Kaioglou V., et al.: PHYSICAL LITERACY OF FEMALE RECREATIONAL GYMNASTS              Vol. 14 Issue 1: 45 - 57 
 
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PHYSICAL LITERACY OF FEMALE RECREATIONAL 
GYMNASTS 
 
Vasiliki Kaioglou, Konstantinos Karteroliotis, Maria Koutsouba, Fotini 
Venetsanou 
 
 
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, School of Physical Education and Sport 
Science, Greece 
 
Original article                                                                              DOI:10.52165/sgj.14.1.45-57 
Abstract 
Children, especially girls, do not demonstrate physical activity (PA) and physical literacy 
(PL) levels associated with sufficient health benefits. Gymnastics is thought to be a suitable 
field for reinforcing children’s PL and related elements, such as PA. This study aimed at 
assessing the PL level of female recreational gymnasts to detect areas of sufficient and 
insufficient development in their PL. For that, 101 8-12-year-old girls (Mage=10.1±1.4), who 
participated in recreational gymnastics programs for at least one year (Myears=3.7±2.0), were 
assessed by using the Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy (CAPL-2). Average scores 
(M±SD) for total PL and its related elements were calculated for all participants. 
Accordingly, each of them was classified into one out of the four CAPL-2’s interpretive 
categories, indicating whether she was at a non-recommended (“beginning”, “progressing”) 
or recommended level (“achieving”, excelling”). Regression analysis examined the 
association of total PL score with participants’ age and years of participation in gymnastics. 
Although the female gymnasts, similarly to same-age children worldwide, did not present 
adequate PL level, their fitness was sufficiently developed and they were excessively 
motivated/confident for PA. Adversely, other PL elements, i.e., their motor competence, PA 
knowledge, PA participation, were below the recommended levels, indicating deficiencies in 
their PL development. Age was associated with total PL (b=.440, p=.0001), whereas the 
years of gymnastics’ participation were not (b=.090, p=.325). Participation in recreational 
gymnastics is important for enhancing several PL elements of female gymnasts; however, for 
developing the entire range of PL elements, the implementation of multicomponent 
gymnastics programs must be prioritized. 
 
Keywords: Motor competence, Physical fitness, Physical activity, Health-related fitness 
knowledge, Motivation.
 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
Physical literacy (PL), i.e., the 
motivation, confidence, physical 
competence, knowledge and understanding 
to value and take responsibility for 
engagement in physical activities for life 
(International         Physical           Literacy  
 
 
 
