85 DOI: 10.17573/cepar.2022.1.04 1.01 Original scientific article Work During Non-Work Time of Public Employees Špela Mar University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Public Administration, Slovenia spela.mar@fu.uni-lj.si https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1698-4273 Danijela Sokolić University of Rijeka, Faculty of Economics and Business, Croatia danijela.sokolic@efri.hr https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6531-8082 Jernej Buzeti University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Public Administration, Slovenia jernej.buzeti@fu.uni-lj.si https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8985-8190 Received: 29. 10. 2021 Revised: 29. 4. 2022 Accepted: 12. 5. 2022 Published: 31. 5. 2022 ABSTRACT Purpose: Employees and their work during non-work time are affected by technology development, societal changes and other factors that have an inherent impact on the employees’ attitude towards work during non- work time. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the up- to-date research on employees performing work during non-work time. Design/Methodology/Approach: The main methodological approach used in the article is a systematic literature review of 18 scientific articles found in citation databases in WOS, Scopus, etc. The collected literature is relevant as it encompasses both quantitative and qualitative analyses to gather insights on performing work during non-work time. Findings: The results imply that work during non-work time is a grow- ing phenomenon among employees and public employees are no excep- tion. Regarding the socio-demographic groups affected, findings indicate that work during non-work time is particularly common for employees in managerial positions and for professionals in education, health and po- lice services, as well as for employees engaged in remote work. They also confirm that employees work during non-work time at different times of the day, at weekends, and during their annual and sick leave. Mar, Š., Sokolić, D., Buzeti, J. (2022). Work During Non-Work Time of Public Employees. Central European Public Administration Review, 20(1), pp. 85–102 2591-2259/© 2022 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Public Administration. This is an open access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/202286 Špela Mar, Danijela Sokolić, Jernej Buzeti Practical Implications: The article is especially relevant for public employ- ees due to increased use of information and communication technology. As such, they are also exposed to intensifying work-related expectations and requests/pressures for flexible work arrangements. Originality/Value: The originality of the topic is reflected in the under- representation of scientific research on the performance of work during non-work time among public employees. Keywords: non-work time, public employees, public sector, work arrangements, working time JEL: J810 1 Introduction Employees in organisations are increasingly confronted with a variety of chan- ges and challenges. Typically, these challenges are even more difficult when there are factors in the work environment that directly or indirectly affect work activities (Buzeti, 2020). One of the challenges that employees face is the appropriate allocation, organisation and duration of working time and rest periods. There is a growing trend towards different forms of flexible working in the workplace (Eurofound, 2021). The rapid development and widespread use of information and communication technology (ICT) allows employees to continue work during non-work times (Lee at al., 2021; Bauwens et al., 2020); for example at night, at weekends and during annual leave (Mar and Buze- ti, 2021; CIPD, 2020; Houdmont, Elliott-Davies and Donnelly, 2018) and away from the employer’s location (Von Bergen, Bressler and Proctor, 2019). Orga- nisations provide flexible policies to their employees, and in turn, they expect their alertness and promptness in reaction to their managers’ requests and customers` needs (Lutz, Schneider and Vorderer, 2020; Von Bergen et al., 2019). This in turn leads to the continued availability of employees for work (Eurofound, 2021; Von Bergen et al., 2019). As a consequence, employees have a reduced ability to recover from work (Mohd Fauzi et al., 2020), which has implications for changes in their well-being, the occurrence of undesira- ble emotional states and the problems with psychological detachment (Lee, at al., 2021; Lutz et al., 2020; Ďuranová and Ohly, 2016). The boundary bet- ween work and private life is increasingly blurred (Eurofound, 2021; ILO and Eurofound, 2017), and conflicts between work and family life are becoming more frequent (Andrade and Matias, 2021; Gadeyne et al., 2018). Employees in the public administration and the wider public sector are no exception. In Slovenia, the public sector, according to the Public Employees Act (ZJU, Article 1), is made up of “state authorities and administrations of self-gover- ning local communities, public agencies, public funds, public institutions and public economic institutions”, and “other entities governed by public law that are indirect users of the state budget or the budgets of local communities. The term public employees, is used to refer to individuals who enter into an employment relationship to carry out an administrative activity (Haček, 2015). Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/2022 87 Work During Non-Work Time of Public Employees The ZJU (Article 23) defines senior public employees, officials and technical and professional public employees in more detail. The purpose of this article is to present an overview of the up-to-date rese- arch on employees performing work during non-work time. The aim of the article is to provide key findings on employees’ work during non-work times, and guidelines for further research with special attention to the specificities of a public sector. The research questions of the article are: RQ1) How is work during non-work times becoming more widespread among employees?, RQ2) Which employees are characterised by work during non-work times?, RQ3) During which periods do employees work during non-work times? This article begins with general overview and a legal framework of a non-work time concept, followed by a review of the relevant literature on employees’ work during non-work time. The discussion will provide key findings on work during non-work times and suggestions for further research on this topic. 2 Work during non-work time of public employees Working time is the crucial element of professional life of every employee (Senčur Peček in Benčan et al., 2019). That means the period of time that an employee spends at paid occupation labor (Lok, 2018). The rest period time means any time that is not working time (Senčur Peček in Benčan et al., 2019). Working time in the public sector slightly differs in comparasion to the private sector. In the public sector, working time is more in line with the dynamics of legal regulations and political decisions than in the private sector, where it is influenced by profit-making and collective bargaining (De Spiegelaere and Piasna, 2017). Working time and rest periods are determinated at the inter- national level by the International Labour Organisation (ILO) conventions. In the European Union (EU), minimum standards regarding the organisation and duration of working time and rest periods are laid down in Directive 2003/88/ EC of the European Parliament and of the Council (Senčur Peček, 2018). EU Member States are obligated to set a reasonable length of daily and weekly working time according to the framework of the European Social Charter. In Slovenia, working time and rest periods of employees are regulated in Emplo- yment Relationships Act (ZDR-1), which also applies to public employees in Slovenia. In addition to general labour law provisions such as ZDR-1, the spe- cificities of the public administration system and the status of public emplo- yees are regulated in the Public Employees Act (ZJU), the Public Sector Salary System Act (ZSPJS), sectoral laws1 applicable to specific professions and col- lective agreements2, and the internal acts of individual bodies and entities governed by public law (Virant, 2009). Working time contains elements such as (1) period during which the worker is working, (2) period during which the worker is at the employer’s disposal and 1 Organisation and Work of the Police Act, Judicial Service Act (ZSS), Medical Services Act (ZZdrS), Higher Education Act (ZVis), Decree on working time in state administration bodies,… 2 Collective Agreement for Police Officers, Collective Agreement for Persons Employed in Health Care, Collective Agreement for the Education Sector in the Republic of Slovenia,… Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/202288 Špela Mar, Danijela Sokolić, Jernej Buzeti (3) period during which the worker performs his work tasks and duties (Arti- cle 2 of Directive 2003/88/EC). In addition, it is stipulated that the maximum weekly working time including overtime, lasts 48 hours (Article 6, of Directive 2003/88/EC). According to that, in Slovenia, the Employment Relationship Act (ZDR-1) stipulates in that, on average, full-time work may not exceed 40 hours per week (Article 142 of ZDR-1). In the event that the employer requires the employee to work after working time, this period is assessed according to the rules for overtime work, which is counted as working time (Article 143 of ZDR- 1). A rest period is a period of time, other than working time, which employers must provide to their employees to prevent them from harming themselves and their own health, or causing injury to their colleagues, through fatigue or other irregular working patterns (Eurofound, 2017). Rest periods should be of an appropriate length as they are intended for employees to relax and enjoy themselves, and to be free from work commitments (Eurofound, 2017). To this end, European Directive 2003/88/EC expresses the duration of rest peri- ods in units of time, namely hours, days and fractions thereof. In accordance with the provisions of European Directive 2003/88/EC3 and ZDR-14, emplo- yees in Slovenia are entitled to a daily rest period of a minimum of 11 hours between two working days and a weekly rest period of 35 hours, as well as the right to annual leave5 for a minimum period of four weeks. In this article, we will use the term non-work time instead of rest period. Non- -work time is intended for employees and their physiological needs, and for leisure activities unrelated to work (Parker, 1971, in Brook & Brook, 1989). During this time, it is crucial for employees to take a mental break and reco- ver from work, as this has an impact on their well-being and health (Lee at al., 2021; Sonnentag and Niessen, 2020; Ďuranová and Ohly, 2016). In the con- text of time periods, these are the time before the start of official working hours (morning) or after the end of official working hours (evening or night), when employees are entitled to daily rest, weekend rest or the correspon- ding weekly rest (Mar and Buzeti, 2021; ILO and Eurofound, 2017), and annual leave (CIPD, 2020; Houdmont et al., 2018). Additionally, this time does not include paid work6. 