Original Scientific Article
Developing ‘Unused Resources’ for Tourism:
Cases of Drift Ice in Hokkaido and ICEHOTEL
in Lapland
Takafumi Fukuyama
Hokkaido University, Japan
fukuyama@cats.hokudai.ac.jp
Johan R. Edelheim
Hokkaido University, Japan
johan.edelheim@imc.hokudai.ac.jp
The characteristics of theNorth tend to be describednegatively, such as sparsely pop-
ulated, peripheral, and disadvantageous due to coldness, darkness, or heavy snow-
fall. This is true both for Japan and for the Nordic countries. In northern history,
the relationship between humans and nature, snow and ice, has gradually changed
as humans began to take advantage of their environment. Nature used to be a place
to live; however, it is now used for experiences, especially in snow and ice tourism.
This study examines the process of developing unused community resources in the
North by using theoretical ‘resource studies’ through a comparative case study be-
tween Drift Ice in Japan and icehotel in Sweden with the distinct aim of clari-
fying a mechanism of resource utilisation and its associated issues. Local endeav-
ours seen in both processes are chronologically divided into 4 phases: the periods
of Dawn, Establishment, Growth, and Maturity. Then, synchronically, the mecha-
nism of promoting these utilisations can be illustrated in four quadrants, namely
‘cultural branding,’ ‘cultural marketing,’ ‘scientific branding,’ and ‘scientific market-
ing.’ Furthermore, it can be considered that the role of snow and ice tourism de-
velopment is cultivating peoples’ awareness of nature preservation during climate
change, based on the integrated analysis of both Japanese and Northern European
approaches. Thus, this study shows the significance of enhancing the value of snow
and ice and the potential of them in the north.
Keywords: resource studies, unused community resources, process of utilisation,
snow and ice tourism innovations, Japan and Sweden
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15.335-348
Introduction
The characteristics of an urban, modern, and heav-
ily populated ‘south,’ compared to a rural, traditional,
and sparsely populated ‘north,’ not only fits Northern
Europe or North America, but also, maybe somewhat
surprisingly for international audiences, Japan. Japan
is an island nation with four main islands and thou-
sands of smaller islands spread out over almost four
thousand kilometres from south to north. Being in the
middle of two major oceanic currents means that the
south of Japan enjoys warm, and even sub-tropical cli-
mates, whereas cool, almost arctic conditions prevail
in the north.
Since around the 2000s, tourism-based regional
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Takafumi Fukuyama and Johan R. Edelheim Developing ‘Unused Resources’ for Tourism
Historical
context of
snow and
innovation
Theoretical
framework
Empirical data
and
methodology
Findings
(Mombetsu,
Jukkasjärvi)
Discussion
and
comparison
Conclusion
Figure 1 ‘Road-map’ of this article
innovations, which make use of community resources
for more than just locals, have been garnering atten-
tion (Nishimura, 2009; Shikida et al., 2009; Okoso,
2013; Morishige, 2014). The social background for this
is a declining and aging population in both the north
and the rural south of Japan. While these movements
were already being promoted in the 1990s (Shikida,
2009), regional revitalisation has been gaining mo-
mentum as a national policy since around the 2010s,
and thus, regional development has become a more
serious issue (Fukuyama & Shikida, 2019). However,
there are geographic conditions that make such de-
velopment difficult. Despite its reputation for densely
populated urban areas Japan has, for example, several
remote islands, mountain villages, and depopulated
areas which are classified as conditionally disadvan-
taged areas. Apart from geographical features, ‘heavy
snowfall areas’ are also designated as conditionally dis-
advantaged (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Commu-
nications, 2015).
On the other side of the world, similar character-
istics also describe disadvantageous areas in the north
of Europe, in Scandinavia. ‘Sparsity’ is the first char-
acteristic describing regions where low population
densities have been causing local challenges for the
economy (Gløersen et al., 2006). Then, ‘peripheral-
ity’ is also considered, denoting the distance to major
European markets (Gløersen et al., 2006). These re-
gions are so-called ‘low-amenity’ areas, characterised
by economic decline or outmigration (Carson et al.,
2018). Indeed, those rural areas in the far north are
regarded as being in socio-economic decline, having a
sparse population, and suffering froma lack of services
and infrastructure (Vuin et al., 2016). Furthermore, the
lack of diverse employment opportunities in many pe-
ripheral places tend to cause unemployment (Müller
& Jansson, 2007), and the cold climate brings an extra
challenge for these regions (Gløersen et al., 2006).
Regarding the similarity of the above situation in
Japan, there are also few employment opportunities
in disadvantageous areas due to problems stemming
from its rural past; the populations age or move away.
Especially in areas with heavy snowfall these problems
overlap, resulting in an increasing disadvantage (Ye et
al., 2007). According to the Ministry of Land, Infras-
tructure, Transport and Tourism in Japan, ‘industrial
development is stagnant, and the improvement of the
living standard of residents is hindered due to heavy
snowfall.’ Hence, in order to promote industry and im-
prove residents’ living, the Act on SpecialMeasures for
Heavy Snowfall Areas has been established (Ministry
of Internal Affairs and Communications, 2015).
In the near past, a disaster called the ‘38.1 heavy
snowfall’ struckmainly the Hokuriku region in north-
ern Japan in 1963. The National Police Agency re-
ported about 600 casualties and that more than 11,000
homes were destroyed (Fukui, 1963). Such devasta-
tion is called ‘snow and ice disasters’ in Japan and
much engineering research on disaster control has
since been undertaken (Takahashi, 1997). In addition,
snow and ice disasters are no longer restricted to indi-
vidual losses, but also encompass economic damages
on a societal scale, and even the hindrance of social
function (Numano, 2006). In this way, snow and ice
in heavy snowfall areas are considered to be negative
for communities in northern Japan.