 
Association, 2017), is recognized as an 
essential pathway to enhance physical 
activity (PA) participation and holistic 
development (Whitehead, 2010). Being 
comprised of multiple interacting 
elements, PL is a multidimensional 
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concept, aiming at creating not only 
competent but also motivated, empowered 
and knowledgeable movers, who choose to 
be physically active throughout life. In line 
with the PL concept, this all-round 
developmental process is a personal life 
journey, which begins in childhood by 
providing children with holistic PA 
experiences (Whitehead, 2010).  
During the last years, research on the 
PL construct has made considerable 
progress, since assessment tools for 
children and youth were designed 
(Edwards et al., 2018) and implemented 
for population assessment (Kaioglou, 
Dania, & Venetsanou, 2020; Ramayudha, 
2019; Tremblay et al., 2014, 2018) and 
program evaluation (Hennessy et al., 
2018). According to preliminary research 
evidence, PL improves during childhood 
(Kaioglou et al., 2020; Tremblay et al., 
2018); however, overall, children have 
been found to be insufficiently physically 
literate and greatly inactive (Kaioglou et 
al., 2020; Li et al., 2020; Ramayudha, 
2019; Tremblay et al., 2014, 2018). 
Interestingly, girls are reported to be more 
inactive (Chen, Hammond-Bennett, 
Hypnar, & Mason, 2018; De Meester et al., 
2016) and less physically literate than boys 
(Kaioglou et al., 2020; Li et al., 2020; 
Tremblay et al., 2018), indicating a 
population that possibly needs additional 
support along the PL journey. Moreover, 
findings manifest that physical education 
(PE) programs, focusing on affective, 
physical, cognitive, and behavioral 
outcomes, could enhance children’ PL 
(Telford, Olive, Keegan, & Barnett, 2019), 
while participation in sport (at a non-elite 
level) is associated with elevated levels in 
certain PL elements, such as physical 
competence and daily PA participation 
(Damiris, Selemidi, Venetsanou, & 
Kaioglou, 2021). Even though the 
accumulation of past sport/PA experiences 
are thought to be critical to support 
children’s PL journey (Whitehead, 2010),  
it is currently unknown if a child’s 
previous engagement in a certain sport, 
i.e., years of sport-specific participation, is 
positively associated with his/her PL level. 
Considering that lifelong PA is the major 
outcome of PL (International Physical 
Literacy Association, 2017) and that years 
of consistent sport participation in 
adolescence are associated with the PA 
engagement of young adults (Bélanger et 
al., 2015), we can assume a positive 
linkage between sport-specific 
participation and PL level, which is 
interesting to explore. Apart from this 
potential behavioral correlate of PL (i.e., 
long-term participation in sport), age has 
been suggested as a likely biological 
correlate (Kaioglou et al., 2020), however, 
due to the limited relevant studies. the 
strength of the latter has not been 
confirmed yet. 
In reference to a sport that may have a 
positive effect on children’s PL, 
gymnastics, which targets the all-round 
development of children (Werner, 
Williams, & Hall, 2012), has been 
proposed to be a suitable field for 
reinforcing children’s PL (Baumgarten & 
Pagnano-Richardson, 2010; Flemons, 
2013). That was based on the assumption 
that participation in gymnastics programs 
can significantly contribute to the 
development of children’s essential PL 
elements, such as motor competence 
(Karachle, Dania, & Venetsanou, 2017; 
Rudd et al., 2017) and physical fitness 
(Lyulina, Zakharova, & Vetrova, 2013; 
Trajković, Madić, Sporiš, Aleksić, & 
Živčić-Marković, 2016). Furthermore, 
gymnastics positively influences the 
cultivation of other distinctive elements 
that physically literate individuals 
demonstrate, such as self-expression, 
interaction, creativity as well as other 
affective, cognitive (Baumgarten & 
Pagnano-Richardson, 2010; Flemons, 
2013) and social skills (Shamshiri, 
Bagheri, Hashemy, Doostan, & Yazdani, 
2013). Given the fact that all individuals 
develop PL at their own level, regardless 
of their physical condition or personal 
capabilities, through the acquisition of 
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challenging PA experiences (Whitehead, 
2010), gymnastics can be useful in that 
direction, since it can be a challenging 
recreational activity suitable to all 
children’s needs (Lulla, 2011).  
Taking into consideration the 
gymnastics’ potential contribution to PL 
enhancement (Baumgarten & Pagnano-
Richardson, 2010; Flemons, 2013) and the 
assumption that girls need special attention 
in comparison to boys in that field due to 
the lower PA (Chen et al., 2018; De 
Meester et al., 2016) and PL levels they 
present (Kaioglou et al., 2020; Li et al., 
2020; Tremblay et al., 2018), the current 
study recorded the overall PL status of 
female recreational gymnasts with the aim 
of detecting areas of sufficient and 
insufficient development on their PL 
journey. In addition, two related factors, 
i.e., age and the years of participation in 
gymnastics, were examined for their 
potential association with gymnasts’ PL 
development.  
Among the available PL assessment 
tools, the CAPL-2 (Healthy Active Living 
and Obesity Research Group [HALO], 
2017; Longmuir et al., 2018) was selected 
in this study, because it is better supported 
for its psychometrics (Kaioglou & 
Venetsanou, 2020). This specific tool has 
been cross-culturally adapted for the Greek 
population of 8-12-year-olds (Dania, 
Kaioglou, & Venetsanou, 2020), while 
several aspects of its validity and reliability 
have been sufficiently supported (Dania, 
Kaioglou, & Venetsanou, 2019; Dania et 
al., 2020). 
To our knowledge, this is the first 
study aiming to assess the entire PL 
construct in girls participating in 
gymnastics. Its findings will provide useful 
information about the potential of the 
specific PA to boost girls’ PL development 
and, hopefully, it will unveil possible 
correlates of PL in childhood.  
 
