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received: 2021-09-14                 DOI 10.19233/ASHS.2022.17
SLOVENIAN LITERATURE IN THE PROVINCES OF GORIZIA AND UDINE 
FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF TURBULENT HISTORICAL EVENTS
Ana TOROŠ
University of Nova Gorica, Vipavska 13, 5000 Nova Gorica, Slovenia
e-mail: ana.toros@ung.si
Neva MAKUC
Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Milko Kos Historical Institute, ZRC SAZU Research Station, 
Delpinova 12, 5000 Nova Gorica, Slovenia
e-mail: neva.makuc@zrc-sazu.si
ABSTRACT
This article discusses twentieth-century Slovenian literature in Italy, especially the provinces of Udine and 
Gorizia. Due to the complex developments of the twentieth century (i.e., wars, demarcation lines, borders, 
linguistic, ethnic, and other divisions, and an earthquake), every area of Slovenian literature in Italy (i.e., the 
provinces of Trieste, Gorizia, and Udine) was afflicted in its own way by suffering and disappointment. Taking 
into account the historical realities facilitates understanding the literary works themselves because every area 
of Slovenian literature in Italy has helped shape literary discourse in a different way. In addition, the message 
conveyed by this part of Slovenian literary discourse can be even better understood by considering contempo-
rary Friulian and Italian works in this area.
Keywords: Slovenian literature in Italy, province of Gorizia, Slavia Veneta, border, 20th century
LA LETTERATURA SLOVENA DELLE PROVINCE DI GORIZIA E DI UDINE ALLA LUCE 
DEI TURBOLENTI EVENTI STORICI
SINTESI
L’articolo tratta della letteratura slovena in Italia, soprattutto quella composta nelle province di Udine e 
di Gorizia nel Novecento. Prendendo in esame le complesse realtà storiche di un’area specifica è possibile 
comprendere meglio le opere letterarie, dato che ogni area ha elaborato – tramite i turbolenti avvenimenti 
storici del Novecento (guerre, linee di demarcazione, confini, divisioni linguistiche, etniche etc., terremoto) – il 
discorso letterario in modo differente. Inoltre, il messaggio di questa parte del discorso letterario sloveno può 
essere inteso in modo più approfondito se si include nell’analisi anche le opere scritte, in quel periodo e in quei 
territori, in friulano e in italiano.
Parole chiave: letteratura slovena in Italia, Goriziano, Slavia Veneta, confine, Novecento
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INTRODUCTION
In examining the past of today’s Slovenian–Italian 
border region, a great deal of attention is primarily 
dedicated to the turbulent events of the nineteenth and 
especially twentieth century, and not infrequently to 
the ethnic conflicts and violence that had a dramatic 
impact especially on the twentieth century.1 Borders or 
demarcation lines divided the population in this area 
on several occasions during that century. Unlike ethnic 
conflicts, life along the border has more or less been a 
historical constant in this region: it has characterized it 
for several centuries (Makuc, 2011; 2021). With regard 
to central Europe, the historical development of which 
differed from the situation in western Europe, Charles 
Ingrao stressed that before the rise of nineteenth-
-century nationalisms it had been characterized by a 
symbiosis of languages and peoples. Because central 
Europe has a multiethnic past, it is key to approach 
this history with a shared interpretation, and not one 
that focuses on only one ethnic group (Ingrao, 2004, 
144–157).2
The situation changed dramatically in the ninete-
enth century with the rise of various nationalisms in the 
region. The divisions became increasingly deeper and 
were tainted with stereotypes.3 The twentieth century 
was full of turbulent events (i.e., the First and Second 
World Wars, demarcation lines, borders, ideological, 
linguistic, ethnic and other divisions, etc.), and all of 
this affected the lives, feelings, and historical memori-
es of the population.4
This article discusses Slovenian literature5 produ-
ced on the Italian side of the Slovenian–Italian border, 
specifically in Slavia Veneta with Resia6 and in the 
province of Gorizia (both areas are now part of the 
Italian region of Friuli Venezia Giulia). This is an area 
1 The authors acknowledge financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding Basic Research of Slovene Cul-
tural Past, no. P6-0052, and for the research program Historical Interpretations of the 20th Century, P6-0347). Special thanks to Simona 
Lapanja Debevc, and Donald F. Reindl for their translation into English.
2 In Slovenian historiography, attention has already been drawn to overcoming “nationally-focused border history” (Marta Verginella) by 
certain authors studying the Slovenian–Italian border area: Rutar, 2005, 241–254; Panjek, 2006, 9–28; 2011, 11–29; Verginella, 2010, 
207–216; Rožac Darovec, 2010, 217–228; Bajc, 2017, 835, and others.
3 For more on this, see, for example, Verginella (2009, 11–18; 2016, 705–720; 2017, 457–472).
4 For more on this, see Širok (2012), who analyses the historical memories and narratives of the population in the border area of Gorizia 
regarding the events in the 1940s.
5 Because of the complexity of the collective consciousness in the border territory, especially Slavia Veneta (Sln. Beneška Slovenija), the 
term “Slovenian literature” is used here rather than “literature of the Slovenians.” In this way, literature in both standard Slovenian and 
dialect is covered, while intentionally leaving aside the issue of (self-)identification of its authors.
6 In the province of Udine, Slovenian is also spoken in the Canale Valley (Zuljan Kumar, 2018).
7 Over the past decades, Slovenian literature in Italy has been studied in depth by Miran Košuta, Marija Pirjevec, Jadranka Cergol, David 
Bandelj, Roberto Dapit, and others.
8 Italy used the term “demarcation line” until the Treaty of Osimo (1975). With the Memorandum of London (1954), Yugoslavia interpreted 
it as a state border (Šušmelj, 2005, 309–316).
9 Giorgio Valussi described the Slovenians in Italy as a “historical or traditional minority” (minoranza storica o tradizionale) because they 
have been present in the border territory since the early Middle Ages. In addition, the population also has characteristics of a “border 
ethnic minority” (minoranza nazionale di frontiera) (Valussi 1974, 28–29).
