ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKIZBORNIK 2017 57 1 0101661851779 ISSN 1581-6613 A C TA G E O G R A P H IC A S LO V E N IC A • G E O G R A FS K I Z B O R N IK • 57 -1 • 20 17ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 57-1 • 2017 Contents – Vsebina Drago PERKO, Mauro Hrvatin, rok Ciglič Determination of landscape hotspots of Slovenia 7 DoločanjepokrajinskihvročihtočkSlovenije 20 Urša Šebenik, Mitja brilly, Mojca Šraj Drought Analysis Using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) 31 Analizasušnihrazmers pomočjostandardiziranegapadavinskegaindeksa(SPI) 44 tin lUkić, Predrag Marić, ivana Hrnjak, Milivoj b. gavrilov, Dragan MlaDjan, Matija Zorn, blaž koMaC, Zoran MiloŠević, Slobodan b. Marković, Dušan SakUlSki, andries jorDaan, jasmina ĐorĐević, Dragoslav Pavić, rastislav StojSavljević Forest fire analysis and classification based on a Serbian case study 51 jaroslav biolek, ivan anDráŠko, jiří Malý, Pavlína ZrůStová Interrelated aspects of residential suburbanization and collective quality of life: A case study in Czech suburbs 65 Matjaž gerŠič Changing denotations of selected Slovenian choronyms 77 Spreminjanjedenotataizbranihslovenskihpokrajinskihimen 90 Spe cial issue – Geographical Names Drago Perko, Peter jorDan, blaž koMaC Exonyms and other geographical names 99 Drago klaDnik, ivana Crljenko, ankica čilaŠ ŠiMPraga, Matjaž gerŠič A Comparison of Croatian and Slovenian exonyms 109 Drago Perko, Drago klaDnik Slovenian exonyms in North America 119 jožica ŠkofiC Microtoponyms as an important part of Slovenian cultural heritage 141 gábor gerCSák, gábor MikeSy Does Google serve as a model for using place names? 153 naslovnica 57-1_naslovnica 49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 1 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 57-1 2017 uvod57-1_uvod49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 1 2 uvod57-1_uvod49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 2 ZNANSTVENORAZISKOVALNI CENTER SLOVENSKE AKADEMIJE ZNANOSTI IN UMETNOSTI GEOGRAFSKI INŠTITUT ANTONA MELIKA • RESEARCH CENTRE OF THE SLOVENIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND ARTS ANTON MELIK GEOGRAPHICAL INSTITUTE ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 57-1 2017 LJUBLJANA 2017 uvod57-1_uvod49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 3 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA 57-1 2017 ISSN: 1581-6613 COBISS: 124775936 UDC/UDK: 91 © Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU 2017 International editorial board/mednarodni uredniški odbor: Michael Bründl (Switzerland), Rok Ciglič (Slovenia), Matej Gabrovec (Slovenia), Peter Jordan (Austria), Drago Kladnik (Slovenia), Blaž Komac (Slovenia), Andrej Kranjc (Slovenia), Dénes Lóczy (Hungary), Simon McCharty (United Kingdom), Slobodan Marković (Serbia), Milan Orožen Adamič (Slovenija), Drago Perko (Slovenia), Marjan Ravbar (Slovenia), Aleš Smrekar (Slovenia), Annett Steinführer (Germany), Mimi Urbanc (Slovenia), Matija Zorn (Slovenia). Editor-in-Chief/glavni urednik: Blaž Komac; blaz.komac@zrc-sazu.si Executive editor/odgovorni urednik: Drago Perko; drago@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for physical geography/glavni urednik za fizično geografijo: Matija Zorn; matija.zorn@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for human geography/glavna urednica za družbeno geografijo: Mimi Urbanc; mimi@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for regional geography/glavni urednik za regionalno geografijo: Drago Kladnik; drago.kladnik@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for spatial planning/glavni urednik za regionaln o planiranje: Janez Nared; janez.nared@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for geographic information systems/glavni urednik za geografske informacijske sisteme: Rok Ciglič; rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for environmental protection/glavni urednik za varstvo okolja: Aleš Smrekar; ales.smrekar@zrc.sazu Editorial assistant/uredniški pomočnik: Matjaž Geršič Published by/izdajatelj: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU Issued by/založnik: Založba ZRC Co-issued by/sozaložnik: Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti Address/Naslov: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija The papers are available on-line in English and Slovenian language/prispevki so v angleškem in slovenskem jeziku dostopni na medmrežju: http://ags.zrc-sazu.si (English internet version ISSN: 1581-8314/slovenska internetna različica ISSN: 1581–8314) Ordering/naročanje: Založba ZRC Novi trg 2, p. p. 306, SI – 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenija Phone/telefon: +386 (0)1 470 64 64 Fax/faks: +386 (0)1 425 77 94 E-mail/e-pošta: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si Annual subscription/letna naročnina: 20 € for individuals/za posameznike, 28 € for institutions/za ustanove. Single issue/cena posamezne številke: 12,50 € for individuals/za posameznike, 16 € for institutions/za ustanove. Cartography/kartografija: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU Translations/prevodi: DEKS, d. o. o. DTP/prelom: SYNCOMP, d. o. o. Printed by/tiskarna: Collegium Graphicum d. o. o. Print run/naklada: 400 copies/izvodov The journal is subsidized by the Slovenian Research Agency/revija izhaja s podporo Javne agencije za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije. The journal is indexed in also/revija je vključena tudi v: SCIE – Science citation index expanded , Scopus, JCR – Journal Citation Report/Science Edition, ERIH PLUS, GEOBASE Journals, Current geographical publications, EBSCOhost, Geoscience e-Journals, Georef, FRANCIS, SJR (SCImago Journal & Country Rank), OCLC WorldCat, and Google scholar, CrossRef. Front cover photography: The Sečovlje saltpans along the Piran bay are the landscape hotspot between land and sea. (photograph: Bojan Erhartič). Fotografija na naslovnici: Sečoveljske soline ob Piranskem zalivu so pokrajinska vroča točka med kopnim in morjem. (fotografija: Bojan Erhartič). uvod57-1_uvod49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 4 5 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA ISSN: 1581-6613 UDC – UDK: 91 Number – številka: 57-1 Year – leto: 2017 Contents – Vsebina Drago PERKO, Mauro Hrvatin, rok Ciglič Determination of landscape hotspots of Slovenia 7 Do ločanje po kra jin skih vročih točk Slo ve ni je 20 Urša Šebenik, Mitja brilly, Mojca Šraj Drought Analysis Using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) 31 Ana li za sušnih raz mer s po moč jo stan dar di zi ra ne ga pada vin ske ga indek sa (SPI) 44 tin lUkić, Predrag Marić, ivana Hrnjak, Milivoj b. gavrilov, Dragan MlaDjan, Matija Zorn, blaž koMaC, Zoran MiloŠević, Slobodan b. Marković, Dušan SakUlSki, andries jorDaan, jasmina ĐorĐević, Dragoslav Pavić, rastislav StojSavljević Forest fire analysis and classification based on a Serbian case study 51 jaroslav biolek, ivan anDráŠko, jiří Malý, Pavlína ZrůStová Interrelated aspects of residential suburbanization and collective quality of life: A case study in Czech suburbs 65 Matjaž gerŠič Changing denotations of selected Slovenian choronyms 77 Spre mi nja nje de no ta ta iz bra nih slo ven skih po kra jin skih imen 90 Special issue – Geographical Names Drago Perko, Peter jorDan, blaž koMaC Exonyms and other geographical names 99 Drago klaDnik, ivana Crljenko, ankica čilaŠ ŠiMPraga, Matjaž gerŠič A Comparison of Croatian and Slovenian exonyms 109 uvod57-1_uvod49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 5 Drago Perko, Drago klaDnik Slovenian exonyms in North America 119 jožica ŠkofiC Microtoponyms as an important part of Slovenian cultural heritage 141 gábor gerCSák, gábor MikeSy Does Google serve as a model for using place names? 153 6 uvod57-1_uvod49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 6 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017, 7–29 DETERMINATION OF LANDSCAPE HOTSPOTS OF SLOVENIA DOLOČANJE POKRAJINSKIH VROČIH TOČK SLOVENIJE Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Ciglič The landscape hotspot around Kamnik, as seen by the painter Franz Kurz zum Thurn und Goldenstein (1807–1878). The original painting is kept at the National Museum of Slovenia. Pokrajinska vroča točka okoli Kamnika, kot jo je videl slikar Franz Kurz zum Thurn und Goldenstein (1807–1878). Izvirnik slike hrani Narodni muzej Slovenije. 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 7 Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Ciglič, Determination of landscape hotspots of Slovenia Determination of landscape hotspots of Slovenia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4618 UDC: 911.52(497.4) COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: Based on digital data on relief, rock, and vegetation, the most significant elements of the inter- nal structure of Slovenian landscapes, and their external appearance, a geographic information system was used to calculate landscape diversity of Slovenia. Areas with high landscape diversity are landscape hotspots, and areas with low landscape diversity are landscape coldspots. One-tenth of Slovenia with the highest landscape diversity was defined as landscape hotspots, and one-tenth of Slovenia with the lowest landscape diversity was defined as landscape coldspots. Most landscape hotspots are located in the Alpine part of Slovenia (more than two-thirds of their total area), and most landscape coldspots in the Dinaric part of Slovenia (almost half of their total area). KEY WORDS: geography, relief, rocks, vegetation, landscape diversity, landscape hotspot, landscape coldspot, geographic information system, Slovenia The editorial board received this article on May 25th, 2016. ADDRESSES: Drago Perko, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: drago@zrc-sazu.si Mauro Hrvatin, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: mauro@zrc-sazu.si Rok Ciglič, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si 8 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 8 1 Introduction Increasingly more researchers are dealing with the evaluation and importance of landscape diversity (Runhaar and Udo de Haes 1994; Bailey 1996; Bunce et al. 1996; Bastian 2000; Mücher et al. 2003; Loveland and Merchant 2004; Šímová and Gdulová 2012; Mocior and Kruse 2016). Areas where there is a mix of vari- ous natural factors are important for biodiversity, habitats, and species diversity (Dramstad et al. 2001; Hou and Walz 2013; Walz and Syrbe 2013). Areas with landscape diversity may also have an advantage in economic development, especially in tourism, because »human perception respects diversity, complexity, patterns, and local character« (Erhartič 2012). Gray (2004) believes that the significance of diverse types of relief and richness of terrain details for the popularity of tourism areas is greatly underestimated. On the other hand, areas where various natural influ- ences mix can also be areas where it is not simple to transfer best practices because of the varying responses of the landscape to human intervention. The landscape diversity of an area may therefore offer some advantages, but also some disadvantages and challenges. High landscape diversity mainly characterizes areas at the junction and interweaving of different landscape types. Analysis of various geographical classifications of Europe shows that the most diverse areas are located in southern Scandinavia and on the margins of the Pyrenees and the Alps. Slovenia is also included in these very diverse areas (Ciglič and Perko 2013). The main purpose of the study is to determine the contiguous areas in Slovenia with the greatest and least landscape diversity, which is related to certain economic and other advantages or disadvantages. The article presents the first part of the study, which is primarily a quantitative approach to defining areas with increased natural landscape diversity. In the future, evaluation based on actual data, field research, and expert assessment will define the role of natural landscape diversity for the risk of natural hazards. It will also be used in relation to settlement patterns (i.e., spatial planning), agriculture, tourism, and the economy overall. The defined evaluation system for landscape heterogeneity can potentially be used in various areas around the globe. 2 Methods Three natural landscape elements are the most significant for the internal structure, function, and appear- ance of Slovenian landscapes: relief, rocks, and vegetation. They are so strongly linked with other natural landscape elements that a natural-geographical regionalization or typology of appropriate quality can only be created by considering these three landscape elements (Perko, Hrvatin, and Ciglič 2015). Because Slovenia has sufficiently accurate digital data on relief, rocks, and vegetation at its disposal, it is possible to use a geographic information system to determine landscape diversity as well as landscape hotspots and coldspots. As a base layer in a geographic information system, a geomorphologically tested 25 m digital eleva- tion model (Podobnikar 2002, Digitalni model višin … 2014) was used, which provides 32,436,693 square cells with a baseline of 25 m and an area of 6.25 ares. Vector layers with relief, lithological, and vegetation types were added. They were transformed from vector format to 25 m raster format because the remainder of the study used geoinformation tools for pro- cessing raster data layers. The relief layer (Figure 1) is based on a 1:400,000 map of morphological units (Perko 2001). The map has 195 units, which were combined into seven relief types (Perko, Hrvatin, and Ciglič 2015): • Plains; • Rough plains; • Low hills; • Rough low hills; • High hills; • Rough high hills; • Mountains. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 9 Figure 1: Relief layer with seven types. p p. 10 Figure 2: Lithology layer with fifteen types. p p. 11 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 9 Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Ciglič, Determination of landscape hotspots of Slovenia 10 R el ie f t yp es Pl ai ns R ou gh p la in s Lo w h ill s R ou gh lo w h ill s H ig h hi lls R ou gh h ig h hi lls M ou nt ai ns 0 10 20 30 40 50 km © A nt on M el ik G eo gr ap hi ca l I ns tit ut e ZR C S A ZU 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 10 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 11 R oc k ty pe s C la y an d si lt Sa nd C ar bo na te g ra ve l, ru bb le a nd ti ll Si lic at e gr av el C la ys to ne a nd si lts to ne C ar bo na te c on gl om er at e Si lic at e sa nd st on e an d co ng lo m er at e Sa nd st on e an d m ar l ( fly sc h) M ar l C ar bo na te a nd c la st ic ro ck s Li m es to ne D ol om ite M et am or ph ic ro ck s Tu ffs a nd tu ffi te s Ig ne ou s r oc ks 0 10 20 30 40 50 km © A nt on M el ik G eo gr ap hi ca l I ns tit ut e ZR C S A ZU 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 11 Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Ciglič, Determination of landscape hotspots of Slovenia The lithology layer (Figure 2) is based on a vector map of rock types of Slovenia (Litostratigrafska karta Slovenije 2011), which was produced by the Geological Survey of Slovenia and primarily based on 1:25,000 vectorized geological maps of Slovenia. The map has 938 units, which were combined into fif- teen lithological types (Perko, Hrvatin, and Ciglič 2015): • Clay and silt; • Sand; • Carbonate gravel, rubble, and till; • Silicate gravel; • Claystone and siltstone; • Carbonate conglomerate; • Silicate sandstone, and conglomerate; • Sandstone and marl (flysch); • Marl; • Carbonate and clastic rocks; • Limestone; • Dolomite; • Metamorphic rocks; • Tuffs and tuffites; • Igneous rocks. The vegetation layer (Figure 3) is based on a 1:400,000 map of potential natural vegetation (Zemljevid potencialne naravne vegetacije 1998), which was produced by the ZRC SAZU Jovan Hadži Biology Institute. The map has sixty-two different units, which were combined into fifteen vegetation types (Perko, Hrvatin, and Ciglič 2015): • Downy oak, European hophornbeam; • Downy oak; • Durmast; • European hornbeam, oak, occasional black alder; • Oak, occasional elm; • European hornbeam, fir; • European hornbeam; • Beech; • Beech, fir; • Beech, European hophornbeam, occasional European hophornbeam; • Beech, chestnut, oak; • Fir; • Spruce; • Red pine; • Dwarf pine and other highland vegetation. First, we calculated the relief diversity (Figure 5). Using a moving window, we calculated the ratio between the number of relief types that occur within a radius of 1 km and the total number of relief types for each cell. The number of all relief types is seven, so the minimum ratio is 1:7 or 0.1429 if only one relief type occurs in a 1 km radius, and the maximum ratio is 7:7 or 1.0000 if all seven relief types occur in a 1 km radius. We calculated the lithological and vegetation diversity in the same way. Their minimum ratio is 1:15 or 0.0667 if only one lithological or vegetation type out of a possible fifteen occurs in a 1 km radius. Finally, we calculated the average of these three partial diversities. This is the landscape diversity (Figure 4). The minimum ratio is 3:37 or 0.0810 if only one relief type, one lithological type, and one vegetation type occur in a 1 km radius, and the maximum ratio is 37:37 or 1.0000 if all seven relief types, fifteen litho- logical types, and fifteen vegetation types occur simultaneously in a 1 km radius. For example, a landscape diversity of 0.2500 means that 25% or a quarter of all thirty-seven possible relief, lithological, and vegetation types occur in a 1 km radius. 12 Figure 3: Vegetation layer with fifteen types. p Figure 4: Landscape diversity of Slovenia. p p. 14 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 12 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 13 Ve ge ta tio n ty pe s D ow ny o ak , E ur op ea n ho ph or nb ea m D ow ny o ak D ur m as t Eu ro pe an h or nb ea m , o ak , oc ca si on al b la ck a ld er O ak , o cc as io na l e lm Eu ro pe an h or nb ea m , f ir Eu ro pe an h or nb ea m B ee ch B ee ch , f ir B ee ch , E ur op ea n ho ph or nb ea m , oc ca si on al E ur op ea n ho ph or nb ea m B ee ch , c he st nu t, oa k Fi r Sp ru ce R ed p in e D w ar f p in e an d ot he r hi gh la nd v eg et at io n 0 10 20 30 40 50 km © A nt on M el ik G eo gr ap hi ca l I ns tit ut e ZR C S A ZU 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 13 Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Ciglič, Determination of landscape hotspots of Slovenia 14 0 10 20 30 40 50 km © A nt on M el ik G eo gr ap hi ca l I ns tit ut e ZR C S A ZU L an ds ca pe d iv er si ty 0. 43 24 (m ax im um ) 0. 08 10 (m in im um ) 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 14 3 Landscape hotspots and landscape coldspots Areas with high landscape diversity are landscape hotspots, and areas with low landscape diversity are land- scape coldspots. One-tenth of Slovenia with the highest landscape diversity was defined as landscape hotspots, and one- tenth of Slovenia with the lowest landscape diversity was defined as landscape coldspots (Figure 6). The number of landscape hotspots is 912 and the number of landscape coldspots is 681, which is 25% less. The total area of the hotspots is 1,688.85 km² and the total area of coldspots is 1,805.69 km², which is 7% more. The average size of the hotspots is 185 ha and the average size of the coldspots is 265 ha, which is 43% more. The largest hotspot covers 12,453 ha and the largest coldspot covers 16,187 ha, which is 30% more. Most landscape hotspots are located in Alpine Slovenia, encompassing more than two-thirds of their total area, and the fewest in the Mediterranean Slovenia, corresponding to barely one-tenth of their total area. Most landscape coldspots are located in Dinaric Slovenia, encompassing almost half of their total area, and the fewest in Alpine Slovenia, corresponding to one-sixth of their total area. The ratio between landscape hotspots and coldspots varies greatly between landscape types. On the Mediterranean plateaus, the area of hotspots is almost one hundred times less than the area of coldspots. In the Alpine mountains, the area of hotspots is ten times greater than the area of coldspots (Table 1). 4 Conclusion The results have applicability in various fields, such as tourism (development and promotion of tourist destinations), spatial planning (transfer of good practices), environmental protection, education, and research (Gray 2004; Erhartič 2012). Biodiversity is a common topic in environmental studies. Peters and Goslee (2001) stated that maintenance of biodiversity requires management at higher levels of organization, particularly Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 15 A A AA A AA A C B B B B B B B B C C C C C C A AAA D B D C D D D D D 3 A A AA A AA A C B B B B B B B B C C C C C A AAA D D D D D D D D D C 43 Map of relief types/ zemljevid reliefnih tipov ap of relief diversity/ zemljevid reliefne raznolikosti M etermination of diversity (counting the number of relief types in certain radius)/ postopek dolocanja raznolikosti (preštevanje števila reliefnih tipov v dolocenem radiju) D Figure 5: Schematic presentation of the determination of landscape diversity. Figure 6: Landscape hotspots and coldspots of Slovenia. p p. 16 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 15 Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Ciglič, Determination of landscape hotspots of Slovenia 16 0 10 20 30 40 50 km © A nt on M el ik G eo gr ap hi ca l I ns tit ut e ZR C S A ZU La nd sc ap e ho ts po ts La nd sc ap e co ld sp ot s 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 16 at the landscape scale. Mocior and Kruse (2016) proved that spatial heterogeneity or diversity is the most important criteria of landscape features (both biotic and abiotic) for evaluating educational values. Landscape diversity also plays an important role in various studies that include sampling. In homogeneous areas, the monitoring or sampling network may be smaller, but in diverse areas it must be denser (Bonar, Fehmi, and Mercado-Silva 2011) Thus high importance is given by the European Union to landscape diversity. Diversity is also regard- ed as an important natural resource by European landscape convention (2000), which acknowledges that »the quality and diversity of European landscapes constitutes a common resource, and that it is important to co-operate towards its protection, management and planning.« Diversity was also emphasized in the older EU document »Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy«, which was published in 1996 (Pan-European … 1996). As this is an ongoing research, in the next phases we will identify, analyze, classify, and evaluate Slovenia’s landscape hotspots. Fieldwork will be of great importance in verifying the theoretical findings on partic- ular landscape hotspots. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The authors acknowledge financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency and the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts (project no. L6-6852: Landscape Diversity and Hotspots of Slovenia). 5 References Bailey, R. G. 1996: Ecosystem geography. New York. Bastian, O. 2000: Landscape classification in Saxony (Germany) – a tool for holistic regional planning. Landscape and urban planning 50, 1–3. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(00)00086-4 Bonar, S. A., Fehmi, J. S., Mercado-Silva., N. 2011: An overview of sampling issues in species diversity and abundance surveys. Biological Diversity: Frontiers in Measurement and Assessment. New York. Bunce, R. G. H, Barr, C. J., Clarke, R. T., Howard, D. C., Lane, A. M. J. 1996: Land classification for strate- gic ecological survey. Journal of environmental management 47-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/ jema.1996.0034 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 17 Table 1: Area of landscape hotspots and coldspots by landscape types in Slovenia. Landscape types Area of hotspots (%) Other areas (%) Area of coldspots (%) Total (%) Alpine mountains 12.46 86.33 1.21 100.00 Alpine hills 14.10 82.55 3.35 100.00 Alpine plains 15.84 72.79 11.37 100.00 Pannonian hills 6.31 89.90 3.80 100.00 Pannonian plains 5.31 77.71 16.98 100.00 Dinaric plateaus 3.20 80.43 16.37 100.00 Dinaric plains 5.17 82.92 11.90 100.00 Mediterranean hills 3.86 81.95 14.18 100.00 Mediterranean plateaus 0.29 72.24 27.46 100.00 Slovenia 8.33 82.76 8.90 100.00 Alpine mountains 22.59 15.75 2.05 15.10 Alpine hills 38.90 22.93 8.65 22.99 Alpine plains 7.68 3.55 5.16 4.04 Pannonian hills 11.18 16.04 6.30 14.77 Pannonian plains 4.07 6.01 12.20 6.40 Dinaric plateaus 7.22 18.26 34.55 18.79 Dinaric plains 5.81 9.38 12.51 9.36 Mediterranean hills 2.43 5.18 8.34 5.23 Mediterranean plateaus 0.12 2.90 10.24 3.32 Slovenia 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 17 Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Ciglič, Determination of landscape hotspots of Slovenia Ciglič, R., Perko, D. 2013: Europe’s landscape hotspots. Acta geographica Slovenica 53-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.3986/AGS53106 Digitalni model višin z ločljivostjo 12,5 m, 25 m, 100 m, Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije, 2014. Dramstad, W. E., Fry, G., Fjellstad, W. J., Skar, B., Helliksen, W., Sollund, M.-L. B., Tveit, M. S., Geelmuyden, A. K., Framstad, E. 2001: Integrating landscape-based values–Norwegian monitoring of agricultural land- scapes. Landscape and Urban Planning 57, 3–4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(01)00208-0 Erhartič, B. 2012: Geomorfološka dediščina v Dolini Triglavskih jezer. Geografija Slovenije 23. Ljubljana. European landscape convention, 2000. Internet: https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/ DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=09000016802f80c6 (24. 5. 2016) Gray, M. 2004: Geodiversity, valuing and conserving abiotic nature. London. Hou, W., Walz, U. 2013: Enhanced analysis of landscape structure: Inclusion of transition zones and small- scale landscape elements. Ecological Indicators 31. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.11.014 Litostratigrafska karta Slovenije. Geološki zavod Slovenije, naročnik ARSO, revizija 2011. Ljubljana. Loveland, T. R., Merchant, J. M. 2004: Ecoregions and ecoregionalization: geographical and ecological per- spectives. Environmental Management 34, S1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00267-003-5181-x Mocior, E., Kruse, M. 2016: Educational values and services of ecosystems and landscapes – An overview. Ecological indicators 60. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.06.031 Mücher, C. A., Bunce, R. G. H., Jongman, R. H. G., Klijn, J. A., Koomen, A. J. M., Metzger, M. J., Wascher, D. M. 2003: Identification and Characterisation of Environments and Landscapes in Europe. Alterra rapport 832. Wageningen, Alterra. Pan-European Biological and Landscape diversity strategy, 1996. Internet: http://www.unibuc.ro/prof/ patru-stupariu_i_g/docs/2014/noi/03_11_52_38paneurop_strategie.pdf (24. 5. 2016) Perko, D. 2001: Analiza površja Slovenije s stometrskim digitalnim modelom reliefa. Geografija Slovenije 3. Ljubljana. Perko, D., Hrvatin M., Ciglič, R. 2015: A methodology for natural landscape typification of Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 55-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1938 Peters, D. P. C., Goslee, S. C. 2001: Landscape diversity. Encyclopedia of biodiversity 3. San Diego. Podobnikar, T. 2002: Koncept izdelave novega digitalnega modela reliefa Slovenije. Geografski vestnik 74-1. Runhaar, H. J., Udo de Haes, H. A. 1994: The use of site factors as classification characteristiccs for eco- topes. Ecosystem Classification for Environmental Management. Dordrecht. Šímová, P., Gdulová, K. 2012: Landscape indices behavior: A review of scale effects. Applied geography 34. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2012.01.003 Walz, U., Syrbe, R.-U. 2013: Linking landscape structure and biodiversity. Ecological indicators 31. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.01.032 Zemljevid potencialne naravne vegetacije. Biološki inštitut Jovana Hadžija ZRC SAZU, 1998. Ljubljana. 18 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 18 19 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 19 Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Ciglič, Do ločanje po kra jin skih vročih točk Slo ve ni je Do ločanje po kra jin skih vročih točk Slo ve ni je DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4618 UDK: 911.52(497.4) COBISS: 1.01 IZVLEČEK: Na te me lju di gi tal nih po dat kov o re lie fu, kam ni nah in rast lins tvu, ki so naj po memb nej še se - sta vi ne no tra nje se sta ve slo ven skih po kra jin in hkra ti nji ho ve zu na nje po do be, smo z upo ra bo geo graf ske ga in for ma cij ske ga si ste ma izra ču na li po kra jin sko raz no li kost Slo ve ni je. Ob moč ja z vi so ko po kra jin sko razno - li kost jo so po kra jin ske vro če toč ke, ob moč ja z niz ko po kra jin sko raz no li kost jo pa po kra jin ske mrz le toč ke. Kot vro če toč ke smo opre de li li de se ti no Slo ve ni je z naj viš jo po kra jin sko raz no li kost jo, kot mrz le toč ke pa de se ti no Slo ve ni je z naj niž jo po kra jin sko raz no li kost jo. Naj več po kra jin skih vro čih točk le ži v alp skem delu Slo ve ni je (več kot dve tret ji ni nji ho vih po vr šin), naj več po kra jin skih mrz lih točk pa v di nar skem delu Slo - ve ni je (sko raj po lo vi ca nji ho vih po vr šin). KLJUČNE BESEDE: geo gra fi ja, re lief, kam ni ne, rast lins tvo, po kra jin ska raz no li kost, po kra jin ska vro ča točka, po kra jin ska mrz la toč ka, geo graf ski in for ma cij ski si stem, Slo ve ni ja Ured niš tvo je pris pe vek pre je lo 25. maja 2016. NASLOVI: dr. Drago Perko Geografski inštitut Antona Melika Znanstvenoraziskovalni center Slovenske akademije znanosti in umetnosti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana E-pošta: drago@zrc-sazu.si dr. Mauro Hrvatin Geografski inštitut Antona Melika Znanstvenoraziskovalni center Slovenske akademije znanosti in umetnosti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana E-pošta: mauro@zrc-sazu.si dr. Rok Ciglič Geografski inštitut Antona Melika Znanstvenoraziskovalni center Slovenske akademije znanosti in umetnosti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana E-pošta: rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si 20 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 21 1 Uvod Vse več ra zi sko val cev se uk var ja z vred no te njem in po me nom po kra jin ske raz no li ko sti (Run haar in Udo de Haes 1994; Bai ley 1996; Bun ce s so de lav ci 1996; Ba stian 2000; Mücher s so de lav ci 2003; Lo ve land in Merc hant 2004; Šímová in Gdu lová 2012; Mo cior in Kru se 2016). Ob moč ja, kjer se pre ple ta jo raz lič ni na - rav ni de jav ni ki, so po memb na za bio di ver zi te to ter raz no li kost ha bi ta tov in vrst (Dram stad s so de lav ci 2001; Hou in Walz 2013; Walz in Syr be 2013). Po kra jin sko pe stra ob moč ja ima jo lah ko pred nost v gos po dar skem raz vo ju, še po se bej v tu riz mu, saj »… člo ve ko vo zaz na va nje ceni raz no li kost, kom plek snost, vzor ce in lo kal ni zna čaj …« (Er har tič 2012). Gray (2004) meni, da je po men raz lič nih ti pov re lief nih ob lik in bo gas tva po vr šin skih de taj lov za pri ljub - lje nost tu ri stič nih ob mo čij moč no pod ce njen. Po dru gi stra ni pa so ob moč ja, kjer se pre ple ta jo raz no li ki na rav ni vpli vi, lah ko tudi ob moč ja, kjer pre nos do brih praks za ra di raz lič ne ga od zi va po kra ji ne na člo ve - ko ve po se ge ni pre prost. Po kra jin ska raz no li kost ne ke ga ob moč ja lah ko to rej po nu ja ne kaj pred no sti, pa tudi sla bo sti in iz zivov. Ve li ka po kra jin ska raz no li kost je zna čil na pred vsem za ob moč ja na sti ku in pre ple tu raz lič nih po kra - jin skih ti pov. Ana li za raz lič nih geo graf skih čle ni tev ka že, da po kra jin sko naj bolj raz no li ka ob moč ja v Evro pi le ži jo v juž ni Skan di na vi ji ter na obrob ju Pi re ne jev in Alp. Med naj bolj raz no li ka ob moč ja spa da tudi Slo - ve ni ja (Ci glič in Per ko 2013). Glav ni na men ra zi ska ve je to rej poi ska ti po kra jin sko naj bolj in naj manj raz no li ka zao kro že na ob močja v Slo ve ni ji, na ka te re se na ve zu je jo gos po dar ske in dru ge pred no sti ali po manj klji vo sti. V član ku pred stav - lja mo prvi del ra zi ska ve, to je pred vsem kvan ti ta ti ven na čin do lo ča nja ob mo čij s po ve ča no po kra jin sko raz no li kost jo. S po moč jo vred no te nja, ki bo te me lji lo tako na de jan skih po dat kih, te ren ske mu delu kot tudi na eks pert ni oce ni bomo v pri hod nje opre de li li še po men po kra jin ske raz no li ko sti za na pri mer po - go stost in vr ste po jav lja nja na rav nih ne sreč, za po se li tev (pro stor sko na čr to va nje), kme tijs tvo, tu ri zem in gos po dars tvo nas ploh. Tako vzpo stav ljen si stem vred no te nja po kra jin ske he te ro ge no sti bo mo go če upo - ra bi ti na raz lič nih ob moč jih po sve tu. 2 Me to de Za no tra njo se sta vo, de lo va nje in zu na njo po do bo slo ven skih po kra jin so naj po memb nej še tri na rav ne po - kra jin ske se sta vi ne: re lief, kam ni ne in rast lins tvo. Z os ta li mi na rav ni mi po kra jin ski mi se sta vi na mi so po ve za ne tako moč no, da lah ko do volj ka ko vost no na rav no re gio na li za ci jo ali ti pi za ci jo iz de la mo samo z upo števa - njem teh treh po kra jin skih se sta vin (Per ko, Hr va tin in Ci glič 2015). Ker so v Slo ve ni ji na raz po la go do volj na tanč ni di gi tal ni po dat ki o re lie fu, kam ni nah in rast lins tvu, je mo go če s po moč jo geo graf ske ga in for ma cij ske ga si ste ma do lo či ti po kra jin sko raz no li kost ter po kra jinske vro če in mrz le toč ke. Kot te melj ni sloj v geo graf skem in for ma cij skem si ste mu smo upo ra bi li geo mor fo loš ko te sti ra ni 25-me - tr ski di gi tal ni mo del vi šin (Po dob ni kar 2002, Di gi tal ni mo del vi šin … 2014), ki nudi kar 32.436.693 ce lic z os nov ni co 25 m in po vr ši no 6,25 ara. Do da li smo vek tor ske slo je z re lief ni mi, li to loš ki mi in ve ge ta cij ski mi eno ta mi ozi ro ma tipi ter jih ra - ste ri zi ra li na 25-me tr ski ra str ski za pis, saj smo upo ra bi li geo graf ska in for ma cij ska orod ja za ob de la vo ra str skih po dat kov nih slo jev. Re lief ni sloj (sli ka 1) te me lji na zem lje vi du enot raz gi ba no sti po vrš ja v me ri lu 1 : 400.000 (Per ko 2001). Na zem lje vi du je 195 raz lič nih enot, ki smo jih smi sel no zdru ži li v 7 ti pov re lie fa (Per ko, Hr va tin in Ci glič 2015): • rav ni ne, • raz gi ba ne rav ni ne, • gri čev ja, • raz gi ba na gri čev ja, • hri bov ja, • raz gi ba na hri bov ja, • go rov ja. Sli ka 1: Re lief ni sloj s 7 tipi. p str. 22 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 21 Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Ciglič, Do ločanje po kra jin skih vročih točk Slo ve ni je 22 Ti pi r el ie fa ne ra zg ib an a ra vn in a ra zg ib an a ra vn in a ne ra zg ib an o gr ič ev je ra zg ib an o gr ič ev je ne ra zg ib an o hr ib ov je ra zg ib an o hr ib ov je go ro vj e 0 10 20 30 40 50 km © G eo gr af sk i i nš tit ut A nt on a M el ik a ZR C S A ZU 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 22 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 23 Li to loš ki sloj (sli ka 2) te me lji na vek tor ski Li to stra ti graf ski kar ti Slo ve ni je (Li to stra ti graf ska kar ta Slo - ve ni je 2011), ki jo je iz de lal Geo loš ki za vod Slo ve ni je, pred vsem na pod la gi vek to ri zi ra nih geo loš kih kart Slo ve ni je v me ri lu 1 : 25.000. Na zem lje vi du je 938 raz lič nih enot, ki smo jih smi sel no zdru ži li v 15 ti pov kam nin (Per ko, Hr va tin in Ci glič 2015): • gli na in melj, • pe sek, • kar bo nat ni prod, grušč in til, • si li kat ni prod, • gli na vec in me lje vec, • kar bo nat ni kon glo me rat, • si li kat ni peš če njak in kon glo me rat, • peš če njak in la po ro vec (fliš), • la po ro vec, • kar bo nat no-kla stič ne kam ni ne, • ap ne nec, • do lo mit, • me ta morf ne kam ni ne, • tuf in tu fit, • mag mat ske kam ni ne. Ve ge ta cij ski sloj (sli ka 3) te me lji na zem lje vi du po ten cial ne na rav ne ve ge ta ci je (Zem lje vid po ten cialne na rav ne ve ge ta ci je 1998), ki ga je v me ri lu 1 : 400.000 iz de lal Bio loš ki in šti tut Jo va na Ha dži ja ZRC SAZU. Na zem lje vi du je 62 raz lič nih enot, ki smo jih smi sel no zdru ži li v 15 ti pov po ten cial ne ve ge ta ci je (Per ko, Hr va tin in Ci glič 2015): • pu ha sti hrast, ga bro vec, • pu ha sti hrast, • gra den, • beli ga ber, dob, po ne kod čr na jel ša, • dob, po ne kod z bre stom, • beli ga ber, jel ka, • beli ga ber, • bu kev, • bu kev, jel ka, • bu kev, ga bro vec, po ne kod ga bro vec, • bu kev, ko stanj, hra sti, • jel ka, • smre ka, • rde či bor, • ru šev je in dru go vi so ko gor sko rast je. Naj prej smo izra ču na li re lief no raz no li kost (sli ka 4). Za vsa ko ce li co smo s po moč jo pre mič ne ga okna izra ču na li raz mer je med šte vi lom re lief nih ti pov (enot), ki se po jav lja jo v ra di ju 1 km, in šte vi lom vseh re lief nih ti pov (enot). Šte vi lo vseh re lief nih ti pov je 7, zato je naj manj še mož no raz mer je 1 pro ti 7 ali 0,1429, če se v ki lo me tr skem ra di ju po ja vi le 1 re lief ni tip, naj več je mož no raz mer je pa 7 pro ti 7 ali 1,0000, če se v ki lo me tr skem ra di ju po ja vi vseh 7 re lief nih ti pov. Na enak na čin smo izra ču na li tudi li to loš ko in ve ge ta cij sko raz no li kost. Pri nji ju je naj manj še mož no raz mer je 1 pro ti 15 ali 0,0667, če se v ki lo me tr skem ra di ju po ja vi le 1 li to loš ki ali ve ge ta cij ski tip od 15 mož - nih. Na kon cu smo izra ču na li pov preč ja teh treh del nih raz no li ko sti. To je po kra jin ska raz no li kost (sli ka 5). Naj manj še mož no raz mer je je 3 pro ti 37 ali 0,0810, če se v ki lo me tr skem ra di ju po ja vi le po 1 re lief ni, lito - loš ki in ve ge ta cij ski tip, naj več je mož no raz mer je pa 37 pro ti 37 ali 1,0000, če se v ki lo me tr skem ra di ju po ja vi hkra ti vseh 7 re lief nih ti pov, 15 li to loš kih ti pov in 15 ve ge ta cij skih ti pov. Sli ka 2: Li to loš ki sloj s 15 tipi. p str. 24 Sli ka 3: Ve ge ta cij ski sloj s 15 tipi. p str. 25 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 23 Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Ciglič, Do ločanje po kra jin skih vročih točk Slo ve ni je 24 Ti pi k am ni n gl in a in m el j pe se k ka rb on at ni p ro d, g ru šč in ti l si lik at ni p ro d gl in ov ec in m el je ve c ka rb on at ni k on gl om er at si lik at ni p eš če nj ak in k on gl om er at pe šč en ja k in la po ro ve c (f liš ) la po ro ve c ka rb on at no -k la st ič ne k am ni ne ap ne ne c do lo m it m et am or fn e ka m ni ne tu f i n tu fit m ag m at sk e ka m ni ne 0 10 20 30 40 50 km © G eo gr af sk i i nš tit ut A nt on a M el ik a ZR C S A ZU 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 24 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 25 Ti pi v eg et ac ije pu ha st i h ra st , g ab ro ve c pu ha st i h ra st gr ad en be li ga be r, do b, p on ek od č rn a je lš a do b, p on ek od z b re st om be li ga be r, je lk a be li ga be r bu ke v bu ke v, je lk a bu ke v, g ab ro ve c, p on ek od g ab ro ve c bu ke v, k os ta nj , h ra st i je lk a sm re ka rd eč i b or ru še vj e in d ru go v is ok og or sk o ra st je 0 10 20 30 40 50 km © G eo gr af sk i i nš tit ut A nt on a M el ik a ZR C S A ZU 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 25 Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Ciglič, Do ločanje po kra jin skih vročih točk Slo ve ni je Na pri mer po kra jin ska raz li ka 0,2500 po me ni, da se v ki lo me tr skem ra di ju hkra ti po ja vi 25 % ali četrtina od vseh 37 mož nih re lief nih, li to loš kih in ve ge ta cij skih ti pov. Sli ka 4: She ma ti čen pri kaz do lo ča nja po kra jin ske raz no li ko sti. Glej an gleš ki del pris pev ka. 3 Po kra jin ske vro če in mrz le toč ke Ob moč ja z vi so ko po kra jin sko raz no li kost jo so po kra jin ske vro če toč ke, ob moč ja z niz ko po kra jin sko raz - no li kost jo pa po kra jin ske mrz le toč ke. Kot vro če toč ke smo opre de li li de se ti no Slo ve ni je z naj viš jo po kra jin sko raz no li kost jo, kot mrz le točke pa de se ti no Slo ve ni je z naj niž jo po kra jin sko raz no li kost jo (Sli ka 6). Po kra jin skih vro čih točk je 912, po kra jin skih mrz lih točk pa 681, kar je 25 % manj. Skup na po vr ši na vro čih točk meri 1688,85 km2, mrz lih točk pa 1805,69 km2, kar je 7 % več. Pov preč na ve li kost vro čih točk je 185 ha, mrz lih točk pa 265 ha, kar je 43 % več. Naj več ja vro ča toč ka meri 12.453 ha, naj več ja mrz la točka pa 16.187 ha, kar je 30 % več. Naj več po kra jin skih vro čih točk le ži v alp ski Slo ve ni ji, več kot dve tret ji ni nji ho vih po vr šin, naj manj pa v sre do zem ski Slo ve ni ji, ko maj sla ba de se ti na nji ho vih po vr šin. Naj več po kra jin skih mrz lih točk le ži v di nar ski Slo ve ni ji, sko raj po lo vi ca nji ho vih po vr šin, naj manj pa v alp ski Slo ve ni ji, še sti na nji ho vih površin. Raz mer je med po kra jin ski mi vro či mi in mrz li mi toč ka mi je med po kra jin ski mi tipi zelo raz lič no. Na sre do zem skih pla no tah je po vr ši na vro čih točk sko raj sto krat niž ja od po vr ši ne mrz lih točk, v alp skih go - rov jih pa je po vr ši na vro čih točk de set krat več ja od po vr ši ne mrz lih točk (pre gled ni ca 1). Preglednica 1: Razporeditev pokrajinskih vročih in mrzlih točk po pokrajinskih tipih v Sloveniji. pokrajinski tipi površina vročih točk (%) ostale površine (%) površina mrzlih točk (%) skupaj alpska gorovja 12,46 86,33 1,21 100,00 alpska hribovja 14,10 82,55 3,35 100,00 alpske ravnine 15,84 72,79 11,37 100,00 panonska gričevja 6,31 89,90 3,80 100,00 panonske ravnine 5,31 77,71 16,98 100,00 dinarske planote 3,20 80,43 16,37 100,00 dinarska podolja in ravniki 5,17 82,92 11,90 100,00 sredozemska gričevja 3,86 81,95 14,18 100,00 sredozemske planote 0,29 72,24 27,46 100,00 Slovenia 8,33 82,76 8,90 100,00 alpska gorovja 22,59 15,75 2,05 15,10 alpska hribovja 38,90 22,93 8,65 22,99 alpske ravnine 7,68 3,55 5,16 4,04 panonska gričevja 11,18 16,04 6,30 14,77 panonske ravnine 4,07 6,01 12,20 6,40 dinarske planote 7,22 18,26 34,55 18,79 dinarska podolja in ravniki 5,81 9,38 12,51 9,36 sredozemska gričevja 2,43 5,18 8,34 5,23 sredozemske planote 0,12 2,90 10,24 3,32 Slovenia 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 26 Sli ka 5: Po kra jin ska raz no li kost Slo ve ni je. p Sli ka 6: Po kra jin ske vro če in mrz le toč ke Slo ve ni je. p str. 28 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 26 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 27 0 10 20 30 40 50 km © G eo gr af sk i i nš tit ut A nt on a M el ik a ZR C S A ZU Po kr aj in sk a ra zn ol ik os t 0, 43 24 (n aj vi šj a) 0, 08 10 (n aj ni žj a) 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 27 Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Ciglič, Do ločanje po kra jin skih vročih točk Slo ve ni je 28 0 10 20 30 40 50 km © G eo gr af sk i i nš tit ut A nt on a M el ik a ZR C S A ZU po kr aj in sk e vr oč e to čk e po kr aj in sk e m rz le to čk e 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 28 4 Sklep Re zul ta ti so upo rab ni na raz lič nih po droč jih, kot so na pri mer tu ri zem (raz voj in pro mo ci ja tu ri stič nih de - sti na cij), pro stor sko pla ni ra nje (pre nos do brih praks), vars tvo oko lja, izo bra že va nje in ra zi sko va nje (Gray 2004; Er har tič 2012). Po go sto se na po droč ju ved o oko lju ome nja bio di ver zi te ta. Pe ters in Go slee (2001) sta ome - ni la, da je za ohra nja nje bio di ver zi te te tre ba pra vil no ukre pa ti tudi na viš ji rav ni, rav ni po kra ji ne. Mo cior in Kru se (2016) sta v svo ji ra zi ska vi do ka za li, da je raz no li kost po kra ji ne naj bolj po mem ben de jav nik pri oce nje va nju izo bra že val ne ga po me na po kra ji ne ozi ro ma nje nih pr vin. Raz no li kost po kra ji ne je pomemb - na tudi pri mar si ka te ri ra zi ska vi, kjer se upo rab lja vzor če nje. Na ho mo ge nih ob moč jih je lah ko mre ža za opa zo va nje ali vzor če nje red kej ša, na raz no li kih ob moč jih pa mora biti go stej ša (Bo nar, Feh mi in Mer ca - do-Sil va 2011). Evrop ska uni ja daje za ra di na ve de nih in dru gih vzro kov po kra jin ski raz no li ko sti že od nek daj ve lik po men, saj se po kra jin ska raz no li kost (pe strost) kot po mem ben na rav ni vir ome nja v Evrop ski kon ven - ci ji o (po)kra ji ni (Eu ro pean lands ca pe con ven tion 2000), ki iz po stav lja, »…da sta ka ko vost in pe strost evrop skih kra jin sku pen vir in da si je tre ba sku paj pri za de va ti za nje go vo vars tvo, uprav lja nje in na čr to va nje …«. Raz - no li kost (pe strost) pou dar ja tudi pred hod ni do ku ment »Pan-Eu ro pean Bio lo gi cal and Lands ca pe di ver sity stra tegy« iz leta 1996 (Pan-Eu ro pean … 1996). V na da lje va nju ra zi ska ve bomo po kra jin ske vro če toč ke Slo ve ni je opre de li li, ana li zi ra li, raz vr sti li in ovred no ti li. Po memb no bo te ren sko delo s ka te rim bomo pre ver ja li teo re tič ne re zul ta te. ZAHVALA: Pris pe vek te me lji na ra zi sko val nem pro jek tu Po kra jin ska raz no li kost in vro če toč ke Slo ve ni - je (L6-6852), ki sta ga so fi nan ci ra li Jav na agen ci ja za ra zi sko val no de jav nost Re pub li ke Slo ve ni je ter Slo ven ska aka de mi ja zna no sti in umet no sti. 5 Li te ra tu ra Glej an gleš ki del pris pev ka. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 29 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 29 30 57-1_01_4618-Drago Perko_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 30 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017, 31–49 Drought AnAlysis using the stAnDArDizeD PreciPitAtion inDex (sPi) AnAlizA suŠnih rAzMer s PoMoČJo stAnDArDizirAnegA PADAVinsKegA inDeKsA (sPi) Urša Šebenik, Mitja Brilly, Mojca Šraj Effects of drought on agricultural land. Posledice suše na kmetijskih površinah. M O JC A Š R A J 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 31 Urša Šebenik, Mitja Brilly, Mojca Šraj, Drought Analysis Using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) Drought Analysis Using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.729 UDC: 556.167(497.4) 551.577.38(497.4) COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: Drought indices are commonly used for detection, monitoring and evaluation of drought events. One of the most commonly used drought indices is the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI). This paper presents the effect of theoretical distribution selection on SPI values, and the analysis of drought events for five selected meteorological stations in Slovenia. We found that the SPI on the annual time scale shows a similar pattern of occurrence of dry and wet periods at Ljubljana-Bežigrad, Novo mesto, and Trieste meteorological stations; something similar can be said for the Celje and Maribor-Tabor stations. The analy- sis of the correlations between the standardized data river discharge and precipitation data for the selected river basin of the River Pesnica shows the strongest correlation between the SPI-2 and standardized dis- charges. KEY WORDS: geography, drought, precipitation, probability analysis, Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), standardized river discharge data, the River Pesnica, Slovenia The article was submitted for publication on 12th February, 2014. ADDRESSES: Urša Šebenik University of Ljubljana Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering Jamova 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: ursa.sebenik@gmail.com Mitja Brilly, Ph.D. University of Ljubljana Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering Jamova 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: mitja.brilly@fgg.uni-lj.si Mojca Šraj, Ph.D. University of Ljubljana Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering Jamova 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: mojca.sraj@fgg.uni-lj.si 32 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 32 1 Introduction Drought results from a combination of meteorological, physical, and human factors (Natek 1983; Sustainable Water Use 2001; Sušnik 2006). Drought events, in comparison with other natural disasters, differ in sev- eral aspects (Wilhite 2003; Wilhite and Buchanan-Smith 2005): • There is no accurate, universal and objective definition of drought. Consequently, this leads to doubts about whether or not drought conditions are present in a given period, and if it is established that they are present, what is their intensity. This leads to indecision and lack of action from the competent authorities. • It is difficult to determine when a drought event began and when it ended. Usually, its consequences accumulate slowly throughout a long period of time, and can remain present in an area for several years. • Drought impacts do not have a one-off effect and are spread over a large geographical area. These char- acteristics of drought have hindered the development of accurate, reliable, and timely estimates of severity and impacts and, ultimately, the formation of drought preparedness plans. • Problems in the quantification of drought impacts and providing disaster relief. Drought must be con- sidered a relative, rather than an absolute condition, since it reflects a deviation from the long-term average over a long period of time. Drought events differ in the following aspects: intensity, duration, and spatial coverage (Wilhite 2003; Wilhite and Buchanan-Smith 2005). The intensity of a drought event refers to the degree of precipitation deficit and/or the severity of impacts. The spatial extent and impact of a drought event depend mostly on the time of the onset of precipitation deficit, its intensity, and duration. The impacts and consequences of drought can be direct and indirect. For example, loss of crops due to drought is a direct impact. The con- sequences of this impact (i.e. loss of crops) include loss of income, damage claims from farmers; these are indirect impacts, i.e. secondary or tertiary impacts. The impacts of drought can be economic (energy indus- try, tourism industry, fishery production, water supplies), environmental (loss of biodiversity, degradation of environment, erosion of soils, water quality and quantity effects) and social (food shortages, increased groundwater depletion, loss of natural and cultural heritage, decreased quality of life; Wilhite 2003). In order to implement adequate and timely measures, it is necessary to know the characteristics of drought and how it affects the different levels of society and its functioning. Today, drought indices are indispensable tools to detect, monitor and evaluate drought events (Niemeyer 2008). One of the most commonly used indices is the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) (Guttman 1999), distinguished by simplicity and tem- poral flexibility, due to which the index can be used over different time scales. The purpose of this paper is to identify drought conditions, i.e. to analyse and compare drought peri- ods using the SPI for the five selected sites, and try to describe hydrological drought events in the selected river basin using standardized monthly river discharge data and the SPI. 2 Methods 2.1 Data The only input data for calculating the SPI are monthly precipitation data. We selected four meteorolog- ical stations in Slovenia (Ljubljana-Bežigrad, Maribor-Tabor, Celje, and Novo mesto) and one station in Italy (Trieste), which are evenly spaced and for which long-term data series are available (ARSO 2011a; UL FGG 2012) (Table 1). Table 1: Features of the selected meteorological stations (ARSO 2009). Meteorological station Elevation (AMSL) Latitude Longitude Considered period Ljubljana-Bežigrad 299 46° 04' 14° 31' 1853–2010 Maribor-Tabor 275 46° 32' 14° 39' 1876–2010 Celje 240 46° 15' 15° 15' 1853–2010 Novo mesto 220 45° 48' 15° 11' 1951–2010 Trieste 32 45° 38' 13° 45' 1851–2004 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 33 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 33 Urša Šebenik, Mitja Brilly, Mojca Šraj, Drought Analysis Using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) SPI values were calculated for six different time scales: one-month (SPI-1), two-month (SPI-2), three-month (SPI-3), six-month (SPI-6), nine-month (SPI-9), and twelve-month, i.e. annual, (SPI-12) time scales for the entire observation period of the selected meteorological stations as well as for the cross-sec- tional period (1951–2004). We chose the River Pesnica with a rain-snow regime for the comparison between the SPI and river discharges. The Maribor-Tabor station was used for SPI calculation. The comparison was made using mean monthly river discharge data from the Gočova gauging station for the longest available period (1970–2009) (ARSO 2011b). 2.2 Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) SPI was developed by McKee et al. (1993) as a relatively simple index to be used for determining precipitation deficit or excess. Through SPI, we can also determine the frequency of extremely dry or wet events for a certain time scale for any location where precipitation data series are available (Gregorič and Ceglar 2007). The standardized nature of the index allows us to obtain comparable data on drought frequency for any location (Guttman 1999). The first step in calculating the SPI index is to determine the probability density function for select- ed precipitation series. The distribution most commonly used in calculating the SPI is the gamma distribution (McKee et al. 1993; Hayes et al. 1999; Guttman 1999; Hayes 2000; Lloyd-Hughes and Saunders 2002; Ceglar and Kajfež-Bogataj 2008). Guttman 1999, Vicente-Serrano and Lopez-Moreno (2005) as well as Blain (2011) used Pearson III distribution in their analysis. Guttman (1999) compared the SPI values calculat- ed with different distributions and found that the gamma and Pearson III distributions fitted data the best. The distribution function of each monthly amount of precipitation for the given time scale is then computed. Distribution function is then normalized into a standard normal random variable Z, which represents the value of SPI index (Lloyd-Hughes and Saunders 2002); this quantifies the drought inten- sity (Table 2). 34 J A D R A N S K O M O R J E Reka Mirna P ivka Idrijca S ot la S a v in ja Dra vinja Dragonja Vipava Me až P e sn ica Ščavnica Ledava Sora Lju blj an ica Savinja Kolpa Kr ka So ač Sava Sava Drava Mura Author of content/avtor vsebine: š Š Author of map/avtor zemljevida: Source/vir: in Ur a ebenik Urša Šebenik Agencija Republike Slovenije za okolje Geografski in titut AM ZRC SAZUš 0 10 20 30 40 50 km S r ace water gauging station/ vodomerna postaja u f Meteorogical station/ meteorolo ka postajaš Celje Gočova, reka Pesnica Murska Sobota Novo mesto Ljubljana ž- Be igrad Trst Maribor - tabor Figure 1: Locations of the selected meteorological stations and the Gočova gauging station located on the River Pesnica. 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 34 Table 2: Drought classification by SPI value and corresponding event probabilities (Lloyd-Hughes 2002, 67). SPI value Category Probability (%) 2.00 or more Extremely wet 2.3 1.50 to 1.99 Severely wet 4.4 1.00 to 1.49 Moderately wet 9.2 0.00 to 0.99 Mildly wet 34.1 0.00 to –0.99 Mildly drought 34.1 –1.00 to –1.49 Moderate drought 9.2 –1.50 to –1.99 Severe drought 4.4 –2 or less Extreme drought 2.3 McKee et al. (1993) established the criteria for determining the beginning and the end of a drought event. A drought event begins when the SPI is continuously negative and reaches the value of –1 or less. The event ends when the SPI value becomes positive. 2.3 Standardized river discharge data Water resources, such as watercourses, groundwater, snow cover, etc., are highly dependent on the amount of precipitation. The response of individual components of the hydrological cycle to the time period for which the SPI is calculated varies. In order to determine the relationship between precipitation and river discharges, we have to use a normal distribution to standardize mean monthly discharge data for each gaug- ing station (Vicente-Serrano and Lopez-Moreno 2005; Gregorič and Ceglar 2007). 3 Results and analysis 3.1 Effects of probability distribution selection on SPI values We calculated the index values for the Ljubljana-Bežigrad meteorological station using Gumbel distrib- ution (G) and Pearson III distribution (P3) in addition to the two-parameter gamma distribution (G2). Results are compared using Pearson's correlation coefficient (Table 3). Table3: Correlation coefficients between selected distributions, for SPI-1 to SPI-12 (Šebenik 2012). SPI–1 SPI–1 SPI–2 SPI–2 SPI–3 SPI–3 SPI-6 SPI-6 SPI-9 SPI-9 SPI-12 SPI-12 G P3 G P3 G P3 G P3 G P3 G P3 SPI-1 G2 0.992 0.987 SPI-2 G2 0.997 0.997 SPI-3 G2 0.994 0.988 SPI-6 G2 0.986 0.9961 SPI-9 G2 0.988 0.876 SPI-12 G2 0.993 0.539 Unlike Pearson III distribution, Gumbel distribution closely correlates with the gamma distribution on all time scales. All correlation coefficients reached at least 0.98. Pearson III distribution has higher vari- ability. It correlates better on longer time scales than on shorter ones (Table 3). All SPI calculations below referred to the gamma probability distribution. 3.2 SPI values for individual meteorological stations for the entire measurement period Annual SPI values for the Ljubljana-Bežigrad meteorological station show (Figure 2) three severe drought events before 1900, i.e. in 1858, 1865, and 1877. Between 1900 and 1950, the SPI-12 shows four extreme Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 35 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 35 Urša Šebenik, Mitja Brilly, Mojca Šraj, Drought Analysis Using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) 36 drought events. The first extreme drought event was detected between 1920 and 1922, as confirmed also by archival drought records in Slovenia (Trontelj 1997). Drought events were followed by wet periods, but then again dry periods were detected in 1943, 1947, and 1949. Only shorter time scales show a slightly higher frequency of extreme drought in Ljubljana in the second half of the 20th century, which occur more frequently after 1990. The year 2003 definitely stands out after 2000 and is detected on all time scales. 2006 and 2007 are also identified as years with negative deviations, as was noted also by Sušnik and Gregorič (2008), and by Zorn and Komac (2011). Data analysis for the Maribor-Tabor meteorological station (Table 1) shows that extreme SPI values appear only on shorter time scales (Šebenik 2012). Before 1900, the SPI-12 scale shows two severe drought events with the lowest value (–1.52) in 1877. In the first half of the 20th century, annual index values indi- cate three moderate drought events with the minimum value of the SPI-12 (–1.64) in December 1921. The total annual precipitation for the same year was only 725 mm, which is lower than the long-term average (i.e. 1032 mm) (Trontelj 1997). After 1950, drought events occurred more frequently and reached the high- est frequency of occurrence in the last decade of observation (2000–2010). Annual index values for these years do not significantly exceed the limits specified for moderate drought, with the exception of December 1971 (–1.75) and December 2003 (–1.68). Index values for the year 2003 differ significantly less on shorter time scales. Since only short-period precipitation totals are taken into account in the calculation of SPI values at shorter time scales, such index values do not reflect past long-term drought conditions, which began already in 2000 and continued in 2001 and 2002, as confirmed also by Kobold (2003). The annual time scale for the Celje meteorological station (Table 1) shows a long period of negative deviation between 1854 and 1859. A longer period of negative deviation repeated between 1861 and 1864 and also from 1865 to 1866, and from 1883 to 1885. Longer drought periods with constant negative index values occurred again during 1920–1922, in 1924, and 1925. Shorter negative deviations were followed by wet periods, which reached extreme index values in 1937 and 1938. Wet periods were again followed by two long drought periods lasting from 1941 to 1944, and from 1945 to 1948. The year 1946 stands out, when virtually all months of the year had negative index values. The exception after 2000 was the year 2003, when the SPI reached values indicative of severe drought. The lowest values for the Novo mesto meteorological station (Table 1) on the annual time scale were within the limits of moderate or severe drought (Table 2). However, short periods of negative deviation occurred quite frequently (Šebenik 2012). Longer periods of precipitation deficit were more common in the last three decades. In 2007, negative deviation persisted throughout the year. The calculations of the SPI-12 for the Trieste meteorological stations (Table 1) show that drought events were not particularly severe, since the lowest SPI value in the whole observation period is –1.01. Several long periods of negative deficits appear on the 12-month time scale before 1900, alternating with distinctively wet periods with extreme index values. It continued in a similar way in the 20th century, reaching the lowest index values in 1946. A similar pattern can also be observed in the second half of the 20th century. 2003 stands out from the last analyzed years, as it has extreme index values on all shorter time scales. We can see that the year 2003 definitely stood out among all observed meteorological stations in the last observed decade. The 2003 extreme drought event in Europe caused EUR 8.7 billion in losses (Commission of the European Communities 2007). The substantial damage caused by drought relative to the total dam- age caused by natural disasters in 2003 in Slovenia, was as high as 83.3% (Zorn and Komac 2011). 3.3 SPI comparison between selected meteorological stations for the common period of measurement 1951–2004 SPI values for all selected meteorological stations and all time scales were also compared for the com- mon measurement period. On longer time scales values for all stations have a similar distribution of major dry and wet periods (Figure 3). A major difference between stations occurred in 2002 when Trieste stood out with a distinctively wet year, while data for the other four stations already indicated extreme drought conditions, which later affected all the selected sites in 2003. If we examine the data for this period more Figure 2: SPI-2, SPI-6, SPI-9 and SPI-12 for the Ljubljana-Bežigrad meteorological station for the 1853–2010 period (Šebenik 2012). p 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 36 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 37 S P I - 2 – 4 – 3 – 2 – 101234 1853 1858 1864 1870 1876 1882 1888 1893 1899 1905 1911 1917 1923 1928 1934 1940 1946 1952 1958 1963 1969 1975 1981 1987 1993 1998 2004 2010 Y e a r/ le to S P I - 9 – 4 – 3 – 2 – 101234 S P I - 6 – 4 – 3 – 2 – 101234 S P I - 1 2 – 3 – 2 – 101234 SPI SPI 1853 1858 1864 1870 1876 1882 1888 1893 1899 1905 1911 1917 1923 1928 1934 1940 1946 1952 1958 1963 1969 1975 1981 1987 1993 1998 2004 2010 Y e a r/ le to 1853 1858 1864 1870 1876 1882 1888 1893 1899 1905 1911 1917 1923 1928 1934 1940 1946 1952 1958 1963 1969 1975 1981 1987 1993 1998 2004 2010 Y e a r/ le to 1853 1858 1864 1870 1876 1882 1888 1893 1899 1905 1911 1917 1923 1928 1934 1940 1946 1952 1958 1963 1969 1975 1981 1987 1993 1998 2004 2010 Y e a r/ le to 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 37 Urša Šebenik, Mitja Brilly, Mojca Šraj, Drought Analysis Using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) LJUBLJANA-BEŽIGRAD meteorological station/meteorološka postaja –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 1 9 5 2 1 9 5 4 1 9 5 6 1 9 5 8 1 9 5 9 1 9 6 1 1 9 6 3 1 9 6 5 1 9 6 6 1 9 6 8 1 9 7 0 1 9 7 2 1 9 7 3 1 9 7 5 1 9 7 7 1 9 7 9 1 9 8 0 1 9 8 2 1 9 8 4 1 9 8 6 1 9 8 7 1 9 8 9 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 3 Year/leto S P I MARIBOR-TABOR meteorological station/meteorološka postaja –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Year/leto S P I CELJE meteorological station/meteorološka postaja –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Year/leto S P I 1 9 5 2 1 9 5 4 1 9 5 6 1 9 5 8 1 9 5 9 1 9 6 1 1 9 6 3 1 9 6 5 1 9 6 6 1 9 6 8 1 9 7 0 1 9 7 2 1 9 7 3 1 9 7 5 1 9 7 7 1 9 7 9 1 9 8 0 1 9 8 2 1 9 8 4 1 9 8 6 1 9 8 7 1 9 8 9 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 3 1 9 5 2 1 9 5 4 1 9 5 6 1 9 5 8 1 9 5 9 1 9 6 1 1 9 6 3 1 9 6 5 1 9 6 6 1 9 6 8 1 9 7 0 1 9 7 2 1 9 7 3 1 9 7 5 1 9 7 7 1 9 7 9 1 9 8 0 1 9 8 2 1 9 8 4 1 9 8 6 1 9 8 7 1 9 8 9 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 3 1 9 5 1 1 9 5 1 1 9 5 1 38 p 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 38 closely, we can see that, in most cases, the Ljubljana-Bežigrad, Novo mesto and Trieste meteorological stations share a similar pattern of occurrence of dry and wet periods, and something similar can be said for the Celje and the Maribor-Tabor stations (Šebenik 2012). Differences within each group lie in drought severity (SPI values occasionally differ by more than one classification scale) and in the duration and the onset of a drought event, which differ by one or two months between the stations, in each group. Drought never affects the whole Slovenian territory evenly, which confirms the claim that drought is a regional phenomenon (Kobold 2003). During the last period the frequency and intensity of extreme events increased. The results of the SPI-12 calculations for the entire period of observation for each station and select- ed common period show that the values of the correlation coefficient for all stations and all periods calculated are higher than 0.95, which means that, as regards the selected meteorological stations, the length of data series does not have a significant effect on SPI values (Šebenik 2012). 39 NOVO MESTO meteorological station/meteorološka postaja –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Year/leto S P I TRST meteorological station/meteorološka postaja –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Year/leto S P I 1 9 5 2 1 9 5 4 1 9 5 6 1 9 5 8 1 9 5 9 1 9 6 1 1 9 6 3 1 9 6 5 1 9 6 6 1 9 6 8 1 9 7 0 1 9 7 2 1 9 7 3 1 9 7 5 1 9 7 7 1 9 7 9 1 9 8 0 1 9 8 2 1 9 8 4 1 9 8 6 1 9 8 7 1 9 8 9 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 3 1 9 5 2 1 9 5 4 1 9 5 6 1 9 5 8 1 9 5 9 1 9 6 1 1 9 6 3 1 9 6 5 1 9 6 6 1 9 6 8 1 9 7 0 1 9 7 2 1 9 7 3 1 9 7 5 1 9 7 7 1 9 7 9 1 9 8 0 1 9 8 2 1 9 8 4 1 9 8 6 1 9 8 7 1 9 8 9 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 3 1 9 5 1 1 9 5 1 Figure 3: SPI-12 for the selected meteorological stations and the common measurement period 1951–2004. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 39 Urša Šebenik, Mitja Brilly, Mojca Šraj, Drought Analysis Using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) 40 3.4 The relationship between the SPI and the standardized mean monthly discharge of the Pesnica river basin The analysis of the results for the 1970–2009 period showed that the correlation between the standard- ized series of river discharge data and the SPI for the River Pesnica is positive for all time scales, but the value of Pearson correlation coefficient varies between different time scales. It is also evident that higher correlation coefficients were obtained on shorter time scales in late spring, summer (July and August), and autumn (September, November) (Figure 4). The September SPI-2 and the September standardized discharge had the strongest correlation (= 0.754) (Figure 5). The results show that mean monthly discharges of the River Pesnica depend highly on pre- cipitation amounts of the current and the past month, which means that the river's watercourse or basin responds quickly to rainfall. The primary water surplus of the River Pesnica occurs in April (Kolbezen 1998). It means that the River Pesnica responds quickly to increased amounts of water resulting from snowmelt or abundant precipitation. The secondary water surplus occurs in November (Kolbezen 1998), which also has high correlation with the index values at shorter time scales. Summer months have higher correlation 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 SPI-1 SPI-2 SPI-3 SPI-6 SPI-9 SPI-12 Correlation coefficient/korelacijski koeficient January januar July/ julij February/ februar August/ avgust March/ marec September/ september April/ april October/ oktober May/ maj November/ november June/ junij December/ december Figure 4: Representation of monthly correlations between standardized discharge data and the SPI. 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 40 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 41 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Year/leto Standardized river discharge/standardizirani pretok SPI-2 S P I a n d s ta n d a r d iz e d d is c h a r g e S P I i n s ta n d a r d iz ir a n p r e to k / Figure 5: Standardized discharge and the SPI at two-month time scale in September. coefficient values on longer time scales, where precipitation totals include early spring and winter months, which have higher precipitation levels. Extreme standardized discharge values coincide with extreme SPI-2 values, but the former are slightly higher than the latter. 4 Discussion Analysis showed that the SPI at shorter time scales has high variability and shows more short-term drought events. Drought events occur less frequently, but last longer on longer time scales. Longer SPI time scales do not necessarily detect all the negative deviations that are evident on shorter time scales. It is also evi- dent that SPI values at shorter time scales show slight increases in precipitation during dry periods, which do not necessarily reflect an improvement in drought situation on a longer time scale. When analyzing past periods, we have to keep in mind that several consecutive months of negative index values do not necessarily indicate drought. Negative index values actually identify the months with less precipitation com- pared against the long-term comparative period. Precipitation deficit is one of the main causes of drought onset, but not the only one (Vicente- -Serrano et al. 2010), since evapotranspiration, temperature, wind speed, water retention capacity of soil and human impacts also significantly influence the development of drought. Precipitation deficit in win- ter months is problematic with regard to groundwater recharge and recharge of other water resources, which are among the important factors affecting the status of drinking water supply in Slovenia. The SPI is based mainly on precipitation data, therefore, in order to analyze individual types of drought in more detail, we have to use other instruments: drought indices which include other variables in addition to precipitation, water balance models, low-flow analysis, etc. In particular, the SPI provides the first important informa- tion regarding drought conditions (Hayes et al. 1999). In order to identify drought events, we also have to analyze long-time scales of SPI, which are also indi- cators of hydrological drought conditions of surface and groundwater sources (McKee et al.  1993; Hayes et al. 1999). The index value calculated at a specific time scale must be representative of the drought status in a hydrological system to be operative for water resources management purposes. The strongest 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 41 Urša Šebenik, Mitja Brilly, Mojca Šraj, Drought Analysis Using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) correlations between standardized discharge data and the SPI were detected on the two-month time scale for the River Pesnica. This case shows that it is necessary to identify the most suitable scale for calcula- tion, since hydrological, meteorological and terrain characteristics differ significantly between river basins. For the same reason, the results could not be generalized to the whole territory of Slovenia. To date, there have not been many studies conducted in this area and not many definite relationships were found between different drought monitoring periods and water resources. We standardized discharge data using a normal distribution to achieve greater comparability and more accurate evaluation of correlations between the SPI and standardized discharge data, and thus facilitate the comparison between meteorological and hydrological variables. It would be possible to obtain even more accurate results if discharge data had been standardized using any other distribution function. 5 Conclusion Droughts and associated water shortages are a global challenge, and Slovenia is no exception. Nevertheless, Slovenia is relatively abundant in water resources. However, despite the high total amount of rainfall, the timing of precipitation is often unfavourable for various activities (high-quality crop production, drink- ing water supply, hydroelectric power generation) (Gregorič and Sušnik 2008). In recent years, drought losses have reached extremely high levels in Slovenia also (Zorn and Komac 2011). The results show that the largest share (48.6%) of total losses in the period 2000–2005 was caused by drought (2007 Audit Report: Performance Audit of Drought Preventing and Drought Recovery in Agriculture by the Republic of Slovenia). The data therefore suggest that Slovenia, too, should seriously tackle drought-related problems. 6 References ARSO, 2009. Meteorološki letopis 2009. Internet: http://www.arso.si/vreme/podnebje/meteorolo%c5%a1ki% 20letopis/2009mreza.pdf (26. 1. 2012). ARSO, 2011a. Podatki o mesečnih padavinah. Ljubljana. ARSO,  2011b. Arhiv površinskih voda. Internet: http://vode.arso.gov.si/hidarhiv/pov_arhiv_tab.php (13. 12. 2011). Blain, G.C. 2011: Standardized Precipitation Index based on Pearson Type III Distribution. Revista Brasiliera de meteorologia 26. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-77862011000200001 Ceglar, A., Kajfež-Bogataj, L. 2008: Obravnava meteorološke suše z različnimi indikatorji. Acta agricul- turae Slovenica 91. Commission of the European Communities, 2007. Communication from the Commission of the European Communities to the European Parliament and the Council: addressing the challenge of water scarcity and droughts in the European Union. Brussels. Gregorič, G., Ceglar, A. 2007: Monitoring suše – regionalni aspekt. 18. Mišičev vodarski dan: zbornik refer- atov. Maribor. Gregorič, G., Sušnik, A. 2008: Center za upravljanje suše v jugovzhodni Evropi. 60 let slovenske meteo- rološke in hidrološke službe. Naše okolje 15. Guttman, N. B. 1999: Accepting the standardized precipitation index: a calculation algorithm. Journal of the American water resources association 35-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.1999.tb03592.x Hayes, M. J., Svoboda, M. D., Wilhite, D. A., Vanyarkho, O. V. 1999: Monitoring the 1996 drought using the standardized precipitation index. Bulletin of the American meteorological society 80. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1175/1520-0477(1999)080<0429:MTDUTS>2.0.CO;2 Hayes, M. J. 2000: Revisiting the SPI: clarifying the process. Drought network news 12. Lincoln. Kobold, M. 2003: Hidrološka suša slovenskih vodotokov v obdobju 2000–2002. Ujma 17–18. Kolbezen, M. 1998: Rečni režimi. Površinski vodotoki in vodna bilanca Slovenije. 50 let organizirane hidrom- eteorološke službe na Slovenskem 1947–1997. Ljubljana. Lloyd-Hughes, B., Saunders, M. A. 2002: A drought climatology for Europe. International journal of cli- matology 22. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/joc.846 42 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 42 Lloyd-Hughes, B. 2002: The long-range predictability of European drought. Ph. D. thesis, University college London, Department of space and climate physics. London. McKee, T. B., Nolan, D. J., Kleist, J. 1993: The relationship of drought frequency and duration to time scales. Preprints of 8th Conference on Applied Climatology. Anaheim. Natek, K. 1983: Ogroženost Slovenije zaradi suše. Naravne nesreče v Sloveniji kot naša ogroženost. Ljubljana. Niemeyer, S. 2008: New drought indices. Drought management: scientific and technological innovations (Options Méditerranéennes: Série A. Séminaires Méditerranéens 80). Zaragoza. Revizijsko poročilo o smotrnosti ravnanja Republike Slovenije pri preprečevanju in odpravi posledic suše v kmetijstvu, 2007. Internet: http://www.rs-rs.si/rsrs/rsrs.nsf/I/K99638A13FF506FB3C1257322003D2E6B/ $file/Susa_RSP00-06.pdf (9. 4. 2011). Sustainable water use 3: Extreme hydrological events: floods and droughts, 2001. Internet: http://www.eea.europa.eu/ publications/Environmental_Issues_No_21 (19. 10. 2012). Sušnik, A. 2006: Vodni primanjkljaj v Sloveniji in možni vplivi podnebnih sprememb. Magistrsko delo, Biotehniška fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani. Ljubljana. Sušnik, A., Gregorič, G. 2008: Trendi ranljivosti na kmetijsko sušo. 19. Mišičev vodarski dan: zbornik refer- atov. Maribor. Šebenik, U. 2012: Analiza suše s pomočjo standardiziranega padavinskega indeksa. Diplomsko delo, Fakulteta za gradbeništvo in geodezijo Univerze v Ljubljani. Ljubljana. Trontelj, M. 1997: Kronika izrednih vremenskih dogodkov XX. stoletja. Pomembni vremenski dogodki v zgodovini: vreme ob pomembnih dogodkih. Ljubljana. UL FGG, 2012. Arhiv padavinskih podatkov. Ljubljana. Vicente-Serrano, S. M., Lopez-Moreno, J. I. 2005: Hydrological response to different time scales of clima- tological drought: an evaluation of the standardized precipitation index in a mountainous Mediterranean basin. Hydrology and earth system sciences 9. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-9-523-2005 Vicente-Serrano, S. M., Begueria, S., Lopez-Moreno, J. I. 2010: A multiscalar drought index sensitive to global warming: the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index. Journal of climate 23. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2009JCLI2909.1 Zorn, M., Komac, B. 2011: Damage caused by natural disasters in Slovenia and globally between 1995 and 2010. Acta geographica Slovenica 51-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS51101 Wilhite, D. A. 2003: Drought. Encyclopedia of atmospheric sciences. Amsterdam. Wilhite, D. A., Buchanan-Smith, M. 2005: Drought as hazard: understanding the natural and social context. Drought and water crises, science, technology and management issues. Boca Raton. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 43 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 43 Urša Šebenik, Mitja Brilly, Mojca Šraj, Ana li za sušnih raz mer s po moč jo stan dar di zi ra ne ga pada vin ske ga indek sa (SPI) Ana li za sušnih raz mer s po moč jo stan dar di zi ra ne ga pada vin ske ga indek sa (SPI) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.729 UDK: 556.167(497.4) 551.577.38(497.4) COBISS: 1.01 IZVLEČEK: Za zaz na va nje, sprem lja nje in oce no sušnih raz mer se danes pogo sto upo rab lja jo sušni indeksi. Eden izmed naj po go ste je upo rab lje nih je stan dar di zi ra ni pada vin ski indeks (SPI). V pris pev ku je pred - stav ljen vpliv izbi re teo re tič ne poraz de li tve na vred no sti SPI ter ana li za sušnih obdo bij za pet izbra nih meteo ro loš kih postaj v Slo ve ni ji. Ugo to vi li smo, da SPI na let ni rav ni kaže podo ben vzo rec pojav lja nja sušnih in mokrih obdo bij za meteo ro loš ke posta je Ljub lja na-Be ži grad, Novo mesto in Trst. Podob no lah ko reče - mo tudi za meteo ro loš ki posta ji Celje in Mari bor-Ta bor. Ana li za pove za no sti stan dar di zi ra nih pre to kov in pada vin za izbra no poreč je reke Pesni ce kaže naj viš jo kore la ci jo med stan dar di zi ra nim pre to kom in SPI-2. KLJUČNE BESEDE: geo gra fi ja, suša, pada vi ne, ver jet nost na ana li za, stan dar di zi ra ni pada vin ski indeks (SPI), stan dar di zi ra ni pre tok, Pesni ca, Slo ve ni ja Ured niš tvo je pre je lo pris pe vek 12. fe bruar ja 2014. NASLOVI: Ur ša Šebe nik Uni ver za v Ljub lja ni Fa kul te ta za grad be niš tvo in geo de zi jo Ja mo va 2, 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: ursa.se be nik@gmail.com dr. Mit ja Brilly Uni ver za v Ljub lja ni Fa kul te ta za grad be niš tvo in geo de zi jo Ja mo va 2, 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: mit ja.brilly@fgg.uni-lj.si dr. Moj ca Šraj Uni ver za v Ljub lja ni Fa kul te ta za grad be niš tvo in geo de zi jo Ja mo va 2, 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: moj ca.sraj@fgg.uni-lj.si 44 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 44 1 Uvod Su ša je rezul tat zdru že va nja vre men skih, narav nih in člo veš kih dejav ni kov (Na tek 1983; Sustai nab le Water Use 2001; Sušnik 2006). Suša se od dru gih narav nih nesreč raz li ku je v več vidi kih (Wil hi te 2003; Wil hi te in Buc ha nan-Smith 2005): • Ne poz na mo uni ver zal ne in objek tiv ne opre de li tve suše. Posle dič no nasta ne dvom, ali suša v da nem obdobju sploh obsta ja in kak šna je nje na inten ziv nost, kar po nava di vodi v neod loč nost in neu kre pa nje. • Zače tek in konec suše sta tež ko določ lji va dogod ka. Posle di ce se obi čaj no kopi či jo sko zi dalj še časov no obdob je in lah ko obsta ja jo več let. • Vpli vi suše nima jo enkrat ne ga učin ka in so raz šir je ni prek več je ga območ ja. To ovi ra raz voj zanes lji ve in pra vo ča sne oce ne inten ziv no sti in vpli vov suše ter tudi pri pra vo načr ta pri prav lje no sti na sušo. • Teža ve so pri koli čin ski opre de li tvi vpli vov suše in zago tav lja nju pomo či. Sušo upo šte va mo v re la tiv nem in ne abso lut nem smi slu, saj je izra že na na pod la gi odklo na od dol go let ne ga pov preč ja v dalj šem časovnem obdob ju. Po sa mez ne suše se med seboj raz li ku je jo po: inten ziv no sti, tra ja nju in pro stor ski raz sež no sti (Wil hi - te 2003; Wil hi te in Buc ha nan-Smith 2005). Inten ziv nost sušne ga dogod ka se nana ša na stop njo pri manj klja ja pada vin in/ali resnost učin kov. Kak šen obseg in vpliv ima suša, je odvi sno pred vsem od časa nasto pa primanj - klja ja pada vin, nje go ve inten zi te te in tra ja nja. Vpli vi in posle di ce suše so lah ko nepo sred ni in posred ni. Izgu ba pri del ka je pri mer nepo sred ne ga vpli va, kate re ga posle di ce so: izgu ba v do hod ku, odškod nin ski zah tevki kme tov. To so posred ni ozi ro ma sekun dar ni ali ter ciar ni vpli vi. Govo ri mo tudi o vpli vih suše na gos podars - tvo (ener ge ti ka, turi zem, ribiš tvo, oskr ba z vodo), oko lje (zmanj ša nje biot ske pestro sti, degra da ci ja oko lja, ero zi ja prsti, kako vost in koli či na vod nih virov) in druž bo (po manj ka nje hra ne, izčr pa va nje pod zem ne vode, izgu ba narav ne in kul tur ne dediš či ne, zmanj ša na kva li te ta biva nja; Wil hi te 2003). Za ustrez no in pra vo ča sno ukre pa nje je nuj no poz na va nje zna čil no sti suše ter nje nih vpli vov na različ - ne rav ni delo va nja druž be. Nepo greš lji vo orod je za zaz na va nje, sprem lja nje in oce no sušnih raz mer so sušni indek si (Nie me yer 2008). Eden izmed naj po go ste je upo rab lje nih je stan dar di zi ra ni pada vin ski indeks (SPI) (Gutt man 1999), ki ga odli ku je pred vsem pre pro stost in časov na pri la go dlji vost. To omo go ča nje go vo upo - ra bo na raz lič nih časov nih les tvi cah. Na men član ka je opre de li ti sušne raz me re ozi ro ma nare di ti ana li zo in pri mer ja vo sušnih obdo bij s po - moč jo SPI za pet izbra nih loka cij in posku ša ti opre de li ti tudi hidro loš ko sušo na izbra nem poreč ju s po moč jo stan dar di zi ra ne ga meseč ne ga pre to ka in SPI. 2 Meto de 2.1 Podat ki Edi ni vhod ni poda tek za izra čun SPI so meseč ne pada vi ne. Za ana li zo smo izbra li šti ri meteo ro loš ke postaje v Slo ve ni ji (Ljub lja na-Be ži grad, Mari bor-Ta bor, Celje in Novo mesto) in posta jo iz sosed nje Ita li je (Trst), ki so pro stor sko ena ko mer no raz po re je ne in za kate re so na voljo dalj ši časov ni nizi pada vin skih podatkov (ARSO 2011a; UL FGG 2012) (pre gled ni ca 1). Sli ka 1: Lega izbra nih meteo ro loš kih postaj ter vodo mer ne posta je Gočo va na reki Pesni ci. Glej angleš ki del pris pev ka. Pre gled ni ca 1: Zna čil no sti izbra nih meteo ro loš kih postaj (ARSO 2009). me teo ro loš ka posta ja nad mor ska viši na [m] zem lje pi sna širi na zem lje pi sna dol ži na obrav na va no obdob je Ljub lja na-Be ži grad 299 46° 04' 14° 31' 1853–2010 Ma ri bor-Ta bor 275 46° 32' 14° 39' 1876–2010 Ce lje 240 46° 15' 15° 15' 1853–2010 Novo mesto 220 45° 48' 15° 11' 1951–2010 Trst 32 45° 38' 13° 45' 1851–2004 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 45 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 45 Urša Šebenik, Mitja Brilly, Mojca Šraj, Ana li za sušnih raz mer s po moč jo stan dar di zi ra ne ga pada vin ske ga indek sa (SPI) Izra čun SPI smo izved li na šestih časov nih les tvi cah: eno me seč ni (SPI-1), dvo me seč ni (SPI-2), tri me - seč ni (SPI-3), šest me seč ni (SPI-6), devet me seč ni (SPI-9) in dva najst me seč ni les tvi ci (SPI-12) za celot no opa zo va no obdob je posa mez nih meteo ro loš kih postaj ter nji ho vo pre seč no obdob je (1951–2004). Za pri mer ja vo med SPI in pre to ki smo izbra li reko Pesni co z dež no-snež nim reč nim reži mom. Za izračun SPI smo upo ra bi li podat ke meteo ro loš ke posta je Mari bor-Ta bor. Pri mer ja va je bila nare je na s po dat ki sred - nje ga meseč ne ga pre to ka za vodo mer no posta jo Gočo va za naj dalj še dostop no obdob je meri tev (1970–2009) (ARSO 2011b). 