 
 
 
METHODS 
 
Participants were 101 8-12-year-old 
female recreational gymnasts 
(Mage=10.1±1.4) recruited from sport clubs 
located in Athens, Greece. According to 
participants’ self-reports, they were 
engaged in some form of gymnastics 
(artistic, rhythmic, acrobatics) for at least 
one year (Myears=3.7±2.0) and they were 
training three to four times per week. 
Moreover, they reported that they did not 
participate in any other organized 
sport/PA. Convenience sampling 
techniques were followed to recruit the 
participants of the study. Each participant’s 
parent or legal guardian was informed 
about the research purposes/procedures 
and subsequently he/she was asked to 
submit a written consent, while each girl 
gave her verbal consent before data 
collection. 
According to the CAPL-2 manual ( 
HALO], 2017), participants’ PL is 
measured across four intercorrelated 
domains, i.e., Daily Behavior, Physical 
Competence, Motivation and Confidence, 
and Knowledge and Understanding. The 
Daily Behavior domain contains two 
measures of children’s PA participation: 
(a) weekly self-perceived engagement in 
moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA), 
obtained by one item in the CAPL-2 
questionnaire, and (b) the average amount 
of daily PA, recorded by pedometers. The 
Physical Competence domain is evaluated 
through both motor competence and 
physical fitness measures. Particularly, 
motor competence is assessed by the 
Canadian Agility and Movement Skill 
Assessment (CAMSA, Longmuir et al., 
2017); a valid and reliable obstacle-type 
protocol of fundamental (jumping on two 
feet, sliding sideways, catching, overhand 
throw, skipping, hopping on one foot, 
kicking a ball) and complex movement 
skills (acceleration, deceleration, dynamic 
balance, transitions), which scores both the 
time the participants need to complete the 
protocol and the accuracy/quality of their 
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performance according to specific criteria 
(HALO, 2017). The 15m/20m Progressive 
Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run 
(PACER) is used for assessing 
cardiovascular endurance. Specifically, for 
this study the 20m PACER was utilized. 
Muscular endurance is recorded by the 
plank protocol, for which the participants 
are asked to obtain and maintain the 
correct plank position for as long as 
possible. The Motivation & Confidence 
domain encompasses children’s motivation 
and confidence to participate in PA; for 
their assessment, children respond to 12 
items in the CAPL-2 questionnaire. Lastly, 
the Knowledge & Understanding domain, 
reflecting children’s PA knowledge and 
autonomy to engage in PA, is assessed by 
five items in the corresponding 
questionnaire. The measures of Motivation 
& Confidence, Knowledge & 
Understanding as well as the self-
perceived MVPA constitute the 18-item 
CAPL-2 questionnaire. 
The CAPL-2 scoring system provides: 
(a) individual measure scores (raw scores 
converted to point scores), (b) domain 
scores, and (c) a total PL score. The total 
PL score (max of 100 points) is the sum of 
the four domains scores (Daily Behavior: 
max of 30 points, Physical Competence: 
max of 30 points, Motivation & 
Confidence: max of 30 points, Knowledge 
& Understanding: max of 10 points). 
Interpretation, based on gender and age, is 
facilitated by a four-category system, 
which stipulates the classification of 
participants as: (a) “beginning” (low level 
compared to same-age peers), (b) 
“progressing” (similar level compared to 
typical same-age peers), (c) “achieving” 
(meets minimum level recommended/ 
association with expected health benefits), 
and (d) “excelling” (exceeds minimum 
level recommended/association with 
expected health benefits) (HALO, 2017).  
The assessments were conducted at 
the sport clubs’ facilities by members of 
the research team in accordance with 
instructions included in the CAPL-2 
manual (HALO, 2017). For a group of 20 
participants, the administration of all 
measures required approximately 60 min 
and three appraisers. Before data 
collection, examiners presented each 
measure to participants and each 
participant was allowed to perform a few 
familiarization trials. At the beginning, 
participants were split into two smaller 
groups, and they were simultaneously 
assessed in CAMSA and plank. After a 5-
min rest period, the assessment of PACER 
followed. Upon the completion of the 
above three measures, all the participants 
were asked to fill in the CAPL-2 
questionnaire, and at the end of the 60-min 
session the pedometers were handed to 
them. Participants were informed that these 
electronic devices should be worn 
constantly (except when they participate in 
water activities, take a bath or sleep) for 
seven consecutive days over the hip bone 
on the right-hand side of their body. It 
should be noted that a valid day of 
pedometer data entails at least ten-hour 
wear time and a range of recorded steps 
between 1,000 - 30,000; for calculating a 
pedometer score, three valid days are 
required (HALO, 2017). 
Participants’ average scores for total 
PL, domain and individual Daily Behavior 
and Physical Competence measures were 
determined according to the information 
provided by the CAPL-2 manual (HALO, 
2017). Based on this manual, all 
participants were assigned to the 
corresponding CAPL-2 interpretive 
category for each of the above scores and 
percentages of them (%) across these 
categories were computed.  
To examine the association of age and 
years of participation in gymnastics with 
total PL score, linear regression analysis 
was conducted. The proportion of total PL 
variance explained by the independent 
variables (coefficient of determination; 
R2), and the Beta standardized coefficients 
(b), which indicate the relative importance 
of each independent variable in the 
prediction of the dependent one, were used 
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for interpreting the results of the analysis. 
Before the application of the regression 
analysis, Pearson’s product-moment 
correlation coefficients (r) were calculated 
to examine the associations among the 
variables. Preliminary checks proved that 
the regression analysis assumptions were 
met. Results were evaluated at p <.05. The 
IBM SPSS 26.0 statistical software was 
used for data analysis. 
 