With this geographical context as a base, we will
initially give a historic context of snow innovation,
followed by our theoretical framework, especially re-
source studies, and our methodology. This leads us
to our two empirical cases, Mombetsu in Japan, and
Jukkasjärvi in Sweden, which will be compared and
contrasted based on our framework (see Figure 1).
Historically, humans in the north have long been
(and are still) suffering from snow and ice disasters
caused by Mother Nature (Wakahama, 1995; Fukuya-
336 | Academica Turistica, Year 15, No. 3, December 2022
Takafumi Fukuyama and Johan R. Edelheim Developing ‘Unused Resources’ for Tourism
Figure 2
Historical Change in Relationship
between Humans and Nature
(based upon Oshima, 1987;
Numano, 2006; Ranta &
Suopajärvi, 2019)
Traditional livelihoods Modern projects Postmodern services
Nature = space to live Nature = resource Nature = experience
Enduring
snow
Tai-setsu
Overcoming
snow
Koku-setsu
Utilizing
snow
Ri-setsu
Enjoying
snow
Shin-setsu
ma, 2015). Unlike other natural disasters, those caused
by snow and ice are remarkable because of their close-
ness to our everyday lives (Numano, 1984). From a hu-
man perspective, Numano (2006) describes the initial
relationship between humans and snow as ‘Tei-setsu
(Giving up with snow)’; Oshima (1987) alternatively
explains that humans have long been in a ‘Tai-setsu
(Enduring snow)’ relationship.
However, we recently observe many cases where
snow and ice are innovatively used for tourism both
in Europe and Japan, such as by locals in Hokkaido,
the northern main island of Japan (Fukuyama, 2015),
as well as snow constructions in Lapland (Edelheim,
2014). There is, for example, an outstanding case of
a ‘Jifubuki (Blizzard) tour’ creation in Aomori prefec-
ture, in northern Japan. Jifubuki is in relative terms a
negative weather phenomenon that threatens human
lives. However, the reversal idea generated by locals to
actively promote it, and endeavours performed by lo-
cal stakeholders, have eventually enhanced the posi-
tive value in the negative Jifubuki phenomenon. In ad-
dition, this has led to regional development (Narumi,
1997). Surprisingly to those who previously feared and
shunned the phenomenon, both domestic and inter-
national tourists consume an innovative service, sim-
ply by experiencing this Jifubuki.
Not only the Jifubuki tour in Japan, but many other
cases globally, show that winter tourism-based re-
gional development has gradually gained momen-
tum by utilising negative community resources, snow
and ice, in northern regions (Fukuyama & Shikida,
2019). In this regard, the historical changes in the re-
lationship between humans and snow in Japan has
certain phases, continuing from ‘Tei-setsu (Enduring
snow)’ mentioned above, to ‘Koku-setsu (Overcom-
ing snow),’ then ‘Ri-setsu (Utilising snow),’ and finally
‘Shin-setsu (Enjoying snow)’ (Wakahama, 1995; Nu-
mano, 2006).
Relatedly, in Northern European research, there is
a remarkable study that suggests the meaning of na-
ture for humans has changed in three phases. Ranta
and Suopajärvi (2019) indicate that the first phase, pre-
modern, used to mean a ‘Space to live.’ This meaning
was followed by understanding nature as ‘Resources’
in modern times and finally it comes to be understood
as an ‘Experience’ in post-modern times. Building on
these models, we considered the similar recognitions
in Japan andNorthern Europe in an integrated fashion
(Figure 2).
Although Figure 2 is drawn from a macro perspec-
tive, it includes many invisible micro movements back
and forth among each phase; humans have gradually
and eventually created experience-based tourism by
making positive use of something that was previously
perceived negatively: snow and ice. In this way, we
confirm here the historical changes of the human-
nature relationship based on the above integration of
both northern regions.
Theoretical Framework for Analysing the Process
of Snow and Ice Tourism Creation
In order to examine the actual conditions of promot-
ing snow and ice use, we need firstly to establish the
conceptions of snow and ice both at a time ‘before’
and ‘after’ tourist utilisation in the regions took place.
As for Jifubuki, snow and ice are ‘after’ having been
utilised for tourism, logically, a tourism resource. On
the other hand, there is significant research in which
snow and ice ‘before’ being utilised is regarded as
‘unused community resources.’ Mitsui Information
Development Research Institute (2003) classified the
characteristics of unused community resources into
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Takafumi Fukuyama and Johan R. Edelheim Developing ‘Unused Resources’ for Tourism
three types from a market perspective, which are ‘or-
dinary,’ ‘abandoned,’ and ‘negative.’
Thus, this study notably adopts mainly a theory of
resources, including community resource and tourism
resource studies, which are common in Japan. Ya-
sumura et al. (2019) pointed out that those resource
studies are not well known in the world, therefore,
this Japanese analytical approach can contribute to
other global research by offering a different perspec-
tive. Of course, we recognise that there are several sig-
nificant Northern European research papers related
to this theme, such as about tourism product devel-
opment through a cultural approach (Garcia-Rosell
et al., 2007), creative connections between tourists,
entrepreneurs, and destination dynamics (Jóhannes-
son & Lund, 2017), the value creation in experience-
based tourism (Jensen & Prebensen, 2015), and recent
‘place-based resources’ linked to nature and culture
(Fredman & Haukeland, 2021). Hence, we are just fo-
cusing on the future possibility of developing more
multidimensional analytical methods for the sake of
value creation in tourism by exchanging plural ideas
in different ways.