10 Today Slovenian identity, language, and culture are not homogeneous concepts because they are characterized by “internal identity 
disconnects, such as local identities among members of the Slovenian minority in Italy” (Vidau, 2014, 77). In the province of Udine, only 
a portion of the population identifies itself as being part of the Slovenian minority (Vidau, 2014, 77).
where various languages and dialects have intersected 
for centuries. Especially over the past centuries, it has 
been defined by dynamic political developments and 
divisions that have also had a significant impact on 
local book production. In this regard, a closer look is 
taken at the term “Slovenian literature in Italy.” This is 
an umbrella term for literature in standard Slovenian 
or Slovenian dialects in this area, whereby it should 
be noted that it is not produced within a single lite-
rary system of the Slovenian community in Italy.7 The 
basis for this is the examination of book production 
in a chain of interconnected factors within a literary 
system, from literary production (the author’s cultural, 
political, and economic conditions) to literary media-
tion (mediators’ motivation, political relations, and so 
on), reception, and processing (Dović, 2004).
THE DIVERSITY OF SLOVENIAN LITERATURE IN 
ITALY
The term “Slovenian literature in Italy” is histo-
rically conditioned, and it came into being after 
the establishment of the border8 between Italy and 
Yugoslavia following the Second World War. From 
the perspective of literary history, the term facilitates 
the examination of Slovenian literary production that 
has been generated in Italy for several decades and, 
consequently, has somewhat different literary features 
resulting from the minority status of the literature 
produced (i.e., the assertion of the community’s iden-
tity through literature).9 On the other hand, the term 
covers various literary environments (i.e., the Trieste, 
Gorizia, and Udine literary areas) and their appertai-
ning literary centers (i.e., Trieste, Gorizia, and Udine 
with Cividale del Friuli).10 Nonetheless, in places the 
term “Slovenian literature in Italy” is considered equal 
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to “Trieste literature.” For example, such a perception 
can be found in Jože Pogačnik’s Književnost v zamej-
stvu in zdomstvu (Literature in Neighboring Countries 
and Overseas) (Pogačnik, 2001, 374) or Vilma Purič’s 
Sodobne tržaške pesnice (Contemporary Trieste Fema-
le Poets) (Purič, 2018). The latter examines both the 
female poets living in the province of Trieste and those 
from the provinces of Gorizia and Udine. Alongside 
this, the term “Trieste literature” is also commonly 
used in a spatially more defined sense for literature 
by authors from Trieste and the wider Trieste area, 
excluding literature by authors from the provinces of 
Gorizia and Udine. Attention below is dedicated to 
the special literary features of Slovenian literature in 
the provinces of Gorizia and Udine, which differs from 
Slovenian literature in Trieste. Therefore, it makes 
sense to limit the term “Trieste literature” to the Trieste 
area only.
First of all, Slovenian literary production in Friuli 
Venezia Giulia should be viewed from the perspective 
of the meeting points of various literary systems in 
the region: namely, Slovenian literary production has 
arisen in contact with the Italian and Friulian literary 
systems. However, some distinctions should also be 
made at this level. In Trieste, Slovenian and Italian lite-
ratures were distinctly opposing. At the symbolic level, 
it can be said that they were in constant conflict dialog 
with one another because even in literalizing the same 
parts of Trieste and its surrounding area they interpret 
them differently or even the opposite way. The anti-
-Slovenian discourse of Italian Trieste literature found 
its echo in interwar Slovenian Trieste literature, which 
drew attention to aggression, usually through allusi-
ons, symbols, metonymy, and other rhetorical devices 
that indirectly pointed to what was going on in the 
Trieste area.11 During the interwar period, the Italian 
literary discourse in the provinces of Gorizia and Udi-
ne was not as mass produced and anti-Slovenian as in 
Trieste, and the Slovenian literary production in these 
areas was also not as productive as in the Trieste area. 
The prelude to this is also important: in the decades 
leading up to the First World War, large-scale literary 
production of the Italian minority in cosmopolitan 
central European Habsburg Trieste agreed with its 
minority’s political and economic goals, which found 
strong support in literary discourse.
11 For more, see Toroš (2011).
12 See, for example, Marušič (1975, 101–106; 1986, 33–36); Ferluga Petronio (2003, 255–261); Dapit (2008); Toroš (2017, 386–396); 
Zanello (2020, 171–188), and others.
13 For example, the contacts between Ivan Trinko (1863–1954) and the important Friulian poet Giuseppe Ellero (1866–1925), born in Tri-
cesimo, indicate an amicable relationship. In addition, in his poem “Slavia” published in 1904 in the weekly Cittadino italiano (Udine), 
Ellero praised the Slavs for building a better future (Ferluga Petronio, 2003, 255–261).
14 The modern term “Slavia Veneta” refers to the area of both the Natisone and Torre valleys, which means it covers a larger territory than 
the early modern Schiavonia (Veneta) (Beguš, 2015, 11). For more on the various names for this area, see Dapit (1995, 9) and Valussi 
(1974, 72–74). For more on the various names used for Slovenians in the province of Udine, see Marušič (2019a, 32).
15 For example, to protect the population’s language, in 1738 the Republic of Venice decreed that the curates there had to speak the local 
language (lingua schiavona) (Salimbeni, 1977, 71).
16 For new findings about this (First) Memorandum of London preserved in London and its designations, see Bajc (2017, 836–842).
In this regard, it should be noted that the Slovenian 
population in the provinces of Gorizia and Udine was 
in contact with the Friulian environment. During the 
nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Slovenian–Friulian 
cultural contacts were not yet examined comprehensi-
vely, but based on studies to date12 it can be nonethe-
less assumed that the Slovenian and Friulian literary 
discourses (in Friulian) were not in strong opposition 
to each another.13
BORDERS AND DIVISIONS OF THE SLOVENIAN–
ITALIAN BORDER TERRITORY
The border territory in question has been charac-
terized by various borders and administrative systems. 
Slavia Veneta, also called Slavia Friulana (Sln. Bene-
ška Slovenija or Benečija), was part of the Republic of 
Venice from 1420 until its dissolution in 1797.14 The 
population there was autonomous and enjoyed special 
privileges for protecting the area along the border. 
Therefore, it was very favorably inclined toward the 
Republic of Venice. Because of its remote location, it 
preserved its own customs, language, and so on.15 In 
1866, the Udine area, Slavia Veneta, and Resia were 
annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. In the interim, for 
a while Slavia Veneta also belonged to the Habsburg 
Monarchy, which deprived it of its former rights and 
imposed taxes on it (Salimbeni, 1977, 71).