2.2 Stan dar di zi ra ni pada vin ski indeks (SPI) SPI je raz vil McKee s so de lav ci (1993) kot raz me ro ma pre prost indeks za ugo tav lja nje pri manj klja ja oziroma pre - sež ka pada vin. Omo go ča dolo ča nje pogo sto sti ekstrem no suhih ozi ro ma ekstrem no mokrih obdo bij na določe ni časov ni les tvi ci za kate ro ko li loka ci jo, za kate ro obsta ja niz pada vin skih podat kov (Gre go rič in Ceglar 2007). Stan - dar di zi ra na nara va indek sa omo go ča pri mer lji vost frek venc sušnih dogod kov na kateri ko li loka ci ji (Guttman 1999). V pr vem kora ku izra ču na SPI dolo či mo gosto to ver jet no sti izbra ne ga vzor ca pada vin. Naj po go ste je upo rab lja mo gama poraz de li tev (Mc Kee in osta li 1993; Hayes in osta li 1999; Gutt man 1999; Hayes 2000; Lloyd-Hug hes in Saun ders 2002; Ceglar in Kaj fež-Bo ga taj 2008). Gutt man (1999), Vicen te-Ser ra no in Lopez-Mo - re no (2005) ter Blain (2011) pa so upo ra bi li Pear so no vo III poraz de li tev. Gutt man (1999) je pri mer jal vred no sti SPI več poraz de li tev, in ugo to vil, da se podat kom naj bo lje pri la ga ja ta gama in Pear so no va III poraz de li - tev. V na sled njem kora ku za meseč no vso to pada vin in izbra no časov no les tvi co izra ču na mo poraz de li tve no funk ci jo. To nato nor ma li zi ra mo v stan dar di zi ra no nor mal no slu čaj no spre men ljiv ko, kar pred stav lja vred - nost indek sa SPI (Lloyd-Hug hes in Saun ders 2002), s ka te rim ovred no ti mo inten zi te to suše (pre gled ni ca 2). Pre gled ni ca 2: Kla si fi ka ci ja suše ter pri pa da jo ča ver jet nost poja va sušne ga dogod ka pri dolo če nem SPI (Lloyd-Hug hes 2002, 67). SPI kla si fi ka ci ja ver jet nost [%] 2,00 ali več ek strem no mokro 2,3 1,50 do 1,99 zelo mokro 4,4 1,00 do 1,49 zmer no mokro 9,2 0,00 do 0,99 nor mal no 34,1 0,00 do –0,99 nor mal no 34,1 –1,00 do –1,49 zmer na suša 9,2 –1,50 do –1,99 huda suša 4,4 –2 ali manj ek strem na suša 2,3 Mc Kee in sode lav ci (1993) so dolo či li tudi kri te rij za dolo či tev začet ka in kon ca sušne ga dogod ka. Ko je indeks SPI dalj časa nega ti ven in dose že vred nost –1 ali manj, govo ri mo o za čet ku sušne ga dogod ka, ki se kon ča, ko vred nost indek sa posta ne pozi tiv na. 2.3 Stan dar di zi ra ni pre tok Vod ni viri, kot so voda v vo do to kih, pod zem na voda, snež na ode ja, so ključ no pove za ni s ko li či no pada - vin. Odziv posa mez nih kom po nent hidro loš ke ga kro ga na časov na obdob ja izra ču na indek sa SPI je raz li čen. Če želi mo ugo to vi ti pove za vo med pada vi na mi in pre to ki, mora mo tudi podat ke sred nje ga meseč ne ga pretoka za posa mez no vodo mer no posta jo stan dar di zi ra ti z nor mal no poraz de li tvi jo (Vi cen te-Ser ra no in Lopez-Mo - re no 2005; Gre go rič in Ceglar 2007). 3 Rezul ta ti in ana li za 3.1 Vpliv izbi re ver jet nost ne poraz de li tve na vred nost SPI Za meteo ro loš ko posta jo Ljub lja na-Be ži grad smo poleg dvo pa ra me tr ske gama poraz de li tve (G2), upo ra - bi li še Gum be lo vo (G) in Pear so no vo III (P3) poraz de li tev ter rezul ta te pri mer ja li s po moč jo Pear so no ve ga kore la cij ske ga koe fi cien ta (pre gled ni ca 3). 46 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 46 Pre gled ni ca 3: Kore la cij ski koe fi cien ti izbra nih poraz de li tev za SPI-1 do SPI-12 (Še be nik 2012). SPI–1 SPI–1 SPI–2 SPI–2 SPI–3 SPI–3 SPI-6 SPI-6 SPI-9 SPI-9 SPI-12 SPI-12 G P3 G P3 G P3 G P3 G P3 G P3 SPI-1 G2 0,992 0,987 SPI-2 G2 0,997 0,997 SPI-3 G2 0,994 0,988 SPI-6 G2 0,986 0,996 SPI-9 G2 0,988 0,876 SPI-12 G2 0,993 0,539 Gum be lo va poraz de li tev se v nas prot ju s Pear so no vo III poraz de li tvi jo na vseh časov nih les tvi cah dobro uje ma z gama poraz de li tvi jo, saj kore la cij ski koe fi cien ti dose že jo vred nost vsaj 0,98. Pear so no va III poraz - de li tev kaže več jo varia bil nost. Bolje kore li ra na kraj ših kot na dalj ših časov nih les tvi cah (pre gled ni ca 3). V na da lje va nju so vsi izra ču ni SPI nare je ni z upo ra bo gama ver jet nost ne poraz de li tve. 3.2 SPI za posa mez ne posta je za celot no obdob je meri tev Vred no sti SPI na let ni rav ni za meteo ro loš ko posta jo Ljub lja na-Be ži grad kaže jo (sli ka 2) pred letom 1900 tri pomemb nej ša sušna obdob ja in sicer v le tih 1858, 1865 in 1877 (Še be nik 2012). Med leto ma 1900 in 1950 SPI-12 kaže šti ri ekstrem na sušna obdob ja. Prve ga je zaz na ti med leto ma 1920 in 1922, kar potr ju je jo tudi arhiv ski zapi si o su ši v Slo ve ni ji (Tron telj 1997). Sle di jo kraj ša mokra obdob ja, tem pa zopet sušnej ša v le - tih 1943, 1947 ter 1949. V dru gi polo vi ci dvaj se te ga sto let ja so bila v Ljub lja ni ekstrem na sušna obdob ja le na kraj ših časov nih les tvi cah, ki so pogo stej ša po letu 1990. Po letu 2000 po sušnih raz me rah izsto pa leto 2003, ki ga zaz na jo vse časov ne les tvi ce. Tudi v le tih 2006 in 2007 SPI kaže nega tiv no odsto pa nje, kar ugo tav lja jo tudi Sušnik in Gre go rič (2008) ter Zorn in Komac (2011). Sli ka 2: SPI-2, SPI-6, SPI-9 in SPI-12 za meteo ro loš ko posta jo Ljub lja na-Be ži grad za obdob je 1853–2010 (Še be nik 2012). Glej angleš ki del pris pev ka. Ana li za podat kov za meteo ro loš ko posta jo Mari bor-Ta bor (pre gled ni ca 1) je poka za la, da se ekstrem - ne vred no sti SPI pojav lja jo le na kraj ših časov nih les tvi cah (Še be nik 2012). Pred letom 1900 nam SPI-12 kaže dve sušni obdob ji z mi ni mal no vred nost jo (–1,52) leta 1877. V prvi polo vi ci dvaj se te ga sto let ja letni indeks kaže tri zmer na sušna obdob ja z mi ni mal no vred nost jo SPI-12 (–1,64) decem bra 1921. V tem letu je pad lo le 725 mm pada vin, kar je pre cej manj od dol go let ne ga pov preč ja, ki je 1032 mm (Tron - telj 1997). Po letu 1950 sle di več je šte vi lo sušnih obdo bij, z naj več jo pogo stost jo v zad njem deset let ju (2000–2010). Vred no sti SPI-12 po kla si fi ka ci ji v teh letih bis tve no ne pre se ga jo meje zmer ne suše, razen decem bra 1971 (–1,75) in decem bra 2003 (–1,68). Indek si na kraj ših časov nih les tvi cah ima jo za leto 2003 bis tve no manj še odklo ne. Ker upo šte va jo le kraj še obdob je vsot pada vin, se v njih ne odra ža jo dalj še pre te kle sušne raz me re, ki so se zače le že leta 2000 in nada lje va le v leto 2001 in 2002, kar potr ju je tudi Kobold (2003). Za meteo ro loš ko posta jo Celje (pre gled ni ca 1) je na let ni časov ni les tvi ci opa zen dalj ši nega ti ven odklon med leto ma 1854 in 1859. Dalj še obdob je nega tiv ne ga odklo na se ponov no poja vi med leto ma 1861 in 1864 ter se pono vi v ob dob jih od leta 1865 do 1866 ter od leta 1883 do 1885. Sušna obdob ja smo zaz na li še v le - tih 1920 do 1922, 1924 in 1925. Kraj šim nega tiv nim odklo nom sle di jo namo če na obdob ja, ki dose že jo ekstrem ne vred no sti v le tih 1937 in 1938. Sle di ta dalj ši sušni obdob ji med leto ma 1941 in 1944 ter med leto - ma 1945 in 1948. Izsto pa leto 1946, ko so prak tič no vsi mese ci ime li nega tiv ni indeks. Po letu 2000 izsto pa leto 2003, ko vred nost indek sa po kla si fi ka ci ji dose že mejo hude suše. Naj niž ji indek si za meteo ro loš ko posta jo Novo mesto (pre gled ni ca 1) se na let ni časov ni les tvi ci po kla - si fi ka ci ji gib lje jo v me jah zmer ne do hude suše (pre gled ni ca 2). Kraj ša obdob ja nega tiv ne ga odklo na so pre cej pogo sta (Še be nik 2012). V zad njih treh deset let jih so pogo stej ša tudi dalj ša obdob ja pri manj klja ja pada vin. V letu 2007 se nega ti ven odklon kaže sko zi celo leto. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 47 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 47 Urša Šebenik, Mitja Brilly, Mojca Šraj, Ana li za sušnih raz mer s po moč jo stan dar di zi ra ne ga pada vin ske ga indek sa (SPI) Izra ču ni SPI-12 za meteo ro loš ko posta jo Trst (pre gled ni ca 1) kaže jo, da obdob ja s pri manj klja jem ne dose ga jo veli ke inten ziv no sti, saj je mini mal na vred nost indek sa v ce lot nem ana li zi ra nem obdob ju ena - ka –1,01. Do leta 1900 se na let ni časov ni les tvi ci kaže pred vsem izme nja va dalj ših ekstrem no mokrih obdo bij s kraj ši mi sušnej ši mi obdob ji. Podob no se nada lju je tudi v dvaj se tem sto let ju z naj niž ji mi vred nost mi v letu 1946. Tudi v dru gi polo vi ci 20. sto let ja se kaže podo ben vzo rec. V zad njih ana li zi ra nih letih izstopa leto 2003, ki ga zaz na jo vse les tvi ce kraj še ga tra ja nja. Ugo to vi mo lah ko, da v zad njem ana li zi ra nem deset let ju na vseh obrav na va nih posta jah izsto pa leto 2003. V tem letu je ekstrem na suša v Evro pi dose gla enorm ne stroš ke v vi ši ni 8,7 mi li jar de evrov (Com mis sion of the Euro pean Com mu ni ties 2007). V Slo ve ni ji je ško da zara di suše gle de na celot no ško do zara di narav - nih nesreč v letu 2003 zna ša la kar 83,3% (Zorn in Komac 2011). 3.3 Pri mer ja va SPI med izbra ni mi posta ja mi za enot no obdob je meri tev 1951–2004 Izra ču na ne vred no sti SPI za vse izbra ne posta je in vse časov ne les tvi ce smo pri mer ja li tudi za enot no obdobje meri tev. Na dalj ših časov nih les tvi cah vse posta je kaže jo podob no raz po re di tev glav nih suhih in mokrih obdo bij (sli ka 3). Do več je raz li ke pri de v letu 2002, kjer izsto pa Trst z izra zi to mokrim letom, na osta lih meteo ro loš kih posta jah pa se v tem času že naka zu je jo ekstrem ne sušne raz me re, ki so v letu 2003 pri zadele vse obrav na va ne loka ci je. Podrob nej ša ana li za je poka za la, da meteo ro loš ke posta je Ljub lja na-Be ži grad, Novo mesto in Trst kaže jo podo ben vzo rec pojav lja nja sušnih in mokrih obdo bij, podob no pa bi lah ko rekli tudi za meteo ro loš ki posta ji Celje in Mari bor-Ta bor (Še be nik 2012). Raz li ke zno traj vsa ke sku pi ne se kažejo v inten - ziv no sti suše, ki se lah ko raz li ku je za cel raz red ter tra ja nju in začet ku sušne ga obdob ja, ki se lah ko raz li ku je za mesec ali dva. Suša niko li ne zaja me ena ko mer no celot ne Slo ve ni je, kar potr ju je trdi tev, da je suša regiona - len pojav (Ko bold 2003). V zad njem obdob ju se šte vi lo ekstrem nih dogod kov pove ču je in hkra ti intenzivi ra. Pri mer ja va rezul ta tov SPI-12 za celot no obdob je meri tev posa mez ne posta je in za izbra no enot no obdob - je je poka za la, da so vred no sti kore la cij ske ga koe fi cien ta za vse posta je nad 0,95, kar pome ni, da časov no obdob je v pri me ru izbra nih meteo ro loš kih postaj ne vpli va v ve liki meri na vred no sti SPI (Še be nik 2012). Sli ka 3: SPI-12 za obrav na va ne meteo ro loš ke posta je za enot no obdob je meri tev 1951–2004. Glej angleš ki del pris pev ka. 3.4 Raz mer je med SPI in stan dar di zi ra nim sred njim meseč nim pre to kom za poreč je Pesni ce Ana li za rezul ta tov za obdob je 1970–2009 je poka za la, da je med se boj na pove za nost stan dar di zi ra nih preto - kov za reko Pesni co in SPI za vse časov ne les tvi ce pozi tiv na, ven dar se vred no sti Pear so no ve ga koe fi cien ta kore la ci je spre mi nja jo gle de na dol ži no časov ne les tvi ce. Ugo to vi mo lah ko, da so kore la cij ski koe fi cien ti viš ji na kraj ših časov nih les tvi cah in da se pojav lja jo poz no spom la di, pole ti (ju lij in avgust) in jese ni (sep - tem ber, novem ber) (sli ka 4). Sli ka 4: Pri kaz meseč nih kore la cij skih koe fi cien tov med stan dar di zi ra ni mi pre to ki in SPI. Glej angleš ki del pris pev ka. Naj viš ja kore la ci ja (= 0,754) je med sep tem br skim SPI-2 in sep tem br skim pre to kom (sli ka 5). Rezul - ta ti kaže jo, da na sred nje meseč ne pre to ke reke Pesni ce v več ji meri vpli va jo pada vi ne teko če ga in pre te kle ga mese ca, kar kaže na hiter odziv vodo to ka ozi ro ma poreč ja na pada vi ne. Pri mar ni višek vode reke Pesnice pra vi lo ma nasta ne v me se cu apri lu (Kol be zen 1998). Takrat se reka Pesni ca hitro odzo ve na več jo koli či - no vode zara di talje nja sne ga ali obil nej ših pada vin. Sekun dar ni višek nasta ne v no vem bru (Kol be zen 1998), kar se rav no tako dobro uje ma z in dek som SPI na kraj ših časov nih les tvi cah. Polet ni mese ci kaže jo boljše uje ma nje na dalj ših časov nih les tvi cah, ko so v vso tah pada vin všte ti tudi mese ci zgod nje pom la di in zime, ko je koli či na pada vin več ja. Ekstrem ne vred no sti stan dar di zi ra ne ga pre to ka se časov no dobro uje ma jo z ek strem ni mi vred nost mi SPI-2, so pa neko li ko viš je. Sli ka 5: Stan dar di zi ra ni pre tok in SPI na dvo me seč ni časov ni les tvi ci v sep tem bru. Glej angleš ki del pris pev ka. 48 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 48 4 Raz pra va SPI na kraj ših časov nih les tvi cah kaže veli ko varia bil nost in več je šte vi lo kraj ših sušnih dogod kov. Sušne raz me re na dalj ših časov nih les tvi cah so manj pogo ste, ven dar tra ja jo dlje. Dalj še časov na les tvi ce ne pre - poz na jo nuj no vseh nega tiv nih odklo nov, ki so vid ni na kraj ših časov nih les tvi cah. Prav tako kraj ši pada vin ski sko ki na kraj ših časov nih les tvi cah ne pome ni jo nuj no izbolj ša nja sušnih raz mer na dalj ši les tvi ci. Pri anali - zi pre te klih obdo bij se je tre ba zave da ti, da več zapo red nih mese cev z ne ga tiv ni mi vred nost mi indek sa ne pome ni nuj no sušne ga obdob ja. Nega tiv na vred nost indek sa namreč pred stav lja mese ce, ko je pad la manj - ša koli či na pada vin v pri mer ja vi z dol go let nim pri mer jal nim obdob jem. Po manj ka nje pada vin je eden od glav nih vzro kov nastan ka suše, ven dar ne edi ni (Vi cen te-Ser ra no in osta li 2010), saj so pomemb ni vpliv ni dejav ni ki za raz voj suše tudi eva po trans pi ra ci ja, tem pe ra tu ra, hitrost vetra, vodo za dr že val na spo sob nost tal ter vpli vi člo ve ka. Pomanj ka nje pada vin v zim skih mese cih je prob - le ma tič no z gle diš ča boga te nja pod tal ni ce in dru gih vod nih virov, ki so pomemb ni dejav ni ki pri oskr bi s pit no vodo v Slo ve ni ji. SPI upo šte va samo pada vi ne, zato je tre ba za podrob nej šo ana li zo posa mez ne vrste suše upo ra bi ti še dru ga orod ja: sušne indek se, ki poleg pada vin vklju ču je jo tudi dru ge spre men ljiv ke, vod - no bi lanč ne mode le, ana li zo niz kih pre to kov rek ipd. SPI zato pred stav lja pred vsem prvo infor ma ci jo o su šnih raz me rah (Ha yes in osta li 1999). Za iden ti fi ka ci jo sušnih raz mer smo ana li zi ra li tudi dalj ša obdob ja, ki so hkra ti kazal ci hidro loš kih sušnih raz mer na povr šin skih in pod zem nih vod nih virih (Mc Kee in osta li 1993; Hayes in osta li 1999). Indeks, pri me ren za ope ra tiv no rabo pri uprav lja nju z vod ni mi viri, mora biti repre zen ta ti ven za sušne raz me re v hi dro loš kem siste mu na dolo če ni časov ni les tvi ci izra ču na. Za reko Pesni co smo naj viš jo kore - la ci jo med stan dar di zi ra ni mi pre to ki in SPI zaz na li na dvo me seč ni časov ni ska li. Pri mer kaže, da je tre ba za vsa ko poreč je pose bej dolo či ti naj pri mer nej šo les tvi co izra ču na, saj se hidro loš ke, meteo ro loš ke in relief - ne zna čil no sti bis tve no raz li ku je jo. Iz iste ga raz lo ga rezul ta ta ne more mo pos plo ši ti za celo Slo ve ni jo. Na tem področ ju do sedaj še ni bilo veli ko razi skav in ugo tov lje nih goto vih pove zav med raz lič ni mi časovni - mi obdob ji sprem lja nja sušnih raz mer in vod ni mi viri. V štu di ji smo pre to ke stan dar di zi ra li po nor mal ni poraz de li tvi zara di več je pri mer lji vo sti ter bolj še oce ne med se boj ne pove za no sti SPI in stan dar di zi ra ne ga pre to ka, kar omo go ča laž jo pri mer ja vo meteo - ro loš kih in hidro loš kih spre men ljivk. 5 Sklep Su ša in z njo pove za no pomanj ka nje vode se kaže ta kot izziv za celo ten svet, pri tem pa tudi Slo ve ni ja ni izje ma. Slo ve ni ja se sicer uvrš ča med drža ve, ki so z vi di ka vod na to sti rela tiv no boga te. Ven dar pa je kljub viso kim skup nim koli či nam dež ja za raz lič ne dejav no sti (ka ko vost na kme tij ska pri de la va, oskr ba s pit no vodo, proi zvod nja elek trič ne ener gi je) časov na raz po re di tev pada vin pogo sto neu god na (Gre go rič in Sušnik 2008). V pre te klih letih je tudi v Slo ve ni ji ško da zara di suše dose gla viso ke zne ske (Zorn in Komac 2011). Rezulta ti kaže jo, da je daleč naj več ji delež (48,6 %) v ce lot nem obse gu oce nje ne ško de v le tih od 2000 do 2005 pov - zro či la prav suša (Re vi zij sko poro či lo … 2007). Podat ki nam torej kaže jo, da mora mo tudi v Slo ve ni ji na sušo resno raču na ti. 6 Lite ra tu ra Glej angleš ki del pris pev ka. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 49 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 49 50 57-1_02_729-Ursa Sebenik_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 50 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017, 51–63 FOREST FIRE ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION BASED ON A SERBIAN CASE STUDY Tin Lukić, Predrag Marić, Ivana Hrnjak, Milivoj B. Gavrilov, Dragan Mladjan, Matija Zorn, Blaž Komac, Zoran Milošević, Slobodan B. Marković, Dušan Sakulski, Andries Jordaan, Jasmina Đorđević, Dragoslav Pavić, Rastislav Stojsavljević Aqua/MODIS Forest Fires observations in South-East Europe, August 26th 2012. S o u r c e : N A S A (h t t p :/ /w w w .N A S A .g o v /m iS S io N _ p A g e S /f ir e S /m A iN /w o r l d /2 0 1 2 0 8 2 7 -S e -e u r o p e .h t m l ) 57-1_03_918-Tin Lukic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 51 Forest fire analysis and classification based on a Serbian case study Forest fire analysis and classification based on a Serbian case study DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.918 UDC: 91:614.841.42:630(497.11) COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: A recent forest fire in the Republic of Serbia is discussed concerning classification, legislative framework and fire management, giving a detailed analysis of the forest fire occurrence. Analysing past and predicting future fires are crucial for policy development and forest management practices to prevent and mitigate fires. Fire hazard is discussed through several fire protection and prevention legislative doc- uments. The nonparametric Mann-Kendall test was used to analyse resent forest fire data in an attempt to find causality in occurrences and frequency. The meteorological data and fire statistics provided by the Serbian Hydro-meteorological Service and the Ministry of Interior/Sector for Emergency Management of the Republic of Serbia were used to calculate the Forest Fire Weather Indices, along with deficit or sur- plus of precipitation for the case study of Tara Mountain. The paper highlights the need for better hierarchical classification of fire hazards and its harmonisation along with standardisations presented by leading inter- national research institutions. A significant correlation between meteorological parameters and forest fire occurrence was found. This opens a possibility for further investigation and analysis of geophysical and anthropogenic driven factors that can influence disaster occurrence. KEY WORDS: geography, natural hazards, forest fires, classification, forest fire weather indices, Tara moun- tain, Serbia The article was submitted for publication on October 10th, 2014. ADDRESSES: Tin Lukić, Ph.D. Department of geography, tourism and hotel management Faculty of sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: tin.lukic@dgt.uns.ac.rs Predrag Marić, Ph.D. Ministry of interior, Sector for emergency management of the Republic of Serbia Kneza Miloša 101, RS – 11000 Belgrade, Serbia E-mail: predrag.maric@kpa.edu.rs Ivana Hrnjak, M.Sc. Department of geography, tourism and hotel management Faculty of sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: ivana.hrnjak2112@gmail.com Milivoj B. Gavrilov, Ph.D. Department of geography, tourism and hotel management Faculty of sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: milivoj.gavrilov@yahoo.com Dragan Mladjan, Ph.D. Academy of criminalistic and police studies Cara Dušana 196, RS – 11080 Zemun, Belgrade, Serbia E-mail: dragan.mladjan@kpa.edu.rs 52 57-1_03_918-Tin Lukic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 52 Matija Zorn, Ph.D. Anton Melik geographical institute Research centre of the Slovenian academy of sciences and arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; E-mail: matija.zorn@zrc-sazu.si Blaž Komac, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; E-mail: blaz.komac@zrc-sazu.si Zoran Milošević, Ph.D. Department of geography, tourism and hotel management Faculty of sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia/ and Faculty of engineering and physical science, University of Surrey Guildford Surrey GU2 7XH, United Kingdom; E-mail: ZMilosevic@kbcat.com Slobodan B. Marković, Ph.D. Department of geography, tourism and hotel management Faculty of sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; E-mail: slobodan.markovic@dgt.uns.ac.rs Dušan Sakulski, Ph.D. Department of environmental engineering and occupational safety and health Faculty of technical sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia and Disaster management training and education centre (DiMTEC) University of the Free State 205 Nelson Mandela drive park west, Bloemfontein, South Africa; E-mail: dsakulski2@me.com Andries Jordaan, Ph.D. Disaster management training and education centre (DiMTEC) University of the Free State 205 Nelson Mandela drive park west, Bloemfontein, South Africa; E-mail: ajjrdn@gmail.com Jasmina Đorđević, Ph.D. Department of geography, tourism and hotel management Faculty of sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; E-mail: jasminadjordjevic@live.com Dragoslav Pavić, Ph.D. Department of geography, tourism and hotel management Faculty of sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; E-mail: dragoslav.pavic@dgt.uns.ac.rs Rastislav Stojsavljević, Ph.D. Department of geography, tourism and hotel management Faculty of sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; E-mail: ralegeo87@yahoo.com Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 53 57-1_03_918-Tin Lukic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 53 Forest fire analysis and classification based on a Serbian case study 1 Introduction While natural hazards present threat to humans and their environment, they do not necessarily result from natural and environmental processes and causes alone. Processes of interaction between natural and anthro- pogenic systems also bring about hazards. Improved understanding of these interactions alters our comprehension of natural hazards, shifting it from an area of pure natural phenomena to the domain of social and psychological occurrence (Lukić et al. 2013). In the era of pronounced climate variability, understanding past and predicting future fire activity are scientific challenges crucial to the development and implementation of sustainable forest management prac- tices and policies. However, such objectives are difficult to achieve in practice because existing meteorological data and general fire statistics are only available for a short period of time. Accordingly, uncertainties con- cerning future fire activity limit the range of variability and occurrence patterns that can be determined (Girardin et al. 2013). Forests occupy an area of nearly 4 billion hectares, covering about 30% of Earth's land surface. Worldwide, more than 50,000 forest fires occur annually (Aleksić, Krstić and Jančić 2009), on average destroying more than 40 million hectares of forestry, claiming human casualties, and resulting in wildlife losses and dis- placement on approximately 400,000 km2 (Internet 1). Fire and heat not only destroy trees and plants, but change the forestry structure, forest biology and soil performance (Zhong, Fan and Wang 2000). Different authors give different definitions of forest fires classification, while diverse legislations also classify it in their own terms (Subošić and Mlađan 2013). Harmonising the definition of forest fire haz- ards as an integral part of a wider natural hazard topic, would contribute to an improved understanding thereof, and hopefully lead to a more effective classification, identification, prediction, and mitigation. The National fire protection association (NFPA) categorises fires by classes: A, B, C, D, K. According to this classification, forest fires belong to class A. In terms of hazard, NFPA classifies fire-prone areas as light (low), ordinary (moderate) or extra (high) hazardous (Internet 2). Alexander (2008) proposed a rating methodology for fire hazard in forests and rural areas, to be used in fire management. The fire hazard class is derived from the Fire Weather Index (FWI) System as low; moderate; high; very high and extreme. The Centre for research on the epidemiology of disasters (CRED) and Munich reinsurance company (Munich RE) with their respectable International databases – EM-DAT and NatCatSERVICE – treat for- est fires as »wildfire« hazards (main-type) within the generic climatological hazard group (Below, Wirtz and Guha-Sapir 2009). Markov, Jovičić and Ristić (2010) base their classification on the type of material burned, whereby for- est fires are classified as underground and ground fires (burning roots, humus and peat); above-ground or low fires (burning the upper layer of organic forest litter and shrubs); treetop or high fires and a single tree fire. 2 Forest fires in Serbia between legislation and application frameworks The forestry area in Serbia decreased from over 2,000,000 ha in 2001 to 1,962,335 ha in 2012, now cover- ing 22.2% of the country's territory. State owned forests extend to over 927,773 ha and privately owned ones to 1,034,562 ha (Statistical yearbook … 2012). Several fire protection and prevention documents address fire hazards. These acts cover systems of prevention, mitigation, protection, rescue and rehabilitation: The Fire Protection and Prevention Act treats the fire hazard mainly as a physical phenomenon: »A process of uncontrolled combustion that can threaten human health and lives, or cause other damages on a larger scale endangering material goods and environment« (Zakon … 2009). There is no clear distinction between a forest fire hazard and a general fire hazard. This classification differs from the contemporary classifica- tion of natural hazards proposed by highly regarded institutions such as CRED or Munich RE (Table 1). The Law on Emergencies of the Republic of Serbia defines a natural hazard as: »Phenomena of hydro-mete- orological, geological or biological origin, caused by natural forces like: earthquakes, flooding, flash floods, heavy rains, lightning, hail, drought, rock falls and landslides, snowdrift and avalanches, extreme air temperatures, ice formation on water courses, epidemics of contagious diseases, epidemics of cattle-related contagious diseases, 54 57-1_03_918-Tin Lukic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 54 and occurrence of pests and other natural phenomena on a large scale that can threaten human health and lives, or cause other damages on a larger scale« (Zakon … 2009). The above mentioned classification of nat- ural hazards doesn't deal with wild fire nor forest or land fires, again in contrast with the practices of CRED and Munich RE. The National Strategy of Protection and Rescue in Emergencies of the Republic of Serbia (Nacionalna…2011) proposes a more detailed hierarchical classification of natural hazards, provides general data, including frequencies, and proposes monitoring and mitigation measures. An integral part of this Strategy is the document »Study on Economic Benefits of RHMS (Republic hydrometeorological service of Serbia)« (Dimitrijević 2005) in which the authors observe that forest fires were not taken into account in the analy- sis of the vulnerability of weather-dependent economic sectors. A clearer and a more uniform hazard classification in Serbia, aligned with international classifications (e.g. CRED and Munich RE), are prerequisites for improved standardisation, both legislative and applicative (Lukić et al. 2013). 3 Forest fire trend analysis – general observation Two statistical tests, both widely used in environmental sciences (e.g. Hrnjak et al. 2014) are applied: • Linear trending of fire hazards in Serbia in the period 2000/2001–2012; • Fires trending based on Mann-Kendall test (Kendall 1938; Mann 1945; Gilbert 1987). For the trend data processing, XLSTAT's statistical analysis software was employed (Internet  3). Furthermore, two hypotheses were tested: • the null hypothesis: that there is no trend; • the alternative hypothesis: that there is a trend for a given significance level. Probability was calculated to determine the level of confidence. By calculating trends from the total number of fire hazards and forest fires, two equations were obtained: y = 1286.2 x + 12113, (1) p = 0,005 (2) (1) y = 27.6 x + 425.7, (1) p = 0,638 (2) (2) where y is either the total number of fires (in equation (1)1), or the number of forest fires only in equa- tion (2)1, x is time in years, p is probability and significance level α = 0.05 is the same in both cases. Figure 1 illustrates equation (1)1 and shows a positive trend. As the value (1)2 is lower than the sig- nificance level α = 0.05 the null hypothesis does not seem valid. The risk to reject the null hypothesis as true is less than 0.54%. Conversely, there is a 99.46% confidence in a positive trend concerning total num- ber of fires in Serbia. This analysis is not entirely conclusive. Figure 1 shows the total number of fire hazards, irrespective of the cause, ranging from explosions to technical traffic interventions. It is difficult to determine if this positive linear trend was a result of improved reporting of fire occurrences, or of a genuine increase in their frequency. More extensive future research will be needed to clarify this. Figure 2, produced from equation (2)1, shows a positive trend in number of forest fires. However, as the value (2)2 is greater than the significance level (α = 0.05), one cannot reject the null hypothesis here. Hypothesis testing will prove whether this statement is true or not. The risk to reject the null hypothesis as true is 36.15%. Although the number of forest fires increased noticeably, evaluation of the Mann-Kendall test estimates that there is no trend in the number of forest fires in Serbia with probability of 63.85%. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 55 Table 1: Wild fire hazard classification within harmonized EM-DAT and NatCatSERVICE databases (adapted after Below, Wirtz and Guha-Sapir 2009). Hazard generic group Hazard group Hazard Main-Type Hazard Sub-Type Hazard Sub-sub Type Natural hazard Climatological Wild fire Forest fire None Land fires (grass, scrub, bush etc.) 57-1_03_918-Tin Lukic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 55 Forest fire analysis and classification based on a Serbian case study 56 According to Unkašević and Tošić (2011; 2014), the last few decades in Europe is characterised by the steepest temperature increase since the beginning of the twentieth century. Extreme events related to inten- sive heating significantly affects natural hazards, socio-economic and health activities in Europe, as shown by the exceptional summer heat wave in 2003 (Schär etal. 2004; Trigo etal. 2005). During the summer of 2007, heat waves registered in the Balkan region (Founda and Giannakopoulos 2009), including Republic of Serbia 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year y = 1286.2 x + 12113 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000 T h e t o ta l n u m b e r o f fi re s Figure 1: The total number of fires per year and linear trend curve from 2000 to 2012 in the Republic of Serbia. 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year y = 27.6 x + 452.7 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 T h e n u m b er o f (o n ly ) fo re st f ir es Figure 2: The number of (only) forest fires and linear trend curve from 2001 to 2012 in the Republic of Serbia. 57-1_03_918-Tin Lukic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 56 (Unkašević and Tošić 2011), were primarily responsible for the largest fire-damaged area – the number of forest fires reached 1,600 (Figure 2). The year 2012 saw the longest heat waves during summer and the worst drought since the beginning of observations in Serbia, more than 1,000 forest fires occurred during that time (Figure 2). Data provided by the Ministry of interior, Sector for emergency management of the Republic of Serbia illustrates and corresponds to the findings of respectable authors mentioned above (Figures 1 and 2). Authors recognise that factors other than geophysical (e.g. anthropogenic) must be taken into account when analysing the forest fires trends. The 2012 Tara Mountain case study shows that the frequency of forest fires, strongly influenced by climatic conditions, was above Serbian average. 4 Forest fires in the Republic of Serbia 2012 – Tara Mountain Case Study The number of forest fires in Serbia increased to 1,028 in 2012, as registered by the Ministry of interior, Sector for emergency management of the Republic of Serbia. Their distribution is shown in Figure 3. Quality data sets are available for the Tara mountain fires. Tara mountain is located in western Serbia with elevations between 1000 and 1500 meters. It forms a part of Serbian natural heritage and the forestry is highly sensitive to wild fires. The period from 23 August to 5 September 2012 was characterised by par- ticularly high frequency of forest fire occurrences. Wildfires have burned 2,150 ha of mountain area, while the estimated damage costs reached up to 170,000 Euros. 4.1 Risk indices A simple index for fire assessment is the Swedish Angstrom index (Willis et al. 2001). The index is based on the statistical relationships between the reported number of fire events and several antecedent-weath- er-related data. A weather-based index can only predict an area-averaged risk of fire, because the only input is obtained from the point measurements at a weather station (Onderka and Melicherčík 2009). The Angstrom index is calculated from air temperature and relative humidity and provides an indi- cation of the likely number of fires in a given day. The index, I, is calculated as follows (Skvarenina etal. 2003): (3) where R is daily average relative humidity (%), and t is daily average air temperature (°C). As can be seen from the equation (3), I decreases with the relative humidity and increases with the air temperature. A reduced index indicates a higher risk of fire. The use of the index for risk categorisation is shown in table 2. In 1949, Nesterov (Shetinsky 1994) proposed a fire-risk rating index. This index establishes a range of discrete fire risk levels. The Nesterov Index is calculated as: (4) where, NI denotes the Nesterov index, w is the number of days since the last rainfall exceeding 3 mm per day, Ti is the temperature (°C) on a given day, Ti dew is the dew point temperature (°C). The intrinsic char- acteristic of the Nesterov index is that it is reset to »zero« when daily rainfall exceeds 3 mm per day (Shetinsky 1994). The original risk levels proposed by Nesterov are shown in Table 2. Table 2: The values of Angstrom index (I) and Nesterov index (NI) translated into fire risk probability of fire (Skvarenina et al. 2003; Shetinsky 1994). Angstrom index (I) Probability of fire Nesterov index (NI) Probability of fire I>4 Fire occurrence unlikely NI<300 No risk 4< I<3 Fire occurrence unfavourable 30110000 Extremely high risk Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 57 I R t= + −  20 27 10 NI T T Ti i dew i w i= −( ) = ∑ 1 57-1_03_918-Tin Lukic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 57 Forest fire analysis and classification based on a Serbian case study 58 MONTENEGRO ALBANIA MACEDONIA B U L G A R IA ROMANIA HUNGARY C R O A T I A B O S N I A A N D H E R Z E G O V I N A 50 km 30 mi © Daniel Dalet / d-maps.com a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) j) Belgrade C R O A T I A ROMANIA ALBANIA MACEDONIA HUNGARY MONTENEGRO B U L G A R I A B O S N I A & H E R Z E G O V I N A a) (Ljubovija Crnča and Gračanica villages) . villages Šabac area area area area area area area area area – d) (Brus – V. Grabovnica, Kriva reka and Osreci villages, Aleksandrovac – Koznica and Pleš villages) f) (Kuršumlija Prevetica village, Merdare, Žitoradja Konjarnik village, Rgaje and Berilje villages) b) (Užice and Bajina Bašta NP Tara and Mokra gora, Čajetina – Čigota) c) (G. Gorevnica, Miokovci, Milićevci villages, G Milanovac – Srezojevci village) e) (Vrška Čuka, Sokobanja Vrmdža village, Knjaževac – Zubetinac and Ravno Bučje villages) g) (Gadžin han Babička gora) h) (Krupac village) i) (Babičko village, Medveđa- Sijarina) j) (Bujanovac Đorđevac and Breznica villages, Surdulica Binovac and Suvojnica ) Užice area Čačak Zaječar Niš Pirot Leskovac Vranje Kruševac Prokuplje – – – – – – – Forest fire Capital city 0 50 km A driatic Sea i) Tin Lukić Tin Lukić , 2012 Author of content: Author of map: Source: Ministry of Interior / Sector for Emergency Management of the Republic of Serbia Legend: Figure 3: Distribution of main forest fires in the Republic of Serbia in 2012 (the case study area is under section »b« on the map – Užice area). 57-1_03_918-Tin Lukic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 58 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 59 According to the Angstrom index, the risk of fire was very high (values of the index lower than 2.0) for the period from 23 to 25 August, and on 31 August. The values of index ranging between 2 and 2.5 were registered on 26 August, 30 August and 1 September, and between 2.5 and 3.0 on 29 August, 2 and 4 September. On other dates, values of I were above 3. The Nesterov index (NI) calculates only two risk levels for the period: »low risk« from 23 to 26 August and between 30 August and 1 September, and »no risk« in the periods from 27 to 29 August and 2 to 5 September. Figure 4 shows the daily fluctuation of the Angstrom (I) and Nesterov (NI) indices during the observed period, as well as correlation between the two indices. The Pearson correlation coefficient is –0.97. This shows that there is a correlation between the two indices, which could be expected considering that the same meteorological parameters are used in their calculation. The values of both indices are normalised; they range between 0 and 1 (the values of the Nesterov index are shown in a reversed order). The values of the Angstrom and Nesterov indices can be correlated with the maximum temperature and relative humidity. The weather factors that could have an influence on forest fire indices are depicted in Figure 5. 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.6 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 24 th 23 rd 25 th 26 th 27 th 28 th 29 th 30 th 31 st 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th August September Angstrom index Nesterov index Figure 4: Correlation between Angstrom index (I) and Nesterov index (NI). 57-1_03_918-Tin Lukic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 59 Forest fire analysis and classification based on a Serbian case study 60 The Angstrom index presented the highest correlation of 0.98 with relative humidity. In addition, the correlation coefficient showed a highly negative correlation of –0.93 between maximum temperature and Angstrom fire index. This suggests that the values of Angstrom index (I) will decrease with increased tem- perature and reduced relative humidity, in which cases fire occurrence would increase. The results for the Nesterov index are similar. A high negative correlation between the Nesterov index (NI) and relative humidity is recorded (–0.93), while coefficient of correlation with maximum tempera- ture shows a highly positive correlation (0.94). 