While there are many previous studies on commu-
nity resources in Japan (e.g.Mese, 1990; Shikida, 2012),
the Mitsui Information Development Research Insti-
tute defines it as ‘all tangible and intangible elements
that exist in a region and can be used for human activi-
ties’ (2003, p.3). Regarding its utilisation,Nagata (1988)
began a pioneering study on national use of local re-
sources. Taniguchi (2014) also considered these uses
in the context of rural development; however, these
are only examinations at national policy level. In ad-
dition, there are several studies considering develop-
ment of disadvantageous areas (Yamaguchi et.al., 1996;
Sakamoto et al., 2009; Shoji, 2010). Nevertheless, most
focus only on analysing the effects and success factors
of each case, not attempting to theoretically generalise
the idea.
Considering tourism resource theory critically, sev-
eral researchers have discussed how to classify tourism
resources (e.g. Ashiba, 1997; Suda, 2003) and Taka-
hashi (2014) systematically summarises this theme
chronologically, but there is still no unified view for
tourism resources. Kagawa (2007) relatedly explains
that two different perspectives, business theory and
behaviour of tourists, complicate the interpretation
of the target tourism resources. Teramae (2017) also
extensively argues that the evaluation of tourism re-
sources is only a matter of tourist preference. In as-
sociation with snow and ice, Suda (2003) states that
snow and rain are quite intangible resources and have
not been direct tourism targets before. However, ‘the
phenomenon of snow or drift ice has recently created
tourism effects similar to tangible resources in cold
regions with their long-lasting period’ (Suda, 2003, p.
91). Regarding this evaluation change, snow is con-
sidered an indispensable regional resource in the era
of the above ‘Shin-setsu (Enjoying snow),’ and it has
changed from something troublesome to the region’s
identity (Numano, 2006).
Based on prior research, this study basically adopts
the above resource studies as its theoretical foundation
to analyse a dynamic process of utilising unused com-
munity resources. Sato (2008, p. 9) defines resources
as a ‘bundle of possibilities to be worked on’ and Zim-
mermann (1985, p. 13) defines them as a ‘function
which a thing or a substance may perform’ (p.13) and
indicates that the process of resources utilisation con-
tains ‘Cultural wants’ and ‘Scientific abilities’ (p. 25).
In addition, an underlying theory in marketing is also
adopted as a subsidiary in this study concerning value
creation. It is important for community-based tourism
development to combine both branding and market-
ing properly (Shikida et al., 2009). Furthermore, this
study invokes the usefulness of ‘brand building by
culture’ and ‘marketing by cultural idea’ suggested by
Aoki (2008), and we considered them in an integrated
manner with resource studies.
Simply expressed, this study examines the innova-
tion process of turning something valueless into valu-
able tourism resources that can contribute to regional
development. Therefore, the purpose here is to clarify
factors and issues that can be successfully promoted
to utilise ‘unused community resources’ for winter
tourism development. Moreover, this study discusses
the significance of snow and ice tourism development
with their value enhancement. This is done through
analysing endeavours conducted by locals in north-
ern regions. Here, these local activities are first anal-
338 | Academica Turistica, Year 15, No. 3, December 2022
Takafumi Fukuyama and Johan R. Edelheim Developing ‘Unused Resources’ for Tourism
ysed chronologically, classifying different characteris-
tic phases. Then, the resource utilisation mechanism
will be discussed synchronically, using a framework of
integrating the above resources studies and underly-
ing theories in marketing. Lastly, this study derives a
new concept of humans’ recognition of snow and ice
based on the integrated analysis of both Japanese and
Northern European cases.
Research Sites andMethodological Approach
This study compares two cases of snow and ice tourism
creations, drift ice in Mombetsu city in Hokkaido,
Japan and icehotel in Jukkasjärvi in Kiruna city,
Sweden. Drift ice was previously called a ‘White Devil’
(Nakamura, 1992) due to its negative impact, especially
on the local fishing industry. Nevertheless, it has be-
come a major tourism resource and it can be observed
that local stakeholders now positively evaluate its con-
tribution to the regional economy through tourism
(Fukuyama& Shikida, 2019). On the other hand, ice-
hotel in Jukkasjärvi, Swedish Lapland, is the world’s
oldest ice hotel (Garcia-Rosell et al., 2019). Before that,
snow and ice structures tended to be for private use or
used for a limited duration. But icehotel now at-
tracts many international tourists, and its fame has re-
sulted in other ice or snow hotels being built in differ-
ent cool climates, including Hokkaido. In both cases,
the process of developing unused resources, snow and
ice, were intentional endeavours by locals. Therefore,
it should be possible to analyse factors and issues for
promoting these utilisations.
Mombetsu city is located in the centre of Okhotsk
Sea coast, which is a good fishing ground (Figure 3),
with the coordinates of 44°21’ north and 43°21’ east
and approximately 21,000 inhabitants. Most of Mom-
betsu’s economy is dedicated to fishing for cold-water
species such as crab, and the fishing industry has pro-
duced around 270million euros (2020), including pro-
cessed products. Regarding weather, the annual snow-
fall average is over 480 centimetres, and the lowest
recorded temperature was –24.7°.
On the other hand, Kiruna city is located at the
coordinates of 67°51’ north and 20°13’ east, which is
about 200 km north of the Arctic Circle (Figure 4).
Modern Kiruna was founded around 1900, and min-
Figure 3 Map of Sea of Japan with Mombetsu indicated
Figure 4 Map of Northern Europe with Jukkasjärvi
indicated
ing iron ore rapidly became its major industry; today
it is the largestmine in northern Europe. Over 2,100 of
Kiruna’s 18,200 inhabitants are employed by the min-
ing company lkab and related companies. As for the
weather, the annual precipitation is about 59 centime-
tres, and the lowest temperature recorded was –43.3°.
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Takafumi Fukuyama and Johan R. Edelheim Developing ‘Unused Resources’ for Tourism
The icehotel is built each year in Jukkasjärvi (pop-
ulation approximately 600), located 16km away from
Kiruna’s town centre.