In turn, both the Gorizia and Trieste areas were 
under Habsburg Rule nearly uninterruptedly for seve-
ral centuries, up until the end of the First World War. 
The Isonzo Front, which developed after the London 
Memorandum16 signed on April 26th, 1915, and Italy‘s 
entry into the war, provided the population with, 
among other things, a “framework of shared suffering 
manifested in various ways, beginning with the front, 
which spread to all corners of civilian life” (Svoljšak, 
2012, 80). Gorizia, which at that point found itself on 
the very front line, inspired poetry, which, for exam-
ple, comes to the fore in the anonymous Italian song 
“Gorizia tu sei maledetta” (Gorizia, You Are Cursed), 
inspired by a strong antiwar sentiment (Svoljšak, 2012, 
80–81).
In accordance with the Treaty of Rapallo signed in 
1920, the Gorizia and Trieste areas were annexed to 
the Kingdom of Italy. The border between the King-
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dom of Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and 
Slovenes was met with disappointment on both sides 
of the new border. It led to new divisions and conflicts 
in the border territory (Bajc, 2017, 827). Already af-
ter the war, a period of severe ethnic conflict began 
in Venezia Giulia,17 with an “explosion of Adriatic 
nationalism (esplosione del nazionalismo adriatico) 
(Valussi, 1974, 31). Under Fascism, the oppression of 
the Slovenian population in Venezia Giulia was very 
severe, followed by the tragic events of the Second 
World War, which brought along new divisions and 
violent conflicts among the people. After the war, a 
demarcation line ran across this territory, which, ba-
sed on the agreement signed in Belgrade on June 9th, 
1945, divided it into Zones A and B (i.e., the Morgan 
Line). Life was made difficult by the unclear location 
of the border (Marušič, 1998, 277). In 1946, the So-
viet Union accepted the French proposal of “ethnic 
balance” in this area, according to which the border 
would separate two minorities of approximately the 
same size. In addition, a smaller state covering an 
ethnically mixed area was to be formed. On July 3rd, 
1946, the Free Territory of Trieste was established, but 
it satisfied neither the Yugoslav nor Italian aspirations 
(Kacin-Wohinz & Pirjevec, 2000, 119).
On September 15th, 1947, a “new border” divi-
ded the Gorizia area and its population. The two 
neighboring countries were not happy with its course 
(Marušič, 1998, 271–284). In the Gorizia area, it 
“dramatically encroached upon territory that had been 
politically, culturally, and economically homogeneous 
for centuries” (Kacin-Wohinz & Pirjevec, 2000, 121). 
The population was dissatisfied with the new postwar 
division of the territory between Italy and Yugoslavia 
because the border divided the once-homogeneous 
province of Gorizia and, among other things, it also 
separated Gorizia from the surrounding countryside 
(Šušmelj, 2004, 291–292; 2005, 308; Bufon, 2005, 
345; Širok, 2012, 155–159).
The Trieste issue remained acute. The (Second) 
Memorandum of London18 of October 5th, 1954, 
allocated Zone A of the Free Territory of Trieste to Italy 
and Zone B to Yugoslavia, introducing certain changes 
in the border to the benefit of Yugoslavia. The Special 
Statute annexed to the memorandum defined the ri-
ghts of both minorities, but there was still a long way 
to respecting these rights in practice (Kacin-Wohinz 
& Pirjevec, 2000, 140). The legal interpretation of 
17 The name Venezia Giulia (Sln. Julijska krajina or Julijska Benečija) refers to the territory of Austria-Hungary that was annexed to Italy after 
the First World War. It included the former County of Gorizia and Gradisca, Istria with Trieste, part of Inner Carniola and Carinthia, Cres, 
Lošinj, and later Rijeka (Pelikan, 2002, 14).
18 On its denomination, see Bajc (2017, 842).
19 In the Gorizia area, the conditions for school instruction in Slovenian were slightly more favorable. Slovenian-language primary schools 
had been promoted since 1848, but there were no public Slovenian-language primary schools. Instead, private Slovenian-language 
preschools, primary schools, and trade schools were introduced in the 1880s and 1890s (Devetak, 2020, 361–370).
20 Fulvio Salimbeni attributes this poem to Peter Podreka (1822–1889). These lines have also been translated into Italian: “Carissima Italia, 
patria mia molto amata / fino alla mia ultima ora io ti amerò” (Salimbeni, 1977, 75).
the Slovenian population in the provinces of Trieste, 
Gorizia, and Udine varied (Valussi, 1974, 33–34). All 
these turbulent developments were accompanied by 
various population movements in the wider border ter-
ritory. On November 10th, 1975, the Yugoslav–Italian 
border was definitively confirmed through the Treaty 
of Osimo (Kacin-Wohinz & Pirjevec, 2000, 151–152).
SLOVENIAN LITERATURE IN SLAVIA VENETA AND 
RESIA, AND TURBULENT HISTORICAL EVENTS
Historical watersheds also influenced the specific 
nature of Slovenian literature in the province of Udi-
ne, which had traditionally been under the influence 
of Romance culture and mostly part of states with a 
majority Romance-speaking population (i.e., the Re-
public of Venice and then Italy). This area was thus not 
part of cultural milieus as established in the Gorizia 
and Trieste areas, which were under Habsburg rule 
for several centuries. In addition, Slovenian-language 
school instruction was not provided for the Slovenian-
-speaking population there.19 Due to its geographical 
characteristics (i.e., hilly terrain that was difficult to 
traverse), Slavia Veneta and Resia were separated from 
other centers of Slovenian culture, where, during the 
nineteenth-century rise of national movements, Slove-
nian identity also gradually began to be established.