3 Methodological approach and research questions The methodological approach used in the article is a literature review. To ob- tain relevant research literature, we used databases WOS, Scopus, Eurofound and International Labour Organization (ILO) website. Research fields included social science and humanities, economics and management, education, he- althcare, psychology. We also used manual search to encompass relevant su- rveys (Eurofound, 2021; CIPD, 2020; Eurofound and ILO, 2019; ILO and Euro- found, 2017; Eurofound, 2016). To identify relevant scientific researches, we used search strings (keywords) such as non-work time, organizations, public 3 From Article 3 to Article 5. 4 In Article 155 and Article 156. 5 In the European Directive 2003/88/EC (Article 7) and ZDR-1 (Articles 159 to 162). 6 Meriam-Webster. Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/2022 89 Work During Non-Work Time of Public Employees administration, public sector, employees, information and communication te- chnology (ICT). To be included, the research had to be published in English between January 2016 and December 2021 in scientific journal, as research article, conference document or survey which contains quantitative, qualita- tive or both empirical methods and involves employees in the public admini- stration and public sector, who used different ICT to perform the work. The focus was on the newer literature which were not older than 5 years (2016- 2021). As we know from practice the performance of work during non-work has expanded with the mass use of ICT at work and the problem started to be more visible because of mass spread of remote work during COVID-19 pan- demic. We found and identified 18 scientific literature on the selected topic of work during non-work time (Andrade and Matias, 2021; Eurofound, 2021; Lee et al., 2021; Mar and Buzeti, 2021; Wendsche, de Bloom, Syrek and Vahle- -Hinz, 2021; CIPD, 2020; Lutz et al., 2020; Mohd Fauzi et al., 2020; Bavafa and Terwiesch, 2019; Eurofound and ILO, 2019; Schmoll, 2019; Thulin, Vilhelmson and Johansson, 2019; Gadeyne et al. 2018; Houdmont et al., 2018; ILO and Eurofound, 2017; Ďuranová and Ohly, 2016; Eurofound, 2016; Kreiner, 2006). Based on the research questions (RQ), we have analysed the following litera- ture: RQ1: How is work during non-work times becoming more widespread among employees? Based on an analysis of literature (Eurofound, 2021; Wendsche et al., 2021; Lutz et al., 2020; Gadeyne et al., 2018; Eurofound, 2016), we have examined whether work during non-work times is becoming more common among employees, including public employees. RQ2: Which employees are characterised by work during non-work times? From the literature (Andrade and Matias, 2021; Mohd Fauzi et al., 2020; Euro- found and ILO, 2019; Thulin et al., 2019; Houdmont et al., 2018), we present our findings on which employees are characterised by work during non-work time, in terms of socio-demographic factors. RQ3: During which periods do employees work during non-work times? Following a review literature (Mar and Buzeti, 2021; CIPD, 2020; Bavafa and Terwiesch, 2019; ILO and Eurofound, 2017), we have identified the most frequent periods of non-work times (morning, evening, night, weekends, an- nual leave) during which employees carry out work. 4 Results To answer the RQ1:”How is work during non-work times becoming more wide- spread among employees?”, the literature review is presented hereinafter in this chapter. The development of ICT has changed the way work is done in many sectors, including public administration, and has made employees constantly available Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/202290 Špela Mar, Danijela Sokolić, Jernej Buzeti to supervisors, colleagues and customers. Flexible working arrangements are becoming more widespread in organisations, allowing employees more auto- nomy in their working time, depending on their needs and preferences. Howe- ver, the high degree of flexibility in working hours and work location, combi- ned with high work demands, increases the intensity of the work. Employees face interruptions in their working hours, which impair their ability to get their work done during these hours. As a result, employees work long hours, overti- me, and work during non-work times, even when this time is devoted to their private activities. The findings show that this is blurring the boundary betwe- en employees’ private and professional lives, and that there is a perceived im- balance between employees’ work and private lives. The quality of women’s working time is higher than men’s, as they are better at balancing work and private life, while men are more likely to be better paid and more focused on career progression and professional development (Eurofound, 2021). Many employees in the service sector, such as education, health, public admi- nistration and private sector, have started working from home in 2020, due to the declaration of the global COVID-19 pandemic. Between April 2020 and March 2021, 54.3% of respondents in a Eurofound survey (2021)7 of 87,477 employees in the European Union (EU27) confirmed that they had worked during non-work times to meet their work commitments. In Slovenia, the pro- portion of respondents who worked during non-work time was slightly higher than the European average, with 57.2% of respondents confirming this. Com- pared to previous years, according to the 6. European Working Conditions Survey (Eurofound, 2016), which surveyed 43,850 respondents, 49% of surve- yed public employees (public