4.2 Precipitation Precipitation is another factor that affects fire risk. The percent of normal precipitation is a simple mea- sure of rainfall in a location. Radinović (1979) proposed a method for calculating the deficit and surplus of precipitation (DSP) as a continuous function of time. August September 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 12 16 20 24 28 32 56 52 48 44 40 36 60 64 68 72 –10 –20 –30 24 th 25 th 26 th 27 th 28 th 29 th 30 th 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 31 st 23 rd 5 th Fire Occurrence , T em p er at u re ( ), M ax im u m t em p er at u re R el at iv e h u m id it y (% ) ( ) ºC ºC W in d s p ee d ( m /s ), P re ci p it at io n ( m m ) Legend: Relative humidity (%) Maximum temperature ( )°C Temperature ( )°C Precipitation (mm) Wind speed (m/s) Deficit of precipitation (mm) D ef ic it o f p re ci p it at io n ( m m ) Drought Figure 5: Graphical comparison of the deficit of precipitation, maximum temperature, daily temperature, wind speed and relative humidity in the Tara Region in 2012. 57-1_03_918-Tin Lukic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 60 The daily deficit and surplus of precipitation can be expressed by the equation: (5) where Td is daily deficit or surplus transferred from the previous month (mm), Pd is observed daily amount of precipitation (mm), –Pd is the expected quantity of daily precipitation (mm), i-1, 2 … and n is representing days in a month (Ćurić and Živanović 2013). The mean daily precipitation amounts (–Pd)i (i = 1, 2, … , 365) were calculated by interpolation from the monthly mean precipitation amounts in the period of thirty years, between 1977 and 2006. These val- ues are considered as the normally expected daily precipitation amounts (Table 3). Table 3: Daily deficit of precipitation in the period from 23 August to 5 September. Date (Pd)i ( –Pd)i (Dd)i 23 August 0 2,4 –2,4 24 August 0 2,4 –4,8 25 August 0 2,4 –7,2 26 August 0 2,4 –9,6 27 August 0,7 2,4 –11,3 28 August 0,5 2,4 –13,2 29 August 0 2,4 –15,6 30 August 0 2,4 –18 31 August 0 2,4 –20,4 1 September 0 2,7 –23,1 2 September 0 2,7 –25,8 3 September 0 2,7 –28,5 4 September 0 2,7 –31,2 5 September 0 2,7 –33,9 A deficit of precipitation occurred through the entire analysed period (Figure 5). According to the def- inition, drought is a period of five or more successive days without or ≤0.3mm precipitation (Bordy etal. 2004). The remainder periods are non-drought periods. Droughts can occur in both »deficit« and »surplus« pre- cipitation periods. The likelihood of forest fire is greater during periods of low precipitation, but it is usually affected by other factors such as the presence of an ignition source. 6 Conclusion Forest fires are considered in several legislative documents of Republic of Serbia. However, the authors main- tain that a hierarchical classification of fire hazards with their sub-types, as suggested by CRED and Munich RE, should be added to the legislative and other documents regulating the area of natural hazards. This would strengthen the legislative function and other frameworks used for risk management, and improve prevention and mitigation of forest fires. Fire risk rating indices, based on empirical relationships between pre-event meteorological conditions and the number of observed fire outbreaks, can be a useful tool towards understanding forest fire haz- ards. The Angstrom index and Nesterov index were used to forecast the risk of fire occurrence in this study. These are perceived as tools that can assist forest managers to take preventive measures. The use of the indices, as a fire occurrence likelihood measure, was illustrated here in forest fire case study in the Tara region of Serbia. The results from this study can be used for creation of the platform for fire management operational framework that can be used as a tool for decision making prevention, detection and moni- toring of forest fire hazards at both the local and national levels in the Republic of Serbia. Such a programme would be in line with the forest fire risk assessment and management practices that are currently being developed internationally. 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Zhong, M., Fan, W., Wang, Q. 2000: Experimental study in catastrophe characteristics of forest fire spread. Progress in natural science 10-6. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 63 57-1_03_918-Tin Lukic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 63 64 57-1_03_918-Tin Lukic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:29 Page 64 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017, 65–75 INTERRELATED ASPECTS OF RESIDENTIAL SUBURBANIZATION AND COLLECTIVE QUALITY OF LIFE: A CASE STUDY IN CZECH SUBURBS Jaroslav Biolek, Ivan Andráško, Jiří Malý, Pavlína Zrůstová Suburban house and resident in the hinterland of Czech city Olomouc. J A R O S L A V B IO L E K 57-1_04_909-Jaroslav Biolek_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 65 Jaroslav Biolek, Ivan Andráško, Jiří Malý, Pavlína Zrůstová, Interrelated aspects of residential suburbanization and collective … Interrelated aspects of residential suburbanization and collective quality of life: A case study in Czech suburbs DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.909 UDC: 911.375.1:316.728(437.3) COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: Most people moving to suburban municipalities seek to enhance their quality of life. However, residential suburbanization may contribute to spatial separation of the population and adversely affect the collective quality of life. This article focuses on socio-geographical aspects of quality of life in the context of suburbanization from a theoretical perspective and also based on a case study in the countryside around the Czech city of Olomouc. Due to the complex nature of this issue, a range of qualitatively oriented meth- ods was applied in the municipalities most affected by residential suburbanization. The findings of the case study show that quality of life for people living in these suburbs is influenced by geographical conditions as well as relations within the community and residents' participation in public life in the municipality. KEY WORDS: human geography, suburbanization, collective quality of life, community, suburbs of Olomouc, Czech Republic The article was submitted for publication on September 17th, 2014. ADDRESSES: Jaroslav Biolek, M.Sc. Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Palacký University 17. listopadu 12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic and Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University Kotlářská 2, 61137, Brno, Czech Republic E-mail: jaroslavbiolek@gmail.com Ivan Andráško, Ph. D. Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Palacký University 17. listopadu 12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic and Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University Kotlářská 2, 61137, Brno, Czech Republic E-mail: geoganry@mail.muni.cz Jiří Malý, M.Sc. Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University Kotlářská 2, 61137, Brno, Czech Republic E-mail: j.maly@mail.muni.cz Pavlína Zrůstová, M.Sc. Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University Kotlářská 2, 61137, Brno, Czech Republic E-mail: pzrustova@seznam.cz 66 57-1_04_909-Jaroslav Biolek_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 66 1 Introduction Suburbanization is often labeled the main process transforming the character of the landscape and the shape of municipalities in the countryside around cities in central Europe (e.g., Ravbar 1997; Kok 1999; Sýkora and Ouředníček 2001; Gašperič 2004; EEA 2006; Kontuly and Tammaru 2006; Couch et al. 2007; Krisjane and Berzins 2012). However, it is also a controversial phenomenon. Most people move to the suburbs fol- lowing a dream to improve their quality of life by changing their housing and environment. Nevertheless, residential suburbanization may produce the opposite effect. New suburban residents may lose their social contacts and may not adapt to their new environment, resulting in deterioration of their overall quality of life (Jackson 1985; Fishman 1989; Baldassare 1992; Jensen & Leven 1997; and, in the Czech context, Potočný 2006; Galčanová and Vacková 2008; Biolek and Andráško 2011). In the Czech Republic there is also potential for the growth of spatial separation of people voluntari- ly moving to the suburbs (Brabec and Sýkora 2009), but the negative results of this process adversely affect the collective quality of life in these localities. Although suburbanization may contribute to social homog- enization of parts of communities, at a higher level it instead lowers social cohesion and inclusion (Šafr, Bayer and Sedláčková 2008). The sense of belonging to a place of residence and social relationships in the municipality may thus be key circumstances that substantially influence quality of life (e.g., Harris and Larkham 1999; Cicognani et al. 2008). In addition to the impacts of a specific environment, it is especial- ly important to pay attention to the extent and form of participation by newcomers and old residents (e.g., Baldassare 1992; Putnam 2001). This article also reflects these tendencies and offers a new view on socio-geographical links to quality of life in the suburbanization process, both from the theoretical per- spective and based on applied research. This article interprets selected findings of a case study on the collective quality of life in Czech suburbs on August 2012. The municipalities investigated – Hlušovice, Dolany, Velký Týnec, and Křelov–Břuchotín – are some of the ones most affected by residential suburbanization in the countryside around the city of Olomouc (Biolek and Andráško 2012). Bearing in mind the complex nature of this issue, we applied a mul- tiphase qualitatively oriented research design and carried out participant observation, mental mapping, and especially semi-structured interviews with local stakeholders and inhabitants. The outputs of the case study thus emphasize a broad spectrum of socio-geographical aspects of collective quality of life in rela- tion to suburbanization, such as describing the influence of local planning on collective life, or how local schools foster social integration. 2 Theoretical background Rather than offering an exhaustive definition of collective quality of life or a comprehensive conceptual- ization of this phenomenon, this section outlines perspectives that open the path to the research. Because there is a great range of theoretical concepts, the terminology used to discuss quality of life is often ambigu- ous and vague, especially when one seeks to overcome the dichotomy between the quality of life of an individual and that of a  specific socio-geographical group of inhabitants (e.g.,  van Kamp  et al.  2003; Phillips 2006). In a simplified manner, quality of life can be understood as a qualitative evaluation and inter- pretation of the life of a person or a certain group of people, which is a product of a person's or social group's mutually influential external and internal factors (Andráško  2008). Thereby, the key precondition of socio-geographical research on quality of life is understanding the mutual interaction between people and their environment (Pacione 2003; Andráško 2009). According to many experts (e.g., Felce and Perry 1995; Bowling 1995; Massam 1999; Pacione 2003), for research purposes quality of life can be divided into partial domains, dimensions, or components (e.g., health aspects and influence of family). Nevertheless, the structuring of external and internal fac- tors into partial domains and their expression by means of indicators may distance researchers from understanding mutually influential relations that create the nature of individual or collective quality of life. Instead of this conceptualization, we instead focus on the actors and, following a qualitatively oriented research design, we describe their relations that contribute to quality of life. A first glance shows collectives of people living in suburban municipalities; that is, local communi- ties related to a specific place of residence and defined geographically as neighborhoods (Wellman and Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 67 57-1_04_909-Jaroslav Biolek_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 67 Jaroslav Biolek, Ivan Andráško, Jiří Malý, Pavlína Zrůstová, Interrelated aspects of residential suburbanization and collective … Leighton 1979). However, can one speak about a local community anchored in a suburban municipality and perform research on quality of life in such a neighborhood? According to Wilkinson (1991), most peo- ple spend time where they live and become involved in most social interactions in such places. Inside such neighborhoods, social contacts take place in community interaction fields, or nodal integration points. However, Wellman and Leighton (1979) argue that a community defined as a network of social relations does not necessarily have to be bound to a particular place. The question is whether it is possible to speak about a united community in the instance of heterogeneous socio-geographical groups of suburban munic- ipalities. In our opinion, there are instead various social groups or sub-communities of people connected by sociocultural interests (Fishman 1989; Baldassare 1992), as shown in this case study. When studying community interaction, one must not forget a role of social institutions and organi- zations in municipalities, such as schools, preschools, sports clubs, cultural centers, or maternity centers. Lockwood (1999) argues these are the specific collective actors initiating social interactions and developing the social inclusion of new residents, especially in the suburbs. As demonstrated based on the examples, these institutions play a crucial role in local inhabitants' involvement in a municipality's sociocultural life. These perspectives omit non-human factors (e.g., influence of the physical environment, infrastruc- ture). The reduction of the research topic to human actors and their relations considerably limits the understanding of the collective quality of life. Inspired by actor-network theory (Latour 2005), we define the »collective« as all the actors with relevant involvement in the socio-geographical network of subur- ban municipalities. Therefore, elements of infrastructure and municipal facilities, houses, cars, and, of course, the mutual relations of these objects and people should also be included. For instance, interdependence between people and cars can be one of the most important relations transforming the environment and social life in the suburbs (e.g., Newman & Kenworthy 1999). Thereby, our research design is based on a socio-geographical approach to collective quality of life. Under these circumstances, it is necessary to interpret how people's lives are influenced by newly recon- structed infrastructure or regular cultural events in the municipality and, on the other hand, how the inhabitants themselves contribute to their organization. 3 Research methodology The research was carried out in the municipalities of Hlušovice, Velký Týnec, Dolany, and Křelov–Břuchotín as a continuation of a survey that widely mapped the countryside around Olomouc in terms of the impacts of suburbanization on various life domains of local communities (Biolek and Andráško 2012). The main objectives of the research design were to capture the relations between inhabitants and environment in terms of suburbanization. In order to understand and interpret the facts that form quality of life and its perception, we used a qualitatively oriented research method. The type of case study selected also reflected the need to describe specific aspects of suburbanization in various localities. The research was carried out in a flexible manner until the point of saturation; that is, until a sufficient amount of information was obtained that was necessary for a thorough description and interpretation of the case (Yin 1984). The various living environments in municipalities affected by suburbanization (in terms of the number of inhabitants, population structure, or building types) not only offered perspectives for comparison, but also increased the demands for synthesis and interpretation of qualitative data about the life of the local communities. After the pre-research phase of participant observation and testing the interview methodology and mental maps in August 2012, we chose stakeholders in selected municipalities (mayors, representatives, organizers of cultural events) with a certain influence on political, social, and cultural affairs. Semi-struc- tured interviews were recorded with these people regarding the perception of socio-spatial aspects of quality of life, social affairs in the municipality, interpersonal relationships, and relations to the local environment, all in the context of the suburbanization process. At the end of the semi-structured interviews, the infor- mants could suggest other people involved in social affairs in the municipality for subsequent interviews (i.e., the snowballing method). The next phase focused on citizens that did not participate in the previous phase. The informants were both old residents and newcomers (defined as those that had lived less than ten years in the municipality). The selection and contents of the questions were influenced by the duration of residence, relation to the 68 57-1_04_909-Jaroslav Biolek_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 68 municipality and other inhabitants, and other factors. We first asked about satisfaction with housing and various life domains in the municipality and about informants' own definition of quality of life. Other ques- tions were oriented toward community relationships or participation in social life in the municipality. After the semi-structured interviews (totaling eighty-two, or approximately twenty interviews per municipali- ty), the informants were asked to sketch out their residence in the context of the neighborhood and its features. The sketches were deciphered and interpreted by using the various conceptual approaches of Lynch (1960), Appleyard (1973), or Tuan (1975). The last phase of the research was acquiring missing informa- tion by means of alternative methods (e.g., content analysis of local documents about social affairs), which complemented data from interviews and mental maps. All of the interviews were recorded and anonymized, and all of the data have been filed in the authors' archive. The fieldwork was followed by an analytical phase in which it was necessary to decipher, operational- ize, and sort the information. In the case study, we first applied an open coding method to analyze the transcribed interviews. Some information from the interviews was labeled using analytical codes with a precise descrip- tion of data using research terms (e.g., history of housing construction in a given municipality, role of the pump effect or physical barriers, importance of sociocultural events, and contacts in preschools or schools) or by in vivo codes (e.g., descriptions such as »only place to sleep« or »a millionaire district«; Cloke etal. 2004). We thus generated a complex map of open codes in which we looked for semantic interrelations. The codes on the map were systematically joined and categorized on the basis of the key attributes of collective quality of life in the context of the suburbanization process. We thus defined categories that rep- resent and connect emergent thematic aspects of suburban collective life (housing construction and local planning, transportation and spending time in the municipality, physical barriers and social inclusion, social relations and conflicts between sub-communities) and then analyzed them. Similarly, in vivo codes were systematically incorporated into the categories (some of them were also used in the following section). The codes within the groups were semantically linked, and these connections were described with axial labels expressing various kinds of relationships (similarity, difference, contradiction, example or cause of Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 69 Figure 1: Location of the municipalities studied. Expressways Class 1 roads Class 2 roads Class 3 roads Railways Olomouc Researched municipalities Other municipalities Forests 0 1 2 4 km 57-1_04_909-Jaroslav Biolek_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 69 Jaroslav Biolek, Ivan Andráško, Jiří Malý, Pavlína Zrůstová, Interrelated aspects of residential suburbanization and collective … another code). For instance, codes related to social inclusion and community interactions (such as social and cultural events, preschools, schools, or other nodal integration points) were linked together and, con- sequently, relations between them were interpreted according to factual transcriptions of the interviews (e.g., presence of physical barriers in closer municipalities in contrast to more distant ones, or the social inclusion function of social and cultural events for families with children but not for teenagers). In this phase, emphasis was mostly placed on differences between information from old residents and new residents (or sub-communities). Finally, we sorted all of the semantic groups using thematic operationalization and synthesized them into relevant interpretable outputs based on our theoretical background. Regarding the collective quali- ty of life in the suburbs, relevant information was selected according to the aims stated earlier in this article. Thus, core thematic groups of codes needed to interpret the collective quality of life were identified and systematically linked to approaches that were not only varied and specific, but especially to significant socio-geo- graphical aspects of the suburban municipalities (following the line of interpretation from local planning and environmental aspects to barriers of social inclusion and nodal integration points between new res- idents and old residents). 4 Case study findings The municipalities studied are located in the countryside around Olomouc, which is the largest city in cen- tral Moravia with a population of about 100,000. These municipalities were selected based on a previous analysis according to the indicators of migration and new home construction (Biolek and Andráško 2012). However, this case study more closely examines social relations in the municipality, the sense of belong- ing to the municipality, the extent to which residents participate, and other characteristics of the collective quality of life. It is important to describe the development and forms of residential suburbanization in the munici- palities investigated. The first municipality, Dolany, was affected by the earliest wave of suburbanization in the second half of the 1990s, whereas Hlušovice and Křelov–Břuchotín were affected shortly after 2000. At that time there were no land-use plans or they were obsolete, and therefore the municipalities could only regulate construction with great difficulty and construction work was quite chaotic. In most cases, the sale of building plots and construction were initiated by the plots owners and builders, and the con- struction work was not coordinated. The construction of infrastructure networks, for which builders themselves are responsible, was delayed or insufficient in many cases, especially in development projects. Among the municipalities selected, Velký Týnec is an exception. Housing construction started there in 2008, and the locations were established at the initiative of the municipality. Regulation by the municipality has also been more apparent than in other settlements. However, the construction of some projects is con- tinuing in all the municipalities even though the local authorities are trying to limit further development or at least direct it to more favorable locations (e.g., into built-up areas). An obvious negative environmental aspect of construction is the use of agricultural land (Kahn 2000). Especially in the vicinity of Olomouc, the area of fertile land is decreasing (Burian, Miřijovský and Macková 2011; Biolek and Andráško 2012). All of the municipalities are also in a non-flood area, which is a significant geographical factor influencing construction and in-migration. In all of the municipalities, there are newly built neighborhoods on the outskirts of the settlements. Another problem is deteriorating housing and abandonment of old houses in built-up areas of the municipality in contrast to the development of the outskirts, disturbing the rural character of the municipality. For financial reasons or simplicity, it is easier to build a house on a greenfield site instead of renovating an existing house (Harris and Larkham 1999). Individual vehicular traffic is the prevailing type of transport between Olomouc and suburban municipalities. Many people have two or more cars, and so regular commuting certainly influences local people's participation in social affairs. Municipal residents with better accessibility to Olomouc (from Křelov–Břuchotín) have greater motivation to go to Olomouc to take advantage of a wider variety of leisure activities. In this case, transport causes a »pump effect« and people therefore lose the motivation to par- ticipate in collective life. Not only a high socioeconomic class in Olomouc is moving to suburban municipalities, but also other social groups from neighboring towns and villages, and therefore the socio-geographical structure of new- 70 57-1_04_909-Jaroslav Biolek_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 70 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 71 comers is varied. Nevertheless, new buildings are characterized by the old residents as »a millionaire dis- trict« even though there are very few real millionaires and most newcomers buy their homes using a mortgage. The diversity of the local population also influences the level of social integration and inclusion (Raphael et al. 2001). The integration of newcomers into the local community increases over time and the old residents start to respect and accept them more. One respondent from Křelov–Břuchotín expressed the relationship between old residents and newcomers like this: »it takes ten years for you to stop being an unwanted newcomer and another five years to be considered a local.« However, some newcomers have been living in the municipalities for more than ten years without integration and they only use their place of residence as a »place to sleep.« The case study shows that it may be difficult to overcome barriers between old residents and newcomers and to make contacts. Many new residents remain shut inside their houses and seldom engage in social interaction with the environment. The type and character of buildings also plays an important role; that is, people dwelling in houses behind high fences socialize less and have fewer contacts with neighbors than residents living in terraced houses. Although social differences partially fade away as a result of the rela- tively varied socio-geographical structure of the population in suburban municipalities, the character of buildings – and thus a different physical environment – emphasizes borderlines between residents. As previous studies (Potočný 2006; Biolek and Andráško 2012) showed, rather than increasing social communication between these two groups and decreasing social cohesion in the municipality, an overall transformation of social relations prevails, forming new sub-communities (within the group of newcom- ers or between both groups). Most informants allege they have either neutral or slightly positive relations with the other group. Within the community of new residents, some new intimate relationships and firm social connections may also appear (depending on the character of built-up area). Especially in Hlušovice, it was obvious that newcomers are a more involved part of the population. They organize cultural and sports events and participate more in the social life of the municipality. Figure 2: A detached house behind a high fence with unfinished infrastructure in Dolany. J A R O S L A V B IO L E K 57-1_04_909-Jaroslav Biolek_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 71 Jaroslav Biolek, Ivan Andráško, Jiří Malý, Pavlína Zrůstová, Interrelated aspects of residential suburbanization and collective … 72 Cultural, sports, and other social events are an important social bridge between newcomers and old residents. Social events in the selected suburbs can be viewed in terms of the main nodal integration points in which social inclusion of the municipality's inhabitants has developed (Wilkinson 1991). People in the selected municipalities are well aware of this, and by supporting cultural associations they attempt to pro- vide a wide range of social events (dances, banquets, and other festivities). Social events are mostly adapted for parents with children as well as for young mothers. Those organized by children's clubs or women's clubs are the main events where people can make new contacts with other inhabitants and can overcome social barriers. On the other hand, for other social groups, especially for teenagers, the municipalities do not offer enough entertainment. Intensification of social contacts occurs through of social events and through institutions for children (preschools and schools). Nevertheless, the growing number of children in the municipalities studied is creating a problem because of the insufficient capacity of preschools. Preschool management is forced to select children according to certain criteria, which may raise doubts or cause possible disputes among parts of the community. On the other hand, primary schools, which are supposed to foster social integration, are often not attended by newcomers' children. There are several reasons for this, from the practice of tak- ing children to primary schools in Olomouc when commuting to the negative reputation of local schools. This limits the opportunity to make new contacts and for children and their parents to integrate. It is easier for new residents to integrate and make new contacts in smaller municipalities because in larger settlements there are greater socio-spatial differences between old and new residents, or a more »deper- sonalized environment.« Therefore, the collective quality of life in these municipalities depends not only on the character and quality of social relations, but also on the size and structure of the community (Raphael et al. 2001) or on the type of built-up area with indirect influence (Rowland and Mitchell 2012). 5 Conclusion and discussion It is difficult to incorporate different views on quality of life and create a cohesive picture to describe the col- lective quality of life of the residents of a certain locality in a complex way. However, this research reflected Figure 3: An example of the mental map of Hlušovice made by a newcomer. 57-1_04_909-Jaroslav Biolek_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 72 on these perspectives and interpreted the quality of life of residents in selected suburban municipalities with an emphasis on socio-spatial relations. Although the municipalities studied are facing problems connected to social inactivity and socio-spa- tial separation, the newcomers have been gradually integrating. The main integration element is children and social events connected with them. During activities at various children's clubs and preschools, moth- ers that are newcomers and old residents make contacts and create social bonds. On the other hand, one of the obstacles to social inclusion in these municipalities is a low percentage of newcomers' children in local primary schools in contrast to the great demand for placement of children in preschools. Regarding environmental aspects, most informants perceive their environment to be important; they consider suburban municipalities suitable for rearing children and the opportunity to spend time outdoors as a relevant factor for their quality of life. The character of built-up areas influences social contacts and relations in the community and consequently quality of life (Biolek and Andráško 2012). Although the inhabitants of the selected municipalities do not explicitly connect their quality of life with the sense of belong- ing to the place they live, they consider the development of necessary infrastructure, for example, to be the key factors for enhancing quality of life. Although suburban residents' satisfaction with their current life depends on satisfying material needs, quality of life still depends on the quality of their socio-geographical environment (Pacione 2003). In other words, the collective quality of life of people that actively participate in their community may also positively affect their individual lives. On the other hand, if people distance themselves from social life, the impacts of collective factors are limited. Their quality of life is instead influenced by other factors (e.g., material and economic) and these people may not reach such a level of satisfaction with the envi- ronment as inhabitants in the first case (Fishman 1989; Putnam 2001). Thus, the interrelation of collective and individual quality of life in suburban municipalities can partially be explained by the principle of com- plementarity (Andráško 2010). This study has also shown that geography has an effect on relations in a socio-geographical environ- ment and has an impact on quality of life in suburban municipalities. 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Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 75 57-1_04_909-Jaroslav Biolek_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 75 76 57-1_04_909-Jaroslav Biolek_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 76 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017, 77–96 CHANGING DENOTATIONS OF SELECTED SLOVENIAN CHORONYMS SPREMINJANJE DENOTATA IZBRANIH SLOVENSKIH POKRAJINSKIH IMEN Matjaž Geršič The boundary stone between Styria and Carniola along the main road from Ljubljana to Celje. Mejni kamen med Štajersko in Kranjsko na magistralni cesti med Ljubljano in Celjem. J E R E N J A F R ID L 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 77 Matjaž Geršič, Changing denotations of selected Slovenian choronyms Changing denotations of selected Slovenian choronyms DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4600 UDC: 91:81’373.21(497.4) COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: This article discusses changes in the territory identified by individual choronyms, or region- al toponyms. The most frequent choronyms listed by respondents include the names of Austria-Hungarian lands and their parts, which in the past referred to precisely delineated administrative units. Today their borders are largely impossible to define, but they can be determined using cognitive maps and geographic information systems. The findings presented in this article show that the denotation of these names has changed over time and that in the case of informal names it is not clearly defined. KEYWORDS: geography, region, choronym, onomastics, Slovenia The article was submitted for publication on July 13th, 2016 ADDRESS: Matjaž Geršič, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail:mgersic@zrc-sazu.si 78 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 78 1 Introduction One of the features of a standardized written language is that it changes over time because it is a living struc- ture subject to change (Smole 2004). Changes within a language should not be understood only in the sense of changes in grammatical rules, in how certain words are written, and in linguistic style, because the mean- ing of an individual word may also change. In terms of such changes, geographical names are no exception. Such names only constitute a special linguistic category in terms of how they are written and the fact that they do not have a general meaning and only serve to identify unrepeatable realities (Snoj 2009). In addition, they are special because they are considered the oldest testimony of the Slovenian language (Pogorelec 2011). One of the main features of proper nouns is reflected in the object of naming, which proves to be denotative: the meaning must be known to both the creator and the addressee. Without this, the name does not mean anything (Šimunović 2009). The denotation of geographical names also includes the extent or delimitation of the named object. Geographical names can be divided into several types: microtoponyms, oronyms (mountain names), hydronyms (water names), toponyms, the names of countries, and so on. A special category within this typology also includes choronyms, or names of regions. In terms of their definition, these names are some- what more complex because the definition of the notion of a region is not entirely uniform, neither in geography nor in related disciplines. In addition, individuals also perceive this concept in a somewhat idio- syncratic manner. This article conceives of a region as an area with an idiosyncratic mix of natural and social elements that make it different from neighboring regions and that has a proper name or is perceived as a region and is identified with by its residents. With regard to changes in geographical names over time, one also needs to highlight the changes in the spatial extent of the named elements or their denotations. In their onomastic studies, geographers largely focus on foreign geographical names (Kladnik 2007, 2009; Crljenko 2014) and on geographical names as levers of political power (Kladnik and Pipan 2008; Urbanc and Gabrovec 2005). The main research issue discussed in this article is how the denotation of selected Slovenian choronmys has changed over time. 2 Methods Maps are among the most commonly used means for presenting geographical names (Peršolja 2003), and they can be divided by content and scale (Vrišer 2002). Regardless of the map scale and type, and in addi- tion to mathematical, natural-geography, and social-geography cartographic elements, »other« elements also form an important part of modern maps, the most important of which are various geographical names (Vrišer 2002). They are vital for understanding a specific region, and they also place a considerable bur- den on the map from the technical and visual viewpoints. They take up a great deal of space, often to the detriment of other cartographic designations that must be omitted. Cartographers have dealt with this chal- lenge in different ways in the past (Gašperič 2007). Geographical names must be written out in a legible, comprehensive, and aesthetic manner, they must be properly distributed, and so on. A map that has too many names is difficult to read and other topographic designations on it may be neglected (Vrišer 2002). Maps are among the most frequently used means for presenting geographical names, but due to general- ization and technical restrictions they do not include all of the geographical names in a specific region (Peršolja 2003). A detailed study hence requires a broader selection of geographical name sources. Even the oldest explor- ers of geographical names also collected data in the field. In the past, fieldwork actually constituted the basic data source. It continues to be vital especially in dialectology studies (Klinar et al. 2012; Klinar and Geršič 2015) and some other onomastics studies in Slovenia (e.g., Furlan and Kladnik 2008) and abroad (e.g., Senft 2008). Field research on geographical names is also promoted by the linguistic community (Šivic- Dular 2014; Möller 2015), and thus this data-collection method was also selected for studying the choronyms in this article. In order to reach as many residents in an individual region as possible, the names were col- lected with a survey. Questionnaires were sent out to five thousand respondents. The sample selected from the Central Population Register (CPR) was prepared by the Slovenian Statistical Office. The respondents, Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 79 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 79 Matjaž Geršič, Changing denotations of selected Slovenian choronyms who were between seventeen and seventy-five years old, were selected randomly. To facilitate data pro- cessing, Slovenia was divided into east and west, and 2,500 questionnaires were sent to each half. Eastern Slovenia included the Carinthia, Savinja, Central Sava, Lower Sava, Drava, Mura, and Southeast Slovenia sta- tistical regions, and western Slovenia covered the Upper Carniola, Gorizia, Coastal–Karst, Inner Carniola–Karst, and Central Slovenia statistical regions. In addition to generally known types of survey questions, the questionnaires in this survey also includ- ed instructions for creating cognitive maps. 2.1 Cognitive maps »A cognitive map is a technique used for obtaining a picture of spatial relations and environmental char- acteristics and people’s views on them« (Polič 2002, 39), or a cognitive concept of the information that individuals have about a specific environment (Golledge and Stimson 1997). These types of maps began to be used in the 1960s for analyzing structural and identity elements in the environment (Lynch 1960). They can also serve as a means for obtaining data important for spatial planning (Polič 2002). One distinguishes between individual drawing of cognitive maps and drawing done in groups at workshops (Golobič 2006). In an individual’s imagination, the map is created slowly, depending on the environment and the individual’s experience and educational background (Kaplan, Kaplan and Ryan 1998). There is no perfect cognitive map. Each contains information relevant for whoever draws such a map (Polič 2002). Therefore, the infor- mation on it is usually considerably simplified (Polič 2002) because it is the result of the individual’s desires and imagination (Kos 2002). A cognitive map is a product of one’s thoughts and, as such, it is invisible to others. One way to communicate the content of a cognitive map is drawing (Polič 2002). Golobič (2006, 161) refers to this type of information acquisition as graphic surveying. Polič (2002, 38) lists the following five cognitive map types: 1) Lynch-type cognitive maps, 2) social- spatial forms, 3) mental maps, 4) personality constructs and distance estimation, and 5) multidimensional scaling. With the first map type, respondents are first offered individual existing symbols or an outline of the area. They can draw paths, borders, and other landscape elements in it. The results obtained can be com- pared in terms of various respondent characteristics (Polič 2002; Staut, Kovačič and Ogrin 2007). Drawing these types of maps presupposes that the respondents are able to adjust the ratios between the points pre- sented and the points on the map, can minimize a large space, can create geometric projections, and are familiar with cartographic symbols (Levy-Leboyer 1982, cited in Polič 2002). In some way, the first three assumptions could also be described as the ability to georeference the conditions in the environment onto the cognitive map. Social-spatial forms are more structured forms of cognitive maps. Respondents are asked to delimit an area on the map that they consider their own, that they like, and so on (Polič 2002). Mental maps are indirect cognitive maps, in which respondents rank a specific element according to a selected characteristic (Polič 2002). Personality constructs are the result of the analysis of comprehensive networks that respondents create by arranging selected phenomena and establishing differences between them. The last type of cognitive map listed makes it possible to establish subjective distances between places (Polič 2002). Cognitive maps play an important role in geography. Studying cognitive maps was given a special place in the 1960s with the establishment of behavioral geography; cognitive maps were one of its main methods (Klemenčič 2002). Respondents were given an A3 1:650,000 map of Slovenia as the basis for their graphic expression. The map contained the national border, major towns (Ajdovščina, Bovec, Celje, Črnomelj, Idrija, Ilirska Bistrica, Jesenice, Kamnik, Koper, Kranj, Krško, Litija, Ljubljana, Maribor, Murska Sobota, Nova Gorica, Novo Mesto, Postojna, Ptuj, Ravne na Koroškem, Ribnica, Rogaška Slatina, and Velenje), the basic river network, and Mount Triglav as the highest Slovenian mountain. Respondents were asked to draw or delimit the Slovenian regions and name them. They were given the following instructions: »Draw the Slovenian regions that you know on the map« and »Name each region drawn.