In Slavia Veneta and Resia, the situation was sligh-
tly different, which was also reflected in the plebiscite 
of October 21st and 22nd, 1866. Nearly all the resi-
dents agreed with annexation to Italy (Marušič, 1985, 
55–67; 2003, 9). The border was definitively agreed 
upon in Venice on December 22nd, 1867 (Devetak, 
2019, 53). As highlighted by Branko Marušič, the 
Slovenian-speaking population in this area had fond 
memories of the former Republic of Venice and also 
associated it with the Italian Risorgimento, which is 
why it was ill-disposed toward the Habsburg Monar-
chy. The following verses were created in the Natisone 
Valleys in 1848 and 1849, expressing a fondness for 
Italy: “Predraga Italija / Preljubi moj dom / Do zadnje 
moje ure / Jest ljubu te bom” (Dear Italy, / My beloved 
home, / Until my last hour, / I’ll love you; Marušič, 
2019a, 38).20
After this area passed to the Kingdom of Italy, which 
was ruled by the House of Savoy, a period of efforts to 
form a monoethnic state and assimilate the non-Italian 
speaking population followed (Kacin-Wohinz & Pirje-
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vec, 2000, 17–19). A policy of Italianizing the residents 
of Slavia Veneta began (Salimbeni, 1977, 73–83). Some 
Slovenian priests played an important role in asserting 
Slovenian national sentiments in Slavia Veneta. In the 
nineteenth century, Jožef Podreka (a.k.a. Podrieka; 
1822–1886)21 and Peter Podreka (1822–1889)22 from 
San Pietro al Natisone, and Ivan Obala (1824–1898) 
from Mersino engaged in Slovenian literary producti-
on in Slavia Veneta. Peter Podreka’s poetry expressed 
his “dual” identity: “Prebivam na Laškim / Sim rojen 
Taljan, / Izviram z Slavljanstva / Bom vedno Slavljan” 
(I live in Italy, / was born an Italian, / I have Slavic 
origins, / I will always be a Slav; (Marušič, 2019a, 38; 
2019b, 10–14).
A special role was played by the priest, cultural 
figure, and man of letters Ivan Trinko (1863–1954), 
born in Tercimonte (Ferluga-Petronio, 1984; Dapit et 
al., 2006).23 He was one of the “Slovenian national 
awakening movement figures from the second half of 
the nineteenth and first decades of the twentieth cen-
tury covering a very wide range activities” (Marušič, 
2006, 42–43). He also played the role of a mediator 
because it was through him that Slovenians, as well 
as Russians, Poles, and Czechs, learned more about 
Slavia Veneta. Trinko made an effort to write his 
poems in Slovenian, but unfortunately they received 
severe criticism in central Slovenia, especially from 
Anton Medved (1869–1910), a priest and poet born in 
Kamnik.24 The criticism was directed at certain defici-
encies in his linguistic expression (Ferluga Petronio, 
1984, 12–14, 38; 2003, 257).25 Trinko did not learn 
standard Slovenian at school,26 but started learning 
this language, which was different from the dialect he 
knew from home, on his own as a teenager. However, 
the poet Simon Gregorčič, who shared Trinko’s fate of 
living in the border territory, albeit on the other side of 
the border, encouraged him to write poems in Slove-
nian (Ferluga-Petronio, 1984, 9–54). In Slavia Veneta, 
Trinko and many other priests played the key role in 
preserving Slovenian during the interwar period, when 
it was prohibited from schools and public life. In con-
nection with this, the writer France Bevk (1890–1970) 
from the Gorizia area wrote the novel Kaplan Martin 
Čedermac (The Curate Martin Čedermac, 1938), in 
which the main character, Martin Čedermac, fights to 
21 For more on Jožef Podreka, see Stanonik & Brenk (2008, 865).
22 For more on Peter Podreka, see Pirjevec & Andrejka (1949, 9–11); Stanonik & Brenk (2008, 865).
23 A literary-historical overview of Slovenian poetry in the Natisone Valleys is provided in the bachelor’s thesis by Anita Bergnach 
(Bergnach, 1996).
24 For more on Medved, see Lukman (1933, 78–79).
25 For more on how familiar Slovenians in the Habsburg hereditary lands were with Slavia Veneta, see Marušič (2019a, 31–44).
26 After the annexation (in 1866), school instruction in Slavia Veneta was conducted only in Italian (Marušič 2004, 41). In the areas 
of Gorizia, Trieste, and Istria, on the other hand, the Slovenian education system made progress until the First World War (Bajc & 
Pelikan, 2004, 62–63).
27 Among other things, soon after the adoption of Giovanni Gentile’s school reform (1923), Slovenian was driven out of the schools. 
Slovenian teachers were fired, displaced, and so on. However, children could learn Slovenian via religious education classes 
(Pelikan, 2002, 112–113, 230).
28 On this see, for example, Bajc & Pelikan (2004, 59–92); Marušič (2004, 33–44).
preserve his right to hold mass in Slovenian. Based on 
this novel, the Slovenian priests that strove to preserve 
the use of Slovenian in Slavia Veneta are often refer-
red to in Slovenian as čedermaci (i.e., ‘Čedermaces’; 
Cencič, 2008, 145–156; Banchig, 2008, 165–173). 
Slovenian priests’ efforts to preserve Slovenian identity 
in Venezia Giulia during the interwar period were in 
fact very demanding and complex (Pelikan, 2002).27
The situation in the province of Udine after the 
Second World War is summarized in a report by the 
Slovenian–Italian Historical and Cultural Committee: 
More difficult was the situation for Slovenes in 
the Valleys of Natisone, Torre and Resia and the 
Canal Valley, since they were never recognised 
as a national minority by the authorities; there-
fore, they were refused the right to instruction 
in their mother tongue and to use of the mother 
tongue in their dealings with the authorities 
(Slovensko-italijanski odnosi, 2001, 153). 
A painful experience of the assimilation pressures28 
in this region after the war is revealed at the symbolic 
level in the poem “Pustita nam rože po naše sadit” (Let 
Us Plant Our Flowers Our Own Way) by an important 
cultural figure in Slavia Veneta, Aldo Clodig (1945–
2015), born in Grimacco (Kragelj, 1993, 519). Clodig 
strove for Slovenian language and culture to become 
strongly rooted in the local environment, especially 
among young people. He believed that one’s love for 
tradition was part of living cultural heritage and that 
it also had to be continually renewed and developed. 
He wrote poetry, and in 2009 he published the poetry 
collection Duhuor an luna (The Owl and the Moon). 