RESULTS 
 
Participants’ total PL, domain and 
individual Daily Behavior and Physical 
Competence scores are summarized in 
Table 1. Based on these scores, 
participants were assigned to the 
“progressing” category for their total PL as 
well as for the domains of Daily Behavior, 
Physical Competence and Knowledge & 
Understanding. In contrast, they were 
classified as “excelling” for the Motivation 
& Confidence domain. In respect of the 
individual measures, participants were 
characterized as “progressing” for daily 
PA and CAMSA; “achieving” for self-
perceived MVPA and plank; “excelling” 
for PACER. Figures 1 and 2 present the 
distribution (%) of participants across the 
CAPL-2 interpretive categories for all the 
CAPL-2 scores. 
 
 
Table 1.  
Means, standard deviations for total PL, domain, and individual measures scores. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Legend: 
Total PL score, domain scores, individual measure (point or raw) scores. Maximum CAMSA point 
score is 28 points. For Self-perceived MVPA, daily PA, 20m PACER and plank raw scores are 
reported.  
aDB: Daily Behavior  
bMVPA: Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity 
cPC: Physical Competence 
dCAMSA: Canadian Agility and Movement Skill Assessment 
ePACER: Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run 
fM & C: Motivation & Confidence 
gK & U: Knowledge & Understanding 
 
 
N=101 M±SD 
DBa 13.42± 6.61 
Self-perceived MVPAb (days/week) 4.79±1.77 
Daily PA (steps/day) 8552.7± 3550.72 
PCc 18.98± 5.28 
CAMSAd (total score) 18.53± 4.07 
20m PACERe (laps) 31.99± 20.09 
Plank (sec) 94.95± 49.65 
M & Cf 26.22± 2.95 
K & Ug 6.37± 2.03 
Total PL 64.98± 11.67 
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Figure 1. Distribution (%) of participants across the CAPL-2 interpretive categories for total 
PL and domain scores (DB: Daily Behavior, PC: Physical Competence, M & C: Motivation 
and Confidence, K & U: Knowledge and Understanding).  
  
 
 
 
 
Figure 2. Distribution (%) of participants across the CAPL-2 interpretive categories for 
individual measure scores. 
 
Both independent variables; age 
(r=.458) and years of participation in 
gymnastics (r=.176), were significantly 
and positively correlated with the total PL 
score (p<.05). The regression model found 
to be statistically significant (F=13.626 
p<.05). The two independent variables 
predicted 21.8% (R2=.218) of the total PL 
variance. According to Beta coefficients, 
the effect of age was significant (t=4.834, 
b=.440, p=.0001), whereas the years of 
participation in gymnastics effect were not 
(t=.989, b=.090, p=.325).  
 