« 80 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 80 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 81 The cognitive maps created, which contained both the regions’ borders and names, were first scanned and then digitized. Digitization was carried out manually: the demarcated areas were copied into a geo- graphic information system. The data obtained and the thematic maps were analyzed using ArcMap 10.3.1. The following operations were used: 1) Polygon to Raster, 2) Zonal Statistics – Sum, 3) Zonal Statistics – Majority, 4) Zonal Statistics – Variety, 5) and Raster Calculator – Divide/Sum/Minus. 3 Results The questionnaires were completed by 12.7% of those they were sent to. The number of completed ques- tionnaires obtained from western Slovenia was 309 and the number from eastern Slovenia was 326. However, not all of the questionnaires returned contained a cognitive map made in line with the instructions. Individual cognitive maps were missing some elements. Therefore, all of the cognitive maps received were divided into four groups: those containing the borders and names of regions, those containing only one of these two categories, questionnaires without a cognitive map, and cognitive maps containing elements that were not requested in the instructions (these were classified under »Other«). The respondents from western Slovenia delimited a total of 2,027 areas and those from eastern Slovenia delimited 2,147. An average respondent divided Slovenia into nine to ten regions. In the calculations, all of the areas were taken into account, including those not named by the respondents. There were 283 (7.5%) unnamed areas on all of the maps, and 3,769 areas had names ascribed to them. A total of 170 versions 0 % 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 % 60 % 70 % 80 % Other drugo/ Only borders samo meje/ Only names samo imena/ Names and borders meje in imena/ Map without borders and names zemljevid je prazen/ Western Slovenia/zahodna Slovenija Eastern Slovenia/vzhodna Slovenija Figure 1: Share of individual map categories. 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 81 Matjaž Geršič, Changing denotations of selected Slovenian choronyms of regional names were identified. To simplify the analysis, some names were combined into the same name category (e.g., Prekmurje and Prekmurska ‘Prekmurje’, Zasavje and Zasavska ‘Central Sava region’, and Savinjska dolina and dolina Savinje ‘Savinja Valley’). The most frequent names provided for regions included Gorenjska ‘Upper Carniola’, Dolenjska ‘Lower Carniola’, Koroška ‘Carinthia’, Štajerska ‘Styria’, Prekmurje/Prekmurska ‘Prekmurje’, Primorska ‘Littoral’, and Notranjska ‘Inner Carniola’ (Table 1). Table 1: The most frequently drawn and named regions on the cognitive map. Choronym Western Slovenia Eastern Slovenia Total Gorenjska ‘Upper Carniola’ 200 205 405 Dolenjska ‘Lower Carniola’ 198 189 387 Koroška ‘Carinthia’ 176 199 375 Štajerska ‘Styria’ 188 178 366 Prekmurje/Prekmurska ‘Prekmurje’ 182 172 354 Primorska ‘Littoral’ 185 166 351 Notranjska ‘Inner Carniola’ 171 172 343 Total 1,300 1,281 2,581 The greatest difference in the names of regions among the respondents from eastern and western Slovenia was for the names for the Sava Valley and Carinthia. Choronyms for both of these were used by several respondents from eastern Slovenia. Compared to those from western Slovenia, among the respondents from eastern Slovenia the names for Prlekija and the Savinja Valley stand out, whereas the Littoral and White Carniola stand out among the respondents from western Slovenia. More pre- cise ratios for the names where the difference between both parts of Slovenia is ten or more are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Differences in the frequency of named regions by respondents’ place of residence Choronyms Place of residence Western Slovenia Eastern Slovenia Difference Primorska ‘Littoral’ 185 166 19 Bela krajina ‘White Carniola’ 83 67 16 Štajerska ‘Styria’ 188 178 10 Prekmurje/Prekmurska ‘Prekmurje’ 182 172 10 Ljubljanska pokrajina ‘Ljubljana region’ 21 11 10 Podravje/Podravska ‘Drava Valley’ 14 25 −11 Goriška/Goriško ‘Gorizia region’ 34 48 −14 Obalno kraška (Obala-Kras) ‘Coastal-Karst region’ 5 19 −14 Not given 133 150 −17 Pomurje/Pomurska ‘Mura Valley’ 16 35 −19 Savinjska ‘Savinja region’ 18 38 −20 Prlekija 11 31 −20 Koroška ‘Carinthia’ 176 199 −23 Posavje/Posavska ‘Sava Valley’ 27 50 −23 Among all the named areas, the predominant names were isolated (by taking into account their absolute value), after which the named areas were delimited using geographic information systems, resulting in eight predominant regions (Figure 2). 82 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 82 83 K R ŠK O V E L E N JE R IB N IC A PO ST O JN A PT U J B O V E C K R A N J C E L JE K A M N IK ID R IJ A M A R IB O R JE SE N IC E Č R N O M E L J L JU B L JA N A N O V O M E ST O A JD O V ŠČ IN A N O VA G O R IC A M U R SK A S O B O TA R O G A ŠK A S L AT IN A IL IR SK A B IS T R IC A R AV N E N A K O R O ŠK E M K O PE R /C A PO D IS T IR A 0 5 0 1 0 0 2 5 7 5 k m U pp er C ar ni ol a/ G or en js ka Li tto ra l/ Pr im or sk a St yr ia / Št aj er sk a Pr ek m ur je / Pr ek m ur je /-s ka Lo w er C ar ni ol a/ D ol en js ka C en tra l S lo ve ni a/ O sr ed nj a Sl ov en ija / O sr ed nj es lo ve ns ka C ar in th ia / K or oš ka In ne r C ar ni ol a/ N ot ra nj sk a L eg en d/ le ge nd a Figure 2: The most frequently named Slovenian regions and their delimitations. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 83 Matjaž Geršič, Changing denotations of selected Slovenian choronyms 84 4 Discussion It can be established that the names based on the former Austrian lands and their components clearly pre- dominate; the only exception is the area between Ljubljana and Vrhnika, which according to the majority of respondents should constitute a separate region (in terms of its name). In certain places, the borders of the former lands differ significantly from the extent of the current regions with the same name as defined through the cognitive maps and geographic information systems. Considering that the names of the former Austrian lands and their parts predominate in the respon- dents’ consciousness, they serve as an excellent example for determining the changes in their denotations. Under Austria-Hungary, these names were used for precisely delimited regions, whereas today, with only a few exceptions (the Upper Carniola, Carinthia, and Gorizia statistical regions), one could hardly speak of any official delimitation using these names. The choronyms for Carinthia, Upper Carniola, Lower Carniola, Inner Carniola, Styria, and Prekmurje were used to analyze changes and to compare the areas that they referred to in the past and present. The current municipalities were selected as the basic spatial unit. In the case of Carinthia, the former Austrian land in Austria-Hungary covered the current munici- palities of Črna na Koroškem, Jezersko, Mežica, Prevalje, and Ravne na Koroškem, and the northwestern part of the Municipality of Dravograd. The current Carinthia Statistical Region covers all of these munic- ipalities except Jezersko, plus the municipalities of Mislinja, Muta, Podvelka, Radlje ob Dravi, Ribnica na Pohorju, Slovenj Gradec, and Vuzenica. Carinthia, as delimited by the respondents on their cognitive maps, slightly deviates from the actual extent of the statistical region. Except for the Municipality of Mislinja, it involves a slightly larger area than the statistical region because the respondents also included the north- eastern part of the Municipality of Solčava, the northern edges of the municipalities of Ljubno, Luče, and Šoštanj, and the northwestern parts of the municipalities of Lovrenc na Pohorju and Selnica ob Dravi in it. As already mentioned, the only exception is the Municipality of Mislinja, the southern part of which was defined as being part of Styria by the majority of respondents. The second case had to do with Upper Carniola, which was not a separate land under Austria-Hungary, but part of Carniola. Under Austria-Hungary, Upper Carniola included the territory of the current municipalities of Bled, Bohinj, Cerklje na Gorenjskem, Domžale, Gorenja Vas–Poljane, Gorje, Jesenice, Kamnik, Komenda, Kranj, Kranjska Gora, Ljubljana, Lukovica, Medvode, Moravče, Preddvor, Radovljica, Šenčur, Škofja Loka, Tržič, Vodice, Zagorje ob Savi, Železniki, and Žirovnica. In addition, it included the northern part of the Municipality of Dol pri Ljubljani, the northwestern part of the Municipality of Litija, the extreme north- western part of the Municipality of Trbovlje, the extreme east of the Municipality of Cerkno, the majority of the Municipality of Dobrova–Polhov Gradec, the extreme northwest of the Municipality of Žiri, and the Italian ward of Fusine in Valromana, which is not part of Slovenia, but once belonged to Carniola (i.e., Upper Carniola). The territory of the statistical region of the same name is significantly smaller. It is composed of only sixteen municipalities described above and the Municipality of Jezersko, which belonged to Carinthia under Austria-Hungary. However, in people’s minds the territory of Upper Carniola is more different yet. In the west, it extends to the eastern edges of the municipalities of Bovec, Kobarid, and Tolmin, and also includes the entire Municipality of Cerkno, and in the east it covers the western parts of the munic- ipalities of Gornji Grad, Luče, and Solčava. In addition to the municipalities within the Upper Carniola Statistical Region, it also covers the majority of the Municipality of Kamnik, the northern part of the Municipality of Dobrova–Polhov Gradec, the municipalities of Komenda, Medvode, Mengeš, and Vodice, and parts of the municipalities of Domžale and Lukovica. Compared to the Upper Carniola of 1914, Upper Carniola as perceived by the respondents has acquired some additional territory to the east and west, and lost ter- ritory to the south and southeast. The changes in the denotation of other identified names can only be established based on their extent under Austria-Hungary and the respondents’ delimitations. The fewest changes can be determined in the case of Prekmurje. The fact that the border between two regions runs along a river is clearly a stronger delin- eating factor than a border running along mountain ridges, even though mountains are more difficult to pass through. The greatest changes were determined in the case of Styria. The present name refers to a small- er territory than it used to in the past. Changes are especially visible in the northwestern part of the region, to which Carinthian identity spread. Namely, the respondents placed the municipalities of Muta, Podvelka, 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 84 85 Figure 3: Comparing the past and present extent of regions bearing the same name. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 K R ŠK O V E L E N JE R IB N IC A PO ST O JN A PT U J B O V E C K R A N J C E L JE K A M N IK ID R IJ A M A R IB O R JE SE N IC E Č R N O M E L J L JU B L JA N A N O V O M E ST O A JD O V ŠČ IN A N O VA G O R IC A M U R SK A S O B O TA R O G A ŠK A S L AT IN A IL IR SK A B IS T R IC A R AV N E N A K O R O ŠK E M K O PE R /C A PO D IS T IR A 0 5 0 1 0 0 2 5 7 5 k m U pp er C ar ni ol a/ G or en js ka Li tto ra l/ Pr im or sk a St yr ia / Št aj er sk a Pr ek m ur je / Pr ek m ur je /-s ka Lo w er C ar ni ol a/ D ol en js ka C en tra l S lo ve ni a/ O sr ed nj a Sl ov en ija / O sr ed nj es lo ve ns ka C ar in th ia / K or oš ka In ne r C ar ni ol a/ N ot ra nj sk a P r e k m u r j e S t y r i a / Š t a j e r s k a C a r i n t h i a / C ar ni ol a (U pp er Ca rni ola )/ Ca rn io la (L ow er Ca rni ola )/ Ca rn iol a (I nn er C ar n i ol a) / I s t r i a / I s t r a Co un ty of Go riz ia/ Go riš ka K o r o š k a Kr an jsk a (N ot ra nj sk a) Kr an jsk a (G or en jsk a) K ra nj sk a (D ole njs ka) B or de rs o f A us tri a- H un ga ria n la nd s/ m ej e ne kd an jih d ež el L eg en d/ le ge nd a 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 85 Matjaž Geršič, Changing denotations of selected Slovenian choronyms 86 KAMNIK C AR IN TH IA / KOROŠKA CARINTHIA / K ORO ŠK A 0 10 20 30 405 km Legend/legenda Region, delineated by majority of respondents pokrajina, kot jo je zamejila večina anketirancev Austria-Hungarian land/ avstro-ogrska dežela Statistical region/ statistična regija Country border/ državna meja Figure 4: Various delimitations of Carinthia. IDRIJA KAMNIK UPPER CARNIOLA / GOREN JS K A 0 10 20 30 405 km CARNIOLA (UPPER C AR N IO L A ) / Legend/legenda Region, delineated by majority of respondents pokrajina, kot jo je zamejila večina anketirancev Austria-Hungarian land/ avstro-ogrska dežela Statistical region/ statistična regija Country border/ državna meja end/legenda KRANJSKA (GOREN JSK A ) Figure 5: Various delimitations of Upper Carniola. 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 86 Radlje ob Dravi, Ribnica na Pohorju, Slovenj Gradec, and Vuzenica, and parts of the municipalities of Ljubno, Lovrenc na Pohorju, Luče, Mislinja, Selnica ob Dravi, Solčava, and Šoštanj, which used to belong to Styria, under Carinthia; part of the Municipality of Dravograd already belonged to Carinthia under Austria-Hungary. The respondents ascribed part of the Municipality of Solčava to Upper Carniola, as well as parts of the municipalities of Gornji Grad and Luče, which used to belong to Styria. The designation »Styria,« however, spread to the territory of the former Upper Carniola in the municipalities of Kamnik, Lukovica, Trbovlje, and Zagorje ob Savi. Minor changes can also be observed on the border between Styria and Lower Carniola. Parts of the municipalities of Hrastnik and Trbovlje, which used to belong to Lower Carniola, are now identified as being part of Styria, whereas Lower Carniolan identity spread to the ter- ritory of the former Styria along the lower reaches of the Sava River in the municipalities of Brežice, Krško, and Sevnica. Lower Carniola once also included parts of the municipalities of Grosuplje, Litija, Ljubljana, Škofljica, and Šmartno pri Litiji, which the respondents placed under Central Slovenia, as well as parts of the munic- ipalities of Brezovica, Grosuplje, Ig, Ljubljana, Loški Potok, Škofljica, Sodražica, and Velike Lašče, which the respondents identified as part of Inner Carniola. Inner Carniola thus moved slightly towards the east, whereas the respondents defined some Inner Carniolan municipalities on the region’s western edges as being part of the Littoral. These included the municipalities of Ajdovščina, Divača, Idrija, Ilirska Bistrica, Pivka, Postojna, Sežana, and Vipava. In conclusion, the names Osrednja Slovenija or Osrednjeslovenska ‘Central Slovenia’ and Primorska ‘Littoral’ should be mentioned. The former refers to the area around the Slovenian capital and the latter roughly combines the territories of the former Gorizia region, Istria, and Trieste, or the former Austrian Littoral, parts of which are now part of Slovenia. The name Primorska ‘Littoral’ most definitely also became established because it referred to the territory west of the Rapallo border, which cut it off from the bulk of Slovenian ethnic territory, and because of the local population’s struggle against Fascism during the inter- war period (Kacin Wohinz 2005). 5 Conclusion A proper noun’s referential nature is what makes it different from any other signifier, which means that it cannot be replaced by any series of descriptions. Proper nouns and hence also geographical names per- form a fairly simple language function: they ensure identity over time (Kripke 2000). As part of geographical names, choronyms are a relatively complex object of study; this is due to their complex philosophical basis on the one hand, and, on the other hand, regional diversity (Ciglič and Perko 2013) and the non-uniform definition of the notion of a region (Gams 2007). It can be established that Kripke’s thesis does not apply in this case; with selected choronyms, identity has not been fully preserved over time, but instead has partly changed in spatial terms. This research showed that, among various choronyms, the names of the former Austrian lands and their component parts are most deeply rooted in people’s consciousness. A comparison of the extent of territory that carried a name in the past and still carries it in the pre- sent, either as an administrative unit (using the example of two statistical regions) or an informal region, shows that it has changed. Hence, one of the basic features of choronyms is that their denotation changes over time. Another feature of choronyms is that their denotation is not clearly defined when speaking of choronyms that do not identify a specific region in the sense of an administrative or other administratively defined unit. Determining the extent or denotation of individual choronyms is important primarily due to region- al identity, which can be mirrored in different ways, such as in brand names or the names of businesses. Using the methodology presented, the geographical origin of a specific product can be established with great certainty, whereby a choronym can be added to a common noun as a left attribute, such as »Carinthian honey,« even if the bees foraged around Selnica ob Dravi, which belonged to Styria under Austria-Hungary. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 87 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 87 Matjaž Geršič, Changing denotations of selected Slovenian choronyms 6 References Ciglič, R., Perko, D. 2013: Europe’s landscape hotspots. Acta geographica Slovenica 53-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.3986/AGS53106 Crljenko, I. 2014: Some older sources for Croatian exonym analysis. Acta geographica Slovenica 54-1. 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Peršolja, B. 2003: Pot zemljepisnega imena od nastanka do uporabe. Geografski vestnik 75-2. Pogorelec, B. 2011: Zgodovina slovenskega knjižnega jezika. Ljubljana. Polič, M. 2002: Doumevanje okolja. Spoznavni zemljevid Slovenije. Ljubljana. Senft, G. 2008: Landscape terms and place names in the Trobriand Islands – the Kaile’una subset. Language Sciences 30-2/3. DOI: dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2006.12.001 Smole, V. 2004: Nekaj resnic in zmot o narečjih v Sloveniji danes. Aktualizacija jezikovnozvrstne teorije na Slovenskem. Ljubljana. Snoj, M. 2009: Etimološki slovar slovenskih zemljepisnih imen. Ljubljana. Staut, M., Kovačič, G., Ogrin, D. 2007: The spatial cognition of Mediterranean in Slovenia: (In)consistency between perception and physical definitions. Acta geographica Slovenica 47-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.3986/AGS47105 Šimunović, P. 2009: Uvod u hrvatsko imenoslovje. Zagreb. Šivic-Dular, A., 2015. Ljubljana, Slovenija, osebni vir. Urbanc, M., Gabrovec, M. 2002: Krajevna imena: poligon za dokazovanje moči in odraz lokalne identitete. Geografski vestnik 77-2. Vrišer, I. 2002. Uvod v geografijo. Ljubljana. 88 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 88 89 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 89 Matjaž Geršič, Spre mi nja nje de no ta ta iz bra nih slo ven skih po kra jin skih imen Spre mi nja nje de no ta ta iz bra nih slo ven skih po kra jin skih imen DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4600 UDK: 91:81’373.21(497.4) COBISS: 1.01 IZVLEČEK: V član ku je obrav na va no spre mi nja nje ob se ga ozem lja, ki ga iden ti fi ci ra po sa mez no po kra - jin sko ime. Naj po go stej ša po kra jin ska ime na, ki jih na va ja jo an ke ti ran ci, so ime na av stro-ogr skih de žel in nji ho vih de lov, s ka te ri mi so bile v pre te klo sti poi me no va ne na tanč no za me je ne uprav ne eno te, da nes pa jim v ve či ni pri me rov ne mo re mo do lo či ti ad mi ni stra tiv nih meja, lah ko pa jih do lo či mo s po moč jo spoz - nav nih zem lje vi dov in geo graf skih in for ma cij skih si ste mov. Ugo to vi li smo, da se je de no tat teh imen sko zi čas spre me nil in da v pri me ru ne for mal ne ga poi me no va nja ni ja sno do lo čen. KLJUČNE BESEDE: geo gra fi ja, po kra ji na, po kra jin sko ime, ime no slov je, Slo ve ni ja Ured niš tvo je pre je lo pris pe vek 13. ju ni ja 2016. NASLOV: dr. Mat jaž Ger šič Geo graf ski in šti tut An to na Me li ka Znans tve no ra zi sko val ni cen ter Slo ven ske aka de mi je zna no sti in umet no sti Gos po ska uli ca 13, SI – 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-na slov: mger sic @zrc-sazu.si 90 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 90 1 Uvod Ena od last no sti nor mi ra ne ga in za pi sa ne ga je zi ka je, da se sko zi čas spre mi nja, saj je ži va tvor ba, ki je dov - zet na za spre mem be (Smo le 2004). Spre memb v je zi ku ne sme mo ra zu me ti le v smi slu spre mi nja nja slov nič nih pra vil, za pi sa po sa mez nih be sed in je zi kov ne ga slo ga, tem več se lah ko spre me ni tudi po men po sa mez ne be se de. Kar se ti če spre mi nja nja, zem lje pi sna ime na niso no be na iz je ma. Po seb na je zi kov na ka te go ri ja so le z vi di ka na či na za pi so va nja in tega, da ni ma jo ob če ga po me na ter slu ži jo iden ti fi ka ci ji ne po nov lji vih stvar no sti (Snoj 2009). Po seb na so tudi zato, ker ve lja jo za naj sta rej še pri če val ce slo ven ske ga je zi ka (Po go re lec 2011). Ena od glav nih funk cij last nih imen se ka že s pred me tom poi me no va nja, ki se iz ka zu je se de no ta tiv no (zaz na mo val no). Po men mora biti znan tako tvor cu kot na - slov ni ku. Brez poz na va nja po me na ime ne po me ni nič (Ši mu no vi ć 2009). Del de no ta ta pri zem lje pi snih ime nih je za go to vo tudi ob seg ozi ro ma za me ji tev poi me no va ne ga ob jek ta. Zem lje pi sna ime na de li mo v več ti pov: le din ska, gor ska, vod na, ime na na se lij, ime na dr žav in tako naprej. V tej ti po lo gi ji so kot po seb na ka te go ri ja za sto pa na tudi ime na po kra jin ozi ro ma po kra jin ska ime na. Ta so z vi di ka de fi ni ci je ne ko li ko bolj za ple te na, saj opre de li tev po kra ji ne ni do ce la poe no te na niti zno traj geografije niti pri so rod nih ve dah. Na do do lo če ne mere svoj ski na čin pa po jem po kra ji ne do je ma jo tudi po sa mezniki. V pris pev ku po kra ji no ra zu me mo kot ob moč je s svoj skim pre ple tom na rav nih in druž be nih pr vin, ki se za ra di teh last no sti raz li ku je od so sed njih po kra jin in ima last no ime ali pa jo kot po kra ji no do je ma - jo in se z njo poi sto ve ti jo nje ni pre bi val ci. Pri spre mem bah zem lje pi snih imen sko zi čas je tre ba iz po sta vi ti tudi spre mi nja nje pro stor ske ga ob se ga poi me no va ne ga, to rej de no ta ta. Ve či no ma so pred met ime no slov nih ra zi skav pri geo gra fih tuja zem lje pi sna ime na (Klad nik 2007 in 2009; Cr ljen ko 2014) in zem lje pi sna ime na kot vzvod po li tič ne mo či (Klad nik in Pi pan 2008; Ur banc in Ga bro vec 2005). Te melj no ra zi sko val no vpra ša nje v pri ču jo či raz pra vi pa je, kako se je spre mi njal de no tat iz bra nih slo - ven skih po kra jin skih imen. 2 Me to de Med naj bolj uve ljav lje ni mi sreds tvi za po sre do va nje zem lje pi snih imen so zem lje vi di (Per šo lja 2003), ki jih de li mo gle de na vse bi no in me ri lo (Vri šer 2002). Ne gle de na me ri lo in vr sto zem lje vi dov so po leg ma - te ma tič nih, na rav no geo graf skih in druž be no geo graf skih kar to graf skih pr vin del so dob nih zem lje vi dov tudi tako ime no va ni os ta li ele men ti, med ka te ri mi so naj po memb nej ši raz lič na zem lje pi sna ime na (Vri - šer 2002). Nuj na so za ra zu me va nje po kra ji ne, hkra ti pa so za zem lje vid s teh nič ne ga in vi zual ne ga gle diš ča pre cejš nje bre me. Zav ze ma jo na mreč ve li ko pro sto ra, po go sto na ra čun iz puš ča nja dru gih kar to graf skih zna kov. S tem iz zi vom so se na raz lič ne na či ne spo pa da li kar to gra fi že v pre te klo sti (Gaš pe rič 2007). Za - pi sa na mo ra jo biti čit lji vo, ra zum lji vo in es tet sko, biti mo ra jo pra vil no raz po re je na in po dob no. Zem lje vid, ki ima pre več imen, je ne pre gle den in so lah ko na njem dru gi to po graf ski zna ki za po stav lje ni (Vri šer 2002). Če prav so zem lje vi di med naj bolj uve ljav lje ni mi sreds tvi za po sre do va nje zem lje pi snih imen, za ra di pos - plo še va nja in teh nič nih ome ji tev ne vse bu je jo vseh zem lje pi snih imen v po kra ji ni (Per šo lja 2003). Po glob lje na ra zi ska va zato ter ja šir ši na bor vi rov zem lje pi snih imen. Že naj sta rej ši ra zi sko val ci zem - lje pi snih imen so po dat ke zbi ra li tudi na te re nu. V pre te klo sti je bilo te ren sko delo de jan sko te melj ni vir po dat kov. Po se bej po memb no je še ved no pri dia lek to loš kih (Kli nar s sod. 2012; Kli nar in Ger šič 2015) in ne ka te rih dru gih ime no slov nih ra zi ska vah pri nas (na pri mer Fur lan in Klad nik 2008) in v tu ji ni (na pri mer Senft 2008). Te ren sko ra zi sko va nje zem lje pi snih imen spod bu ja tudi je zi ko slov na stro ka (Ši vic- Du lar 2014; Möller 2015), zato smo se za tak šno me to do zbi ra nja od lo či li tudi pri ra zi sko va nju po kra jin skih imen v tej ra zi ska vi. Z že ljo do se či kar naj šir ši krog pre bi val cev po sa mez ne po kra ji ne, smo zbi ra nje imen iz ved li s po moč jo an ke ti ra nja. An ke te so bile po sla ne 5000 an ke ti ran cem. Vzo rec, iz bran iz Cen tral ne ga re gi stra pre bi vals tva (CRP), je pri pra vil Sta ti stič ni urad Re pub li ke Slo ve ni je. An ke ti ran ci v sta ro sti med 15 in 75 let so bili iz bra ni na ključ no. Za ra di laž je ob de la ve po dat kov smo Slo ve ni jo raz de li li na vzhod no in za hod no in na vsa ko ob moč je po sla li 2500 an ket. V vzhod no Slo ve ni jo smo vklju či li sta ti stič ne re gi je ko roš ko, sa vinj sko, za sav sko, spod nje po sav sko, po drav sko, po mur sko in ju govz hod no Slo ve ni jo, v za hodno pa go renj sko, go riš ko, obal no-kraš ko, no tranj sko-kraš ko in osred nje slo ven sko. Po leg splo šno zna nih ti pov an ket nih vpra šanj, iz ka te rih so bili se stav lje ni tudi an ket ni vpra šal ni ki v pri - ču jo či ra zi ska vi, so bila v njih tudi na vo di la za iz de la vo spoz nav nih zem lje vi dov. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 91 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 91 Matjaž Geršič, Spre mi nja nje de no ta ta iz bra nih slo ven skih po kra jin skih imen 2.1 O spoz nav nih zem lje vi dih »Spoz nav ni zem lje vid je teh ni ka za ugo tav lja nje sli ke pro stor skih od no sov in okolj skih zna čil no sti ter sta lišč do njih pri lju deh« (Po lič 2002, 39) ozi ro ma mi sel na pred sta va po dat kov, ki jih ima jo po sa mez ni ki o do - lo če nem oko lju (Gol led ge in Stim son 1997). To vrst ne zem lje vi de so za če li upo rab lja ti v šest de se tih le tih 20. sto let ja za ana li zo struk tu re in iden ti tet nih pr vin v oko lju (Lynch 1960). Lah ko so tudi sreds tvo za pri - do bi va nje po dat kov, po memb nih za na čr to va nje v pro sto ru (Po lič 2002). Raz li ku je mo med in di vi dual nim ri sa njem spoz nav nih zem lje vi dov in sku pin skim, ki po te ka na de lav ni cah (Go lo bič 2006). V po sa mez ni - ko vi do miš lji ji zem lje vid na sta ja po ča si in je od vi sen od oko lja ter po sa mez ni ko vih iz ku šenj in izo braz be (Ka plan, Ka plan in Ryan 1998). Po pol ne ga spoz nav ne ga zem lje vi da ni. Na vsa kem so na mreč po dat ki, po - memb ni za ti ste ga, ki ri še tak šen zem lje vid (Po lič 2002). Zato so in for ma ci je na njem obi čaj no pre cej poe no stav lje ne (Po lič 2002), saj so po sle di ca po sa mez ni ko vih že lja in do miš lji je (Kos 2002). Spoz nav ni zem lje vid je tvor ba v na ših mi slih in kot tak so go vor ni ku ne vi den. Eden od na či nov spo ro ča nja vse bi ne spoz nav ne ga zem lje vi da je ri sa nje (Po lič 2002). Go lo bi če va (2006, 161) tak na čin pri do bi va nja in for ma - cij oz na či za gra fič no an ke ti ra nje. Po lič (2002, 38) na va ja pet raz lič nih ti pov spoz nav nih zem lje vi dov. Raz li ku je med: • spoz nav ni mi zem lje vi di Lynche ve ga tipa, • druž be no-pro stor ski mi obraz ci, • mi sel ni mi zem lje vi di, • oseb nost ni mi kon struk ti ter pre so jo raz dalj, • več raz sež nost ne ga les tvi če nja. Pri pr vem tipu zem lje vi dov an ke ti ran cu naj prej po nu di mo po sa mez na ob sto je ča zna me nja ali obris območ - ja. Na ta zem lje vid lah ko vri su je poti, meje in dru ge po kra jin ske pr vi ne. Dob lje ne re zul ta te lah ko med se boj no pri mer ja mo gle de na raz lič ne last no sti an ke ti ran cev (Po lič 2002; Staut, Ko va čič in Ogrin 2007). Ri sa nje tak - šnih zem lje vi dov pred po stav lja an ke ti ran če vo zmož nost us kla je va nja raz mer ja med za sto pa ni mi toč ka mi in toč ka mi na zem lje vi du, spo sob nost po manj ša nja ve li ke ga pro sto ra, mož nost iz de la ve geo me trič nih pro jek - cij in poz na va nje kar to graf skih sim bo lov (Levy-Le bo yer 1982; cv: Po lič 2002). Prve tri pred po stav ke bi na nek na čin lah ko oz na či li tudi kot spo sob nost geo re fe ren ci ra nja sta nja iz oko lja na spoz nav ni zem lje vid. Druž be no-pro stor ski obraz ci so bolj struk tu ri ra na ob li ka spoz nav nih zem lje vi dov. An ke ti ran ci mo - ra jo na zem lje vi du za me ji ti ob moč je, ki ga ima jo za svo je ga, jim je všeč in po dob no (Po lič 2002). Mi sel ni zem lje vi di so po sred ni spoz nav ni zem lje vi di, pri ka te rih an ke ti ra nec raz vr sti do lo če no pr vino gle de na neko last nost (Po lič 2002). Oseb nost ni kon struk ti so re zul ta ti ana li ze pre gled nih mrež, ki jih an ke ti ran ci se sta vi jo z raz vrš ča njem iz bra nih po ja vov in ugo tav lja njem raz lik med nji mi. Zad nji tip spoz nav nih zem lje vi dov omo go ča ugo tav lja nje sub jek tiv nih raz dalj med kra ji (Po lič 2002). V geo gra fi ji ima jo spoz nav ni zem lje vi di po memb no vlo go. Po seb no me sto je ra zi sko va nje spoz nav - nih zem lje vi dov do bi lo v šest de se tih le tih 20. sto let ja z ute me lji tvi jo be ha vio ri stič ne geo gra fi je; spoz nav ni zem lje vi di so bili na mreč ena od nje nih osred njih me tod (Kle men čič 2002). An ke ti ran ci so kot pod la go za svo je gra fič no izra ža nje pre je li zem lje vid Slo ve ni je for ma ta A3 in me - ri la 1 : 650.000. Pod la ga za spoz nav ni zem lje vid je vse bo va la dr žav no mejo, več ja me sta (Aj dovš či na, Bo vec, Ce lje, Čr no melj, Idri ja, Ilir ska Bi stri ca, Je se ni ce, Kam nik, Ko per/Ca po di stria, Kranj, Krš ko, Li ti ja, Ljublja - na, Ma ri bor, Mur ska So bo ta, Nova Go ri ca, Novo me sto, Po stoj na, Ptuj, Rav ne na Ko roš kem, Rib ni ca, Ro gaš ka Sla ti na in Ve le nje), os nov no reč no mre žo in Tri glav kot naj viš jo slo ven sko goro. An ke ti ran ci so mo ra li na ri sa ti ozi ro ma za me ji ti slo ven ske po kra ji ne in jih poi me no va ti. Do bi li so naslednji na vo di li: »Na zem lje vid vri ši te slo ven ske po kra ji ne, ki jih poz na te« in »Vsa ko na ri sa no po kra ji no tudi poimenujte.« Iz de la ne spoz nav ne zem lje vi de, ki so vse bo va li tako meje po kra jin kot tudi ime na, smo naj prej skenira li in nato di gi ta li zi ra li. Di gi ta li za ci ja je po te ka lo roč no; po li go ne smo pre ri sa li v geo graf ski in for ma cij ski sistem. Ana li ze pri dob lje nih po dat kov in te mat ski zem lje vi di so bili iz ve de ni s pro gram sko opre mo Arc Map 10.3.1. Upo ra bi li smo na sled nje ope ra ci je: • pre tvor ba po li go na v ra ster (Poly gon to Ra ster), • se šte va nje mo ži ce pre kri va jo čih se ra strov (Zo nal Sta ti stics – Sum), • is ka nje naj bolj po go ste vred no sti v mno ži ci pre kri va jo čih se ra strov (Zo nal Sta ti stics – Ma jo rity), • štet je raz lič nih vred no sti v mno ži ci pre kri va jo čih se ra strov (Zo nal Sta ti stics – Va riety) in • raz ne obi čaj ne ma te ma tič ne ope ra ci je z ra stri (Ra ster Cal cu la tor – Di vi de/Sum/Mi nus ). 92 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 92 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 93 3 Re zul ta ti Na po sla ne an ket ne vpra šal ni ke je od go vo ri lo 12,7 % na slov ni kov. Iz za hod ne Slo ve ni je smo pre je li 309 iz pol - nje nih vpra šal ni kov, iz vzhod ne pa 326. Vsi vr nje ni vpra šal ni ki pa niso vse bo va li spoz nav ne ga zem lje vi da, na re je ne ga sklad no z na vo di li. Po sa mez nim spoz nav nim zem lje vi dom so na mreč manj ka li do lo če ni ele - men ti. Zato smo vse pre je te spoz nav ne zem lje vi de raz de li li v 4 sku pi ne, tak šne, ki vse bu je jo meje in ime na po kra jin, tak šne, ki vse bu je jo le eno iz med ome nje nih ka te go rij, an ket ne vpra šal ni ke brez na ri sa ne ga spoz - nav ne ga zem lje vi da ter spoz nav ne zem lje vi de z vri sa ni mi po sa mez ni mi ele men ti, ki jih v na vo di lih ni smo zah te va li; tak šne smo ume sti li v ka te go ri jo dru go. Sli ka 1: De lež po sa mez ne ka te go ri je zem lje vi dov. Glej an gleš ki del pris pev ka. An ke ti ran ci iz za hod ne Slo ve ni je so sku paj za me ji li 2027 po li go nov, iz vzhod ne pa 2147. Pov preč ni an ke ti ra nec je Slo ve ni jo raz de lil na 9 do 10 po kra jin. Pri pre ra ču na va nju smo upo šte va li vse po li go ne, tudi ti ste, ki jih an ke ti ran ci niso poi me no va li. Tak šnih je bilo na vseh zem lje vi dih 283 (7,5 %), 3769 pa jih je ime lo pri pi sa na ime na. Skup no smo iden ti fi ci ra li 170 imen skih raz li čic po kra jin skih imen. Za ra di laž je ana li ze smo ne ka te re zdru ži li v skup no imen sko ka te go ri jo (na pri mer Prek mur je in Prek mur ska, Za sav - je in Za sav ska, Sa vinj ska do li na in do li na Sa vi nje). Naj po go ste je poi me no va ne po kra ji ne so Go renj ska, Do lenj ska, Ko roš ka, Šta jer ska, Prek mur je/Prek mur ska, Pri mor ska in No tranj ska (pre gled ni ca 1). Pre gled ni ca 1: Naj po go stej še vri sa ne in poi me no va ne po kra ji ne na spoz nav nem zem lje vi du. po kra jin sko ime za hod na Slo ve ni ja vzhod na Slo ve ni ja sku paj Go renj ska 200 205 405 Do lenj ska 198 189 387 Ko roš ka 176 199 375 Šta jer ska 188 178 366 Prek mur je/Prek mur ska 182 172 354 Pri mor ska 185 166 351 No tranj ska 171 172 343 sku paj 1300 1281 2581 Naj več ja raz li ka pri poi me no va njih po kra jin med an ke ti ran ci iz vzhod ne in za hod ne Slo ve ni je je pri ime - nih Po sav je/Po sav ska in Ko roš ka. Obe po kra jin ski ime ni je na ved lo več an ke ti ran cev iz vzhod ne Slo ve ni je. Pre gled ni ca 2: Raz li ke med po gost nost jo poi me no va nih po kra jin gle de na lo ka ci jo bi va nja an ke ti ran ca. po kra jin sko ime lo ka ci ja bi va nja za hod na Slo ve ni ja vzhod na Slo ve ni ja raz li ka Pri mor ska 185 166 19 Bela kra ji na 83 67 16 Šta jer ska 188 178 10 Prek mur je/Prek mur ska 182 172 10 Ljub ljan ska po kra ji na 21 11 10 Po drav je/Po drav ska 14 25 –11 Go riš ka/Go riš ko 34 48 –14 Obal no kraš ka (Oba la-Kras) 5 19 –14 ni po dat ka 133 150 –17 Po mur je/Po mur ska 16 35 –19 Sa vinj ska 18 38 –20 Pr le ki ja 11 31 –20 Ko roš ka 176 199 –23 Po sav je/Po sav ska 27 50 –23 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 93 Matjaž Geršič, Spre mi nja nje de no ta ta iz bra nih slo ven skih po kra jin skih imen Pri an ke ti ran cih iz vzhod ne Slo ve ni je sta v pri mer ja vi s ti sti mi iz za hod ne iz po stav lje ni še ime ni Pr le ki ja in Sa vinj ska, pri ti stih iz za hod ne ga dela dr ža ve pa Pri mor ska in Bela kra ji na. Na tanč na raz mer ja pri ime - nih, kjer je raz li ka med obe ma de lo ma Slo ve ni je de set ali več, so pri ka za na v pre gled ni ci 2. Med vse mi poi me no va ni mi po li go ni smo iz lo či li pre vla du jo ča poi me no va nja (pri če mer upo šte va mo ab so lut no vred nost), poi me no va na ozem lja za me ji li s po moč jo geo graf skih in for ma cij skih si ste mov in do - bi li osem iz sto pa jo čih po kra jin (sli ka 2). Sli ka 2: Naj po go ste je poi me no va ne slo ven ske po kra ji ne in nji ho va raz me ji tev. Glej an gleš ki del pris pev ka. 4 Raz pra va Ugo tav lja mo, da nes por no pre vla du je jo poi me no va nja po nek da njih av strij skih de že lah in nji ho vih se stav - nih de lih; iz je ma je le ob moč je med Ljub lja no in Vrh ni ko, ki bi po mne nju ve či ne an ke ti ran cev mo ra lo biti (gle de na poi me no va nje) lo če na po kra ji na. Meje nek da njih de žel se po ne kod pre cej raz li ku je jo od ob se ga is toi men skih so dob nih po kra jin, kot smo jih do lo či li s spoz nav ni mi zem lje vi di in geo graf ski mi in for ma cij ski mi si ste mi. Sli ka 3: Pri mer ja va ob se ga is toi men skih po kra jin v pre te klo sti in so dob no sti. Glej an gleš ki del pris pev ka. Gle de na to, da v za ve sti pre bi val cev kot po kra jin ska ime na pre vla du je jo ime na nek da njih av strij skih de žel in nji ho vih de lov, so le-ta od li čen pri mer za ugo tav lja nje spre mem be de no ta ta. V ča su Av stroo gr - ske so bile na mreč s temi ime ni poi me no va ne toč no za me je ne po kra ji ne, da nes pa, z ne ka te ri mi iz je ma mi (go renj ska sta ti stič na re gi ja, ko roš ka sta ti stič na re gi ja, go riš ka sta ti stič na re gi ja), le stež ka go vo ri mo o urad - ni za me ji tvi. Za pri mer ana li ze spre memb smo vze li po kra jin ska ime na Ko roš ka, Go renj ska, Do lenj ska, No tranj - ska, Šta jer ska in Prek mur je ter jih pri mer ja li z ob moč ji, ki se na nje na ve zu je jo v pre te klo sti so dob no sti. Kot te melj no pro stor sko eno to smo iz bra li zdajš nje ob či ne. Na pri me ru Ko roš ke je zno traj Re pub li ke Slo ve ni je av strij ska de že la v ča su Av stro-ogr ske ob se ga la zdajš - nje ob či ne Je zer sko, Me ži ca, Pre va lje, Rav ne na Ko roš kem, Čr na na Ko roš kem in se ve ro za hod ni del ob či ne Dra vo grad. So dob na ko roš ka sta ti stič na re gi ja ob se ga vse ome nje ne ob či ne, z iz je mo Je zer ske ga, ter še ob - či ne Slo venj Gra dec, Mi sli nja, Rib ni ca na Po hor ju, Vu ze ni ca, Muta, Ra dlje ob Dra vi in Pod vel ka. Ko roš ka, kot so jo za me ji li an ke ti ran ci na spoz nav nih zem lje vi dih, ma len kost no od sto pa od ob se ga sta ti stič ne re - gi je. Z iz je mo ob či ne Mi sli nja gre za ne ko li ko več je ob moč je kot pri sta ti stič ni re gi ji. Va njo na mreč an ke ti ran ci uvrš ča jo še se ve ro vz hod ni del ob či ne Sol ča va, se ver ne obron ke ob čin Lu če, Ljub no in Šo štanj ter se ve ro - za hod na dela ob čin Lo vrenc na Po hor ju in Sel ni ca ob Dra vi; iz je ma, kot re če no, je ob či na Mi sli nja, ka te re juž ni del je ve či na an ke ti ran cev oz na či la kot del Šta jer ske. Sli ka 4: Raz lič ne za me ji tve Ko roš ke. Glej an gleš ki del pris pev ka. Dru gi pri mer je Go renj ska, ki v ča su Av stro-Ogr ske ni bila sa mo stoj na de že la, am pak del Kranj ske. Sli ka 5: Raz lič ne za me ji tve Go renj ske. Glej an gleš ki del pris pev ka. Go renj ska ozi ro ma zgor nji del Kranj ske je v ča su Av stro-Ogr ske ob se ga la ob moč ja zdajš njih ob čin Bled, Bo hinj, Cer klje na Go renj skem, Dom ža le, Go re nja vas – Po lja ne, Gor je, Je se ni ce, Kam nik, Ko men da, Kranj, Kranj ska Gora, Ljub lja na, Lu ko vi ca, Med vo de, Mo rav če, Predd vor, Ra dov lji ca, Šen čur, Škof ja Loka, Tr - žič, Vo di ce, Za gor je ob Savi, Že lez ni ki in Ži rov ni ca. Po leg tega je h Go renj ski spa dal tudi se ver ni del ob či ne Dol pri Ljub lja ni, se ve ro za hod ni del ob či ne Li ti ja, skraj ni se ve ro za hod ni del ob či ne Tr bov lje, skraj ni vzhodni del ob či ne Cerk no, več ji del ob či ne Do bro va – Pol hov Gra dec, skraj ni se ve ro za hod ni del ob či ne Ži ri, zu - naj ozem lja Re pub li ke Slo ve ni je pa je os ta la ob či na Fu ži ne (Bela Peč), ki je nek daj pri pa da la Kranj ski ozi ro ma 94 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 94 Go renj ski. Ob moč je, ki ga oz na ču je is toi men ska sta ti stič na re gi ja, je pre cej manj še. Se stav lja ga le 16 od zgo raj na ve de nih ob čin ter ob či na Je zer sko, ka te re ozem lje je v ča su Av stro-Ogr ske pri pa da lo Ko roš ki. V za - ve sti lju di pa je ob seg Go renj ske še ne ko li ko dru ga čen. Na za ho du sega na vzhod ne obron ke ob čin Bo vec, Ko ba rid in Tol min, vklju ču je tudi ce lot no ob či no Cerk no, na vzhod u pa za hod ne dele ob čin Sol ča va, Lu - če in Gor nji Grad. Po leg ob čin zno traj go renj ske sta ti stič ne re gi je za je ma še več ji del ob či ne Kam nik, se ver ni del ob či ne Do bro va – Pol hov Gra dec, ce lot ne ob či ne Med vo de, Vo di ce, Ko men da in Men geš ter deli ob - čin Dom ža le in Lu ko vi ca. Go renj ska, kot jo do je ma jo an ke ti ran ci, je v pri mer ja vo z Go renj sko iz leta 1914 pri do bi la ne kaj ozem lja v vzhod nem in za hod nem delu, iz gu bi la pa ga je v juž nem in ju govz hod nem delu. Spre mem bo de no ta ta os ta lih iden ti fi ci ra nih imen lah ko ugo tav lja mo le na pod la gi nji ho ve ga ob se ga v ča su Av stro-Ogr ske ter za me ji tve an ke ti ran cev. Ugo to vi mo lah ko, da je naj manj spre memb pri Prek murju. Očit no je v pri me ru, da meja med de že la ma te če po reki, ta oko liš či na na nek na čin moč nej ši za me ji tve - ni de jav nik kot pa meja po te ka jo ča po gor skih gre be nih, če prav je gor ski svet tež je pre ho den. Do naj več je spre mem be pri opre de lje va nju je priš lo pri Šta jer ski. Z ime nom Šta jer ska se v so dob no sti oz na ču je manj - še ob moč je kot ne koč. Spre mem be so očit ne pred vsem v se ve ro za hod nem delu po kra ji ne, ka mor se je raz ši ri la ko roš ka iden ti te ta. An ke ti ran ci so na mreč ob či ne Slo venj Gra dec, Vu ze ni ca, Muta, Ra dlje ob Dra vi, Pod - vel ka, Rib ni ca na Po hor ju ter dele ob čin Sol ča va, Lu če, Ljub no, Šo štanj, Mi sli nja, Lo vrenc na Po hor ju in Sel ni ca ob Dra vi, ki so nek daj pri pa da le Šta jer ski, oz na či li s po kra jin skim ime nom Ko roš ka; del ob či ne Dra vo grad je h Ko roš ki spa dal že v ča su Av stro-Ogr ske. Del ob či ne Sol ča va so an ke ti ran ci pri pi sa li Gorenj - ski, prav tako dele ob čin Lu če in Gor nji Grad, ki sta bili del Šta jer ske. Se je pa poi me no va nje Šta jer ska na ozem lje nek da nje Go renj ske raz ši ri lo na ob moč jih ob čin Kam nik, Lu ko vi ca, Za gor je ob Savi in Tr bovlje. Manj še spre mem be so opaz ne tudi na meji med Šta jer sko in Do lenj sko. Del ob čin Tr bov lje in Hrast nik, ki so spa da le k Do lenj ski, je zdaj oz na čen kot Šta jer ska, med tem ko se je do lenj ska iden ti te ta raz ši ri la na ozem lje nek da nje Šta jer ske ob spod njem toku Save, v ob či nah Krš ko, Sev ni ca in Bre ži ce. Nek daj so k Do lenj ski spa da li tudi deli ob čin Škof lji ca, Ljub lja na, Gro sup lje, Šmart no pri Li ti ji in Litija, ki so jih an ke ti ran ci uvr sti li v Osred njo Slo ve ni jo, ter deli ob čin Ig, Škof lji ca, Gro sup lje, Ve li ke Laš če, Sodražica, Loš ki po tok, Ljub lja na in Bre zo vi ca, ki so jih an ke ti ran ci oz na či li kot del No tranj ske. Ta se je tako po maknila ne ko li ko pro ti vzhod u, med tem ko so ne ka te re no tranj ske ob či ne na nje nem za hod nem robu an ke ti ranci opre de li li kot del Pri mor ske. Gre za ob či ne Idri ja, Aj dovš či na, Vi pa va, Po stoj na, Di va ča, Se ža na, Piv ka in Ilir ska Bi stri ca. Na kon cu ome ni mo še ime ni Osred nja Slo ve ni ja ozi ro ma Osred nje slo ven ska ter Pri mor ska. Prvo poi - me nu je ob moč je okrog slo ven ske ga glav ne ga me sta, dru go pa v gro bem zdru žu je ozem lja nek da njih Go riš ke, Is tre in Tr sta ozi ro ma Av strij ske ga pri mor ja, ki so na ozem lju Re pub li ke Slo ve ni je. Za go to vo se je ime Pri - mor ska uve lja vi lo tudi zato, ker je bilo to ozem lje za hod no od Ra pal ske meje, ki ga je odre za la od ma tič ne do mo vi ne, in boja tam kaj ži ve če ga pre bi vals tva pro ti fa šiz mu med sve tov ni ma voj na ma (Ka cin Wo hinz 2005). 