He also published his poems in the anthology Besiede 
tele zemlje (The Words of This Land, 2004), Slavia 
dilecta (Beloved Slavia, 2004), Trinkov koledar (Trinko 
Almanac), and the volume V nebu luna plava (The 
Moon Floats in the Sky, 2007). In addition, he wrote 
the book Čez namišljeno črto (Across the Imaginary 
Line; on the tenth anniversary of the hike that bears 
the same name) and a book about the village of Costne 
(Toroš et al., 2019, 30; Kragelj, 1993, 519).
The symbolic meaning of the poem “Pustita nam 
rože po naše sadit” (Let Us Plant Our Flowers Our 
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Own Way) comes to the fore in the following lines. 
“Pustita nam piet takuo, k’ nam je všeč, / guorit an 
uekat, pisat an še brat / po tistim jiziku, ki mat na 
zibiel / z vso nje ljubeznijo navadla nas je” (Let us 
sing the way we like, / Speak and cry, write and read 
/ In the language that our mother / Taught us with all 
her love at the cradle; Clodig, 2009, 32). For many 
years (1983–2012), “Pustita nam rože” was also used 
as the title of volumes of the music festival Senjam 
beneške piesmi (Festival of Venetian Slovenian Songs), 
which shows the semantic weight of these three words 
in Slavia Veneta or demonstrates the exceptional im-
portance of preserving linguistic and cultural identity 
for this community. Clodig wrote this poem in the 
dialect used in the Natisone Valleys. Due to the poli-
tical situation and their geographical isolation, Slavia 
Veneta and Resia developed unique regional identities 
with their own regional language (a Slovenian dialect) 
(Dapit, 2003, 301–312), which also predominates in 
literary production. Most literary works are created in 
one of the local Slovenian dialects (i.e., the Natisone, 
Torre, or Resian dialects). As highlighted by Marija 
Pirjevec, the importance of writing poems in dialect 
has recently been growing in Slavia Veneta and Resia. 
Among other things, this has also been contributed 
to by the increasingly positive view of dialect poetry 
(Pirjevec, 2002, 43–44).
In the 1970s, the situation for the Slovenian po-
pulation gradually improved (Troha, 2004, 151–152). 
Regarding standard Slovenian, it is worth noting that 
there were no Slovenian-language schools in the pro-
vince of Udine up until the 1980s. Since then (1984), a 
bilingual primary school has operated in San Pietro al 
Natisone. According to Danila Zuljan Kumar, today’s 
residents of Slavia Veneta have significantly more 
options available to learn standard Slovenian than in 
the past, and in recent years there have been changes 
in the discursive practices of the local speakers. The 
use of Slovenian is also becoming common in the 
public informal sphere, but in the past Slovenian was 
used only in the private sphere (Zuljan Kumar, 2016, 
13–16; Zuljan Kumar, 2018, 143–153). Since 2001, 
the Slovenian population in the province of Udine, 
just like the Friulian, has been protected by a special 
law that safeguards historical linguistic minorities 
(Decreto, 2001). It is important to emphasize that until 
2001 there was no unified protection of the Slovenian 
population of Friuli Venezia Giulia, but there were dif-
ferent situations in various areas of the region (Troha, 
2004, 145).
The topics of Slovenian literary works in Resia 
and Slavia Veneta are usually connected with life 
in the local area, existential attachment to one’s 
homeland, the pressing issue of out-migration due to 
unfavorable economic and political conditions, and 
29 On the problem of emigration from Slavia Veneta, see also, for example, Ruttar (2015, 65–71; 2018, 165–169).
the subsequent problem of nearly empty villages, 
which inevitably also indicate a slow disappearance 
of the local culture. In addition, it should be noted 
that Slovenian speakers have traditionally settled at 
higher elevations of three poorly connected valleys: 
the Natisone, Torre, and Resia valleys. This differs 
from the Trieste region, where literature is domi-
nated by images of the sea and karst landscape. In 
the province of Udine, the authors incorporate the 
local hilly landscape in their works via personified 
mountains, rivers, and mythological heroes, who 
constitute part of the extensive local folk tradition. 
In addition, a prominent topic is also the emigration 
of Slovenians from Slavia Veneta, whose population 
declined heavily during the twentieth century. After 
the First World War, the local population moved to 
urban centers, mining towns in Belgium and France, 
the US, and so on, which diminished the Slovenian 
community in Italy (Škvor, 2005, 35–60; Kalc, 2009, 
37–46).29 During that period, emigration from Resia 
was even stronger than from Slavia Veneta, where 
it accelerated after the Second World War. People 
primarily moved to other European countries and 
overseas, and later also to economically well-deve-
loped towns in northern Italy or to the Friulian Plain 
(Kalc et al., 2008, 8–15).
Worth highlighting in this regard are two excerpts 
from two poems by the politician, cultural figure, 
and teacher Viljem Černo (a.k.a. Guglielmo Cerno; 
1937–2017), born in Lusevera in the Torre Valley 
(Pipan, 2019; Bandelj, 2009, 352–353; Klinec, 1976, 
236). Černo wrote his poems in the Torre Valley di-
alect, whereby he was very sensitive in selecting his 
poetic language: he searched for nearly extinct dialect 
words for specific objects or concepts associated with 
life in the Torre Valley among the elderly residents of 
nearby villages, thus enshrining them in verse (Toroš 
et al., 2019, 10). In his poem “Sveta si, zemlja” (Land, 
You Are Holy), Černo verbalizes the hardship caused 
by assimilation pressures (“Nan še kradejo dušo” ‘Are 
they still stealing our souls’), which, however, is only 
indirectly indicated due to the politically unfavorable 
situation for the Slovenian population in the province of 
Udine after the Second World War. In addition, Černo’s 
poems primarily aimed to support the local community, 
which lived in the situation in question and hence did 
not need any further context to understand a “coded” 
message. In his second poem, “Ter” (The Torre), titled 
after the personified Torre River, the poet remembers 
all the people in the Torre Valley that were forced to 
emigrate because of unfavorable living conditions (“se 
zlivaš med krasi Muzca, / de reš naprouti tvojin sinan, 
/ ki so raztreseni po svietu” ‘Flow from under the rocks 
of Mount Musi / Toward your children / Scattered all 
over the world’).