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DISCUSSION 
 
Nowadays, children, especially girls, 
do not demonstrate PA levels (Chen et al., 
2018; De Meester et al., 2016) and PL 
levels associated with sufficient health 
benefits (Kaioglou et al., 2020; Li et al., 
2020; Tremblay et al., 2018). Considering 
the gymnastics’ positive effect on 
developing certain PL elements, such as 
motor competence (Karachle, et al., 2017; 
Rudd et al., 2017), physical fitness 
(Lyulina et al., 2013; Trajković et al., 
2016) affective, cognitive (Baumgarten & 
Pagnano-Richardson, 2010; Flemons, 
2013) and social skills (Shamshiri et al., 
2013), this study attempted to get a 
glimpse of the PL journey of female 
recreational gymnasts to recognize areas of 
sufficient and insufficient development in 
their PL. Our main finding was that, 
although these girls, similarly to other 
same-age children worldwide, did not 
present an adequate PL level, their fitness 
was sufficiently developed and, most 
importantly, they were excessively 
motivated and confident for PA. 
Adversely, the rest of their PL elements, 
such as their motor competence, PA 
knowledge and daily participation in PA, 
were below the recommended levels, 
indicating the presence of some 
deficiencies in their PL development. Their 
age was positively associated with the total 
PL level; however, their previous 
engagement in gymnastics was not. 
Overall, it seems that participation in 
gymnastics, even at a recreational level, is 
important for enhancing several PL 
elements of female gymnasts; however, for 
developing the entire range of PL 
elements, the implementation of 
multicomponent gymnastics programs 
must be prioritized for them. 
Due to a lack of similar studies, our 
findings will be discussed in the light of 
the current PL literature. A comparison of 
female gymnasts with typical same-age 
children would give an idea about the 
possibility of gymnastics to contribute to 
the improvement of total PL and its 
elements. Up to the present, only a few 
studies have recorded children’s PL level; 
however, the information they add is 
indicative, as they represent populations of 
great cultural diversity. According to their 
findings, selected populations of Greek 
(Kaioglou et al., 2020), Canadian 
(Tremblay et al., 2018), Chinese (Li et al., 
2020), Kenyan (Tremblay et al., 2014), and 
Indonesian (Ramayudha, 2019) children, 
measured by the CAPL, are presenting 
“progressing” level, meaning that they are 
currently deprived of the health benefits 
associated with the recommended 
“achieving” and “excelling” PL levels 
(CAPL’s interpretation system; HALO, 
2017). It is interesting that girls in this 
study received higher average total PL 
score (65±11.7) than the above population 
samples (either considering only female 
samples, e.g., Greek: 61.3; Canadian: 62.2 
or mixed gender ones, e.g., Kenyan: 59.0, 
Indonesian: 58.27). However, regardless of 
their superiority in the total PL score, they 
are still classified as “progressing”, further 
confirming the insufficient PL level of 
children nowadays. The above finding 
suggests that girls’ PL can benefit from 
engaging in recreational gymnastics; 
nevertheless, it should not be ignored that 
they need additional support along their PL 
journey, similarly to other same-age 
children worldwide. 
With the aim of obtaining a more 
comprehensive picture about our female 
gymnasts’ PL status, it is useful to look 
closely at the development of their 
individual PL domains and elements. For 
the Physical Competence domain, although 
they were found to be “progressing” both 
for the entire domain and the measure of 
motor competence (CAMSA), they 
demonstrated sufficient fitness levels, as 
measured by the two fitness protocols 
(PACER and plank). The finding that 
gymnasts presented low motor competence 
level (83.2% of them were below the 
recommended level) is also confirmed by 
the study of Damiris et al. (2021) in which 
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same-age gymnasts were examined by the 
same motor assessment test. However, this 
is in contrast with the findings of other 
studies concerning girls, though non-
gymnasts (Khodaverdi, Bahram, Stodden, 
& Kazemnejad, 2016; Li et al., 2020; 
Tremblay et al., 2018). Our finding is quite 
unexpected, considering that participation 
in gymnastics is positively associated with 
the development of children’s motor 
competence (Karachle et al., 2017; Rudd et 
al., 2017). Attempting to critically interpret 
this outcome, we should keep in mind that 
some of the motor skills assessed by 
CAMSA, i.e., the object control skills, are 
not common in gymnastics’ practice. As 
such, although gymnasts, especially those 
participating in artistic gymnastics, 
adequately develop their locomotor skills 
through a variety of relative activities 
included in their practice, their object 
control skills are not similarly developed 
as they are given limited opportunities to 
do so in their practice (Šalaj, Milčić, & 
Šimunović, 2019). This is probably the 
reason why our female gymnasts 
performed low in this test. Importantly, 
given that motor competence is linked to 
girls’ PA participation (Venetsanou & 
Kambas, 2017), female gymnasts’ 
inadequate motor competence level found 
in this study should be an alarming issue. 
To make progress in this field, gymnastic 
programs offered to girls should not only 
target to improve gymnastics skills but also 
enhance skills such as catching, throwing, 
kicking (Šalaj et al., 2019). In essence, 
programs combining sport-specific 
practice with practice in a wide range of 
movement situations should be the best 
way ahead. 
On the other hand, commenting on the 
sufficient fitness levels that the female 
gymnasts of this study presented (65.3% 
and 74.2% were either “achieving” or 
“excelling” for PACER and plank, 
respectively), it should be mentioned that 
this outcome was anticipated for two 
reasons. Firstly, there is enough evidence 
to support the positive association between 
gymnastics and children’s fitness (Lyulina 
et al., 2013; Trajković et al., 2016), and 
secondly, a similar finding was also 
detected in another relative study 
concerning gymnasts (Damiris et al., 
2021). Considering that fitness fosters 
adoption of an active lifestyle (Chen & Gu, 
2018) and favors children’s overall PL 
development (Caldwell et al., 2020), it 
becomes clear that gymnasts are well 
equipped in that field. No doubt, this is not 
enough to help develop a physically 
literate child; however, fitness is an 
important element of the PL construct, and 
therefore it needs to be nurtured to actuate 
further improvements in PL.  
In reference to the Daily Behavior 
domain, our findings are underwhelming, 
describing a noticeably inactive 
population. Particularly for their daily PA, 