5 Sklep Ti sto, za ra di če sar last no ime ni ena ko vred no vsa ke mu dru ge mu be sed ne mu oz na če val cu, je dejs tvo, da je nje go va na ra va re fe renč na, kar po me ni, da ga ne more za me nja ti no be na se ri ja opi sov. Last no ime, torej tudi zem lje pi sno ime ude ja nja do kaj pre pro sto funk ci jo je zi ka, na mreč, za go tav lja nje iden ti te te sko zi čas (Krip ke 2000). Po kra jin ska ime na kot del zem lje pi snih imen so za ra di za ple te ne ga fi lo zof ske ga pod sta ta na eni stra - ni ter po kra jin ske pe stro sti (Ci glič in Per ko 2013) in nee not ne opre de li tve poj ma po kra ji na (Gams 2007) na dru gi raz me ro ma kom plek sen in za ple ten pred met ra zi sko va nja. Ugo to vi mo lah ko, da Krip ke je va teza v tem pri me ru ne zdr ži; iden ti te ta se pri iz bra nih po kra jin skih ime nih na mreč sko zi čas ni v ce lo ti ohra - ni la, am pak se je pro stor sko de lo ma spre me ni la. V ra zi ska vi smo ugo to vi li, da so v za ve sti lju di med po kra jin ski mi ime ni naj bolj za ko re ni nje na ime - na nek da njih av strij skih de žel in nji ho vih se stav nih de lov. Če pri mer ja mo ob seg ozem lja, ki je bil z is tim ime nom poi me no van v pre te klo sti in so dob no sti, bo - di si kot ad mi ni stra tiv no eno to (na pri me ru dveh sta ti stič nih re gi ji) bo di si kot ne for mal ne po kra ji ne, lah ko ugo to vi mo, da se je spre me nil. Skle ne mo lah ko, da je ena od te melj nih zna čil no sti po kra jin skih imen ta, da se nji hov de no tat sko zi zgo do vi no spre mi nja. Dru ga last nost po kra jin skih imen je, da nji hov de no tat ni ja sno do lo čen, če go vo ri mo o po kra jin skih ime nih, ki ne iden ti fi ci ra jo po kra ji ne v smi slu uprav ne ali dru ge ad mi ni stra tiv no do lo če ne eno te. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 95 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 95 Matjaž Geršič, Spre mi nja nje de no ta ta iz bra nih slo ven skih po kra jin skih imen Do lo ča nje ob se ga ozi ro ma de no ta ta po sa mez nih po kra jin skih imen je po memb no pred vsem za ra di po kra jin ske iden ti te te, ki se lah ko zr ca li na raz lič ne na či ne, na pri mer v bla gov nih znam kah ali ime nih pod je tij. S po moč jo pred stav lje ne me to do lo gi je lah ko za nek iz de lek z ve li ko go to vost jo do lo či mo geo - graf sko oz nač bo ali po re klo in nje go ve mu obč ne mu ime nu do da mo po kra jin sko ime, ki na sto pa v vlo gi le ve ga pri last ka, na pri mer: ko roš ki med, če tu di so se če be le pa sle v oko li ci Sel ni ce ob Dra vi, ki je v Av - stro-Ogr ski spa da la k Šta jer ski. 6 Li te ra tu ra Glej an gleš ki del pris pev ka. 96 57-1_05_4600-Matjaz Gersic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:30 Page 96 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 97 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 2017 SPECIAL ISSUE Geographical Names EDITORS: Drago Perko Peter Jordan Blaž Komac 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 97 98 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 98 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017, 99–107 EXONYMS AND OTHER GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES Drago Perko, Peter Jordan, Blaž Komac Slovenia as an exonym in some languages. M A T JA Ž G E R Š IČ 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 99 Drago Perko, Peter Jordan, Blaž Komac, Exonyms and other geographical names 100 Exonyms and other geographical names DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4891 UDC: 91:81’373.21 COBISS: 1.02 ABSTRACT: Geographical names are proper names of geographical features. They are characterized by different meanings, contexts, and history. Local names of geographical features (endonyms) may differ from the foreign names (exonyms) for the same feature. If a specific geographical name has been codi- fied or in any other way established by an authority of the area where this name is located, this name is a standardized geographical name. In order to establish solid common ground, geographical names have been coordinated at a  global level by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names (UNGEGN) since 1959. It is assisted by twenty-four regional linguistic/geographical divisions. Among these is the East Central and South-East Europe Division, with seventeen member states. Currently, the divi- sion is chaired by Slovenia. Some of the participants in the last session prepared four research articles for this special thematic issue of Acta geographica Slovenica. All of them are also briefly presented in the end of this article. KEY WORDS: geographical name, endonym, exonym, UNGEGN, cultural heritage This article was submitted for publication on November 15th, 2016. ADDRESSES: Drago Perko, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: drago@zrc-sazu.si Peter Jordan, Ph.D. The Institute for Urban and Regional Research Austrian Academy of Sciences Postgasse 7/4/2, AT-1010 Vienna, Austria E-mail: peter.jordan@oeaw.ac.at Blaž Komac, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: blaz.komac@zrc-sazu.si Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017, 99–106 1 Introduction Nouns are divided into common and proper nouns. In most languages, common nouns, such as river, moun- tain, and city, are not capitalized, whereas proper nouns (names), such as Danube, Mount Everest, and Ljubljana, are capitalized. Proper nouns also include geographical names. A geographical name or toponym (from Greek tópos »place« and ónyma, a dialect variant of ónoma »name«) is a proper name of a geographical feature. The discipline dealing with geographical names is called toponymy. The entire body of geographical names in all the languages around the globe is divided into endonyms and exonyms, if geographical names are regarded under the aspect of the spa- tial relation between the community using the name and the geographical feature assigned by it. »Endonym« and »exonym« are status categories of geographical names. Depending on the spatial rela- tionship between the user community and a feature, the same name can assume the status of an endonym or an exonym. Thus, the endonym/exonym divide results from a space-related or geographical view on place names. An endonym (from Greek éndon »inside«) is a geographical name accepted and used by the local com- munity. An exonym (from Greek éksō »outside«) is a geographical name used by an external community that is different from the endonym (Jordan 2016). Simply put, an endonym is the local (or original) name of a geographical feature and an exonym is a foreign name for the same feature (Kladnik 2009). Thus, for example, Ljubljana is the Slovenian endonym and Laibach is the German exonym for the Slovenian capital city. In turn, Dunaj is the Slovenian exonym and Wien is the German endonym for the Austrian capital, Vienna, which is the English exonym. On the other hand, London is neither the Slovenian nor the German exonym for English London because, despite their different pronunciation, the Slovenian and German transcriptions of this geographical name are the same as in English. The issue still remains how geographical names that are originally written in a different alphabetical, syllabic, or logographic script should be written in Roman script. Converting geographical names into Roman script is called Romanization (or sometimes Latinization). Here one distinguishes between transliteration and transcription (Kladnik and Perko 2013). In transliteration, the same character in the original script is always replaced with the same Roman character, often combined with a dot, line, tilde, or some other diacritic above or below the letter. In transcription, the sounds of the source language are rendered as faith- fully as possible in the target language. This means that the phonetically transcribed forms of the same original geographical name may differ from one language to another. Thus, for example, the Russian river Пeчoрa is transcribed in Slovenian as Pečora, in German as Petschora, and in English as Pechora. In prin- ciple, it would be best to have an atlas of the world in which every name were written in both its original form and the form adapted to a given language, but unfortunately the lack of space on printed maps ren- ders this impossible. If a specific geographical name has been codified or in any other way established by an authority of the area where this name is located, this name is a standardized geographical name. Such names are usual- ly presented in official gazetteers issued by an authority, such as the Geodetic Survey in Slovenia (Perko 2001). 2 United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names At the global level, geographical names are overseen by the United Nations. In 1959, it founded the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names (UNGEGN), which is one of the seven expert bod- ies of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). Some of the main goals of UNGEGN are to encourage national and international geographical name standardization, to promote the inter- national dissemination of nationally standardized geographical names, and to adopt individual Romanization systems. UNGEGN’s goal for every country is to decide on its own nationally standard- ized names through the creation of national names authorities or recognized administrative processes (Internet 1). The first two UNGEGN meetings were held in 1960 and 1966 in New York. They were followed by twenty-nine sessions. The first was held in 1967 in New York, and the latest in 2016 in Bangkok, Thailand. The thirtieth session in 2017 is being hosted by New York again (Internet 2). 101 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 101 102 Drago Perko, Peter Jordan, Blaž Komac, Exonyms and other geographical names 2.1 Regional linguistic/geographic divisions UNGEGN is supported by regional linguistic/geographic divisions. Countries decide for themselves which division they wish to belong to; some belong to more than one division. Currently, there are twenty-four divisions that guide the work of UNGEGN during and between its sessions (Internet 3): 1. Africa Central Division: Angola, Burundi, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Rwanda, and São Tomé and Príncipe; 2. Africa East Division: Botswana, Burundi, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, the Seychelles, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; 3. Africa South Division: Botswana, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; 4. Africa West Division: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea- Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo; 5. Arabic Division: Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen; 6. Asia East Division (other than China): Japan, North Korea, and South Korea; 7. Asia South-East Division: Bhutan, Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam; 8. Asia South-West Division (other than Arabic): Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Turkmenistan; 9. Baltic Division: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Russia; 10. Celtic Division: France and Ireland; 11. China Division: China; 12. Dutch- and German-speaking Division: Austria, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, South Africa, Suriname, and Switzerland; 13. East Central and South-East Europe Division: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Macedonia, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Turkey, and Ukraine; 14. Eastern Europe, Northern and Central Asia Division: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bulgaria, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan; 15. East Mediterranean Division (other than Arabic): Cyprus and Israel; 16. French-Speaking Division: Algeria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Canada, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, France, Guinea, Lebanon, Madagascar, Morocco, Niger, Romania, Senegal, Spain, Switzerland, Togo, and Tunisia; 17. India Division: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Pakistan; 18. Latin America Division: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Spain, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela; 19. Norden Division: Denmark (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden; 20. Pacific South-West Division: Australia, Fiji, Nauru, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Tonga, and Vanuatu; 21. Portuguese-speaking Division: Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Timor-Leste; 22. Romano-Hellenic Division: Andorra, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus, France, Greece, Holy See, Italy, Luxembourg, Moldova, Monaco, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Switzerland, and Turkey; 23. United Kingdom Division: Guyana, Jamaica, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland; 24. USA/Canada Division: Canada and the United States. 2.2 East Central and South-East Europe linguistic/geographical division Slovenia is part of the East Central and South-East Division, which has seventeen members. The first ses- sion of the division was held in 1971 in Prague and the last one in 2015 in Ljubljana (Internet 4). Slovenia 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 102 103 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 has presided over this section twice: the first time from January 22nd, 1998 to September 4th, 2002, and again from August 9th, 2012 to August 16th, 2017. The division mainly deals with the transliteration and transcription of geographical names from non-Roman scripts into Roman and with exonyms, which most of the participants addressed at the last meeting in Ljubljana. 3 Geographical names in the world Place names have always been studied for diverse reasons and by several disciplines, especially by linguistics (Taylor 1998). Until recently, they were approached predominantly as »windows into the past«. Research in this area has been very productive and continues to be advanced by a number of researchers (Conedera et al. 2007; Kathrein 2009). Recently, however, one can observe an important development in place name research across the social sciences, namely in anthropology and geography, which represents a break with the past. The new approach- es emphasize the contemporaneity of place names (while not ignoring their historical roots) and study them in relation to the political situation and contestations of place, landscape, and identity. Initial propositions of these new perspectives on place names have been put forth by Tuan (1977; 1990; 1991) within geography and Basso (1988; 1996) in cultural anthropology. Both argue that naming is a very fundamental social and existential practice whereby people establish their relationship with the space they occupy and use. Tuan showed that human spatial perception is structured by language, and that place names play an important role in the perception and representation of the environment. Basso specified place nam- ing as a way of writing or making history and relating to the world at a very fundamental, existential level, with place names closely tied to identity. However, there is yet another dimension to place names: power. People are not, and never have been, in equal positions to name places, neither individually nor collectively. Place names may constitute cul- tural heritage and may be important for establishing and reproducing social identities, but they are also loaded with emotions, alternative interpretations, and contested histories–and, as such, they are not polit- ically innocent. As Tuan shows, they must be understood in the context of current power relations, which (strive to) reproduce themselves through various material and non-material practices, one of them being place names. It is precisely this focus on the politics of place naming that »critical toponymy« has devel- oped (Rose-Redwood, Alderman and Azaryahu 2010). Critical toponymy is a lively current in contemporary place name research that critically examines the relationship between toponymy and power. It analyzes the ways in which political regimes and movements use place names to claim territories, erase linguistic traces of original populations, gain political legitimacy, delegitimize other political forces, naturalize cer- tain versions of history, and silence dissent. UNGEGN, which was described above, focuses on the standardization of geographical names. In prin- ciple it is a political body, although it is composed of an interdisciplinary set of scholars with a predominance of linguists, geographers, and cartographers. However, there are two additional global forums concerned with research on geographical names: the International Council of Onomastic Sciences (ICOS) and the joint commission on toponymy of the International Cartographic Association (ICA) and International Geographical Union (IGU). ICOS was founded in 1949 and deals with all kinds of proper names; that is, not only place names, but also names of persons and animals. However, place names play a growing role in ICOS activities, as documented by its triannual congresses and by its journal Onoma, which has been published since 1950. The Joint ICA/IGU Commission on Toponymy was founded in 2012 by the two glob- al umbrella organizations of cartography and geography as a joint venture. Its initiation was also strongly supported by UNGEGN because the necessity was felt that the rather formal and political discussions in UNGEGN had to be supplemented by cartographic and geographical research. As a matter of fact, many UNGEGN experts are also active in this commission. The commission holds toponymy sessions as part of ICA and IGU congresses and conferences, and it also holds separate symposia on specific topics such as place-name changes and publishes proceedings. The themes of critical toponymy and the symbolic power of place names are very much in the foreground of its current activities. 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 103 4 Geographical names in Slovenia Slovenian geographers have been dealing with geographical names for a long time. Already in the sixteenth century, Slovenian Baron Sigismund von Herberstein (1486–1566) from Vipava dealt with exonyms, tran- scription and transliteration. He contributed to knowledge about Russia, and his work Rerum Moscoviticarum commentarii (Notes on Muscovite Affairs) contained the first detailed maps of the European part of Russia, entitled Moscovia (Kladnik 2012). Much later, the watershed year of 1848 awakened and strengthened the consciousness of European ethnic groups, including the Slovenians. Atlant, the first world atlas in Slovenian (1869–1877), prepared by Matej Cigale (1819–1889), is important for Slovenian exonyms. Cigale Slovenianized over four thou- sand foreign geographical names (Urbanc et al. 2006; Kladnik et al. 2006). For Slovenian endonyms, Peter Kosler’s (1824–1879) map of Slovenian ethnic territory at a scale of about 1:600,000 (1853) is impor- tant. He collected over five thousand Slovenian names (Kladnik 2012). However, real accelerated and systematic development in the field of geographical names and their standardization came about after Slovenia’s independence in 1991. Since 1990, the Commission for the Standardization of Geographical Names of the Government of the Republic of Slovenia has been responsible for geographical names in Slovenia. Since 1995, it has been headquartered at the Anton Melik Geographical Institute of the Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts. It consists primarily of experts in geography, linguistics, cartography, and history as well as representatives of relevant ministries. In 2001, the commission prepared the Concise gazetteer of Slovenia (Perko 2001) with standardized geographical names on the 1:1,000,000 National Map of the Republic of Slovenia. To date, the commission has also standardized the Slovenian names of countries and their main appertaining territories (Kladnik et al. 2013), as well as nearly five thousand geographical names in Slovenia recorded on the 1:250,000 National Map of the Republic of Slovenia (Furlan et al. 2008). Slovenian geographers have also contributed to scholarly discussions on critical toponymy. Examples of problematic treatment of geographical names, such as the historical evolution of names for the Bay of Piran, have been presented and thoroughly discussed (Kladnik 2008; Kladnik, Pipan and Gašperič 2014). This geographic name is important for building the social identities and it is filled with emotions because it lies in the area of a border dispute between Slovenia and Croatia. 5 Articles in this special issue For this special thematic issue of the journal Acta geographica Slovenica, some of the participants in the last session of the East Central and South-East Europe linguistic/geographical division prepared four research articles, which are briefly presented in this introductory chapter. The first two articles deal with exonyms. The article »A comparison of Croatian and Slovenian exonyms« (Kladnik et al. 2017) compares exonyms in the two languages. Croatian and Slovenian are very closely relat- ed South Slavic languages, but during their historical development they came under the influence of various other languages and various language policies determined by the broader framework of Hungary and Austria. A quick overview of exonyms in both languages reveals that many of them are completely identical, some differ in details only, and only a few differ significantly; for example, Vienna (German Wien, Slovenian Dunaj, Croatian Beč), Venice (Italian Venezia, Slovenian Benetke, Croatian Venecija), or the Rhine (Romansh Rein, German Rhein, French Rhin, Dutch Rijn, Slovenian Ren, Croatian Rajna). The two Slovenian and two Croatian authors tested the existing Slovenian typology of exonymization and its applicability in Croatian. This led them to improve the methodology by adding a missing catego- ry and to look for suitable examples of exonymization for all categories in both languages–which could be identical, could differ, or could appear in only one of the two languages. The final result is a new typol- ogy of exonymization with twelve levels of Slovenianization and Croatization from the smallest to greatest degree of adaptation. The article »Slovenian exonyms in North America« (Perko and Kladnik 2017) notes that the number of Slovenian exonyms around the world decreases with distance from Slovenia. However, this applies less so to North America, where their density is twice as high as in South and Central America, which is associated Drago Perko, Peter Jordan, Blaž Komac, Exonyms and other geographical names 104 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 104 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 105 with the above-average global role of North America in the last century and the emigration of Slovenians in past centuries. This quite remote part of the world was presented to Slovenians relatively early through Frederic Baraga (1797–1868), a Slovenian Catholic missionary to the United States and a grammarian of Native American languages (Kladnik 2012). The authors prepared a spreadsheet with 3,819 exonyms and thirty-five thematic fields. For the analy- sis of Slovenian exonyms in North America, they considered all of the names on three maps (divided into three sections) at a scale of 1:50,000,000 that fall within Canada and the United States (excluding Greenland and Central America) and without names of undersea features (all three maps are included in the article). The final number of these names is 204, and the final number of names from the list of 3,819 names with- out undersea features is 3,316. The analysis shows that in North America marine hydronyms (21.1%) are the most numerous seman- tic type of exonyms, and completely translated names (77.9%) are the most numerous Slovenianized type of exonyms. Among the original languages of exonyms, English completely prevails (97.1%). The most commonly used Slovenian exonyms from North America in Slovenian texts are the names of countries and their administrative units. The next most commonly used Slovenian exonyms are Dolina smrti »Death Valley«, Veliki kanjon »Grand Canyon«, Niagarski slapovi »Niagara Falls«, Skalno gorovje »Rocky Mountains«, and Aleuti »Aleutian Islands« (Perko and Kladnik 2017). The third article, »Microtoponyms as an important part of Slovenian cultural heritage« (Škofic 2017), deals with oeconyms and other microtoponyms in Slovenia. Geographical names are important part of the cultural heritage of every nation. For small nations with a small but diverse territory like Slovenia (Ciglič and Perko 2013; Perko, Ciglič and Hrvatin 2017; Perko, Hrvatin and Ciglič 2015), microtoponyms are a par- ticularly important component of the cultural heritage. The author stresses that they often reflect the geomorphological, historical, biological, geological, and social characteristics of a country, as well as the historical development of the spoken language. People use microtoponyms to designate the space where they live and work, and to make orientation in it easier. The author presents a methodology for data collection and documentation of microtoponyms in the Upper Carniolan dialect of Slovenian based on video and audio recordings. The author states that linguistic analysis and its consideration of the dialect characteristics of toponyms can help in reconstructing their naming motivation and origin. A very interesting category of microtoponyms are oeconyms, also known as house names and farm names. The author determines oeconym as a toponym that denotes an occupied or unoccupied house with a street number in a settlement, a farm with or without land, farm outbuildings (e.g., grain mills, sawmills), or communal village buildings (e.g., a church, rectory, school, inn, or fire station). Oeconyms remain con- nected to houses and estates even after the original owners move on and may remain unchanged for centuries. The author says that many of these names are of Slavic origin, but many of them are loanwords from various contact languages, mostly German and Italian. Oeconyms and other microtoponyms are mainly one-word toponyms. More complex structured toponyms are quite rare (Škofic 2017). The first three articles link history with the present; however, the last article is based more on the cur- rent situation and the future. Its title is a question: »Does Google serve as a model for using place names?« (Gercsák and Mikesy 2017). Printed maps, names indexes, legends, and several traditional tools that have helped in correctly understanding and interpreting place names seem to be disappearing from everyday use. The authors say that, in the world of computers, most map users are turning to online methods or mobile applications when they need spatial information. The article examines the reliability of geographical names published on various internet platforms in the case of Hungarian place names. The most common mistakes found by the authors are missing dia- critics, use of historical names without modern equivalents, use of names never approved, false linking of exonyms, and automatic translations of place names. With regard to automatic translations, the authors say that strange names typically appear on web pages for Austrian and Slovenian territories. The following are some examples: • The Austrian name Leitersdorf im Raabtal »Leitersdorf in the Rába Valley« near Feldbach was replaced by the name Rábakarmestere, which means »conductor of the Rába River«; • Instead of the Austrian name Raabau »Rába River floodplain« one finds Rábaakadálymentes, which roughly means »obstacle-free Rába River«; 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 105 • The Hungarian exonym for the southern Austrian settlement of Ehrenhausen (literally, »home of honesty«) is Élőbecsület, which means »living honesty«; • The name Radkersburg/Gornja Radgona (literally, »Radger Castle«) on the Austrian-Slovenian border is translated as Kerékerősítővár, which means »wheel-strengthening castle«; and • The nearby village of Podgrad (literally, »below the castle«) on the Slovenian side is Keréknekfel, which means »up on the wheel«. The author says that the birth of false geographic names in large numbers in the popular media rep- resents a considerable linguistic, cultural, informational, and economic challenge, partly because the false names are mixed with relevant data. They believe it is very important for the responsible geographical name authorities and the developers of online maps to cooperate and monitor the use of place names on the inter- net (Gercsák and Mikesy 2017). 6 Conclusion Geographical names are such an important feature of geographical space that they may be seen as one of the foundations of every civilization. Through them, the land is »filled« with meanings. Spatially related identities can evolve only after a place has been given a name. Because geographical space is also a place of contact between different cultures, the same area may have different or overlapping geographical names. Through such contacts, the need for discussion and standardization of geographical names is quickly estab- lished. In international relations, standardization only became possible in the framework of the United Nations after the Second World War, when some common ground was established. Research on geographical names is based on official gazetteers or official lists of geographical names that have been established and mostly deal with the problems of exonyms and endonyms, as well as social aspects of geographical names, such as power relations. They refer to the positional power of societies and nations, can be used as refer- ential power to attract people and build loyalty, and are related to expert power (Morgan 1986). Geographical names may thus be seen as one of the last nation-building aspects of geography. This special issue offers some insight into the discussion on the important area of geographical names. This introductory article briefly presents the main terms (geographical name or toponym, endonym, exonym, transliteration, transcription, and standardized geographical name) and then discusses the formal frame- work of their standardization within UNGEGN. The modern approaches and main research globally and in Slovenia are then discussed, followed by four examples. The examples comprise a discussion of Croatian and Slovenian exonyms, Slovenian exonyms in North America, microtoponyms as a part of Slovenian cul- tural heritage, and Google as a model for using place names. We believe that this special issue will contribute to scholarly discourse and perhaps even foster a new discussion. 7 References Basso, K. H. 1988: Speaking with names: language and landscape among the Western Apache. Cultural Anthropology 3-2. Basso, K. H. 1996. Wisdom sits in places. Landscape and language among the Western Apache. Albuquerque. Ciglič, R., Perko, D. 2013: Europe’s landscape hotspots. Acta geographica Slovenica 53-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.3986/AGS53106 Conedera, M., Vassere, S., Neff, C., Meurer, M., Krebs, P. 2007. Using toponymy to reconstruct past land use: a case study of »Brusada« (Burn) in southern Switzerland. Journal of Historical Geography 33. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhg.2006.11.002 Furlan, M., Gložančev, A., Kladnik, D., Perko, D., Šivic-Dular, A. 2008: Standardized Slovene geographical names. Gazetter of the National general map of the Republic of Slovenia at the scale 1:250,000. Ljubljana. Gercsák, G., Gábor, M. 2017: Does Google serve as a model for using place names?. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4668 Internet 1: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn (15. 11. 2016). Internet 2: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/sessions.html (15. 11. 2016). Internet 3: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/divisions.html (15. 11. 2016). 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Perko, D., Ciglič, R., Hrvatin, M. 2017: Determination of landscape hotspots of Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS. 4618 Perko, D., Hrvatin M., Ciglič, R. 2015: A methodology for natural landscape typification of Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 55-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1938 Perko, D., Kladnik, D. 2017: Slovenian exonyms in North America. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4777 Rose-Redwood, R., Alderman, D., Azaryahu, M. 2010: Geographies of toponymic inscription: new direc- tions in critical place-name studies. Progress in Human Geography 34-4. Škofic, J. 2017: Microtoponyms as an important part of Slovenian cultural heritage. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4670 Taylor, S. (ed.) 1998: The uses of place names. Edinburgh. Tuan, Y.-F. 1977: Space and place: The perspective of experience. Minneapolis. Tuan, Y-F. 1990 (1974): Topophilia. A study of environmental perception, attitudes, and values. New York. Tuan, Y.-F. 1991: Language and the making of place: A narrative-descriptive approach. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 81. Urbanc, M., Fridl, J., Kladnik, D., Perko, D. 2006: Atlant and Slovene national consciousness in the second half of the 19th century. Acta geographica Slovenica 46-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS46204 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 107 108 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 108 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017, 109–118 A COMPARISON OF CROATIAN AND SLOVENIAN EXONYMS Drago Kladnik, Ivana Crljenko, Ankica Čilaš Šimpraga, Matjaž Geršič The names for South Africa in Croatian and Slovenian are completely different exonyms. The photo shows a border crossing with Lesotho. D R A G O K L A D N IK 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 109 Drago Kladnik, Ivana Crljenko, Ankica Čilaš Šimpraga, Matjaž Geršič, A Comparison of Croatian and Slovenian exonyms A Comparison of Croatian and Slovenian exonyms DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4653 UDC: 91:811.163.6’373.21 91:811.163.42’373.21 COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: Croatian and Slovenian are very closely related South Slavic languages, but during their his- torical development they came under the influence of various other languages and various language policies determined by the broader framework of Hungary and Austria. This fact makes the comparative study of exonymization in both languages very interesting. Croatian and Slovenian exonyms are not only part of the cultural heritage of both nations, but also part of global cultural heritage. The article presents a com- parative analysis of exonyms in both languages carried out as part of a bilateral project lasting a year and a half. The analysis is based on an improved typology, which was adjusted to the manner of exonymiza- tion for borrowed foreign geographical names in both of these related languages. KEY WORDS: exonym, country name, intangible cultural heritage, Croatia, Slovenia The article was submitted on 10th July, 2016. ADDRESSES: Drago Kladnik, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: drago.kladnik@zrc-sazu.si Ivana Crljenko, Ph.D. Miroslav Krleža Institute of Lexicography Frankopanska 26, HR-10000 Zagreb E-mail: ivana.crljenko@lzmk.hr Ankica Čilaš Šimpraga, Ph.D. Institute for Croatian Language and Linguistics Republike Austrije 16, HR-10000 Zagreb E-mail: acilas@ihjj.hr Matjaž Geršič, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: mgersic@zrc-sazu.si 110 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 110 1 Introduction Croatian and Slovenian are very closely related South Slavic languages (Comrie, Matthews and Polinsky 1999; Šekli 2013), but during their historical development they came under the influence of various other languages and various language policies determined by the broader framework of Hungary and Austria (Weber 2013). This fact makes the comparative study of exonymization in both languages very interesting. Exonyms are part of the vocabulary of every language (Kadmon 1997; Kladnik et al. 2013), and their use changes constantly, just like the language itself. Therefore, it is vital to know the role of exonyms in both Slovenian and Croatian. Exonyms are an important component of both languages and thus not only part of the cultural heritage of both nations, but also part of global cultural heritage. Although exonyms have already been studied in both Slovenian (e.g., Kladnik 2007, 2009; Kladnik and Bole 2012; Perko and Kladnik 2017) and Croatian (e.g., Crljenko 2014), this article presents the first com- parative analysis of this linguistic phenomenon. 