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Viljem Černo
“Sveta si, zemlja” 
(excerpt)
Upivamo dušo njiu,
čujemo urisk planin,
božamo ritam rok
anu ráman.
Se zbujamo od 
spanja?
Al se naša besieda 
suši?
Sveta si, zemja,
ki daješ siena
anu otave,
ki zdraviš
razpuokano roko,
ki rosiš
posušeno sárce!
So šenjé trudne naše 
noe?
Nan še kradejo dušo?
(Černo, 2013a, 
16–17)
Dušo naših polj 
vsrkavamo,
do nas prihaja glas 
planinskih pašnikov,
ljubkujemo spet ritem 
svojih rok,
ramen.
Se mar prebujamo 
iz sna?
Ali pa usiha v nas 
beseda?
Sveta si, zemlja,
ki sena nam daješ
in otave,
ki pozdraviš
razorano roko,
ki z roso izsušeno
nam srce namočiš!
So naše noge še 
utrujene?
Nam dušo kradejo še 
zmerom?
(Černo 2013a, 16–17; 
standard Slovenian 
translation by Ciril 
Zlobec)
Viljem Černo
“Land, You Are Holy” 
(excerpt)
We drink in the soul 
of our fields,
The sound of 
mountain pastures 
comes to us,
Caressing yet again 
the rhythm of our 
hands
And shoulders.
Are we awakening 
from our sleep?
Or is our word drying 
up inside us?
Land, you are holy,
You give us hay
Early and late,
You heal
Our worn hands,
Your dew moistens
Our dried-out hearts!
Are our feet still tired?
Are they still stealing 
our souls?
Viljem Černo
“Ter” (excerpt)
Koranina naše žeje,
zviéralo, ki poje,
se zlivaš med krasi 
Muzca,
de reš naprouti tvojin 
sinan,
ki so raztreseni po 
svietu
s tómo
nad striehami.
(Černo, 2013b, 
12‒13)
Korenina naše žeje,
v molitev zbran 
studenec,
teci izpod muških 
skal
naproti svojim 
otrokom,
raztepenim po vsem 
svetu,
z večerom
nizko iznad streh.
(Černo, 2013a, 
12‒13; standard 
Slovenian translation 
by Ciril Zlobec)
Viljem Černo
“The Torre” (excerpt)
Root of our thirst,
Spring gathered in 
prayer,
Flow from under the 
rocks of Mount Musi
Toward your children
Scattered all over the 
world,
With the evening 
lying
Low above the roofs.
Literature in the province of Udine, especially 
in Resia, has also been influenced by the severe 
earthquake of 1976. On May 6th that year, the Ita-
lian–Slovenian border region was affected by a de-
structive earthquake with an epicenter near Gemona 
30 Translation by Marija Pirjevec into standard Slovenian: “Stare, lepe vasice, / kam je šel vaš glas? / Same ležite, / do smrti zadete, / 
komaj še dihate” (Paletti, 2003, 32–33). Silvana Paletti writes poetry not only in the Resian dialect, but also in Friulian and Italian 
(Pirjevec, 2002, 44).
del Friuli in Italy. It claimed nearly a thousand lives 
and was followed by a series of aftershocks. Several 
villages in Friuli and Slovenia’s Soča Valley, such 
as Artegna and Breginj, were destroyed. Slavia Ve-
neta was also severely affected (e.g., the villages of 
Lusevera, Cesariis, and Pers; Ribarič 1980, 40–51). 
Some authors, including the Resian poet and writer 
Silvana Paletti, born in Prato in 1947 (Stanonik & 
Brenk, 2008, 795; Bandelj, 2009, 358), began wri-
ting poems after this tragic event, most likely in the 
desire for the area to at least retain in literature the 
life that disappeared in front of its people’s eyes in 
just a matter of seconds: “Stare lipe vasïce, / kam šyl 
wäš glas, / same ližïta, / wdarjane na smärti, / kumüj 
težita düšo” (Pretty old villages, / Where did your 
voice disappear, / You lie alone, / Struck to death, / 
Barely breathing; Paletti, 2003, 32–33).30 The Resian 
poet Renato Quaglia, born in Stolvizza in 1941, also 
wrote about the tragic earthquake (Stanonik & Brenk, 
2008, 920; Bandelj, 2009, 353–354). In 1985, he 
published the collection of poetry Baside (Words), 
which already indicates the importance of local 
language in its title and for which Quaglia received 
the Prešeren Fund Award.
Renato Quaglia
“Potres” (excerpt)
Gorko to bilo žvečara
ko zemlja se potresala
ko gore so se cipile
nu hiše so spaduwale
(Quaglia, 1985, 48)
Bilo je vroče ta večer
ko se je zemlja 
stresala
ko so se gore trgale
in hiše so razpadale
(Quaglia, 1985, 49; 
standard Slovenian 
translation by Marko 
Kravos)
Renato Quaglia
“Earthquake” (excerpt)
It was hot that night
When the earth shook,
When the mountains 
were rent
And the houses 
crumbled.
Viljem Černo, Silvana Paletti, and Renato Quaglia 
are not the only poets from the province of Udine 
that have broached the issue of migration, complex 
identity, and the earthquake in this area. Similar 
experiences can also be traced in Friulian poetry, 
such as in the poem “Las valîs di un emigrant” (An 
Emigrant’s Baggage) by the Friulian poet and writer 
Leonardo Zanier (1935–2017), born in Maranzanis. 
Zanier also experienced emigration himself (Pelle-
grini, 2016). In this poem, he expresses the deep 
existential crisis of an emigrant (“ch’a nol va par vivi 
ma par no murî” ‘he is not leaving to survive, he is 
leaving not to die’).
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Leonardo Zanier
“Las valîs di un 
emigrant”
las valîs di un emigrant
no an peçots denti
ma sperança
e sperança las sôs 
mans
ma sôl las primas 
voltas
dopo il so non:
emigrant
al deventa il so mistîr
e al impara ch’a nol va 
par vivi
ma par no murî
(Zanier, 2003, 44)
Leonardo Zanier
“Prtljaga migranta”
prtljaga migranta
ne nosi oblačil,
nosi upanje
njegove roke so 
upanje,
a samo prvič,
potem njegovo ime:
migrant
postane njegov poklic
in zave se, da ne 
odhaja, zato da bi 
preživel, odhaja, da 
ne bi umrl
(Zanier, 2019b, 26; 
Slovenian translation 
by Dana Čandek)
Leonardo Zanier
“An Emigrant’s 
Baggage”
An emigrant’s baggage
Does not carry clothes,
It carries hope,
His hands are hope,
But only the first time,
Afterward his name:
Emigrant
Becomes his 
profession
And he realizes he is 
not leaving to survive, 
he is leaving not to 
die.