administration, education and healthcare) from the European Union (EU) worked during non-work time, and 51% of respon- dents employed in Slovenian public sector. At the same time, 18% of those surveyed in the Slovenian public sector reported that their daily rest period was less than 11 hours (Eurofound, 2016). Moreover, the performance of work during non-work times depends not only on the changes and challenges that arise in the work environment, but on the moderating role of the integration preference of employees. A survey of 467 Belgian working parents from different sectors, showed that they work during non-work times because of their ability to use ICT. In particular, the high level of organisational expectations and work demands on employees’ commitment to work, as well as their integration preferences and behaviours, have an impact on carrying out work during non-work times. This is linked to a higher incidence of conflict, especially when employees combine work com- mitments with private activities. In addition, both organisational characteri- stics, and employees’ integration preferences and characteristics, have been found to impact each other (Gadeyne et al., 2018). Carrying out work requires more effort from employees from various orga- nizations, which leads to work being perceived as very stressful. The survey8 7 Working during COVID-19. 8 Bundesanstalt fur Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (2020). Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/2022 91 Work During Non-Work Time of Public Employees of employees in Germany, 60% reported the emergence of multi-tasking de- mands, 48% experience performance pressure in the workplace, 46% face interruptions at work, and 40% of employees confirmed that they have to get work done very quickly. In another German survey9, 20% of respondents confirmed that their daily rest was less than 11 hours at least once a month, while 17% said their breaks were often shorter or interrupted. Similarly, in the BIBB/BAuA survey (2018), 22% of respondents confirmed that working outside working time makes it harder for them to recover from work. Respon- dents explained that work during non-work times affects their allocation of time for private activities, leading to imbalances between work and private life (Wendsche et al., 2021). One study (Schmoll, 2019) found that the use of ICT changes the traditional time and space limits of employees’ work and their work-related behaviour. The results showed that the main factor in the work-related behaviour of an individual is not only their habit but also their intention, which depends on the individual’s attitude, beliefs, perception of control, subjective norms and work-related information. That means that perception of control over the be- haviour and performance of employees plays a particularly important role, but it is no longer autonomus and voluntary (Schmoll, 2019). Employees from a range of public and private sector service industries confirmed that their ability to use ICT means that they experience demands from their organisati- ons for their constant availability, even during non-work times. In addition, ICT causes disruption both during and outside working hours. As a result, emplo- yees who are constantly available experience unwanted emotional states such as agitation, nervousness and feelings of distress, and balance disorders between work and private life. That means that pressure on employees to be available had no positive affect on them (Lutz et al., 2020). A similar finding was found in the research (Lee et al., 2021), which includes 295 of employees from Vietnam. The results show, that use of ICT after working time is harmful to employee well-being. Therefore, the employees with work-related use of ICTs after hours were positively related to employees’ fatigue via psychologi- cal detachment. The employees with higher affective commitment showed a stronger negative relationship between work-related use of ICTs afterhours and psychological detachment. Based on the literature review, findings show that the employees, which use ICT during non-work time perceive technolo- gy-assisted supplemental work (TASW) as a potential stressor, resource, or demand. If employees perceive TASW as a stressor, that has a negative im- pact on their recovery and well-being, whereas if they perceive TASW as a resource, the use of ICT is preferred during non-work time. Hence, a novel conceptual, overall framework of TASW with focus on employee recovery and well-being processes was proposed (Ďuranová and Ohly, 2016). To answer the RQ2: “Which employees are characterised by work during non- -work times?”, according to Eurofound and ILO (2019) carrying out work du- ring non-work times is particularly characteristic for employees in manage- rial positions, and experts in the education and agriculture sectors. Full-time 9 Vieten and Brauner, 2020. Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/202292 Špela Mar, Danijela Sokolić, Jernej Buzeti employees (14%) are more likely to work during non-work times than part- -time employees (10%) are. Employees are deprived of daily rest because of work during non-work times, as confirmed by 23% of respondents. A comparison of the age differences of employees in an organisation reveals a difference in their perceptions of organisational expectations for the use of ICT) during non-work times. The older employees, aged 36- 45, confirmed that they perceive organisational expectations to use ICT during non-work ti- mes as an interference in their private life. Older employees appreciate more family commitments than younger employees do. As the younger employees aged between 18 and 35 have grown up with the development of ICT, they perceive it as part of their own identification and contact with their family, so using it during non-work times is a way of spending their free time and a mo- dern work culture. For both age groups of workers, the expectation of con- stant availability has led to a higher incidence of conflict between work and family life. The results of the survey show, that use of ICT during non-work times, and the resulting perception of conflict between work and family life, depends mainly on the individual preferences of employees. Therefore, the management of human resources, and the adoption of measures to improve working relationships between employees and the way work is done, are of paramount importance in an organisation (Andrade & Matias, 2021). When researching the topic of work during non-work time, we focused on finding relevant academic literature involving public employees, and found that there is a lack of such research. As mentioned above, work during non- -work time is typical for employees in the education sector. A study of Belgian secondary school teachers’ use of digital learning environments during non- -work times found that it lowered their performance, increased their worklo- ad, and worsened their balance between work and private life. These teachers reported a perceived increased social impact on colleagues after using ICT du- ring non-work times and consequently working more hours (Bauwens et al., 2020). Employees of public hospitals in Malaysia have confirmed that they are active during non-work times. In addition to performing work-related tasks during non-work times, work-related thoughts occur to physicians during this time. These are usually thoughts about unfinished or upcoming work tasks, and thoughts related to their patients. As a result of work during non-work times, physicians experience various forms of fatigue and, as a consequence, a more difficult recovery from work (Mohd Fauzi et al., 2020). In the rese- arch by Kreiner (2006) findings show that segmenting or integrating work and home is not necessarily good or bad. But the compatibility between work-ho- me segmentation preference and the perceived segmentation supplies was granted to the individual and are correlated with work-home conflict, job sa- tisfaction and stress. If there is consistency between the employee's work-ho- me segmentation and the perceived segmentation supplies granted by the organization. The employee's conflict between work and home and stress is reduced but their job satisfaction is increased (Kreiner, 2006). Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/2022 93 Work During Non-Work Time of Public Employees Work during non-work times is also characteristic of employees doing their work remotely, despite the fact that they are given greater autonomy in their work schedules. A survey by six governmental agencies in Sweden found that teleworkers who doing analytical and managerial work spend an average of two hours per week work during non-work times. But even teleworkers, who carry out routine tasks and take decisions in proceedings, work on average less than one hour a week during non-work times. The only difference betwe- en the two groups compared is in terms of experience of working remotely, as employees who do routine work have less experience of working remotely, and are therefore less likely to work overtime or during non-work times. Sur- vey respondents are more likely to stick to deadlines and prepare for meetin- gs during non-work times. This makes it more difficult for them to define the boundary between working and non-working time, and they feel more time pressure, which is influenced by sociodemographic factors such as gender and parenthood (Thulin et al., 2019). Employees of the Police Authority of England and Wales confirmed that they work during non-work times, and that all three dimensions of the concept of “leaveism10” are present. In average, around 50 % of management employees work during non-work times. Other police officers also work during non-work times, especially those who were not able to finish their work during working time. Survey respondents confirmed that they work while on leave, to make up for missed work, or that some do not take their full annual leave entitle- ment because of work. Similarly, employees who were unwell or had health problems took leave instead of sick leave. This behaviour, in turn, leads to a deterioration in balance between work and private life, and a higher inciden- ce of conflict between work and family life (Houdmont et al., 2018). For the RQ3:”During which periods do employees work during non-work times?”, we found in existing literature (Mar & Buzeti, 2021; CIPD, 2020; Bavafa & Terwiesch, 2019; ILO & Eurofound, 2017) that employees work at different times during non-work times. During the COVID-19 epidemic, out of a total of 1670 public employees surve- yed in the Slovenian public administration, 80% of those surveyed confirmed that they work during non-work times. In particular, respondents were work during non-work times to meet work commitments, as the volume of their work increased during the COVID-19 epidemic. As a result, most respondents (29.2%) worked during non-work times once or twice a week, and the most frequent times of work during non-work times were in the afternoon (after office hours) (57.1%), at weekends (37.3%) and late in the evening (31.4%). Respondents also confirmed that they worked in the morning before the start of official working hours, on public holidays (13.7%), during annual leave 10 The concept of “leaveism” was coined by Hesketh and Cooper in 2013. The idea here is that employees make use of their entitled annual leave, instead of sick leave due to ill health and injury (dimension 1). Instead of using their time during non-work times for relaxation and per- sonal matters, employees carry out work commitments that they were not able to complete during working hours (dimension 2). In the same way, employees carry out work commitments while on annual leave, believing that this is a way of catching up on work they have missed (dimension 3). Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/202294 Špela Mar, Danijela Sokolić, Jernej Buzeti (13.8%) and when they were off sick (9.5%). The findings show that during the COVID-19 epidemic, public employees were able to adjust their working hours to a certain extent, in line with the agreement with management and according to the organisation of meetings and work tasks to be carried out. Therefore, respondents whose working hours increased or decreased slightly during the COVID-19 epidemic were more likely to work during non-work ti- mes (Mar & Buzeti, 2021). Employees who carried out work remotely are characterised by flexible wor- king and greater autonomy in the allocation of working time. As a result, only a few of them keep to a regular working schedule, and most of them work before or after their regular working hours; for example in the evenings, at night and at weekends, in order to complete their work commitments (IN- SHT, 2011; Anttila et al, 2009; Glorieux and Minnen, 2008, Walrave and De Bie, 2005, in ILO and Eurofound, 2017). Compared to employees who work at the employer’s location, teleworkers work longer hours because they replace commuting time with work activities. Teleworkers more likely to experience imbalances between work and private life due to changes in work routines (ILO and Eurofound, 2017). Changes in the way work is done also have an impact on when employees work during non-work times. For healthcare staff, the number of hours has doubled with the introduction of a new electronic communication channel that allows patients to consult a physician in the form of an e-visit. The sur- vey took into account statistics covering 3.3 million patient visits over a time period of 8.5 years. After comparing the data between 2008 and 2016, it was found that the average physician spent 14.2 hours on e-visits in 2008, and 27.1 hours in 2016. E-visits led 37% of physicians to work early in the morning or late in the evening, and 14% to work on weekends. It shows that most ambulatory visits occur in the morning and afternoon. Most e-visits are made during the lunch break. Physicians were most active in the morning, as this was the time when they were expected to deal with previous work activities. In 2016, the average physician was engaged in e-visits during non-work times on about a third of days (31%) of the week. As a result, physicians are experi- encing an increase in their workload, which has an impact on the occurrence of errors at work, and on the well-being and health of employees (Bavafa and Terwiesch, 2019). The concept of “leaveism” is becoming more and more widespread among employees. According to the CIPD report (2020), 73% of respondents con- firmed that they had used some form of the concept of “leaveism” over a 12-month period. 60% of respondents worked during non-work times, 38% took annual leave because they felt unwell, and 34% worked while taking an- nual leave. Leaveism is more common in organisations where presenteeism is already present among employees. Therefore, in organisations where both concepts are evident, the key role of management is to create an organisati- onal culture characterised by employees not working long hours or overtime, by moderating and monitoring employee workloads (CIPD, 2020). Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/2022 95 Work During Non-Work Time of Public Employees 5 Discussion Based on the analysed academic literature, we find that employees’ ability to use ICT creates the so-called “Always-on culture” (Von Bergen et al., 2019; McDowall and Kinman, 2017). At the same time, various changes in the orga- nisation, as well as individual preferences, influence employees to be active and do work at any time, including during non-work times (Eurofound, 2021; Wendsche et al., 2020; CIPD; Fauzi Mohd et al., 2020; Lutz et al., 2020; Sch- moll, 2019; Gadeyne et al., 2018; Kreiner, 20006). Following a review litera- ture, we found that 9 surveys (Eurofound, 2021; Mar and Buzeti, 2021; Lutz et al., 2020; Mohd Fauzi et al., 2020; Bavafa and Terwiesch, 2019; Eurofound and ILO, 2019; Thulin et al., 2019; Houdmont et al., 2018; Eurofound, 2016) included public employees. Therefore, we can assume that they work during non-work times. In the context of RQ1: “How is work during non-work times becoming more widespread among employees?”, we found from Eurofound (2021, 2016), that work during non-work times is increasingly common among employees. In addition to a variety of flexible forms of work (Eurofound, 2021), the work environment is characterised by high work demands, increasing the relevance of virtual work, pressures to perform well and get work done quickly, and interruptions (Eurofound, 2021; Wendsche et al., 2021; Schmoll, 2019). It is these factors that make it increasingly common for employees to work during non-work times, in order to fulfil their work commitments and tasks in a ti- mely and appropriate manner. The expansion of work during non-work times is