a considerably large number (85.2%) of 
them were found to present inadequate 
level, with recorded daily steps 
(8552±3550) far below the recommended 
PA guidelines for their age (i.e., 12000 
steps/day: Colley, Janssen, & Tremblay, 
2012). The insufficient PA level of 
gymnasts has been previously reported 
(Damiris et al., 2021).  What is more, the 
above finding is highlighted in several 
reports concerning children, especially 
girls, who have been found to be more 
inactive than boys (Chen et al., 2018; De 
Meester et al., 2016), implying that this 
population is in greater need for relative 
actions to promote their PA behavior.  
Regarding the Knowledge & 
Understanding domain, results similarly 
indicate that our female gymnasts did not 
display the recommended levels. This 
finding is common in most of the studies 
that recorded children’s PL (Kaioglou et 
al., 2020; Ramayudha, 2019; Tremblay et 
al., 2014); however, it is opposite to the 
findings of the relative Canadian study, 
which revealed that children acquire 
sufficient knowledge related to PA 
(Tremblay et al., 2018). A justification for 
this may be the fact that the CAPL 
knowledge questionnaire is designed 
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according to PE content taught in Canada 
and therefore children are familiar with it. 
To interpret the finding of our study, it can 
be assumed that the Greek PE curriculum 
is primarily focused on performance 
outcomes, putting limited emphasis on 
reinforcing knowledge related to lifelong 
PA participation (Karandaidou, 2005). 
Probably this is true for recreational 
programs, too; however, no research has 
examined the goals of such programs so 
far. Given that there is a positive 
relationship between PA knowledge and 
PA participation (Demetriou, Sudeck, 
Thiel, & Honer, 2015), the perspective of 
gymnastics programs in Greece and 
elsewhere should be more holistic, 
encompassing cognitive goals, too. 
Interestingly, contrary to the above 
unsatisfying findings, an impressive 
percentage of our female gymnasts 
(70.3%) demonstrated the highest level for 
the Motivation & Confidence domain, 
denoting girls’ desire, and self-assurance to 
participate in PA. Since most of the 
reference PL studies report opposite results 
(Ramayudha, 2019; Tremblay et al., 2014, 
2018), the above finding implies that 
recreational gymnastics is not just about 
learning sport techniques but is also an 
enjoyable experience for children, building 
commitment and positive attitudes towards 
PA (Cale, Waring, Webb, & Duncombe, 
2011). The feeling of enjoyment related to 
gymnastics’ participation is one of the 
reasons that parents enroll their children in 
such programs (Kurnik, Kajtna, Bedenik, 
& Kovac, 2013). Gymnasts’ high 
motivational levels are probably also 
related to the fact that they enjoy 
participating in activities which encourage 
the development of skills, such as 
creativity and interaction with peers 
(Baumgarten & Pagnano-Richardson, 
2010; Flemons, 2013), not to mention that 
they feel confident and competent 
engaging in such a challenging PA, which 
can be adjusted to their needs (Lulla, 
2011). Furthermore, the finding that girls 
adopt more positive attitudes towards 
gymnastics than boys (Cale et al., 2011) 
can further explain the excessive 
motivation that the participants of this 
study showed. Given that the affective 
elements of PL are thought to be essential 
for the interaction of elements within the 
PL construct (Whitehead, 2010), and that 
specifically children’s intrinsic motivation 
has been shown to be associated with their 
participation in PA (Sebire, Jago, Fox, 
Edwards, & Thompson, 2013), recreational 
gymnastics programs can be considered an 
effective means for triggering their PA and 
PL levels.  
In reference to the potential PL 
correlates examined in this study, it was 
revealed that during childhood the PL 
journey is positively influenced by age. 
The association of age with children’s 
(both boys’ and girls’) PL development is 
also supported in the literature (Kaioglou 
et al., 2020; Tremblay et al., 2018). As 
shown in the reference studies, the overall 
PL level increases with age mainly due to 
improvements in children’s motor 
competence and fitness (Kaioglou et al., 
2020; Tremblay et al., 2018). On the other 
hand, the number of years girls 
participated in gymnastic programs did not 
have a positive effect on their total PL 
level. Since this factor has not been 
previously examined, our finding cannot 
be easily interpreted. However, 
considering that participation in PA/sport 
during adolescence has been found to 
positively relate to adult’ PA engagement 
(Smith, Gardner, Aggio, & Hamer, 2015), 
it can be assumed that during childhood 
this effect is not as important as it can be 
later in life, Also, it should be noted that 
the specific information was obtained via 
children’s self-reports and was not verified 
by their parents/guardians.  
This study has its strengths and 
limitations. Referring to its strengths, this 
is the first study to have investigated the 
PL status of female recreational gymnasts, 
with the aim of detecting areas of 
sufficient and insufficient development on 
their PL journey, and thus to evaluate the 
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possibility of the specific PA to boost 
girls’ PL development. Furthermore, it 
expands the evolving PL research, 
contributing valuable information about 
the development of PL elements in 
childhood. Undoubtfully, the use of a valid 
and reliable PL tool, which addresses the 
entire PL construct (HALO, 2017), adds 
credibility to its results. On the other hand, 
although we should not ignore the 
significance of cross-sectional designs, 
given the everlasting nature of PL, 
longitudinal studies should be conducted in 
the future to better reflect gymnasts’ PL 
journey. Furthermore, since this study 
concerned only female gymnasts, gender is 
another factor that should be examined by 
future research. Additionally, future 
studies should focus on comparing 
different forms of gymnastics for their 
association with the PL development.  
The key message of this study is that 
participation in recreational gymnastics 
programs can be beneficial for girls, as it is 
associated with sufficient levels in 
important PL elements, such physical 
fitness and motivation and confidence for 
PA. Currently, their total PL level is not 
adequate; however, these girls are at the 
beginning of their PL journey, and they 
have ample time to develop the skills and 
characteristics needed as this journey 
proceeds. However, for this to be possible 
they should be encouraged to engage in 
gymnastics programs, which will be 
multidimensional in nature, focusing not 
only on physical but also affective, 
cognitive, and behavioral goals 
(Whitehead, 2010). 
 