Concerning the methodology, we adopted multi-
ple research methods and triangulation in this study,
in order to clarify endogenous endeavours by locals
for both chronologically and synchronically sufficient
analysis. Our stated aim was to examine a resource-
utilising mechanism, and its associated issues, in two
empirical cases.
Firstly, we conducted semi-structured interviews
with stakeholders and key persons in the target com-
munities, 80 locals in Mombetsu (2013–2022) in a lon-
gitudinal survey, and 28 in Kiruna (2019) in a short
but concentrated period, including some preliminary
surveys in Rovaniemi about snow hotels in Finnish
Lapland (2018–2019). The different numbers of re-
spondents at the different locations were based on
convenience sampling, but also on achieving satura-
tion of new themes collected in our interviews. Sec-
ondly, participant observations were undertaken at
both case locations as guests, and as hosts at the back-
stage of attractions. This included at warehouses, of-
fices, and workshops or in discussions with some im-
portant stakeholders and international ice sculptors
while actually staying at icehotel in Jukkasjärvi
or boarding Garinko, a tourism icebreaker, in Mom-
betsu. Lastly, searches of local documents and liter-
ature at both Mombetsu and Kiruna libraries were
carried out, including local newspapers, to obtain in-
formation about local evaluations. Hence, this trian-
gulation made it possible to apprehend many deep
regional realities subjectively, in an objectively appro-
priate balance from micro-, meta-, and macro- per-
spectives. And thus, the diverse collected data from all
the above-mentioned methods was carefully analysed
both chronologically and synchronically to clarify a
resource utilisation mechanism and its issues.
Findings with Chronological Analysis
The Case of Drift Ice Tourism Creation
InMombetsu, Drift ice was once hated by locals to the
extent that it was called ‘White Devil’ as mentioned
above. Especially for fishermen, the long-term stay of
drift ice duringwinter hinders their livelihoods, which
directly leads to a decrease in income. Therefore, it had
been considered that drift ice was a negative natural
phenomenon that could close the region due to this
predicament and extreme cold. According to Aota,
who was involved in the research of drift ice for many
years at Hokkaido University, important reasons why
locals hated it weremainly: (a) fishing damage, (b)ma-
rine accidents, (c) winter unemployment, and (d) ex-
treme freezing (Aota, 1993). Regarding (a) and (b), for
instance, Chishima (1966) reported that the damage
to the Hokkaido fishery industry from drift ice in 1956
exceeded 23 million euros, about 80 fishing boats en-
countered marine accidents, and 14 people perished.
In addition, damage has also occurred in aquacul-
ture such as scallops, whelks, and kelp. Thus, drift
ice has caused serious damage to society, including
fishing and other related local industries (Chishima,
1966).
In consideration of those serious phenomena, there-
fore, the ‘Praying festival for drift ice to leave early’ had
been held, mainly by fishermen, at a local temple for
many years. The beginning of this praying festival, in-
dicating that the region was hostile toward drift ice,
is said to be the Ryujin (Dragon God) Festival held
at Houon Temple in 1887. This festival was held con-
tinuously in Mombetsu until around 1997 (pers. com.
Chiel priest, 2 October 2018).
However, drift ice has been dramatically trans-
formed to a positive tourism resource. For example, in
1996, the sound of drift ice was selected as one of the
‘100 Soundscapes of Japan,’ and drift ice was also certi-
fied as a Hokkaido heritage site together with Garinko
in 2004.Garinko is the world’s first tourism icebreaker,
launched in 1987. Passenger numbers of Garinko were
about 19,000 in 1997 and peaked at 53,300 in 2002.
Another form of tourism utilisation of drift ice is
the Mombetsu Drift Ice Festival. While the details of
this will be referred to below, the number of visitors
to this event reached a peak of about 500,000 in 1985,
from about 10,000 when it was first held in 1963. In
addition, the Okhotsk Sea Ice Museum of Hokkaido
opened in 1991, where visitors can experience and
watch exhibitions about the science of drift ice. Since
its opening, the annual number of visitors has been
about 60,000 (excluding the covid-19 pandemic pe-
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Takafumi Fukuyama and Johan R. Edelheim Developing ‘Unused Resources’ for Tourism
Table 1 Four Phases of Developing Drift Ice
Phase Period Characteristic
 Dawn s–
s
Attempts to improve negative
value started on an individual
basis
 Establishment s Focused on positive value with
collaborations among
individuals
 Growth s Promotion to share positive
value with continuation of local
endeavours
 Maturity s–
s
Involvement of local residents
and the public with socially
positive evaluation
Notes Based upon Fukuyama and Shikida (2019).
riod), and remarkably, it is not only used by general
tourists, but also by locals for various events, espe-
cially for local children and students. Hence, it can
be considered that drift ice is now a community re-
source closely related to this local area. Furthermore,
the Okhotsk Drift Ice Praying Festival even began in
1991, now to pray seriously for an ‘early arrival’ of drift
ice.
In the process of changing perceptions of drift ice
since the 1940s until the 1990s, there were many vol-
untary endeavours conducted by various local stake-
holders. We have analysed them and classified them
into 4 phases (Table 1).
A hallmark of phase 1 (Dawn: 1940s–1950s) was the
start of initial efforts to improve the negative reputa-
tion of drift ice, or of individual efforts to enhance its
value as a result, in a situation where the regional fo-
cus was only the actual damage to the community. At
this point, collaboration in the region had not yet oc-
curred, but individual attempts were made to utilise
the perceived negative drift ice as a resource.
For example, Murase, a painter who was appointed
as an art teacher at Mombetsu High School in 1949,
was fascinated by the beauty of drift ice, and has
been painting it as a motif throughout his whole life
since then.Murase also began a Sunday painting class,
where local children could learn how to paint. The
number of Murase’s drift ice paintings is said to be
in the thousands, although a local story claims that
Murase was at one stage beaten by residents who dis-
liked his painting the regional enemy.
