and results in order to achieve greater awareness and
improvisation activities. The art of improvisation lies in developing awareness of
one’s own individuality which is expressed through improvisation. This
knowledge grows in interactive exercises with the teacher who should not offer
models to imitate, but problems which trigger personal answers (Doerschuk,
1984, v Pressing, 1987). According to McMillan (1997), improvisation influ-
ences the development of musicality as well.
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Bodily Movement and Musicality
We have established that creative expression represents an important
component of both, performance of written musical works and improvisation,
and is closely connected with expressiveness and musicality which originates in
bodily experience.
The component of musical language hardest to define is “internal energy”.
Many musicians may have excellent technique and completely master the
creation of timbers and dynamics. However, if they lack this internal energy, their
performance is emotionally unappealing. Great intellectual knowledge and skills
can provoke positive reactions of the audience, due to high level mastery of the
instrument, but this does not inspire or enrich the audience. True art enables us to
think and feel deeper and, by touching our soul, changes our perception. This
happens when the mind and soul of the performer connect with the mind and soul
of the listener. Then the performance is truly artistic and inspiring (Levant, 2006).
From the point of view of neuroscience, this is confirmed by the discovery of
mirror neurons which enable us to empathically experience what is going on
emotionally in somebody else. Such neuron networks are created in musical
interaction between the performer and the listener. Mirror neurons in the
listener’s brain trigger the same processes as if the listener themselves performed
the music (Molnar-Szakas, Assuied, Overy, 2012). However, the listener’s
perception depends on their embodied experience. E.g. a violinist will hear
violins in ways not reachable to a non-violinist (Bowman, 2004).
Levant (2006) says that a pianist, who understands micro-dynamic and
energetic connections between musical tones, has to be able to translate their own
intentions into the language of physical movement. The connection between
one’s natural feelings for music (enthusiasm, passion) and its special require-
ments has to be constantly re-established. When the inner world of micro-
connections is well considered and the pianist’s decisions are based on a deep
understanding and sensation of the performed music, the performance gains true
musicality. Therefore, careful observation, discovering of the life content
encoded in intonations, rhythmic patterns, tonalities, etc., is necessary from the
very beginning. Musicality in playing develops by gradually discovering the
complex world of music, by understanding various elements of musical language
and appropriateness of emotional reactions for each individual case.
In his synopsis of Truslit’s monograph “Gestaltung und Bewegung in der
Musik” (“Shaping and Motion in Music”), Repp (1993) talks about “inner
movement” which is “the eternal driving force of music” (ibid., p. 266) and is
more or less consciously shaped; inner experience and artistic form merge into an
integral process. The experience of movement provoked by music is of an inner
nature and affects the whole human being. Its only outward manifestation are
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subtle tensions of the muscles, which, however, easily pass unnoticed because
they are overshadowed by more intense acoustic, visual and motoric sensation
that accompany music. The performer “experiences” the technical movements in
playing the instrument. If the execution is proper, these movements arise from
inner motion in adaptation to the instrument and thus are organically integrated
with musical motion. Musical motion must be distinguished from acoustic
vibrations, sympathetic resonance, technical movements in playing an instru-
ment, from the sequence of tones (which is only the outward manifestation of the
inner process), and from conducting movements. Musical motion can be linked to
an invisible, imaginary dance which is free from all physical constraints. Musical
shaping is the shaping of movement. Therefore, all musical elements (dynamics,
agogics, etc.) are the expression of the motion process. It is not sufficient to
execute a crescendo only by increasing the intensity of the tones. The dynamic
development must arise as expression of a natural movement, so that the tone
sequence assumes a living, true and eloquent expression. The performer must be
involved holistically, in the performance and experiencing of music; manual
skills on their own does not generate living music and do not move the listener.
Repp (1993) also states Truslit’s opinion that Dalcroze’s concept is very good,
but focused too much on rhythm. Motions must be primarily melodic. They are
intensively guided, curve-shaped movements which magnify and bring to
consciousness the subtle muscular reactions to music. The movement exercises
are merely preparatory; exageration automatically desappears in musical
performance, where the engagement of the body should be intensive but not
“external” (Truslit, 1938, as cited in Repp, ibid.).
So, tonal shaping requires movement of the body and if the physiological
mechanism is free and the micro-dynamic and agogic tonal connections and
qualities are experienced and understood holistically, the performer’s sound will
be as well. Through different motion experience (eurhythmic, "waving", etc.) in
music, a great variety of musical nuances can be experienced and felt with the
whole body, not just intellectually, which enables vivid and viable realisation of
musical experience with subtle control and expressive character. At the same
time, this experience helps develop auditory perception of dynamic agogic
principles in music, as well as one’s own sensitivity and the power to distinguish
between the finest shades and colours. This way, the creative expression is based
on the existing experience which is internalised and enables the body to express
subtle shades of music and to influence the audience.
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Conclusion
Bodily movement is an essential part of music performance which contributes
to expressive shaping of music and helps the performer communicate with the
listener, enabling the latter to also visually experience the music performed. A
musician’s language is sensual – it is a language of an experience. It is through
experience that a musician can learn to trust inner coordination and musicality,
instead of forcing the body to control the instrument. A moving body, functioning
as mediator between sound and thought, as the direct instrument of our feelings,
can support the development of creative musical expression and communication
in a new, aesthetically evaluated and original way. To achieve this, holistic
approach is necessary, as founded by the embodied musical cognition paradigm.
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