CONCLUSION 
 
This is the first study that examined 
the PL status of female recreational 
gymnasts with the aim of recognizing areas 
of sufficient and insufficient development 
on their PL journey. Our main finding was 
that although these girls, similarly to other 
same-age children worldwide, did not 
present an adequate PL level, their fitness 
was sufficiently developed and, most 
importantly, they were excessively 
motivated and confident for PA. 
Conversely, the rest of their PL elements, 
such as their motor competence, PA 
knowledge and daily participation in PA 
were below the recommended levels, 
indicating the presence of some 
deficiencies in their PL development. Their 
age was positively associated with the total 
PL level; however, their previous 
engagement in gymnastics was not. 
Overall, it seems that participation in 
gymnastics, even at a recreational level, is 
important for enhancing several PL 
elements of female gymnasts; however, for 
developing the entire range of PL 
elements, the implementation of 
multicomponent gymnastics programs 
must be prioritized for them.  
 
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Corresponding author: 
Vasiliki Kaioglou 
National and Kapodistrian University of 
Athens, School of Physical Education and 
Sport Science 
Ethnikis Antistasis 41, 17237 Dafni, 
Greece 
Email: vkaio@phed.uoa.gr 
Tel.& fax: +6944967393 
 
Article received: 20.8.2021 
Article accepted: 7.12.2021 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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