In Phase 2 (Establishment: 1960s), a positive val-
uation was actively developed for the negatively per-
ceived drift ice in some parts of the region. In addi-
tion, the coordinators of individual resource utilisa-
tion activities had begun to collaborate within this re-
gion, and the effects of such movements strengthened
the transmission of the positive value of drift ice and
promoted resource utilisation. In 1961, an art enthu-
siast, Tanaka, who studied painting and Ainu indige-
nous culture near Lake Toya, returned to his native
Mombetsu. Tanaka became the president of a small
company and started voluntarily to arrange various
kinds of local festivals for children.He andother stake-
holders advocated for, and coordinated theMombetsu
Drift Ice Festival, despite some opposition against this
idea, and financial difficulties. Notwithstanding this,
the first festival in 1963 turned out to attract about
10,000 people. Tanaka also created a storytelling tra-
dition, ‘Tale of Drift Ice,’ on the theme of Ainu culture,
which was announced at the second Drift Ice Festival
in 1964.
Since then,Murase has tried to promote the beauty
of drift ice both inside and outside Hokkaido by hold-
ing the Okhotsk Drift Ice Exhibition, and he started
to collaborate with Tanaka, a fellow member of the
Mombetsu Cultural Federation. Hokkaido University
simultaneously established a research facility inMom-
betsu, and the world’s first radar observation station
operated by Aota and colleagues was founded. Thus,
the characteristics of this phase were that individual
activities using drift ice were linked together, and such
movements gradually led to cultural utilisation in the
community while scientific research had begun.
The characteristic of phase 3 (Growth: 1970s) is that
the endeavours of stakeholders to create and share the
value of drift ice were developed at a sustainable level.
These continuous resource utilisation activities have
facilitated the sharing of the positive features more
widely in region. For example, the data obtained from
the above-mentioned radar observation were firstly
provided to local fisheries, which consequently led to
an obvious decrease in casualties by drift ice. Addi-
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Takafumi Fukuyama and Johan R. Edelheim Developing ‘Unused Resources’ for Tourism
tionally, Hoshiai, a natural science researcher, discov-
ered in 1977 that ‘ice algae,’ an occurrence confirmed
in the Antarctic before, also adhered under drift ice in
Mombetsu. Aota, who accompanied Hoshiai, proved
that the food chain originated from ice algae was the
very reason for the rich seafood resources in Okhotsk
Sea, and continued to explain this mechanism pa-
tiently to local fishermen with his own easily under-
standable words. Eventually, the positive ecological
roles of drift ice were elucidated from this natural sci-
ence field.
Concurrently, the socio-economic situation sur-
rounding Mombetsu changed. The local Kounomae
Mine, which once boasted the best coal output in East
Asia, closed in 1973. Furthermore, at sea, international
regulations restricting fisheries to 200 nautical miles
impacted negatively on Mombetsu’s fisheries econ-
omy, starting in 1977. Under these circumstances of
a deteriorating local economy, Mombetsu city started
a comprehensive plan to promote the development of
drift ice. Thus, it is considered that the use of drift ice
as tourism resources gradually began.
Then, in phase 4 (Maturity: 1980s–1990s),more cit-
izen participation was achieved, and positive evalua-
tions of drift icewerewidely shared in public. Aota and
his colleagues encouraged more locals to participate
in the development of resource utilisation, and Mom-
betsu city supported this movement. For instance, in
1986, Aota and local stakeholders started to host the
Northern International Symposiumwhere researchers
from other northern countries, jointly with domes-
tic researchers, presented their studies on drift ice or
sea ice. An executive committee of local volunteers
handled planning and operations. Aota also intention-
ally set special lectures on cultural themes in order to
connect scientists and local residents organically. Fur-
thermore, Aota launched and co-hosted the Children’s
Drift Ice Symposium,which included quiz events to let
children compete for the title of ‘Dr. Drift Ice.’
After that, the tourism-related use of drift ice ex-
panded with the launch of the above-mentioned ice-
breaker Garinko, and Mombetsu municipality even-
tually adopted the ‘Declaration of Drift Ice City’ in
1982. Finally, the Okhotsk Sea Ice Centre of Hokkaido
opened in 1991. In this way, the practice of enhanc-
ing the value of drift ice was systematically promoted
with the support of the society, including the transmis-
sion to the next generation, and this phase was also a
time when the significance of the contribution to the
regional economy from scientific research was recog-
nised.
The Case of the Creation of ICEHOTEL
According to Selberg, the mayor of Kiruna city, only a
few tourists visited Kiruna during the winter months
of the frigid polar nights in the past. The number of
guests in January 1988, for which statistics exist, was
only about 2,900. However, the predecessor of ice-
hotel was created in 1990, and by 2007, the figure in-
creased to 15,500; in other words, more than five times
higher. Tourist numbers in Kiruna have gradually in-
creased during the 1990s–2000s, which was a particu-
larly important period from the creation to the devel-
opment of icehotel in Jukkasjärvi.
More recently, according to Schilar and Keskitalo
(2017), the number of annual guests to icehotel
alone has reached about 50,000 to 60,000 every year
(excluding the term of the covid-19 pandemic). Fur-
thermore, icehotel has been contributing to the
tourism-based regional development of Kiruna in col-
laboration with local tour operators that offer a vari-
ety of activities such as northern light tours, cultural
tourism by Indigenous peoples, snowmobiles and dog
sledding experiences. Thus, the severe winter months
in Kiruna have dramatically transformed into win-
ter tourism which has made the region famous in the
world.