influenced by employees’ integration preferences (Gadeyne et al., 2018). In addition, the declaration of a global pandemic due to the emergence of COVID-19 in 2020 has had an impact on employees, and the spread of work during non-work times. As a result of the measures taken to prevent the spre- ad of the virus, many employees have started working from home. In order to get the work done on time, they also started work during non-work times (Eurofound, 2021). At the same time, employees have had to balance their work commitments with their private activities. In this context, a key finding is that work during non-work times is also increasingly common among emplo- yees of public administration and the wider public sector. It can be seen that it is not only societal changes that are influencing employees to work during non-work times, but also a variety of factors or reasons that are occurring on the part of organisations or work environments, and within each individual. Hence, based on research RQ2: “Which employees are characterised by work during non-work times?”, we wanted to know whether work during non-work times is also influenced by socio-demographic factors. From the literature collected, we found that, within sociodemographic factors, work during non- -work times is more common for employees in managerial positions (Eurofo- und and ILO, 2019; Houdmont et al., 2018) and experts in different service industries (Eurofound and ILO, 2019). Research involving public employees shows that work during non-work times is typically undertaken by employees in the education (Bauwens et al., 2020; Eurofound and ILO, 2019), healthcare Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/202296 Špela Mar, Danijela Sokolić, Jernej Buzeti (Fauzi Mohd et al., 2020; Bavafa and Terwiesch, 2019) and police (Houdmont et al., 2018) sector, as well as public employees working remotely (Thulin et al., 2019). Similarly, Schmoll (2019) argues that teleworkers feel the pressure to perform work during non-work time. Depending on the type of employment contract, work during non-work ti- mes is more common among full-time than part-time jobs (Eurofound and ILO, 2019). In particular, men are more likely than women to work during non- -work times (Eurofound, 2021). For both employee types, work during non- -work times has been traced to imbalances between work and private life (Eurofound, 2021; Wendsche et al., 2021; ILO and Eurofound, 2017). Also, regardless of age, both older and younger employees are found to work du- ring non-work times. However, older employees are more involved in family commitments, whereas younger employees are more likely to identify with ICT, and therefore do not perceive as much pressure to work during non-work times (Andrade & Matias, 2021). We found that work during non-work times is associated with the socio-de- mographic factors of employees, such as the employment status, gender, age and job. It was to be expected that work during non-work times is typical for employees in managerial positions. In the work environment, managers are key actors, as their activities contribute to the realisation of organisational goals, and influence the behaviour of employees (Buzeti, 2021). Interesting findings include that age is not a predictor of work during non-work times – this is rather a characteristic of individual preferences and job requirements – and that work during non-work times is more common among men, although we would expect women to find it more difficult to balance work and family commitments. The article also identifies the periods of time during non-work times when employees are active. Regarding RQ3: “During which periods do employees work during non-work times?”, we found that employees are constantly avai- lable to their employer, colleagues and customers via ICT (Eurofound, 2021). Often, employees work during non-work times in the afternoon after the end of official working hours (Mar and Buzeti, 2021), in the evening or at night and during weekends (Mar & Buzeti, 2021; Bavafa & Terwiesch, 2019; ILO & Euro- found, 2017), some in the morning (Mar and Buzeti, 2021; Bavafa and Terwi- esch, 2019) and during annual leave (Mar & Buzeti, 2021; CIPD, 2020; Hou- dmont et al. 2018), and when they are off sick (Mar and Buzeti, 2021). This is why the leaveism is perceived in these employees (CIPD, 2020; Houdmont et al. 2018). Employees also reported that their daily rest time was shorter (Wen- dsche et al., 2020; Eurofound and ILO, 2019; Eurofound; 2016) than the 11 hours stipulated in European Directive 2003/88/EC. Research suggests that work-related thoughts occur for active employees during non-work times, particularly regarding unfinished or upcoming work tasks, and formal and in- formal discussions about work with colleagues and clients (Mohd Fauzi et al., 2020; Bavafa and Terwiesch, 2019). In view of the above, the research shows that employees are deprived of their entitled scheduled rest periods as a re- Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/2022 97 Work During Non-Work Time of Public Employees sult of work during non-work times, since they work at different time periods. In addition, it is increasingly difficult for employees to psychologically detach themselves from work. This has a significant impact on their recovery from work, and in the long term, is certainly not an encouraging prognosis, as lack of rest, self-care and other off-duty activities can, over time, lead to employe- es showing signs associated with the challenges of exhaustion, burnout, emo- tional irritability, etc. But employees with granted work-home