2 Methods The Croatian-Slovenian bilateral project presented below lasted a year and a half, which was too brief for the participating researchers to carry out a comprehensive analysis of exonyms in the two languages. This was especially due to the fact that only Slovenian exonyms had been systematically collected and processed up until that point. Croatian researchers are relying on the Slovenian researchers’ experience and their systematically arranged The Gazetteer of Slovenian Exonyms (Internet 1; Kladnik and Perko 2013; Kladnik and Geršič 2014). Croatian researchers also revised the Croatian exonyms listed in Slovenian list of exonyms. The Croatian exonyms that do not have a corresponding Slovenian exonym and are only used as endonyms in Croatian are missing from the gazetteer. On the other hand, it also includes several Slovenian exonmys without a cor- responding Croatian exonym. Because it is impossible to compile a comparable detailed collection of Croatian exonyms (Crljenko 2016) in the short time available during the project (in Slovenia eighteen comprehensive sources were con- sulted), the Croatian researchers opted for a thematically differentiated approach. Hence, they began by collecting the names of the continents, countries, capital cities, and dependent territories, followed by the names of regions and certain major natural geographical features, such as hydronyms, as well as cities. The Croatian exonyms included in the text are based also on data available from Wikipedia. We developed a typology of country names with six possible combinations of results from their com- parative analysis. Throughout, we paid particular attention to the existing Slovenian typology of exonymization (Kladnik et al. 2013: 68–70; Kladnik and Perko 2013) and also tested its applicability in Croatian. This led us to improve the methodology for the missing category and to look for suitable exam- ples of exonymization for all categories in both languages, which could be identical, could differ, or could appear in only one of the two languages. Exonyms were mainly collected from atlases and professional literature dating from the second half of the nineteenth century to the Second World War. The first Slovenian atlas was prepared by the editor Matej Cigale, who issued it in individual volumes (Cigale 1869–1877; Fridl et al. 2005). At that time, only Kozenn’s high-school atlas had been published in Croatian (Kozen 1887; Blasius Kozenn (in Slovenian Blaž Kocen) was a major cartographer with Slovenian roots, active in Moravia and Vienna). This atlas was also used by Slovenian high-school students in the absence of other such literature. A full twenty editions of this atlas were published in Croatia between 1887 and 1943 (Bratec Mrvar et al. 2011, 105; Crljenko 2014). 3 Croatian-Slovenian bilateral project The main purposes of the project were: a) to establish a unique exonym classification typology according to the intensity and variety of name adap- tation, and Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 111 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 111 Drago Kladnik, Ivana Crljenko, Ankica Čilaš Šimpraga, Matjaž Geršič, A Comparison of Croatian and Slovenian exonyms b) to analyze various social, political, and linguistic influences on different process of adaptation (exonymiza- tion) in two closely related South Slavic languages (Crljenko 2016). Comparing Croatian and Slovenian exonmys provides a basis for analyzing the motives for exonymization in the early stages of adapting foreign geographical names. Among the goals of their research efforts, the researchers working on this project in both countries also highlighted the presentation of the project and its preliminary findings at the Zagreb conference of the Working Group on Exonyms (Kladnik 2015) and the joint preparation of research articles. Informally, the paths of both research teams had already crossed prior to this, while preparing semi- nal lexical works in both countries (i.e., general world atlases, school atlases, and encyclopedias), in which the use of exonyms adapted to international UN resolutions, their proper transcription, and the appro- priate transcription of endonyms (taking into account the applicable romanization systems in the case of their transliteration into the Roman alphabet) are key for successfully implementing projects. 4 Main results A quick overview of exonyms in both languages reveals that many of them are completely identical, that some only differ in details, and that the ones that differ significantly in both languages account for the small- est share. Examples of the last group are provided in Table 1. The papers that have been prepared by the project partners address the strength of influences on the exonymization process in both languages and investigate differences between them. Table 1: Comparison of selected Croatian and Slovenian exonyms that differ significantly. Endonym Semantic type Croatian exonym Slovenian exonym Arctica region Arktik Arktika Bălgarija country Bugarska Bolgarija Brasil country Brazil Brazilija France country Francuska Francija Zhōngguó country Kina Kitajska Côte d’Ivoire country Obala Bjelokosti/Bjelokosna Obala Slonokoščena obala Muang Thai country Tajland Tajska Algérie / al-Jazā’ir / Dzayer country Alžir Alžirija Elláda country Grčka Grčija Guiné-Bissau country Gvineja Bisau Gvineja Bissau Wien settlement Beč Dunaj Venezia settlement Venecija Benetke Napoli settlement Napulj Neapelj Bucureşti settlement Bukurešt Bukarešta Rio Amazonas / Solimões land hydronym Amazona Amazonka Rhein / Rhin / Rijn land hydronym Rajna Ren Lake Huron land hydronym Huron Huronsko jezero Český les / Böhmischer Wald land relief form Češka šuma Češki gozd Rocky Mountains land relief form Stjenjak Skalno gorovje Ostriv Zmiyinyy / Insula şerpilor island relief form Zmijski otok Kačji otok Victoria Island / Kitlineq island relief form Otok Victoria Viktorijin otok A second aspect of comparison focuses on studying the types of adaptation of exonyms in the two lan- guages. Here it is necessary to observe that both geographers and linguists deal with exonyms in Croatia, whereas in Slovenia this is almost exclusively the domain of geographers. Several typologies have already been prepared in Slovenia, but none of them have been tested by linguistic experts. Cooperation between linguists in the Croatian-Slovenian research group is an excellent aid in creating a better typology that could be used to compare the features of exonyms in the two languages. Because the meetings of the UNGEGN Working Group on Exonyms have shown interest in such a universally applicable classification, this would also be useful for the categorization of exonyms in other related languages. 112 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 112 The basic research on the most recent and best-developed version of the Slovenian exonymization types (Kladnik and Geršič 2014) showed that the existing types are also perfectly acceptable for analyzing Croatian exonyms. Additional findings by the Croatian linguists confirmed the Slovenian research efforts to date that have not yet been adequately analyzed by Slovenian linguists. Their detailed analyses revealed the need to add another type to the existent exonymization types, which in terms of the degree of exonymization is ranked eighth (labeled H): Phonetic form of roots with Croatianized and Slovenianized endings from the Latin suffixes -ia, -ea (Ide. *- iā-, *-ēa). This group includes names of some countries, continents, major regions, islands, and island groups, which are usually formed from roots adapted to Croatian/Slovenian pronunciation and the Croatianized/Slovenianized ending -ija or -eja, which derives from the Latin suffixes -ia and -ea. Examples: Cro: Australija, Sln: Avstralija »Australia«; Sln: Španija »Spain« (España); Sln: Francija »France«; Cro: Austrija, Sln: Avstrija »Austria« (Österreich); Cro/Sln: Eritreja »Eritrea« (’Ertrā/Iritrīyā); Cro/Sln: Gvineja »Guinea« (Guinée); Cro/Sln: Belgija »Belgium« (België/Belgique); Cro/Sln: Azija »Asia«; Cro/Sln: Cezareja »Caesarea«; Cro/Sln: Lombardija »Lombardy« (Lombardia); Cro/Sln: Sicilija »Sicily« (Sicilia); Cro/Sln: Katalonija »Catalonia« (Cataluña/Catalunya); Cro/Sln: Tasmanija »Tasmania«, and Cro/Sln: Polinezija »Polynesia«. Together, we developed a new shared typification based on Moder’s classification (Moder 1972), which includes twelve types instead of eleven that are ordered from the smallest to greatest degree of exonymization: A. Exonym from translated common name and original proper name. Typical examples are the fol- lowing names: Cro: jezero Titicaca »Lake Titicaca« (Lago Titicaca); Cro: vrh Windom »Windom Peak«; Cro: planina Kenya »Mount Kenya« (Kirinyaga/ Mount Kenya); Cro: rt Henry »Cape Henry«; Sln: otoki Bounty, Cro: otočje Bounty »Bounty Islands«; Sln: globel Meteor »Meteor Deep«; Sln: hrbet Sala y Gómez »Sala y Gómez Ridge« (Cadena de Sala y Gómez); Sln: jezero Hanka »Lake Khanka« (ozero Xanka); Sln: mizasta gora Sylvania »Sylvania Tablemount/Bikini Guyot«; Sln: plošča Nazca »Nazca Plate«; Sln: prelom GOFAR »GOFAR Fracture Zone«; Sln: rt Correnti »Cape Correnti« (Capo delle Correnti); Sln: zemeljska ožina Kra »Kra Isthmus/Isthmus of Kra« (Khokhok Kra). B. Exonym from translated common name and more or less Croatianized/Slovenianized proper name. Typical examples: Cro: nizina Gangesa »Ganges Plain«; Cro: delta Inda »Indus Delta«; Cro: poluotok Aljaska »Alaska Peninsula«; Sln: gora Fudži »Mount Fuji« (Fujisan); Sln: jarek Ob »Ob Trench«; Sln: jezero Abaja »Lake Abaya« (Abaya Hayk); Sln: oaza Karga »Kharga Oasis« (el-K- arga); Sln: gora Kenija »Mount Kenya« (Kirinyaga/ Mount Kenya); Sln: polotok Šantung »Shandong Peninsula« (Shāndōng Bàndǎo); Sln: rt Komorin »Kanyakumari« (Kanniyākumāri); Sln: slana puščava Lut »Lut Desert« (Dasht-e Lūt); Sln: prekop Majna–Donava, Cro: kanal Majna-Dunav »Main–Danube Canal« (Main-Donau- Kanal); Cro/Sln: jezero Tanganjika »Lake Tanganyika/Lac Tanganyika«. C. Exonym from adopted secondary original name. These include geographical names that differ from the official original names and can be borrowed in an unchanged, non-adapted form as colonial names, names from the past, names in the neighbouring languages, and names from Slavic languages. Since they became widely used, they have been used exclusively or largely in this version, whereas the offi- cial forms of the names are only used for their unambiguous identification. Typical examples of this type of adaptation include the following names: Cro: Pečuh »Pécs«; Sln: Benares »Varanasi« (Vārānasi); Sln: Bistrica »Haliacmon River« (Haliákmōn); Sln: El Obeid »Al-Ubayyid« (Al Ubayyid· ); Sln: Harkov »Kharkiv«; Sln: Kanton »Guangzhou« (Guǎngzhōu); Sln: Lemnos (Limnos); Sln: Sinkiang »Xinjiang« (Xīnjiāng); Sln: Tripolis »Tripoli« (T·arābulus); Cro/Sln: Armenija »Armenia« (Hayastan); Cro/Sln: Cejlon »Sri Lanka« (Śrī lam· kāva); Cro/Sln: Peking »Beijing« (Běijīng); Cro/Sln: Kijev »Kiev«(Куїv). Cro/Sln: Kosovska Mitrovica »Kosovska Mitrovica« (Mitrovicë); Cro/Sln: Tirana (Tiranë). D. Exonym from original name with omitted special characters and diacritics. Also in this adaptation type, the main principle is to remain as faithful to the original form as possible, but here the main issue is the letter, accent, and diacritics, which are omitted due to simplifications in printing and tradition, but here the main issue is that a letter, accent or diacritic is omitted due to simplifications in Croatian/ Slovenian printing, tradition, and pronunciation. For example Sln: Reykjavik »Reykjavík«(Reykjavík); Sln: Gdansk »Gdańsk« (Gdańsk); Sln: Narjan Mar »Naryan-Mar« (Nyar’yana marq); Cro/Sln: Iran »Iran« (Īrān); Cro/Sln: Riga »Riga« (Rīga); Cro/Sln: Bogota »Bogotá« (Bogotá); Cro/Sln: Islamabad »Islamabad« (Islāmabād); Cro/Sln: Sana »Sana’a« (S.an»ā«); Cro/Sln: Agadir »Agadir« (Aġadīr). E. Exonym from transliterated original name with simplified letters and diacritics. This includes a large group of names that are transferred from non-Roman scripts (e.g., Cyrillic, Arabic, Hebrew, Devanagari, Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 113 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 113 Drago Kladnik, Ivana Crljenko, Ankica Čilaš Šimpraga, Matjaž Geršič, A Comparison of Croatian and Slovenian exonyms Chinese, and Japanese) into the Roman alphabet. In this process, we skip the intermediary language (French, English, German, and Russian) and any unusual phonetic representation (sh, sch, ch = š; oo, ou = u); for example, we write Cro/Sln: Pandžab instead of Punjab, Cro/Sln: Sečuan instead of Sichuan/ Szechwan (Sìchuān Shěng). We also omit any long or short syllables markings, as already mentioned with the Roman alphabet: for example Cro: Juba, Sln: Džuba »Juba« (Dzhūbā); Cro/Sln: Asuan (Aswān); Cro/Sln: Tokio (Tokyō); Cro/Sln: Bengazi »Benghazi« (Binġāzī). Even greater adaptation linked to the written form has become common in the pronunciation of these names. They are pronounced like Slovenian or Croatian names, without any foreign flavour. F. Exonym from transcribed original name with Croatianized/Slovenianized ending. This group of exonyms is composed of »hybrids« partly resulting from the Croatianization/Slovenianization tendencies present in the previous two groups. It includes names with a Croatianized/Slovenianized ending (e.g., Tirana [Tiranë]), the root (e.g., in the pronunciation of Cro/Sln: Ostende »Ostend« [Oostende]), espe- cially if the root is commonly known (e.g., from a personal name, e.g. Sln: Ptolemaida [Ptolemais/Tolmeta/ Āthār Ţulmaythah]) or it does not belong to the same language group (Indian and Spanish cities in North America, and native names in the former British, French, Portuguese, and Spanish colonies. They also include names such as Cro: Prag, Sln: Praga »Prague« (Praha); Cro/Sln: Pariz »Paris«; Cro/Sln: Varšava »Warsaw« (Warzsawa). The following basic principle applies to the entire group: the better the name is known, the longer it is present in Slovenian consciousness, and the more frequently it is used, the smaller the likelihood that its pronunciation will strictly copy the original form; instead it is simpli- fied (especially the endings), which makes it easier to decline and to form its adjectival form. G. Exonym from borrowed and adapted name. This group includes names borrowed from another lan- guage, Croationized/Slovenianized, and adapted to Croatian/Slovenian pronunciation (e.g., Cro/Sln: Abesinija »Abyssinia« [from Italian Abissinia]) or Croatian/Slovenian usage: Sln: Šensi »Shanxi Province« (Shănxī Shěng); Sln: Velika Vlaška »Wallachia Mayor/Muntenia« (Ţara Românească); Sln: Hongkong »Hong Kong« (Xiānggǎng); Sln: Peč »Peć« (Pejë/Peja); Sln: Kašgar »Kashgar« (Kāshí/Qeşqer); Sln: Japonske Alpe »Japanese Alps« (Nihon Arupusu); Sln: Mizijski Olimp »Mysian Olympus« (Uludağ); Cro: Dnjestar, Sln: Dnester »Dniester« (Dnister/Nistru); Sln: Spitsbergi »Svalbard«; Cro/Sln: Nahičevan »Nakhchivan« (Naxçıvan); Cro/Sln: Irtiš »Irtyš« (Irtyš/Ertis/É’ěrqísī hé). H. Exonym with phonetic form of the roots and Croationized/Slovenianized endings from the Latin suffixes -ia, -ea (Ide. *-iā-, *-ēa) (already described in detail above). I. Exonym with phonetic form of the root and Croatian/Slovenian ending (like -ska/-ška/-čka, -je, -i etc.). The next stage of adaptation is best seen in the names of numerous countries, continents, settlements, regions, and island groups. Here, an ideal harmony is achieved between the foreign root and Slovenian pronunciation, which means that the root is written completely phonetically and the endings are com- pletely Croatian or Slovenian. Examples: Cro: Francuska »France« (France); Sln: Portugalska »Portugal«; Sln: Pomorjanska »Pomerania« (Pommern/Pomorze); Sln: Kurili »Kuril/Kurile Islands« (Kuril’skie ostrova/Chishima-rettō); Sln: Porenje, Cro: Porajnje »Rhineland« (Rheinland); Cro: Falačka, Sln: Pfalška »Palatinate« (Pfalz); Cro: Bukarešt, Sln: Bukarešta »Bucharest« (Bucureşti); Cro/Sln: Afrika »Africa«; Cro/Sln: Amerika »America«; Cro/Sln: Bretanja »Brittany« (Bretagne); Cro/Sln: Apalači »Appalachians/Appalachian Mountains«; Cro/Sln: Pireneji »Pyrenees« (Pirineos/Pyrénées). J. Exonym from fully translated name. This group includes full translations of endonyms. This stage no longer involves original official names that preserve the root, but only in the semantic sense. Examples: Sln: Skalno gorovje »Rocky Mountains«; Sln: Plitvina lososov »Salmon Bank«; Cro: Crveno more, Sln: Rdeče morje »Red Sea« (al-Bah. r al-Ah. mar); Cro: Rt dobre nade, Sln: Rt dobrega upanja »Cape of Good Hope«; Cro/Sln: Nizozemska »Netherlands« (Nederland); Cro/Sln: Veliko slano jezero »Great Salt Lake«. These names also include generally and partly borrowed foreign names, such as Sln: Pacifik »Pacific«; Sln: Mediteran »Mediterranean«, and roots of heavily Croationized/Slovenianized geographical names, such as Cro: Novi Zeland, Sln: Nova Zelandija »New Zealand«; Cro: Zapadna Australija, Sln: Zahodna Avstralija »Western Australia«; Cro: Zapadnosibirska nizina, Sln: Zahodnosibirsko nižavje »West Siberian Plain« (Zapadno-Sibirskaja ravnina); Cro/Sln: Nova Škotska »Nova Scotia«. K. Exonym from traditionally Croationized/Slovenianized name with a trace of the original root. This group is comprised of names in which the root can still be traced in places. Examples: the exonym Sln: Lipnica»Leibnitz«; Cro: Firenca, Sln: Firence »Florence« (Firenze); Cro: Konstantinopol, Sln: Konstantinopel »Constantinople« (Konstantinopolis/Constantinopolis); Cro/Sln: Apulija »Apulia« (Puglia); Cro/Sln: Rim »Rome« (Roma). 114 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 114 L. Exonym from Croatian/Slovenian name. In the last group the root can no longer be traced because the names have been developed in Croatian or Slovenian themselves (due to their historical connec- tions with the named places). Typical examples include Cro: Jakin »Ancona«; Sln: Celovec »Klagenfurt«; Sln: Videm »Udine«; Cro: Beč, Sln: Dunaj »Vienna« (Wien); Cro: Mleci, Sln: Benetke »Venice« (Venezia); Cro: Željezno, Sln: Železno »Eisenstadt«; Cro/Sln: Carigrad »Istanbul« (İstanbul). 4.1 Comparison of country names Because the Croatian partners have not yet completed the selection of all exonyms from all available sources, we made a comparison based only on the semantic type »country names.« We divided these into six dif- ferent groups adapted to the data: • Endonym; • Endonym in only one of the two languages; • Same endonym in both languages; • Minor differences in exonymization (difference in capitalization or individual letters); • Major differences (different ending or different root, several different letters, different translation of gener- ic component); and • Different name. Based on the comparison, we determined (Figures 1 and 2) that nearly half of the country names in the two languages use the same exonym. In terms of numbers, these are followed by completely different names (e.g., Cro: Kina vs. Sln: Kitajska »China«), names with major differences in the degree of exonymiza- tion (e.g., Cro: Španjolska vs. Sln: Španija »Spain«), names with minor (only orthographic) differences in the degree of exonymization (e.g., Cro: Austrija vs. Sln: Avstrija »Austria«), and country names for which both languages use the endonym (e.g., Cro/Sln: Angola), followed distantly by country names for which the endonym is used in only one of the two languages – while in the other a translation of conjunction is used (e.g. Cro: Bosna i Hercegovina vs. Sln: Bosna in Hercegovina »Bosnia and Herzegovina«). Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 115 49% 16% 13% 10% 9% 3% Same exonym in both languages Different name Major differences in exonymization Minor differences in exonymization Endonym Endonym in only one of two languages Figure 1: Share of names by groups base on a comparison between their names in Croatian and Slovenian. Figure 2: Countries of the world divided into groups based on comparison between their names in Croatian and Slovenian. p p. 116 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 115 Drago Kladnik, Ivana Crljenko, Ankica Čilaš Šimpraga, Matjaž Geršič, A Comparison of Croatian and Slovenian exonyms 116 Le ge nd En do ny m En do ny m in o nl y on e of tw o la ng ua ge s Sa m e ex on ym in b ot h la ng ua ge s M in or d i! er en ce s i n ex on ym iz at io n M aj or d i! er en ce s i n ex on ym iz at io n D i! er en t n am e A nt ar ct ic a Au th or s o f c on te nt : I va na C rlj en ko , A nk ic a Č ila š Š im pr ag a, M at ja ž G er šič , D ra go K la dn ik , D om ag oj V id ov ić Au th or o f m ap : M at ja ž G er šič C re at ed w ith : N at ur al E ar th © Z RC S A ZU A nt on M el ik G eo gr ap hi ca l I ns tit ut e, 20 16 0 2, 50 0 5, 00 0 7, 50 0 10 ,0 00 1, 25 0 K m 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 116 5 Conclusion Detailed studying of Croatian and Slovenian exonyms provides greater insight into exonymization in two related languages that have nonetheless developed differently under the influence of historical circumstances. The comparison of country names showed that nearly half have the same exonym in both languages, which points to their closely connected linguistic development. One-sixth of the names are completely differ- ent, and for the remainder the names contain greater or lesser differences. Endonyms are rarely used in either language. In this regard, ideas have arisen that similar studies could also be conducted at the multilateral level. Studies including some West Slavic languages, for which lists of exonyms have already been prepared (Hajčiková and Kováčová 1997; Beránek et al. 2006; Internet 2), might prove especially interesting because they would not require any time-consuming systematic collection of exonyms. Within the context of these languages, it would also make sense to compare types of exonymization, considering that this most like- ly took place in a relatively similar manner. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The Bilateral project BI-HR/14-15-049 was financed by Ministry of Science, Education and Sports of the Republic of Croatia and Slovenian Research Agency. 6 References Beránek, T., Boháč, P., Drápela, V., Harvalik, M., Liščák, V., Šimůnek, R., Šrámek, R. 2006: Index českých exonym. Český úřad zeměměřičský a katastrální. Praha. Bratec Mrvar, R., Birsak, L., Fridl, J., Kladnik, D., Kunaver, J. 2011: Kocenov srednješolski atlas kot didaktična prelomnica. Geografija Slovenije 22. Ljubljana. Cigale, M. 1869–1877: Atlant. Ljubljana. Comrie, B., Matthews, S., Polinsky, M. 1999: Atlas jezikov: Izvor in razvoj jezikov. Ljubljana. Crljenko, I. 2014: Some older sources for Croatian exonyms analysis. Acta geographica Slovenica 54-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS54105 Crljenko, I. 2016: Dealing with exonyms in Croatia. UNGEGN Bulletin 50. New York. Fridl, J., Kladnik, D., Orožen Adamič, M., Perko, D., Urbanc, M. (eds.) 2005: Atlant. Faksimile. Ljubljana. Hajčiková, M., Kováčová, M. 1997: Slovenské vžité názvy geografických objektov ležiacich mimo územia Slovenskej republiky = Slovak exonyms of geographical features lying out of the territory of the Slovak Republik. Úrad geodézie, kartografie a katastra Slovenskej republiky v Geodetickom a kartografickom ústave Bratislava. Internet 1: http://ungegn.zrc-sazu.si/Downloads/THEGAZETTEEROFSLOVENIANEXONYMS.aspx (22. 4. 2015). Internet 2: http://ksng.gugik.gov.pl/wydawnictwa_ngs.php (23. 4. 2015). Kadmon, N. 1997: Toponymy: The lore, laws and language of geographical names. New York. Kladnik, D. 2007: Characteristics of exonym use in selected European languages. Acta geographica Slove - nica 47-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS47203 Kladnik, D. 2009: Semantic Demarcation of the Concepts of Endonym and Exonym. Acta geographica Slovenica 49-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS49206 Kladnik, D. 2015: 17. srečanje Delovne skupine za eksonime. Geografski vestnik 87-1. Kladnik, D., Bole, D. 2012: The Life of Slovenian Exonyms and Their Familiarity in the Professional Community. Acta geographica Slovenica 52-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS52204 Kladnik, D., Ciglič, R., Hrvatin, M., Perko, D., Repolusk, P., Volk, M. 2013: Slovenski eksonimi. Geografija Slovenije 24. Ljubljana. Kladnik, D., Perko, D. 2013: Explanatory notes on the gazetteer of Slovenian exonyms. Internet: http://giam2.zrc-sazu.si/sites/default/files/introductory_notes_0.pdf (25. 4. 2015). Perko, D., Kladnik, D. 2017: Slovenian exonyms in North America. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4777 Kladnik, D., Geršič, M. 2014: A gazetteer of Slovenian exonyms. The Quest for Definition - Proceedings of the 14th UNGEGN Working Group on Exonyms Meeting, Corfu, 23–25 May 2013. Hamburg. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 117 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 117 Drago Kladnik, Ivana Crljenko, Ankica Čilaš Šimpraga, Matjaž Geršič, A Comparison of Croatian and Slovenian exonyms Kozen, B. 1887: Kozenov geografijski atlas za srednje škole. Zagreb. Moder, J. 1972: O pisavi in izreki zemljepisnih imen. Veliki atlas sveta. Ljubljana. Šekli, M. 2013: Genetolingvistična klasifikacija južnoslovanskih jezikov. Slovensko in slovansko, Jezikoslovni zapiski 19-1. Weber, T. 2013: Zgodovinski atlas sveta od prazgodovine do 21. stoletja. Ljubljana. 118 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 118 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017, 119–139 SLOVENIAN EXONYMS IN NORTH AMERICA Drago Perko, Drago Kladnik Section of the map of North America from Atlant (1869–1877), the first world atlas in Slovenian. 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 119 Drago Perko, Drago Kladnik, Slovenian exonyms in North America Slovenian exonyms in North America DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4777 UDC: 91:811.163.6’373.21 COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: The number of Slovenian exonyms around the world decreases with distance from Slovenia. This applies less so to North America, where their density is twice as high as in South and Central America. Based on a comparative analysis of geographical names from all important world atlases in Slovenian, we prepared two spreadsheets of Slovenian exonyms. The extensive spreadsheet has 5,038 names and the con- cise spreadsheet has 3,819 names. Each exonym has thirty-five thematic fields. In North America, marine hydronyms (21.1%) are the most numerous semantic type of exonyms, and com- pletely translated names (77.9%) are the most numerous Slovenianized type of exonyms. Among the original languages of exonyms, English completely prevails (97.1%). The most commonly used Slovenian exonyms from North America in Slovenian texts are Dolina smrti »Death Valley«, Veliki kanjon »Grand Canyon«, Niagarski slapovi »Niagara Falls«, Skalno gorovje »Rocky Mountains«, and Aleuti »Aleutian Islands«. KEY WORDS: geographical name, endonym, exonym, Slovenian, Slovenianization, North America, United States, Canada The article was submitted for publication on November 15th, 2016. ADDRESSES: Drago Perko, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: drago@zrc-sazu.si Drago Kladnik, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: drago.kladnik@zrc-sazu.si 120 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 120 1 Introduction A geographical name or toponym (from Greek tópos »place« and ónyma, a dialect variant of ónoma »name«) is a proper name of a geographical feature. An endonym (from Greek éndon »inside«) is the geographical name of a feature in one of the languages spoken in the territory of the feature. An exonym (from Greek éksō »outside«) is the geographical name of a feature in one of the languages that are not spoken in the territory of the feature, if different from the endonym of this feature (Kadmon 2000). Simply put, an endonym is the local (or original) name of a geo- graphical feature and an exonym is a foreign name for the same feature (Kladnik 2009). Slovenian endonyms are Slovenian geographical names within Slovenian ethnic territory, and Slovenian exonyms are Slovenian geographical names in all other territories if they differ from the endonyms there. In the narrow sense of the word, Slovenian exonyms only include Slovenian geographical names that are completely different from the original endonyms (e.g., Nemčija for Deutschland »Germany«); in the broader sense, they also include Slovenianized and translated geographical names (e.g., Pariz »Paris« and Rumena reka »Yellow River«, Chinese Huang He). The average density of Slovenian exonyms per million km² is 103 in Europe, eighteen in Asia, fourteen in Africa, eight in North America, five in South America, and four in Central America. The number of Slovenian exonyms around the world decreases with distance from Slovenia. This applies less so to North America, where the density is twice as high as in South and Central America, which is asso- ciated with the above-average global role of North America in the last century and the emigration of Slovenians in past centuries. 2 Methods We collected geographical names from fourteen Slovenian world atlases, including Cigale’s Atlant (Atlas, 1869–1877), the first world atlas in Slovenian (Urbanc et al. 2006; Kladnik et al. 2006), as well as some important encyclopedias (Veliki splošni leksikon … 1997–1998) and the Slovenian Orthography (Slovenski pravopis 2001). Based on a comparative analysis of the names collected, we prepared two spreadsheets of Slovenian exonyms. The extensive spreadsheet contains 5,038 names (Internet 1) and the concise one has 3,819 names (Kladnik et al. 2013). Each exonym has thirty-five thematic fields (Table 1): • 1) Nominative form of the Slovenian exonym; • 2) Genitive form of the Slovenian exonym; • 3) Adjectival form of the Slovenian exonym; • 4) Original geographical name (endonym); • 5) Language of the original geographical name; • 6) Exonym location (continent, ocean); • 7) Exonym location (country, sea); • 8) Semantic type of the exonym; • 9) Latitude of the exonym; • 10) Longitude of the exonym; • 11) Degree of Slovenianization of the exonym; • 12) Status of the exonym according to standardization; • 13) Recommended use of the exonym (necessary, recommended, less recommended, not recommended or unnecessary, inappropriate); • 14) Alternative exonym (allonym); • 15–24) Versions of the Slovenian exonym in atlases and other sources; • 25–32) English, French, German, Spanish, Russian, Italian, Croatian, and Hungarian form of the exonym; • 33) Etymology of the exonym; • 34) Notes about the exonym; • 35) Coordinates of the exonym on the map. For exonyms from the list of 3,819 names, we produced several maps (at a scale of 1:50,000,000 for the entire world, and at some more detailed scales for certain parts of the world, especially Europe, where the density of Slovenian exonyms is higher). Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 121 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 121 Drago Perko, Drago Kladnik, Slovenian exonyms in North America 122 Ta ble 1: Li st of Slo ve nia n e xo ny m s i n C an ad a a nd th e U nit ed St ate s. Ex on ym , s lov en ize d n am e En do ny m , o rig ina l n am e Or igi na l la ng ua ge Se m an tic ty pe De gr ee of sl ov en iza tio n Lo ca tio n ( co nt ine nt , o ce an ) Lo ca tio n ( co un try , s ea ) La tit ud e Lo ng itu de Lo ca tio n o n m ap 1 Ak ad ija Ac ad ie/ Ac ad ia Fre nc h/ En gli sh Hi sto ric al reg ion H No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 46 ° 08 ' N 65 ° 21 ' W II 2 D 2 Al jas ka Al as ka En gli sh Na tu ral la nd sca pe F No rth A m eri ca US A 63 ° 35 ' N 15 4° 3 0' W VI I 1 A, 1B 3 Al jas ka Al as ka En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it F No rth A m eri ca US A 63 ° 35 ' N 15 4° 3 0' W VI I 1 A, 1B 4 Al jaš ki po lot ok Al as ka Pe nin su la En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 63 ° 35 ' N 15 4° 3 0' W I 1 A 5 Al jaš ko go rov je Al as ka Ra ng e En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 62 ° 31 ' N 15 2° 4 8' W I 1 A, 1B 6 Al eu ti Al eu tia n I sla nd s En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m I No rth A m eri ca US A 54 ° 49 ' N 16 4° 0 2' W I 2 A 7 Al eu tsk o g oro vje Al eu tia n R an ge En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 60 ° 29 ' N 15 2° 4 5' W I 2 A 8 Al ek sa nd rov ar hip ela g Al ex an de r A rch ipe lag o En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca US A 56 ° 40 ' N 13 4° 0 5' W I 2 B 9 Al leg he ny jsk a p lan ot a Al leg he ny Pl ate au En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 41 ° 16 ' N 79 ° 05 ' W II 2 D 10 Am eri ka Am eri ca /A m éri qu e En gli sh /F ren ch Co nt ine nt F No rth /C en tra l/S ou th A m eri ca − 13 ° 32 ' N 86 ° 07 ' W II 3 C, 3D 11 Am un ds en ov za liv Am un ds en G ulf En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an Be au for t S ea 70 ° 27 ' N 12 2° 2 1' W IV 1B 12 An glo am eri ka An glo -A m eri ca En gli sh Co nt ine nt F No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 44 ° 11 ' N 98 ° 22 ' W II 2 C, 2D 13 Ap ala či Ap pa lac hia ns /A pp ala ch ian M ou nt ain s En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm I No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 36 ° 36 ' N 81 ° 41 ' W II 2 D 14 Ar kti čn i o ce an Ar cti c O ce an /O cé an A rct iqu e En gli sh /F ren ch Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an − 86 ° 32 ' N 13 5° 0 0' W IV 1A , 1 B 15 Ar kti ka Ar cti ca /A rct iqu e En gli sh /F ren ch Se a h yd ron ym F Eu rop e/ As ia/ No rth A m eri ca − 87 ° 48 ' N 1° 1 5' E II 1 C, 1D 16 At lan tsk o o ba lno ni ža vje At lan tic Co as tal Pl ain En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 33 ° 47 ' N 79 ° 41 ' W II 2 D 17 Ot ok A xla H eib erg a Ax el He ibe rg Is lan d En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 79 ° 32 ' N 90 ° 58 ' W II 1 C 18 Ba ffin ov za liv Ba ffin Ba y/ Ba ffin Bu gt en En gli sh /D an ish Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an − 70 ° 41 ' N 62 ° 38 ' W V 1D 19 Ba ffin ov ot ok Ba ffin Is lan d/ Qi kiq taa luk En gli sh /In uit Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 69 ° 26 ' N 71 ° 52 ' W II 1 D 20 Ba ke rje v i n H ow lan do v o to k Ba ke r a nd H ow lan d I sla nd En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J Oc ea nia US A 0° 2 9' N 17 6° 3 2' W VI I 3 A 21 Ba ke rje v o to k Ba ke r Is lan d En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J Oc ea nia US A 0° 1 2' N 17 6° 2 9' W I 3 A 22 Ba nk so v o to k Ba nk s I sla nd En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 72 ° 56 ' N 12 1° 1 5' W I 1 B 23 Ba rro wo v p rel iv Ba rro w Str ait En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an − 74 ° 19 ' N 94 ° 24 ' W V 1C 24 Ba th ur sto v o to k Ba th ur st Isl an d En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 75 ° 46 ' N 98 ° 52 ' W II 1 C 25 za liv Fu nd y Ba y o f F un dy En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym A At lan tic O ce an − 44 ° 55 ' N 65 ° 58 ' W V 2D 26 Be au for to vo m or je Be au for t S ea En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an Be au for t S ea 72 ° 10 ' N 13 7° 3 9' W IV 1B 27 Be lch erj ev i o to ki Be lch er Isl an ds En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 56 ° 11 ' N 79 ° 19 ' W II 2 D 28 Be rin go v p rel iv Be rin go v p rol iv/ Be rin g S tra it Ru ssi an /E ng lis h Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c/ Pa cif ic Oc ea n − 65 ° 55 ' N 16 8° 4 6' W IV 1A 29 Be rin go vo m or je Be rin go vo m ore /B eri ng Se a Ru ssi an /E ng lis h Se a h yd ron ym J Pa cif ic Oc ea n Be rin g S ea 57 ° 38 ' N 17 5° 3 0' W IV 2A 30 po lot ok Bo ot hia Bo ot hia Pe nin su la En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm A No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 71 ° 02 ' N 94 ° 33 ' W II 1 C 31 Br ita ns ka Ko lum bij a Br itis h C olu m bia En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 54 ° 28 ' N 12 4° 5 8' W VI I 2 B 32 Br oo ks ov o g oro vje Br oo ks Ra ng e En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 67 ° 54 ' N 15 0° 3 8' W I 1 A, 1B 33 Ka lifo rn ija Ca lifo rn ia En gli sh /S pa nis h Na tu ral la nd sca pe H No rth A m eri ca US A 36 ° 44 ' N 11 9° 2 6' W VI I 2 B 34 Ka lifo rn ija Ca lifo rn ia En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it H No rth A m eri ca US A 36 ° 44 ' N 11 9° 2 6' W VI II 2 C 35 Ka na da Ca na da En gli sh /F ren ch Co un try F No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 55 ° 53 ' N 96 ° 23 ' W VI II 2 C, 2D 36 Ar kti čn i a rh ipe lag Ca na da A rch ipe lag o En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m L No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 73 ° 54 ' N 92 ° 24 ' W II 1 C, 1D 37 Ka na ds ki šč it Ca na dia n S hie ld En gli sh Na tu ral la nd sca pe J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 52 ° 50 ' N 87 ° 50 ' W VI II 2 C, 2D 38 Ba th ur sto v r t Ca pe Ba th ur st En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 70 ° 38 ' N 12 8° 1 5' W I 1 B 39 rt Ca na ve ral Ca pe Ca na ve ral En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm A No rth A m eri ca US A 28 ° 27 ' N 80 ° 32 ' W II 3 D 40 Ch arl es ov rt Ca pe Ch arl es En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 52 ° 13 ' N 55 ° 38 ' W III 2E 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 122 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 123 Ex on ym , s lov en ize d n am e En do ny m , o rig ina l n am e Or igi na l la ng ua ge Se m an tic ty pe De gr ee of sl ov en iza tio n Lo ca tio n ( co nt ine nt , o ce an ) Lo ca tio n ( co un try , s ea ) La tit ud e Lo ng itu de Lo ca tio n o n m ap 41 Ch idl ey jev rt Ca pe Ch idl ey En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 60 ° 29 ' N 64 ° 39 ' W II 1 D 42 rt Co d Ca pe Co d En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm A No rth A m eri ca US A 41 ° 50 ' N 69 ° 59 ' W II 2 D 43 rt Fla tte ry Ca pe Fl att er y En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm A No rth A m eri ca US A 48 ° 23 ' N 12 4° 4 3' W I 2 B 44 rt Ha tte ras Ca pe H att era s En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm A No rth A m eri ca US A 35 ° 15 ' N 75 ° 32 ' W II 2 D 45 rt M en do cin o Ca pe M en do cin o En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm A No rth A m eri ca US A 40 ° 26 ' N 12 4° 2 5' W I 2 B 46 Rt w ale šk eg a p rin ca Ca pe Pr inc e o f W ale s En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 65 ° 39 ' N 16 8° 0 7' W I 1 A 47 rt Ra ce Ca pe Ra ce En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm A No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 46 ° 40 ' N 53 ° 04 ' W III 2E 48 rt Sa ble Ca pe Sa ble En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm A No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 43 ° 24 ' N 65 ° 37 ' W II 2 D 49 rt Sa ble Ca pe Sa ble En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm A No rth A m eri ca US A 25 ° 10 ' N 81 ° 08 ' W II 3 D 50 Ka sk ad no go rov je Ca sca de Ra ng e/ Ca sca de s En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 47 ° 34 ' N 12 1° 1 3' W I 2 B 51 Os red nje ni ža vje Ce nt ral Lo wl an ds /C en tra l P lai ns En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 39 ° 21 ' N 90 ° 54 ' W II 2 C, 2D 52 Ka na lsk i o to ki Ch an ne l Is lan ds En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca US A 33 ° 21 ' N 11 9° 1 6' W II 2 C 53 Ch es ap ea šk i z ali v Ch es ap ea ke Ba y En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J At lan tic O ce an − 37 ° 36 ' N 76 ° 05 ' W V 2D 54 Ob aln o g oro vje Co as t M ou nt ain s/C oa st Ra ng e En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 50 ° 20 ' N 12 3° 2 5' W I 2 B 55 Ob aln e g or sk e v eri ge Co as t R an ge s En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 40 ° 34 ' N 12 3° 4 2' W I 2 B 56 Ko lor ad o Co lor ad o En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it F No rth A m eri ca US A 38 ° 53 ' N 10 5° 3 9' W VI II 2 C 57 Ko lor ad sk a p lan ot a Co lor ad o P lat ea u En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 37 ° 00 ' N 10 9° 3 6' W II 2 C 58 Ko lor ad o Co lor ad o R ive r/R ío Co lor ad o/ 'Ah a K wa hw at En gli sh /S pa nis h/ M oja ve La nd hy dr on ym F No rth A m eri ca US A/ M ex ico 31 ° 39 ' N 11 4° 4 4' W V 2C 59 Ko lum bij sk o g oro vje Co lum bia M ou nt ain s/C olu m bia Ra ng e En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 50 ° 16 ' N 11 7° 1 5' W II 2 C 60 Ko lum bij sk a p lan ot a Co lum bia Pl ate au En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 44 ° 09 ' N 11 8° 0 5' W II 2 C 61 Ko lum bij a Co lum bia Ri ve r En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym H No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 46 ° 15 ' N 12 4° 0 2' W V 2C 62 Cu m be rla nd sk a p lan ot a Cu m be rla nd Pl ate au En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 36 ° 35 ' N 84 ° 12 ' W II 2 D 63 Ču ko tsk o m or je Ču ko tsk oe m ore /C hu kc hi Se a Ru ssi an /E ng lis h Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an Ch uk ch i S ea 69 ° 38 ' N 17 1° 0 7' W IV 1A 64 Da vis ov pr eli v Da vis St rai t/D av iss træ de t En gli sh /D an ish Se a h yd ron ym J At lan tic O ce an − 66 ° 27 ' N 57 ° 35 ' W VI 1E 65 Do lin a s m rti De ath Va lle y En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 36 ° 32 ' N 11 6° 5 6' W II 2 C 66 Ko lum bij sk o o kro žje Di str ict of Co lum bia En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca US A 38 ° 55 ' N 77 ° 01 ' W VI II 2 D 67 Di xo no v p rel iv Di xo n E nt ran ce En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Pa cif ic Oc ea n − 54 ° 21 ' N 13 2° 2 0' W IV 2B 68 Ot ok El lef a R ing ne sa Ell ef Rin gn es Is lan d