The latent beginning of this icehotel creation
can be seen back in the 1970s. Bergqvist, the rep-
resentative of the founding members of icehotel,
started a community-based company which provided
tourism services in Jukkasjärvi near Torne River, espe-
cially outdoor activities in summer. However, in 1986,
a serious accident occurred during rafting and the
company began to wonder if they could create a new
business in winter. From that point, this series of in-
cidents should be considered as a dawn of icehotel
creation, and we analysed the process of developing
icehotel chronologically in a similar manner to the
case of drift ice. The local endeavours to enhance the
342 | Academica Turistica, Year 15, No. 3, December 2022
Takafumi Fukuyama and Johan R. Edelheim Developing ‘Unused Resources’ for Tourism
Table 2 Four Phases of Developing icehotel
Phase Period Characteristic
 Dawn s Trial to create new value in
unused community resources
individually
 Establishment –

Realisation of unused ice
utilisation and collaboration
system established
 Growth –

Both creating more value and
increasing name recognition
effectively
 Maturity –
now
Stable management and
contribution to winter regional
development
Notes Based upon Fukuyama (2021).
value of snow and ice and develop icehotel can also
be classified into four phases (Table 2).
During phase 1 (Dawn: 1980s), the exploration of
using snow and ice from Torne River in severe win-
ters was actively started at an individual level, with the
pursuit of new business ideas. The connection with
Hokkaido showed that the time of realising this possi-
bility was sufficiently ripe.
As mentioned above, although Bergqvist and oth-
ers were contemplating a winter business creation,
it was common for locals to think that winter was
nothing but darkness, coldness, and snow. Neverthe-
less, in 1987 and 1988, Bergqvist made two important
journeys, choosing winter destinations like Alaska,
Canada, and Japan, to seek new business ideas. When
visiting Hokkaido in Japan, he had a chance to expe-
rience the 38th Sapporo Snow Festival. There, he was
impressed by seeing huge snow sculptures that fas-
cinated many tourists. Inspired by this, he began to
pursue the possibility of events that took advantage
of Jukkasjärvi’s individuality. In 1989, Bergqvist held
a symposium back in Kiruna, together with the Soci-
ety of Snow and Ice Sculptors, inviting two Japanese
ice sculptors from Asahikawa, Hokkaido. There, they
carved ice and made a beautiful bear and an eagle
which impressed the local audience.
In phase 2 (Establishment: 1990–1995), the mo-
mentum for the resource utilisation of snow and ice
were cultivated, leading to the idea conceiving of the
world’s first ice hotel. In 1990, a journalist, Granlund,
together with Bergqvist and a construction master,
Notström, built a big cylinder-shaped igloo called ‘Ar-
tic Hall,’ a wordplay on ‘Arctic’ and ‘art,’ as they ex-
hibited some art inside. One day, acquaintances of
the company owners attending a conference asked
to stay in Jukkasjärvi; however, the accommodations
were fully booked. Spontaneously, the company set
up a trial lodging at this art exhibition igloo with
thick sleeping bags and reindeer skin prepared on
the benches inside. All guests spent the night without
any problems and eventually, this incident became the
birth catalyst for the icehotel. In 1992, the first ice
church was built and in 1994, two key persons joined
the company: Bergh, in charge of art and design, and
Larsson, responsible for the construction. Soon, the
first absolut icebar was created in the hotel, and
since then, icehotel has been disseminating the
style of drinking colourful cocktails in transparent ice
glasses at this ice bar tomedia, aiming to build a brand
image.
Thus, in this phase, the new value of ‘a hotel where
guests can stay in ice rooms’ which no one had imag-
ined as commercial hospitality services before, was
created. In addition, a personnel system with collab-
orators was established to improve the value of ice-
hotel.
The characteristic of phase 3 (Growth: 1996–2015)
is that the value creation through expandedhotel func-
tions and tourism services, as well as a wide vari-
ety of snow and ice usage, were initiated. The added
value was disseminated globally through media and
the name recognition of icehotel was effectively
improved. Significant science and technology devel-
opments also took place.
Firstly, Bergh and Larsson made a huge glacier ice
cave for the movie Smilla’s Sense of Snow, by discov-
ering a mixed product called ‘Snice’ with an optimal
balance of snow and ice for building material. Then,
in 1998, they also invited professor Fransson, collo-
quially called ‘Ice Professor,’ from Luleå University of
Technology. He visited Jukkasjärvi and demonstrated
scientifically a structural strength and safety analysis
of icehotel. This university has a programme of
Academica Turistica, Year 15, No. 3, December 2022 | 343
Takafumi Fukuyama and Johan R. Edelheim Developing ‘Unused Resources’ for Tourism
Creating Value Sharing Value
Approach
Drift Ice painting, Festival, etc.
Ice bar, church, theatre, etc.
Food chain from ice algae, etc.
Structural strength by professor
Sunday painting class, etc.
Fashion runways with global brands, etc.
Northern International Symposium, etc.
University program of engineering
Domain
Local Culture
Natural Science
& Technology
Drift Ice
ICEHOTEL
Drift Ice
ICEHOTEL
Scientific Branding
Cultural Branding
Scientific Marketing
Cultural Marketing
Figure 5 The Mechanism of Promoting Utilisation of Unused Resources
snow and ice architectural engineering, and there are
some research papers on icehotel such as the ex-
perimental measurements on compressive strength of
snow (e.g. Lintzen, 2012). Further, in 2002, an ice the-
atre was completed in icehotel, and a Sami version
of Shakespeare’s Hamlet was performed. icehotel
has, through the years, cooperated with several global
brands, for example, Absolut, Vogue, and Chanel. It
has extended its brand awareness through publicity
stunts, including ice being transported to Africa and
Parisian fashion runways, to give some examples. In
this way, icehotel has gradually increased its pop-
ularity, and thus, excellent ice sculptors from all over
the world began to gather in Jukkasjärvi to design ice
rooms.