Also worthy of mention is Zanier’s poem “Identitât” 
(Identity), in which he problematizes the issue of natio-
nal and regional identity in relation to another culture, 
drawing attention to the nonsense of ethnic conflicts.
Leonardo Zanier
“Identitât” (excerpt)
ma l’identitât ce êse?
a dîli in curt e duta:
che s’ì fos su Marte
mi sintares cjericul
e co soi in Africa
mi sint European
co soi in Portugal 
talian
co soi a Roma furlan
co soi a Udin cjargnel
(Zanier, 1997, 62)
Leonardo Zanier
“Identiteta” (excerpt)
kaj pa je identiteta?
kratko in jedrnato:
na Marsu
bi se čutil Zemljana
ko sem v Afriki
sem Evropejec
na Portugalskem 
Italijan
v Rimu Furlan
v Vidmu Karnijec
(Zanier, 2019a, 31; 
Slovenian translation 
by Živa Gruden)
Leonardo Zanier
“Identity” (excerpt)
What is identity even?
In a nutshell:
On Mars
I would feel myself an 
Earthling,
When I’m in Africa,
I’m a European,
In Portugal I’m an 
Italian,
In Rome a Friulian,
in Udine a Carnian
SLOVENIAN LITERATURE IN THE PROVINCE OF 
GORIZIA AND TURBULENT HISTORICAL EVENTS
Similar thematic meeting points and overlapping 
can also be observed in the Gorizia area, such as in the 
poetic experience of Gorizia during the second half of 
the twentieth century as expressed in the poems by three 
different writers: the Italian poet Roberto Marino Masini, 
born in 1958 in Gorizia (Milich, 2017, 96), the journalist 
and editor Celso Macor (1925–1998), born in Versa 
(Zanello, 2011, 1995–1999; 2020, 172–173),31 and the 
director and journalist Janez Povše, born in Ljubljana in 
1941 (Stanonik & Brenk, 2008, 888). These are the poems 
31 For more on Macor’s experience with the border and the border territory, and his attitude toward Slovenians, see Zanello (2020, 171–188).
of three contemporaries, who were born in three different 
times and belonged to three different literary systems in 
the province of Gorizia (Masini to the Italian system, Ma-
cor to the Friulian, and Povše to the Slovenian). Macor’s 
poem “Da ponta di chista mont” (From the Top of This 
Hill) describes Gorizia as viewed from Sabotin Hill, using 
allusions to the bloody events of the First World War. 
He thus experiences Gorizia as a town conditioned and 
defined by the weight of suffering with collective memo-
ry and the associated anxiety, suppressed feelings, and 
the unpromising nature of the border region. Presented 
below are selected excerpts in which this comes most to 
the fore. Attention should be dedicated to certain phrases, 
such as “hill of death,” “bloody river,” “endless noon,” 
and “locked in anxiety.”
Celso Macor
“Da ponta di chista 
mont” (excerpt)
Da ponta di chista 
mont
di muart
jo ciali la vita di 
Gurissa
sota, come un furmiar
van e vegnin
dal cricà dal dì fin tal 
crepuscul
…
Lusìnz, flun di sanc, 
sflandôr
da nestra ciasa
…
E li ciampanis a’ sùnin
di lunc, tun misdì 
senza fin
nus clàmin adun,
…
E còrin pa stradis
e si incròsin, no si 
ciàlin
siarâts dal ingòs.
(Macor, 2008, 
103–106)
Celso Macor
“Z vrha tega hriba” 
(excerpt)
Z vrha tega hriba
smrti
opazujem utripanje 
Gorice
tam spodaj, kot v 
mravljišču
ljudje prihajajo in 
odhajajo
od zore do mraka.
…
Soča, krvava reka, 
biser
naše zemlje,
…
Zvonovi dolgo 
odzvanjajo
v neskončnem poldnevu
in nas kličejo vkup
…
Ljudje hitijo po 
ulicah,
srečujejo se, a se ne 
pogledajo,
vklenjeni v tesnobo.
(Macor, 2019, 52; 
Slovenian translation 
by Dana Čandek)
Celso Macor
“From the Top of This 
Hill” (excerpt)
From the top of this 
hill
Of death
I watch the life in 
Gorizia
Down below, like an 
anthill
People come and go
From dawn to dusk.
…
The Soča, bloody 
river, pearl
Of our land,
…
The bells ring for a 
long time
At the endless noon,
Calling us together
…
People hurry along 
the streets,
Meeting, but not 
looking at one 
another,
Locked in anxiety.
Janez Povše experiences Gorizia similarly, through 
the prism of past war events, most likely making an 
intertextual reference to Simon Gregorčič’s poem 
“Soči” (To the Soča). The most representative lines in 
this regard from his poem “Pesem Gorici” (A Poem for 
Gorizia) read as follows: “Čez tebe šla je bridka zgo-
dovina / boleče te pretresla v temeljih, / sedaj obdaja 
trudna te tišina, / spomin medlí tvoj v strtih upanjih” (A 
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bitter history trod over you, / Shaking you painfully in 
your foundations, / Now only the weary silence surro-
unds you, / With your memory dwindling away in cru-
shed hopes; Povše, 2014, 78–79). In this poem, Povše 
remembers the “bitter history,” which left a heavy mark 
on Gorizia. In turn, in his poem “Soči” (1879) Gregor-
čič predicted that “bitter steel will strike upon these 
lands” (“tod sekla bridka bodo jekla”; Gregorčič, 1947, 
66). By selecting the word bitter as an expressive word 
that evokes emotional pain, Povše makes a connection 
to the bitterness evoked in Gregorčič’s poem “Soči” as 
well the historical context that Gregorčič predicted. In 
addition, in his experience of Gorizia, Povše mentions 
pain, shock, weary silence, and crushed hopes, which 
most likely indicates dissatisfaction with the border in 
the Gorizia area established after the war.