segmentation, do not feel obliged to work during non-work time (Kreiner, 2006). Research also confirms that with work-related use of ICT during non-work ti- mes affected employees,their segmentation and preferences about work du- ring non-work times (Lee et al., 2021; Kreiner, 2006). According to this emplo- yees experience an inability to recover from work, they have a problems with psychological detachment and fatigue (Lee et al., 2021; Mohd Fauzi et al., 2020; Bavafa and Terwiesch, 2019), as well as the onset of unwanted emoti- onal states (Lutz et al., 2020). These employees are more likely to experience conflict between work and family life, as they are preoccupied with work com- mitments and work-related thoughts during non-work times, rather than en- gaging in personal activities during this time (Andrade and Matias, 2021; Wen- dsche et al., 2021; Gadeyne et al., 2018; Houdmont et al., 2018). Employees who work during non-work times experience a spillover of their work-related commitments in their private life, and thereby provide disruption to their pri- vate life. This leads to imbalances between work and private life (Eurofound, 2021; Andrade and Matias, 2021; Wendsche et al., 2021; Mohd Fauzi et al., 2020; Eurofound and ILO, 2019; Gadeyne et al., 2018). The main findings of the research questions are presented in Table 1. Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/202298 Špela Mar, Danijela Sokolić, Jernej Buzeti Table 1: The main findings of the research questions Research question Main findings RQ1 • Work during non-work times becoming more common among public employees because of use of ICT, high work demands, increasing of virtual work, COVID-19 measures, to pressure to meet requirements on time (Eurofound, 2021; Wendsche et al., 2021; Schmoll, 2019; Gad- eyne et al., 2018; Eurofound, 2016; Kreiner, 2006). • Work during non-work time is influenced by employees’ integration preferences, and willingness to change their work-life balance at ex- pense of private time their well-being and inability to balance work and their private life (Andrade & Matias, 2021; Lee, at al., 2021; Lutz et al., 2020; Schmoll, 2019; Ďuranová & Ohly, 2016; Kreiner, 2006). RQ2 • Work during non-work time is more common (Bauwens et al., 2020; Fauzi Mohd et al., 2020; Bavafa & Terwiesch, 2019; Eurofound & ILO, 2019; Schmoll, 2019; Thulin et al., 2019, Houdmont et al., 2018; ILO & Eurofound, 2017): – For employees in managerial positions. – For employees in the education, healthcare and police sector. – For teleworkers. – Among full-time than part-time jobs. – For men than women. RQ3 • Employees work in all times that are not working times (Mar & Buzeti, 2021; CIPD, 2020; Bavafa & Terwiesch, 2019; Houdmont et al. 2018; ILO & Eurofound, 2017): – In the afternoon after the end of official working hours. – In the morning. – In the evening or at night. – During weekends. – During annual leave. – During sick leave. Source: authors (2022) 6 Conclusion The phenomenon of work during non-work times spreads progressively in a global economy and is becoming ever important after the global work from home experiment (pandemic COVID-19), not leaving public sector intact. Work from non-employers` premises is here to stay. In general, it is related to employees’ well-being, health and balance between work and private life, and there is a higher incidence of conflict between work and family life. Our rese- arch implies that employees are working increasingly during non-work times due to the changes in work technologies, societal values, organizational chan- ges and work expectations. After reviewing the literature, we find that there is little research involving only public employees. We note that the public sec- tor survey sample mostly included only specific groups of public employees in Central European Public Administration Review, Vol. 20, No. 1/2022 99 Work During Non-Work Time of Public Employees the education, healthcare and police sectors and teleworkers. Our research contribution is in analysing studies that investigate patterns of public emplo- yees regarding working during non-working times. Our results imply that de- velopment of ICT significantly affected working patterns, and intensified the work intensity, which led to a blurring boundary between working and non- -working time. In other words, employees work even if there is no formal obli- gation to work long hours because they have the means (ICT) and they want to fulfil the expectations. In light of this, a possible avenue for a further research would be a longitudinal study to determine the direction, intensity and dyna- mics of the phenomenon specifically in the public sector. Moreover, a qualita- tive research on determinants of various socio-demographic groups of public employees would be beneficial to develop a deep insight in the complexities of effects of work during non-work time on personal and organizational per- formance. It would be particularly important to explore the impact of the phe- nomenon of work during non-work times on employees and organizations. Further research is needed to determine whether work during non-work time has an effect on public employee´s availability for work. We want to study also the concept “extended availability for work” which is correlated with work du- ring non-work time and the correlation between work during non-work time and public employee´s availability and their personality. The limitations of the study include a non-substantial body of knowledge avai- lable on the topic of work during non-work times. 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