In phase 4 (Maturity: 2016–current time), ‘iceho-
tel 365’ was finally completed in 2016. This new ho-
tel can provide year-round experience serviceswith ice
sculpture rooms and an ice bar, and a solar power gen-
eration system has also been installed to keep the in-
side always cold. In addition, in 2018, icehotel was
certified to meet the sustainable ecolabelling standard
called ‘Nordic Swan Ecolabel.’ Here, in the first place,
the basic idea of icehotel is built on the premise of
an environmental cycle, borrowing snow and ice from
Torne River in winter and returning them in spring as
they melt.
Thus, the growth of icehotel and its mainte-
nance of attracting tourists from all over the world
have led to the maturation of winter tourism-based
regional development in Kiruna.
Discussions with Synchronic Analysis
Commonalities and Differences of Promoting
Resource Utilisation between two Cases
This study firstly examined the process of resource
utilisation chronologically in a macro-perspective.
This was based on our collected research data: from
the analysis of the literature review, on media sources,
as well as from extensive fieldwork in both regions, in-
cluding the empirical analysis of semi-structured in-
terviews and participant observations. Furthermore,
from a micro- and meta- perspective, the collected
data, especially about local endeavours, can be anal-
ysed synchronically to highlight the different fields
and functional approaches, and to consider the utili-
sation process of unused resources. The local endeav-
ours in both regions aimed at enhancing the value of
snow and ice can be firstly divided into the domains of
‘Local culture’ and ‘Natural science and technology.’ In
addition, they can simultaneously be divided into two
different approaches, which are ‘Creating value’ and
‘Sharing value.’ In this regard, it was found that the
mechanism for promoting the utilisation of snow and
ice was represented by four quadrants (see Figure 5).
On the one hand, examining endeavours by local
stakeholders in each case, such as Murase’s paintings
and Tanaka’s activities on drift ice, or ice sculptures
and the ice theatre in icehotel by Bergh and Lars-
son, these belong to the domain of ‘Local culture’
which is unique to the north. The cultural activities
such as drawing drift ice, arranging festivals, build-
ing an ice church or an ice bar, and making ice glasses,
344 | Academica Turistica, Year 15, No. 3, December 2022
Takafumi Fukuyama and Johan R. Edelheim Developing ‘Unused Resources’ for Tourism
are creating useful value from previously unused snow
and ice. Furthermore, the added value of snow and ice
was shared first inside communities, then outside the
region, by the activities such as painting classes, art
exhibitions, or dissemination through media, fashion
shows, and as a movie stage.
On the other hand, various research activities on
drift ice by Aota, or the structural integrity of ‘Snice’
developed by Bergh and Larsson, and demonstrated
by Fransson, are considered to create value in the do-
main of ‘Natural science and technology.’ Similarly, by
arranging the Northern International Symposium re-
lated to drift ice, or even the snow and ice architectural
engineering programme at university, the added use-
ful value of snow and ice has also been shared widely
in society through the scientific perspective.
In this way, creating value in the domain of local
culture is ‘Cultural Branding,’ and sharing its value
in this domain is ‘Cultural Marketing.’ Fukuyama and
Shikida (2019, p. 71) defined themas ‘the attempt to en-
hance value by creating various opportunities to enjoy
human pleasure or well-being through culture,’ and ‘to
share the function, which can satisfy the above cultural
desires, and their positive evaluations, widely with so-
ciety.’ Similarly, Aoki (2008) suggested the effective-
ness of brand building through culture and culturally
inspired marketing, mentioning culture as an ‘uncon-
scious forcible power.’ In Hirano’s (2000) words, the
‘ingenuity for people’s lives’ formed while adapting to
each regional condition can be called culture. Fur-
thermore, Zimmermann (1985, p. 241) comprehen-
sively suggested, ‘It is culture that permits man [sic]
to inhabit every continent, to exist in the tropics and
in the frigid zones.’ Thus, these ideas related to cul-
ture explain that even in disadvantageous regions in
the north, local people can make positive use of snow
and ice, and hence, they support the usefulness of cul-
tural approaches in the above mechanism of promot-
ing utilisation.
In the same way, creating and sharing value in the
domain of natural science and technology are ‘Scien-
tific Branding’ and ‘Scientific Marketing,’ which are
defined as ‘gaining the trust of society through science
and trying to justify value,’ and ‘sharing value justified
by scientific proof with society widely’ (Fukuyama &
Shikida, 2019, p. 71). Regarding these aspects, not only
is natural science and technology expected to provide
truth, but it is also required to have a role of provid-
ing ‘legitimacy’ in social decision-making (Fujigaki et
al., 2020). Zimmermann (1985) stated that scientific
methods and principles would realise a ‘safe and sta-
ble’ human society with their ‘continuous application.’
Hence, it can be indicated that the usefulness of sci-
entific approach involves, for instance, the function of
justifying negative objects against community percep-
tions. Thus, the above mechanism requires a scientific
approach, which proves principles that can dispel anx-
iety and uncertainty. Furthermore, together with the
earlier mentioned usefulness of the cultural approach
by Aoki (2008), this study suggests that the process of
this utilisation also requires the usefulness of scien-
tific approaches such as evaluating positive proof and
sharing its scientifically demonstrated value.
Thus, it was verified that the factors which pro-
moted the utilisation of unused snow and ice are the
coexistence of both cultural and scientific effects con-
tained in the approach function of value formation. In
other words, the two approaches of value creation and
value sharing were effective because they were prac-
ticed without fail in both domains of culture and sci-
ence. Consequently, it can be considered that these ap-
proaches in two domains have been interacting to cre-
ate the synergistic effect for promoting resource usage.
On the other hand, there are differences between
the two cases. In the mechanism of promoting snow
and ice utilisation for icehotel, it was confirmed
that the scientific approach was noticeably less than in
the case of drift ice. In Mombetsu, there have been
many approaches to create and share the scientific
value by local stakeholders, especially by Aota and
others. This is potentially because drift ice had more
negative properties which were harmful to the region
than the snow and ice on Torne River. Hence, it can
be hypothesised that ordinary unused resources such
as the snow and ice in Jukkasjärvi are promoted in the
process of utilisation with a less scientific approach
than negative unused resources.