As Kaja Širok points out in her study of the historical 
memories of the border population on both sides of 
the Slovenian–Italian border area, there were different 
historical interpretations of historical events in the 
Gorizia border area, but the “anchors or milestones” of 
these narratives were the same or similar (Širok, 2012, 66, 
164). Masini’s perception of his hometown seems to be 
less burdened with collective memory. Nonetheless, the 
introductory lines of his poem already reveal a conflict 
relationship with the town, which can be linked to the 
conflicts within the town itself, resulting from the ethnic 
tensions during the twentieth century.
Roberto Marino 
Masini
“Le mie emozioni” 
(excerpt)
Le mie emozioni
sono fatte di questa 
terra,
di una città che 
maledico
e poi ritrovo come un 
paradiso
ogni volta che 
m’allontano.
(Masini, 2006, 10)
Roberto Marino 
Masini
“Moja čustva” 
(excerpt)
Moja čustva
so iz te zemlje,
iz mesta, ki ga 
preklinjam
in spet odkrivam kot 
neka nebesa
vsakič, ko odidem.
(Masini, 2019, 54; 
Slovenian translation 
by Dana Čandek)
Roberto Marino 
Masini
“My Emotions” 
(excerpt)
My emotions
Derive from this land,
From the town I curse
And yet discover like 
some sort of heaven
Every time I leave.
The presented parts of all three poems show similar 
perceptions of Gorizia, which do not permit a person 
to have an entirely intimate relationship with this 
town, separate from the collective memory associated 
with Gorizia, the ethnic tensions in it, the war, and the 
postwar definition of the border. Even though the poets 
express their relationship with the town in three different 
languages (i.e., they belong to three different linguistic 
communities), they share a fairly similar view of Gori-
zia. First, it is obvious that they experience Gorizia as 
their own town, which is like a loving woman (Povše), 
who gives birth to all emotions (Masini), whereby the 
first-person narration of the poet is combined with the 
first-person collective narration of Gorizia residents 
(Macor). The poetic descriptions of Gorizia hence 
do not emphasize the Slovenian, Italian, or Friulian 
component. This, however, becomes more evident, for 
example, when comparing the poems by Slovenian and 
Italian poets from the Trieste area, who give Trieste dif-
ferent and even opposing highlights. In this regard, the 
multilingual poetic image of Gorizia avoids the ethnic 
tensions, or it indicates them only subtly. Of course, here 
it also needs to be taken into account that these poems 
were created at a different time (i.e., in the second half 
of the twentieth century). In the Trieste poetry, too, this 
period is marked more by disillusionment and fatigue, 
and no longer so much by bellicosity and a pronounced 
inclination toward conflict. However, the multilingual 
poetic manifestation of Gorizia, its personification, and 
the sadness, melancholy, and anxiety in its poetic image 
after the Second World War show that the poetic disco-
urse about Gorizia sprang from an internal need, arising 
from the border established after the Second World War, 
which cut into the life of everyone in this territory.
CONCLUSION
Because of the complex and often also turbulent 
and tragic developments during a significant portion 
of the twentieth century, the life of the population in 
the border provinces of Gorizia and Udine was very 
demanding and intertwined with suffering. This was 
greatly contributed to by war, the establishment of 
demarcation lines and state borders, and linguistic, 
ethnic, and other divisions. A heavy burden for the 
population of the province of Udine was also the 1976 
earthquake. All these complex developments were also 
reflected in the Slovenian literature of this border area. 
Taking into account these complex realities facilitates 
the reception and deeper understanding of the literary 
works themselves because every area of Slovenian 
literature in Italy (i.e., the provinces of Trieste, Gorizia, 
and Udine) has helped shaped literary discourse in a 
different way. This means that familiarity with only one 
of these three realities, such as that of the Trieste area, 
does not provide the right and key literary-historical 
and sociopolitical information required for a compe-
tent understanding and perception of Slovenian literary 
works in the provinces of Gorizia and Udine. In addi-
tion, the message conveyed by this part of Slovenian 
literary discourse can be even better understood by 
taking into account contemporary Friulian and Italian 
works in this area.
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SLOVENSKA KNJIŽEVNOST V GORIŠKI IN VIDEMSKI POKRAJINI V LUČI 
TURBOLENTNIH ZGODOVINSKIH DOGODKOV
Ana TOROŠ
Univerza v Novi Gorici, Vipavska 13, 5000 Nova Gorica, Slovenija
e-mail: ana.toros@ung.si
Neva MAKUC
Znanstvenoraziskovalni center Slovenske akademije znanosti in umetnosti, Zgodovinski inštitut Milka Kosa, 
ZRC SAZU Raziskovalna postaja, Delpinova 12, 5000 Nova Gorica, Slovenija
e-mail: neva.makuc@zrc-sazu.si
POVZETEK
Pričujoči prispevek obravnava slovensko književnost v Italiji, zlasti v videmski in goriški pokrajini v 20. stoletju. 
Književnost v slovenskem jeziku in v slovenskih narečjih ni nastala znotraj enotnega literarnega sistema slovenske 
skupnosti v Italiji. Pojem “slovenska književnost v Italiji” dejansko pokriva različna območja, natančneje tržaško, go-
riško in videmsko območje in njim pripadajoča središča (Trst, Gorica, Videm/Čedad), ki pa imajo z literarnovednega 
vidika svoje specifike. Življenje prebivalstva videmske in goriške pokrajine je namreč zaznamovalo kompleksno do-
gajanje v 20. stoletju (vojne, demarkacijske črte, meje, jezikovne, narodnostne in druge delitve, potres). Upoštevanje 
teh kompleksnih zgodovinskih stvarnosti olajša proces razumevanja samih književnih del, saj je na osnovi specifičnih 
dogodkov vsako od danih območij slovenske književnosti v Italiji drugače sooblikovalo literarni diskurz. Poleg tega se 
lahko sporočilo tega dela slovenskega literarnega diskurza globlje razume ob upoštevanju sočasnih del v furlanskem 
in italijanskem jeziku na danem območju.
Ključne besede: slovenska književnost v Italiji, Goriška, Beneška Slovenija, meja, 20. stoletje
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