In this way, it should be valid to indicate that the
usefulness of the scientific approach is greater where
negative properties occur. A scientific approach, con-
Academica Turistica, Year 15, No. 3, December 2022 | 345
Takafumi Fukuyama and Johan R. Edelheim Developing ‘Unused Resources’ for Tourism
Traditional livelihoods Modern projects Postmodern services Future awarenesses
Nature = space to live Nature = resource Nature = experience Nature = symbiotic learning
Domain of ‘Humanities and Social Science’
Domain of ‘Natural Science and Technology’
Enduring
snow
Tai-setsu
Overcoming
snow
Koku-setsu
Utilizing
snow
Ri-setsu
Enjoying
snow
Shin-setsu
Preserving
snow
Go-setsu
Figure 6 Preferred Future Change in Relationship between Humans and Nature
taining the principles or truths that can dispel anxiety
and disadvantages, contributed to the demonstration
of something uncertain.
Integrated Considerations toward a New Derived
Concept
Our study has examined regional development with
resource utilisation at the meso (including micro)
level. Additionally, it ultimately considers the signifi-
cance of value enhancement at themacro level, namely
the significance related to global warming counter-
measures.We have been discussing the value enhance-
ment of snow and ice by tourism utilisation through
the synergistic effect of culture and science. Further-
more, we examine the possibility that the value-en-
hancing effect of snow and ice can help humans to
cultivate the consciousness to preserve snow and ice,
and thus contribute to the spread of this recognition.
One source of this expectation is the Okhotsk Drift
Ice Trust Movement, which aims environmentally at
preventing global warming with a concept of preserv-
ing drift ice, which is decreasing in Hokkaido. It cer-
tainly seems that such movements have been culti-
vated to become the regional practice by enhancing
the value of drift ice, which was once a negative un-
used resource, and turning it into a tourism resource.
Moreover, in the Arctic region including Kiruna, the
thawing and decrease of snow and ice due to climate
change are already in a remarkably serious situation in
the mid- to long term.
Under these circumstances, the continuous chal-
lenge of creating snow and ice tourism will enable
more tourists living on this earth to widely recognise
the attraction and value of them through their experi-
ences and learning. And it is possible to expect that hu-
manswho enjoy the value of snow and icemay develop
awareness of mitigation measures to preserve them
from climate change gradually and globally. Taking
this possibility as themacro level significance of devel-
oping unused snow and ice for tourism in the North,
this comparative study consequently shows a new con-
cept of ‘Go-setsu (preserving snow),’ a new step after
‘Shin-setsu (Enjoying snow),’ as a future phase based
on all the above considerations of relationship between
humans and nature (Figure 6).
In this regard, nature will be, or already is, a space
to learn about such serious influence of the climate
change in a northern context. Here, snow and ice in
nature could be new types of experiences such as ‘snow
and ice ecotourism’ or ‘study tourism,’ where tourists
can learn the serious situation that thaw means to the
north. Furthermore, it is considered that nature is no
longer a limited place where humans can face this type
of symbiotic learning opportunity, but rather, a much
wider area on northern Earth, including the Antarc-
tic, as the holistic matter of humans and snow and
ice. Thus, it can be considered that the role of snow
and ice tourism development is cultivating peoples’
awareness of nature preservation, and snow and ice,
in the future. In addition, this idea can be proposed
only through the value enhancement of snow and ice
by the synergistic effect of both regional culture and
natural science and technology based on the above re-
source theories adopted in this study. Hence, this is
346 | Academica Turistica, Year 15, No. 3, December 2022
Takafumi Fukuyama and Johan R. Edelheim Developing ‘Unused Resources’ for Tourism
the derived significance from this study in the combi-
nation of both Japanese and Northern European aca-
demic approaches.
Conclusion
This study examined the process of utilising unused
community resources, snow and ice in northern re-
gions, through the comparative analysis of drift ice in
Hokkaido, Japan and icehotel in Swedish Lapland,
based on theoretical frameworks of resources, and un-
derlyingmarketing principles. For a start, endogenous
endeavours by locals in both cases are chronologically
divided into 4 phases: the periods of Dawn, Estab-
lishment, Growth, andMaturity. Then, synchronically,
these are classified into, firstly, two domains of ‘Local
culture’ and ‘Natural science & technology,’ and also
into two different approaches, creating value and shar-
ing its value. Thus, the mechanism of promoting the
utilisation of unused resources is shown as four quad-
rants, named ‘Cultural branding,’ ‘Cultural marketing,’
‘Scientific branding,’ and ‘Scientific marketing.’
In this process of utilising snow and ice, it can be
considered that the synergic effect from both useful-
ness of culture and science is working interactively.
And lastly, regarding the historical changes between
humans and nature enhancing the value of snow and
ice, the synergic effect of Japanese and Northern Eu-
ropean approaches derives a new concept of ‘Go-setsu
(preserving snow)’ with a new type of nature expe-
rience in global climate change. Thus, this compar-
ative study shows us the significance of considering
one’s present situation and future, which are focused
on positive possibilities of overcoming challenges in
the north.
Finally, as this study has attempted to clarify the
resource utilising mechanism and all its associated is-
sues, let us therefore now turn to some limitations and
future challenges in this field. Since resource studies
are not commonly discussed on a global scale yet, this
academic field requires more analytical case studies of
utilising snow and ice as tourism resources. Our case
studies lay a foundation, but naturally only function
as a symbol for other initiatives in different geograph-
ical locations, not acting in a generalisingway. It would
be beneficial if more empirical case studies would be
accumulated in both deductive and inductive ways in
the future, based on the critical discussions toward our
proposedmodel for the resource utilisingmechanism.
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