En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 78 ° 34 ' N 10 1° 5 2' W II 1 C 69 Ell es m ere Ell es m ere Is lan d En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m G No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 79 ° 36 ' N 80 ° 19 ' W II 1 D 70 Fo xe jev a k ot lin a Fo xe Ba sin En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an − 66 ° 13 ' N 78 ° 12 ' W V 1D 71 Fo xe jev pr eli v Fo xe Ch an ne l En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an − 64 ° 17 ' N 79 ° 27 ' W V 1D 72 Fo xe jev po lot ok Fo xe Pe nin su la En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 64 ° 46 ' N 76 ° 47 ' W II 1 D 73 Ro os ev elt ov o z aje zit ve no je ze ro Fra nk lin De lan o R oo se ve lt L ak e/ La ke Ro os ev elt En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca US A 47 ° 56 ' N 11 8° 4 1' W V 2C 74 Fro bis he rje v z ali v Fro bis he r B ay En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J At lan tic O ce an La br ad or Se a 62 ° 34 ' N 65 ° 55 ' W V 1D 75 Ga sp eš ki po lot ok Ga sp és ie/ Pé nin su le de la G as pé Fre nc h Co as tal re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 48 ° 39 ' N 65 ° 26 ' W II 2 D 76 Ge org ija Ge org ia En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it F No rth A m eri ca US A 32 ° 38 ' N 83 ° 22 ' W VI II 2 D 77 Ve lik i k an jon Gr an d C an yo n En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 36 ° 06 ' N 11 2° 0 8' W II 2 C 78 Gr an to va de že la Gr an t L an d En gli sh Na tu ral la nd sca pe J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 82 ° 07 ' N 77 ° 47 ' W VI II 1 D 79 Ve lik a k ot lin a Gr ea t B as in En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 38 ° 56 ' N 11 7° 0 7' W II 2 C 80 Ve lik o m ed ve dje je ze ro Gr ea t B ea r L ak e En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 65 ° 57 ' N 12 0° 3 3' W IV 1B 81 Ve lik a j ez era Gr ea t L ak es En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 45 ° 13 ' N 83 ° 38 ' W V 2D 82 Ve lik e p lan jav e Gr ea t P lai ns /P rai rie s En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 44 ° 58 ' N 10 3° 4 9' W II 2 C 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 123 Drago Perko, Drago Kladnik, Slovenian exonyms in North America 124 Ex on ym , s lov en ize d n am e En do ny m , o rig ina l n am e Or igi na l la ng ua ge Se m an tic ty pe De gr ee of sl ov en iza tio n Lo ca tio n ( co nt ine nt , o ce an ) Lo ca tio n ( co un try , s ea ) La tit ud e Lo ng itu de Lo ca tio n o n m ap 83 Ve lik o s lan o j ez ero Gr ea t S alt La ke En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca US A 41 ° 03 ' N 11 2° 2 3' W V 2C 84 Ve lik o s už en jsk o j ez ero Gr ea t S lav e L ak e En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 61 ° 31 ' N 11 4° 1 2' W V 1C 85 Za liv sk o n iža vje Gu lf C oa sta l P lai n En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 31 ° 01 ' N 91 ° 59 ' W II 2 C 86 Al jaš ki za liv Gu lf o f A las ka En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Pa cif ic Oc ea n − 58 ° 29 ' N 14 5° 2 7' W IV 2B 87 Bo ot hij sk i z ali v Gu lf o f B oo th ia En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an − 70 ° 27 ' N 90 ° 15 ' W V 1C , 1 D 88 M eh išk i z ali v Gu lf o f M ex ico /G olf o d e M éx ico En gli sh /S pa nis h Se a h yd ron ym J At lan tic O ce an Gu lf o f M ex ico 25 ° 16 ' N 90 ° 55 ' W V 3C , 3 D 89 Za liv sv ete ga Lo vre nc a Gu lf o f S ain t L aw ren ce /G olf e d u S ain t L au ren t En gli sh /F ren ch Se a h yd ron ym J At lan tic O ce an − 48 ° 04 ' N 62 ° 27 ' W V 2D 90 Ha rn ey jev a k ot lin a Ha rn ey Ba sin En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 43 ° 15 ' N 11 9° 0 3' W II 2 C 91 Ha va ji Ha wa ii/ Ha wa i‘i En gli sh /H aw aii an Ad m ini str ati ve un it I Oc ea nia US A 21 ° 09 ' N 15 7° 1 3' W VI I 3 A 92 Ha va ji Ha wa iia n I sla nd s/M ok up un i o H aw ai‘ i En gli sh /H aw aii an Isl an d r eli ef for m I Oc ea nia US A 21 ° 09 ' N 15 7° 1 3' W I 3 A 93 pr eli v H ec ate He ca te Str ait En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym A Pa cif ic Oc ea n − 53 ° 15 ' N 13 1° 0 5' W IV 2B 94 Ho wl an do v o to k Ho wl an d I sla nd En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J Oc ea nia US A 0° 4 8' N 17 6° 3 7' W I 3 A 95 Hu ds on ov za liv Hu ds on Ba y En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an Hu ds on Ba y 59 ° 04 ' N 85 ° 35 ' W V 1C , 1 D, 2C , 2 D 96 Hu ds on ov pr eli v Hu ds on St rai t En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an − 62 ° 12 ' N 71 ° 20 ' W V 1D 97 Ja m es ov za liv Ja m es Ba y/ Ba ie Ja m es En gli sh /F ren ch Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an Hu ds on Ba y 53 ° 36 ' N 80 ° 35 ' W V 2D 98 Jo hn sto no v a to l Jo hn sto n A to ll En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J Oc ea nia US A 16 ° 44 ' N 16 9° 3 2' W I 3 A 99 Jo ne so v p rel iv Jo ne s S ou nd En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an − 75 ° 56 ' N 86 ° 20 ' W V 1D 10 0 po lot ok Ke na i Ke na i P en ins ula En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm A No rth A m eri ca US A 60 ° 13 ' N 15 0° 0 5' W I 1 A, 1B 10 1 Ot ok kr alj a V ilje m a Kin g W illi am Is lan d/ Qi kiq taq En gli sh /In uit Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 69 ° 07 ' N 97 ° 19 ' W II 1 C 10 2 Ku sk ok wi m sk i z ali v Ku sk ok wi m Ba y En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Pa cif ic Oc ea n Be rin g S ea 59 ° 27 ' N 16 2° 4 1' W IV 2A 10 3 Ku sk ok wi m sk o h rib ov je Ku sk ok wi m M ou nt ain s En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 63 ° 28 ' N 15 5° 0 0' W I 1 A 10 4 La br ad or sk o m or je La br ad or Se a En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J At lan tic O ce an La br ad or Se a 57 ° 50 ' N 52 ° 22 ' W VI 2E 10 5 At ha ba šk o j ez ero La ke A th ab as ca En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 59 ° 17 ' N 10 9° 2 1' W V 2C 10 6 Eri ejs ko je ze ro La ke Er ie En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 42 ° 10 ' N 81 ° 18 ' W V 2D 10 7 Hu ron sk o j ez ero La ke H ur on En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 44 ° 41 ' N 82 ° 22 ' W V 2D 10 8 jez ero M an ito ba La ke M an ito ba En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym A No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 50 ° 32 ' N 98 ° 22 ' W V 2C 10 9 M ea do vo za jez itv en o j ez ero La ke M ea d En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca US A 36 ° 08 ' N 11 4° 2 7' W V 2C 11 0 M ich iga ns ko je ze ro La ke M ich iga n En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca US A 43 ° 29 ' N 87 ° 06 ' W V 2D 11 1 Ni pig on sk o j ez ero La ke N ipi go n En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 49 ° 44 ' N 88 ° 35 ' W V 2D 11 2 jez ero O ke ec ho be e La ke O ke ec ho be e En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym A No rth A m eri ca US A 26 ° 56 ' N 80 ° 48 ' W V 3D 11 3 On tar ijs ko je ze ro La ke O nt ari o En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 43 ° 36 ' N 77 ° 46 ' W V 2D 11 4 Po wl lov o z aje zit ve no je ze ro La ke Po we ll En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca US A 37 ° 03 ' N 11 1° 1 8' W V 2C 11 5 Go rn je jez ero La ke Su pe rio r En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 47 ° 39 ' N 87 ° 02 ' W V 2D 11 6 W inn ipe šk o j ez ero La ke W inn ipe g En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 52 ° 45 ' N 98 ° 01 ' W V 2C 11 7 La nc as tro v p rel iv La nc as ter So un d En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an Ba ffin Ba y 74 ° 08 ' N 86 ° 59 ' W V 1D 11 8 La vre nc ijs ko vi ša vje La ur en tid es /L au ren tia n H igh lan ds Fre nc h/ En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 49 ° 28 ' N 69 ° 19 ' W II 2 D 11 9 M alo su že njs ko je ze ro Le sse r S lav e L ak e En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 55 ° 27 ' N 11 5° 1 4' W V 2C 12 0 Liv erp oo lsk i z ali v Liv erp oo l B ay En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an Be au for t S ea 69 ° 49 ' N 12 9° 5 1' W IV 1B 12 1 M ac ke nz iej ev za liv M ac ke nz ie Ba y En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an Be au for t S ea 69 ° 19 ' N 13 7° 1 2' W IV 1B 12 2 M ac ke nz iej ev o g oro vje M ac ke nz ie M ou nt ain s En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 63 ° 06 ' N 12 7° 4 5' W I 1 B 12 3 M ac ke nz iej ev a r ek a M ac ke nz ie Riv er En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 68 ° 43 ' N 13 5° 2 3' W IV 1B 12 4 M ala sp ini n l ed en ik M ala sp ina G lac ier En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca US A 59 ° 59 ' N 14 0° 3 1' W IV 1B 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 124 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 125 Ex on ym , s lov en ize d n am e En do ny m , o rig ina l n am e Or igi na l la ng ua ge Se m an tic ty pe De gr ee of sl ov en iza tio n Lo ca tio n ( co nt ine nt , o ce an ) Lo ca tio n ( co un try , s ea ) La tit ud e Lo ng itu de Lo ca tio n o n m ap 12 5 M cC lin to ck ov pr eli v M cC lin to ck Ch an ne l/M 'Cl int oc k C ha nn el En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an − 72 ° 04 ' N 10 3° 1 1' W V 1C 12 6 M cC lur eje v p rel iv M cC lur e S tra it/ M 'Cl ur e S tra it En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an Be au for t S ea 74 ° 42 ' N 11 7° 5 1' W V 1C 12 7 M elv illo v z ali v M elv ille Bu gt /Q im us se ria rsu aq Da nis h/ Inu it Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an Ba ffin Ba y 75 ° 35 ' N 61 ° 33 ' W V 1D 12 8 M elv illo v o to k M elv ille Is lan d En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 75 ° 21 ' N 11 1° 5 1' W II 1 C 12 9 M elv illo v p olo to k M elv ille Pe nin su la En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 68 ° 22 ' N 83 ° 39 ' W II 1 D 13 0 Sre dn ji z ah od M idd le W es t/M idw es t En gli sh Hi sto ric al reg ion J No rth A m eri ca US A 37 ° 48 ' N 88 ° 02 ' W VI II 2 C, 2D 13 1 ot ok i M idw ay M idw ay Is lan ds En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m A Oc ea nia US A 28 ° 13 ' N 17 7° 2 1' W I 3 A 13 2 M isi sip i M iss iss ipp i En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it F No rth A m eri ca US A 32 ° 42 ' N 89 ° 35 ' W VI II 2 C, 2D 13 3 M isi sip ije va de lta M iss iss ipp i D elt a En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 29 ° 16 ' N 89 ° 21 ' W II C 3, D3 13 4 M isi sip i M iss iss ipp i R ive r En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym F No rth A m eri ca US A 29 ° 00 ' N 89 ° 09 ' W V 2C 13 5 M isu ri M iss ou ri En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it F No rth A m eri ca US A 38 ° 21 ' N 92 ° 23 ' W VI II 2 C 13 6 M isu ri M iss ou ri R ive r En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym F No rth A m eri ca US A 38 ° 49 ' N 90 ° 07 ' W V 2C 13 7 Na res ov pr eli v Na res St rai t/N are s S træ de t En gli sh /D an ish Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an Ba ffin Ba y 78 ° 28 ' N 73 ° 35 ' W V 1D 13 8 No vi Br un sw ick Ne w Br un sw ick En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 46 ° 29 ' N 66 ° 33 ' W VI II 2 D 13 9 No va A ng lija Ne w En gla nd En gli sh Hi sto ric al reg ion J No rth A m eri ca US A 44 ° 08 ' N 70 ° 13 ' W VI II 2 D 14 0 No va M eh ika Ne w M ex ico En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca US A 34 ° 27 ' N 10 6° 0 5' W VI II 2 C 14 1 No va Fu nd lan dij a Ne wf ou nd lan d En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 48 ° 36 ' N 56 ° 06 ' W III 2E 14 2 No va Fu nd lan dij a i n L ab rad or Ne wf ou nd lan d a nd La br ad or En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 52 ° 07 ' N 56 ° 29 ' W IX 2E 14 3 Ni ag ars ki sla po vi Ni ag ara Fa lls /O ng uia ah ra En gli sh /Ir oq uo ian La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 43 ° 05 ' N 79 ° 04 ' W V 2D 14 4 Se ve rn a A m eri ka No rth A m eri ca /A m éri qu e d u N ord En gli sh /F ren ch Co nt ine nt J No rth A m eri ca − 39 ° 16 ' N 10 0° 3 6' W II 2 C 14 5 Se ve rn a K aro lin a No rth Ca rol ina En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca US A 35 ° 42 ' N 79 ° 12 ' W VI II 2 D 14 6 Se ve rn a D ak ot a No rth D ak ot a En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca US A 47 ° 27 ' N 10 0° 2 0' W VI II 2 C 14 7 Se ve rn i S as ka tch ew an No rth Sa sk atc he wa n R ive r En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 53 ° 14 ' N 10 5° 0 5' W V 2C 14 8 Se ve roz ah od na oz em lja No rth we st Te rri to rie s En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 64 ° 13 ' N 11 9° 5 1' W VI II 1 C 14 9 No rto no v z ali v No rto n S ou nd En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Pa cif ic Oc ea n Be rin g S ea 63 ° 50 ' N 16 3° 3 5' W IV 1A 15 0 No va Šk ot sk a No va Sc ot ia La tin Co as tal re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 44 ° 51 ' N 63 ° 48 ' W II 2 D 15 1 No va Šk ot sk a No va Sc ot ia La tin Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 44 ° 51 ' N 63 ° 48 ' W VI II 2 D 15 2 Po ba rva na pu šč av a Pa int ed D es er t En gli sh Na tu ral la nd sca pe J No rth A m eri ca US A 34 ° 56 ' N 10 9° 4 6' W VI II 2 C 15 3 Pa rry jev i o to ki Pa rry Is lan ds En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 76 ° 43 ' N 11 2° 5 6' W II 1 C 15 4 po lot ok U ng av a Pé nin su le d'U ng av a Fre nc h Co as tal re lie f fo rm B No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 59 ° 20 ' N 73 ° 28 ' W II 1 D 15 5 Pe ns ilv an ija Pe nn sy lva nia En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it H No rth A m eri ca US A 40 ° 45 ' N 77 ° 24 ' W VI II 2 D 15 6 Ba rro wo v r t Po int Ba rro w/ Nu vu k En gli sh /In uit Co as tal re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 71 ° 23 ' N 15 6° 2 9' W I 1 A 15 7 Pr ibi lov ov i o to ki Pr ibi lof Is lan ds En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca US A 56 ° 51 ' N 16 9° 5 4' W I 2 A 15 8 Po lot ok pr inc a A lbe rta Pr inc e A lbe rt Pe nin su la En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 72 ° 25 ' N 11 6° 4 3' W II 1 C 15 9 Ot ok pr inc a C ha rle sa Pr inc e C ha rle s I sla nd En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 67 ° 45 ' N 76 ° 04 ' W II 1 D 16 0 Ot ok pr inc a E dv ard a Pr inc e E dw ard Is lan d En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 46 ° 19 ' N 63 ° 19 ' W II 2 D 16 1 Ot ok pr inc a E dv ard a Pr inc e E dw ard Is lan d En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 46 ° 19 ' N 63 ° 19 ' W VI II 2 D 16 2 M or je pr inc a G us tav a A do lfa Pr inc e G us taf A do lf S ea En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an − 78 ° 21 ' N 10 7° 2 0' W V 1C 16 3 Ot ok w ale šk eg a p rin ca Pr inc e o f W ale s I sla nd En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 72 ° 34 ' N 98 ° 44 ' W II 1 C 16 4 Ot ok pr inc a P atr ick a Pr inc e P atr ick Is lan d En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 76 ° 39 ' N 11 9° 2 7' W I 1 B 16 5 Ot ok i k ral jic e Š arl ot e Qu ee n C ha rlo tte Is lan ds /H aid a G wa ii En gli sh /H aid a Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 53 ° 01 ' N 13 2° 0 2' W I 2 B 16 6 Pre liv kr alj ice Ša rlo te Qu ee n C ha rlo tte St rai t En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Pa cif ic Oc ea n − 50 ° 45 ' N 12 7° 1 3' W IV 2B 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 125 Drago Perko, Drago Kladnik, Slovenian exonyms in North America 126 Ex on ym , s lov en ize d n am e En do ny m , o rig ina l n am e Or igi na l la ng ua ge Se m an tic ty pe De gr ee of sl ov en iza tio n Lo ca tio n ( co nt ine nt , o ce an ) Lo ca tio n ( co un try , s ea ) La tit ud e Lo ng itu de Lo ca tio n o n m ap 16 7 Ot ok i k ral jic e E liz ab ete Qu ee n E liz ab eth Is lan ds En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 76 ° 19 ' N 96 ° 52 ' W II 1 C 16 8 Je ze ro se ve rn ih jel en ov Re ind ee r L ak e En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 57 ° 33 ' N 10 2° 1 2' W V 2C 16 9 Sk aln o g oro vje Ro ck y M ou nt ain s En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 50 ° 32 ' N 11 5° 1 2' W II 2 C 17 0 Ot ok sv ete ga Lo vre nc a Sa int La wr en ce Is lan d En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca US A 63 ° 30 ' N 17 0° 2 5' W I 1 A 17 1 M or sk a p ot sv ete ga Lo vre nc a Sa int La wr en ce Se aw ay / En gli sh /F ren ch La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 44 ° 59 ' N 74 ° 51 ' W V 2D Vo ie m ari tim e d u S ain t-L au ren t 17 2 Ot ok sv ete ga M ate ja Sa int M att he w Isl an d En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca US A 60 ° 24 ' N 17 2° 4 4' W I 1 A 17 3 Re ka sv ete ga Lo vre nc a Sa int -L au ren t/S ain t L aw ren ce Ri ve r Fre nc h/ En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 47 ° 58 ' N 69 ° 38 ' W V 2D 17 4 Sv eta Pe ter in M iha el Sa int -P ier re- et- M iqu elo n Fre nc h Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca Fre nc h 46 ° 48 ' N 56 ° 15 ' W IX 2E 17 5 Pre lom nic a s ve teg a A nd rej a Sa n A nd rea s F au lt En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 35 ° 07 ' N 11 9° 3 9' W I 2 C 17 6 Sa rg aš ko m or je Sa rg as so Se a En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J At lan tic O ce an Sa rg as so Se a 29 ° 00 ' N 64 ° 30 ' W V 3D 17 7 Se wa rd ov po lot ok Se wa rd Pe nin su la En gli sh Co as tal re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 65 ° 24 ' N 16 3° 4 6' W I 1 A 17 8 So m ers ets ki ot ok So m ers et Isl an d En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 73 ° 20 ' N 93 ° 27 ' W II 1 C 17 9 So no rsk a p uš ča va So no ran D es er t/D es ier to de So no ra En gli sh /S pa nis h Na tu ral la nd sca pe J No rth A m eri ca US A/ M ex ico 30 ° 04 ' N 11 2° 1 7' W VI II 2 C, 3C 18 0 Ju žn a K aro lin a So ut h C aro lin a En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca US A 33 ° 42 ' N 80 ° 47 ' W VI II 2 D 18 1 Ju žn a D ak ot a So ut h D ak ot a En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca US A 44 ° 26 ' N 10 0° 1 6' W VI II 2 C 18 2 Ju žn i S as ka tch ew an So ut h S as ka tch ew an Ri ve r En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 53 ° 14 ' N 10 5° 0 5' W V 2C 18 3 So ut ha m pt on ov ot ok So ut ha m pt on Is lan d/ Sa lliq En gli sh /In uit Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 64 ° 30 ' N 84 ° 24 ' W II 1 D 18 4 Ju žn o i nd ija ns ko je ze ro So ut he rn In dia n L ak e En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 57 ° 06 ' N 98 ° 36 ' W V 2C 18 5 Pre liv Ju an a d e F uc e Str ait of Ju an de Fu ca / En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Pa cif ic Oc ea n − 48 ° 14 ' N 12 3° 3 8' W IV 2B Ju an de Fu ca St rai t 18 6 Flo rid sk i p rel iv Str ait s o f F lor ida /E str ec ho s d e F lor ida En gli sh /S pa nis h Se a h yd ron ym J At lan tic O ce an − 24 ° 13 ' N 80 ° 36 ' W V 3D 18 7 Sv erd ru po vi ot ok i Sv erd ru p I sla nd s En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 79 ° 13 ' N 98 ° 44 ' W II 1 C 18 8 Te ks as Te xa s En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it F No rth A m eri ca US A 31 ° 56 ' N 99 ° 41 ' W VI II 2 C 18 9 pla no ta Oz ark Th e O za rks En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm L No rth A m eri ca US A 36 ° 47 ' N 92 ° 29 ' W II 2 C 19 0 Un ga vs ki za liv Un ga va Ba y/ Ba ie d'U ng av a/ En gli sh /F ren ch /In uit Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an Hu ds on St rai t 59 ° 39 ' N 67 ° 29 ' W V 1D , 2 D Un ga va ka ng iql uk 19 1 Zd ru že ne dr ža ve A m eri ke Un ite d S tat es of A m eri ca /U nit ed St ate s En gli sh Co un try J No rth A m eri ca US A 38 ° 35 ' N 98 ° 27 ' W VI II 2 C, 2D 19 2 Va nc ou vro v o to k Va nc ou ve r Is lan d En gli sh Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 49 ° 36 ' N 12 5° 3 8' W I 2 B 19 3 Vik to riji n o to k Vic to ria Is lan d/ Kit lin eq En gli sh /In uit Isl an d r eli ef for m J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 70 ° 36 ' N 10 8° 5 5' W II 1 C 19 4 Vik to riji n p rel iv Vic to ria St rai t En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an − 69 ° 09 ' N 10 0° 4 8' W V 1C 19 5 Vir gin ija Vir gin ia En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it H No rth A m eri ca US A 37 ° 25 ' N 78 ° 40 ' W VI II 2 D 19 6 M elv illo v p rel iv Vis co un t M elv ille So un d En gli sh Se a h yd ron ym J Ar cti c O ce an − 74 ° 00 ' N 10 9° 0 0' W V 1C 19 7 W as hin gt on W as hin gt on , D .C. En gli sh Se ttl em en t G No rth A m eri ca US A 38 ° 54 ' N 77 ° 02 ' W VI II 2 D 19 8 W ell an ds ki pr ek op W ell an d C an al En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 43 ° 01 ' N 79 ° 13 ' W V 2D 19 9 Za ho dn a V irg ini ja W es t V irg ini a En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca US A 38 ° 35 ' N 80 ° 39 ' W VI II 2 D 20 0 W ran glo vo go rov je W ran ge ll M ou nt ain s En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca US A 61 ° 47 ' N 14 3° 1 4' W I 1 B 20 1 Ye llo ws to ns ko je ze ro Ye llo ws to ne La ke En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym J No rth A m eri ca US A 44 ° 27 ' N 11 0° 2 2' W V 2C 20 2 Ju ko ns ka pl an ot a Yu ko n P lat ea u En gli sh La nd re lie f fo rm J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 62 ° 04 ' N 13 8° 2 1' W I 1 B 20 3 Ju ko n Yu ko n R ive r En gli sh La nd hy dr on ym F No rth A m eri ca Ca na da /U SA 62 ° 36 ' N 16 4° 4 7' W IV 1A 20 4 Ju ko ns ko oz em lje Yu ko n/ Yu ko n T err ito ry En gli sh Ad m ini str ati ve un it J No rth A m eri ca Ca na da 63 ° 29 ' N 13 6° 1 9' W VI I 1 B 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 126 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 127 For the analysis of Slovenian exonyms in North America, we considered all of the names on the three maps (divided into three sections) at a scale of 1:50,000,000 (Figure 1) that fall within Canada and the United States (excluding Greenland and Central America) and without names of undersea features. The final num- ber of these names is 204, and the final number of names from the list of 3,819 names without undersea features is 3,316. 3 Semantic types of exonyms We defined sixteen semantic types, which are adapted to global dimensions and the standard division of geographical features: • Continent: in North America, the number of such exonyms is three (1.5%; e.g., Severna Amerika »North America«, Angloamerika »Anglo-America«) compared to eleven (0.3%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Afrika »Africa«, Evropa »Europe«). • Country: in North America, the number of such exonyms is two (1.0%; e.g., Kanada »Canada«, Združene države Amerike »United States of America«) compared to 171 (4.7%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Francija »France«, Finska »Finland«). • Settlement: in North America, the number of such exonyms is one (0.5%; e.g., Washington »Washington, DC«) compared to 432 (12.0%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Rim »Rome«, Atene »Athens«). • Historical settlement: in North America there are no such exonyms (0.0%) compared to 102 (2.8%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Troja »Troy«, Bizanc »Byzantium«). • Land relief form: in North America, the number of such exonyms is twenty-eight (13.7%; e.g., Dolina smrti »Death Valley«, Jukonska planota »Yukon Plateau«) compared to 420 (11.6%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Andi »Andes«, Turansko nižavje »Turan Lowland«). • Land hydronym: in North America, the number of such exonyms is thirty-four (16.7%; e.g., Niagarski slapovi »Niagara Falls«, Velika jezera »Great Lakes«) compared to 346 (9.6%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Mrtvo morje »Dead Sea«, Beneška laguna »Venetian Lagoon«). • Sea hydronym: in North America, the number of such exonyms is forty-three (21.1%; e.g., Mehiški zaliv »Gulf of Mexico«, Hudsonov preliv »Hudson Strait«) compared to 341 (9.4%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Indijski ocean »Indian Ocean«, Rossova ledena polica »Ross Ice Shelf«). • Undersea feature: these exonyms are not included in the article (e.g., Filipinski jarek »Philippine Trench«, Agulhaška planota »Agulhas Plateau«). • Island relief form: in North America, the number of such exonyms is thirty-four (16.7%; e.g., Nova Fundlandija »Newfoundland«, Otok svetega Lovrenca »Saint Lawrence Island«) compared to 353 (9.8%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Azori »Azores«, Veliki koralni greben »Great Barrier Reef«). • Coastal relief form: in North America, the number of such exonyms is twenty-four (11.8%; e.g., Aljaški polotok »Alaska Peninsula«, Misisipijeva delta »Mississippi Delta«) compared to 176 (4.9%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Apeninski polotok »Apennine Peninsula«, Donavina delta »Danube Delta«). • Natural landscape: in North America, the number of such exonyms is six (2.9%; e.g., Pobarvana puščava »Painted Desert«, Kanadski ščit »Canadian Shield«) compared to 304 (8.4%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Dežela kraljice Maud »Queen Maud Land«, Sahara). • Historical region: in North America, the number of such exonyms is three (1.5%; e.g., Akadija »Acadia«, Nova Anglija »New England«) compared to 100 (2.8%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Abesinija »Abyssinia«, Burgundija »Burgundy«). • Administrative unit: in North America, the number of such exonyms is twenty-six (12.8%; e.g., Južna Karolina »South Carolina«, Nova Škotska »Nova Scotia«) compared to 221 (6.1%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Bavarska »Bavaria«, Južna Osetija »South Ossetia«). • Historical administrative unit: in North America there are no such exonyms (0.0%) compared to 101 (2.8%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Galicija »Galicia« in the former Austria-Hungarian Empire, Otomansko cesarstvo »Ottoman Empire«). • Others: the names of river dams and sluices, parts of settlements, defensive walls (e.g., Kitajski zid »Great Wall«), archaeological sites, tectonic plates, isolated points on the Earth’s surface (e.g., Južni tečaj »South Pole«), abbreviated compound geographical names (e.g., Beneluks »Benelux«), and so on; in North America there are no such exonyms (0.0%) compared to thirty-four (0.9%) in the rest of the world. 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 127 Drago Perko, Drago Kladnik, Slovenian exonyms in North America 4 Original language of exonyms The original language of Slovenian exonyms from North America is mostly English: in 166 cases (81.4%) alone and in thirty-two cases (15.7%) in relation to other languages: • French eleven times (e.g., Zaliv svetega Lovrenca »Gulf of Saint Lawrence«, French Golfe du Saint Laurent); • Spanish five times (e.g., Sonorska puščava »Sonoran Desert«, Spanish Desierto de Sonora, belonging to the United States and Mexico); • Inuit six times (e.g., Otok kralja Viljema »King William Island«, Inuktitut Qikiqtaq in Canada); • Danish three times (e.g., Baffinov zaliv »Baffin Bay«, Danish Baffin Bugten in the Arctic Ocean); • Native American languages three times (e.g., Niagarski slapovi »Niagara Falls«, Iroquoian Onguiaahra on the border between the United States and Canada); • Russian three times (e.g., Beringovo morje »Bering Sea«, Russian Beringovo more in the Pacific Ocean); • Hawaiian two times (e.g., Havaji »Hawaii«, Hawaiian Hawai»i in Oceania). French is the original language three times (e.g., Gaspeški polotok » Gaspé Peninsula«, French Peninsula de la Gaspé in Canada), Latin two times (e.g., Nova Škotska »Nova Scotia« in Canada), and Danish once in combination with Inuit (Melvillov zaliv »Melville Bay«, Danish Melville Bugt, Greenlandic Qimusseriarsuaq in the Arctic Ocean). 5 Degree of Slovenianization of exonyms Studying the degree of Slovenianization is demanding and partly subjective. The main problem in devel- oping such typologies is classifying a specific exonym into a single type; due to simplifications, which should ensure sufficiently clear categories, some types overlap and therefore individual names can be classified under several groups. We determined twelve typological groups of Slovenianization from the smallest to greatest degree of adaptation (Kladnik et al. 2017): • Exonym from translated common name and original proper name (type A): in North America, the number of such exonyms is seventeen (8.4%; e.g., jezero Manitoba »Lake Manitoba«, rt Canaveral »Cape Canaveral«) compared to 183 (5.1%) in the rest of the world (e.g., globel Meteor »Meteor Deep«, plošča Nazca »Nazca Plate«). • Exonym from translated common name and more or less Slovenianized proper name (type B): in North America, the number of such exonyms is one (0.5%; e.g., polotok Ungava »Ungava Peninsula«) compared to seventy (1.9%) in the rest of the world (e.g., gora Fudži »Mount Fuji«, Japanese Fujisan; prekop Majna–Donava »Main–Danube Canal«, German Main-Donau-Kanal). • Exonym from adopted secondary original name (type C): in North America there are no such exonyms (0.0%) compared to 245 (6.8%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Armenija »Armenia«, Armenian Hayastan; Kanton »Guangzhou«, Chinese Guǎngzhōu). • Exonym from original name with omitted special characters and diacritics (type D): in North America there are no such exonyms (0.0%) compared to seventy-three (2.0%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Gdansk »Gdańsk«; Iran »Iran«, Farsi Īrān). • Exonym from transliterated original name with simplified letters and diacritics (type E): in North America there are no such exonyms (0.0%) compared to 298 (8.2%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Pandžab »Punjab«; Tokio »Tokyo«, Japanese Tokyō). • Exonym from transcribed original name with Slovenianized ending (type F): in North America, the number of such exonyms is fifteen (7.4%; e.g., Aljaska »Alaska«, Kolorado »Colorado«) compared to 191 (5.3%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Tirana »Tirana«, Albanian Tiranë; Pariz »Paris«). • Exonym from borrowed and adapted name (type G): in North America, the number of such exonyms is two (1.0%; Ellesmere »Ellesmere Island«, Washington »Washington, DC«) compared to 128 (3.5%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Abesinija »Abyssinia«, Italian Abissinia; Nahičevan »Nakhchivan«, Azerbaijani Naxçıvan). • Exonym with phonetic form of the roots and Slovenianized endings from the Latin suffixes -ia, -ea (type H): in North America, the number of such exonyms is six (2.9%; e.g., Kalifornija »California«, Kolumbija »Columbia River«) compared to 185 (5.1%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Francija »France«, Azija »Asia«). 128 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 128 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 129 • Exonym with phonetic form of the root and Slovenian ending (type I): in North America, the number of such exonyms is four (2.0%; e.g., Aleuti »Aleutian Islands«, Apalači »Appalachians« or »Appalachian Mountains«) compared to 220 (6.1%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Afrika »Africa«, Pireneji »Pyrenees«). • Exonym from fully translated name (type J): in North America, the number of such exonyms is 159 (77.9%; e.g., Skalno gorovje »Rocky Mountains«, Veliko suženjsko jezero »Great Slave Lake«) compared to 1,877 (51.9%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Nizozemska »Netherlands«, Rt dobrega upanja »Cape of Good Hope«). • Exonym from traditionally Slovenianized name with a trace of the original root (type K): in North America there are no such exonyms (0.0%) compared to forty-eight (1.3%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Rim »Rome«, Italian Roma; Benetke »Venice«, Italian Venezia). • Exonym from Slovenian name (type L): in North America there are no such exonyms (0.0%), compared to ninety-seven (2.7%) in the rest of the world (e.g., Dunaj »Vienna«, German Wien; Nemčija »Germany«, German Deutschland). 6 Discussion The frequency of the current use of Slovenian exonyms was checked in the Gigafida database (Internet 2), which contains 1.2 billion words from publicly available printed texts (84.4%) and web texts (15.6%) pub- lished between 1990 and 2011 in Slovenian. The most commonly used Slovenian exonyms from North America in Slovenian texts are the names of countries and their administrative units. There are more than five hundred occurrences of Misisipi »Mississippi« (510), Aljaska »Alaska« (572), Kolorado »Colorado« (726), Teksas »Texas« (1,597), Havaji »Hawaii« (1,819), Kolumbija »Columbia« or »Colombia« (1,899), Kalifornija »California« (2,136), Kanada »Canada« (9,174), and Združene države Amerike »United States of America« and ZDA »USA« (over 10,000). However, the frequency of names for »Mississippi«, »Colorado«, and »Columbia«/»Colombia« is prob- lematic because it conceals the frequencies of the state/district, independent country, and river. The next most commonly used Slovenian exonyms from North America in Slovenian texts are Dolina smrti »Death Valley« (133), Veliki kanjon »Grand Canyon« (121), Niagarski slapovi »Niagara Falls« (109), Skalno gorovje »Rocky Mountains« (96), and Aleuti »Aleutian Islands« (57). The exonyms Misisipi »Mississippi«, Aljaska »Alaska«, Kolorado »Colorado«, Teksas »Texas«, and Kanada »Canada« belong to type F (exonym from transcribed original name with Slovenianized ending), the exonyms Kolumbija »Columbia«/»Colombia« and Kalifornija »California« to type H (exonym with phonetic form of the roots and Slovenianized endings from Latin suffixes -ia, -ea), the exonyms Havaji »Hawaii« and Aleuti »Aleutian Islands« to type I (exonym with phonetic form of the root and Slovenian ending), and the exonyms Združene države Amerike »United States of America«, Dolina smrti »Death Valley«, Veliki kanjon »Grand Canyon«, Niagarski slapovi »Niagara Falls«, and Skalno gorovje »Rocky Mountains« to type J (exonym from fully translated name). In its original form, the name Death Valley appears fifty-two times, Grand Canyon 253 times, Niagara Falls twenty-nine times, Rocky Mountains eighty-two times, and Aleutian Islands never. This means that in modern Slovenian texts, among these five geographical names only the exonym Veliki kanjon »Grand Canyon« occurs less often than the original name Grand Canyon. That means it has not yet been fully established, but the remaining four cases are firmly established Slovenian exonyms. Among the 3,316 Slovenian exonyms examined from around the world, 204 (6.2%) occur in North America (i.e., in Canada and the United States). In a comparable Czech list of exonyms (Beránek et al. 2006), out of 2,300 exonyms 1,250 (5.4%) occur in North America. Two Polish lists were examined. In the older one (Krauze-Tomczyk and Kondracki 1994a; Krauze-Tomczyk and Kondracki 1994b), out of over six thousand exonyms 245 (3.9%) were found in Canada and the United States, whereas a somewhat smaller share was found in the most recent Polish publications of geograph- ical names (Internet 3), where, out of 53,000 geographical names and about ten thousand Polish exonyms (Kladnik et al. 2013), 250 (2.5%) were found in North America. Figure 1: Map of Slovenian exonyms in Canada and the United States (author: Manca Volk, projection: WGS84, made with Natural Earth, © GIAM ZRC SAZU). p p. 130–138 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 129 Drago Perko, Drago Kladnik, Slovenian exonyms in North America 130 Barrowov rt rt Mendocino Dežnjovov rt Bathurstov rt polo tok Ke naiA l j a š k i p o l o t o kSewardov polotok Čukotski polotok Rt waleškega princa rt Flattery Obalno gorovje Alja ško gor ovje K as ka dn o go ro vj e Jukonska planota Aleu tsk o g oro vje Wranglovo gorovje B r o o k s o v o g o r o v j e O balne gorske verige Mackenziejevo gorovje Ku sko kwi msk o hr ibovj e Prelomnica svetega Andreja A l e u t i otoki Midway Banksov otok Vranglov otok Bakerjev otok Howlandov otok Vancouvrov otok Johnstonov atol Pribilovovi otoki Otok svetega Mateja Otok princa Patricka Otok svetega Lovrenca Aleksandrov arhipelag Otoki kraljice Šarlote Havaji A B 1 2 3 I 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 130 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 131 Jukatan rt Sable rt Sable rt Catoche rt Hatteras rt Gallinas rt Canaveral Nova Škotska rt Corrientes Chidleyjev rtpolotok Ungava Rt svetega Luke polotok Guajira polotok Boothia Orinokova delta Hayesov polotok Foxejev polotok Gas peški polotok Rt svetega Antona rt Gracias a Dios Me lvill ov p oloto k Misisipijeva delta Kalifornijski polotok Polotok princa Alberta Panamska zemeljska ožina Tehuantepeška zemeljska ožina rt Cod Dolina smrti Veliki kanjon pla nota Ozark Velika kotlina S k a l n o g o r o v j e V e l i k e p l a n j a v e Mehiška planota Zalivsko nižavje O s r e d n j e n i ž a v j e Obalna Kordiljera Gva jans ko viš avje Za ho dn a K or di l je ra Vz ho dn a K or dil jer a Sr ed nj a K or di lje ra Južna Sierra Madre Harneyjeva kotlina M eri dsk a K ordil jera Kolumbijsko gorovje Zahodna Sierra Madre Vzhodna Sierra M adreVulkanska Kordiljera Lav ren cijs ko v išavje Cu mb erla nds ka plan ota All egh eny jska plan ota At lan tsk o o bal no niž avj e Koloradska planota Kolumbijska planota A p a l a č i K a r i b i A n t i l i Antigva Angvila Monserat Gvadelup Martinik Portoriko Grenadine E l l e s m e r e Hispaniola M ali A ntili Sveta Lucija otočje Turks Kokosov otok Ve l i k i A n t i l i Otoki biserov otočje Caicos Baffinov otok Zave t rn i o toki Melvillov otok Marijini otoki Kanalski otoki Viktorijin otok Parryjevi otoki Kajmanski otoki Bermudski otoki Bathurstov otok Bahamsko otočje Somersetski otok Sverdrupovi otoki Clippertonov otok Belcherjevi otoki Southamptonov otok Otok Axla Heiberga Otok princa Edvarda Otok kralja Viljema Otok princa Charlesa Otok Ellefa Ringnesa Revillagigedovi otoki Otok waleškega princa Sveti Martin Sveti KrištofKaribski otoki Deviško otočje Sveti Vincencij Privetrni otoki A r k t i č n i a r h i p e l a g Otoki kraljice Elizabete Kuba A n g l o a m e r i k a S e v e r n a A m e r i k a A m e r i k a Jamajka C D 1 2 3 IIA r k t i k a Akadija 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 131 Drago Perko, Drago Kladnik, Slovenian exonyms in North America 132 Rt palm rt Juby Beli rt Zeleni rt rt Farvel rt Bojador Obala popra Charlesov rt Rt treh rtičev Brewsterjev rt Severovzhodni rt Rt Morrisa Jesupa Pirenejski polotok Slonokoščena obala rt Race A t l a s Anti atlasV isoki Atlas Sredn ji Atlas Betijsko g orovj e Kastilsko gorovj e Francosko nižavje Kambrijsko gorovje Akvitanska kotlina Gra mpi ansk o goro vje Armorikanskogorstvo Sev eroz aho dno viša vje Ibersko gorovje Kantabrijsko gorovje Rif H eb r id i Tenerifa otok Man I s l a n d i j a G r e n l a n d i j a otoki Scilly Hudičev otok Ferski otoki otočje Bijagós K an arski o to ki Kanalski otoki Ma de i r s k i o tok i Orkneyjski otoki Nova Fundlandija B ri ta n s k o o t o č j e Zelenortski otoki Shetlandski otoki Čeri svetega Petra in Pavla Velika Britanija A z o r i Hadrijanov zid Irska E F 1 2 3 III 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 132 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 133 S e v e r n i T i h i o c e a n preliv Hecate A l j a š k i z a l i v Nor tonov zaliv Dixonov preliv Č ukot sko morj e A r k t i č n i o c e a n B e r i n g o v o m o r j e Be rin gov pre liv Anadirski zaliv Amundsenov zaliv B e a u f o r t o v o m o r j e Mackenziejev zaliv Kusk okwi mski zaliv Preliv Juana de Fuce Preliv kra ljice Šarlote Liverpoolski zaliv T i h i o c e a n Malaspinin ledenik Mackenziejeva reka Velikomedvedje jezero Jukon A B 1 2 3 IV 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 133 Drago Perko, Drago Kladnik, Slovenian exonyms in North America 134 M on ski pre liv M e h i š k i z a l i v Jamesov zaliv Ungavski zaliv S a r g a š k o m o r j e Panamsk zaliv Nicoyski zaliv Nar esov preliv K a r i b s k o m o r j e Jonesov preliv H u d s o n o v z a l i v Foxejev preliv B a f f i n o v z a l i v Moskitski zaliv Melvillov zaliv Jamajški preliv Hudsonov preliv Darienski zaliv Barrowov preliv Priv etrni preliv Melvi llov preliv Honduraški zaliv Foxejeva kotlina Floridski preliv Boothijski zaliv Vik torij in pre liv McClurejev preliv Lancastrov preliv Ju ka tan sk i p rel iv Chesapeaški zaliv Campečejski zaliv Tehuantepeški zaliv M cClintockov preliv Kalifornijski zaliv Zaliv svetega Lovrenca Morje princa Gustava Adolfa Frobisherjev zaliv za liv Fu ndy Orinoko M is i s i p i Ko lo ra do Kolumbija Angelov slap V e l i k a j e z e r a Gornje jezero Panamski prekop jezero M anitoba Huronsko jezero Gatunsko jezero Eriejsk o jezero Athabaš ko jezero Winnipeško jezero Nipigonsko jezero Managovsko jezero jezero Okeechobee M ich iga nsk o je zero Južni Saskatchewan Veliko slano jezero Nikaragovsko jezero Yellowstonsko jezero Sever ni Saskatchewan Rek a sv etega Lovrenca Malo suženjsko jezero Veliko suženjsko jezero Južno indijansko jezero Jezero severnih jelenov Meadovo zajezitveno jezero Mor ska p ot svete ga L ovren ca Rooseveltovo zajezitveno jezero Wellandski prekop Ontarijsko jezeroNiagarski slapovi Powllovo zajezitveno jezero Misuri C D 1 2 3 V 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 134 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 135 Keltsko morje Da nsk i pre l iv Cadiški zaliv D a v i s o v p r e l i v Cabotov preliv W a n d e l o v o m o r j e Ro k av s ki p re l i v Orinokovo ustje Hebridsko morje Biskajski zaliv A t l a n t s k i o c e a n Setubalski zaliv L i n c o l n o v o m o r j e Amazonkino ustje pre liv Bell e Isle L a b r a d o r s k o m o r j e G r e n l a n d s k o m o r j e I r m i n g e r j e v o m o r j e Gibral tarski preliv Irsko morje Temza Loara Mu lu ja Senegal Gambija Črna Vo lta Be la Vo lta Rdeča Volta Veliki prekop Kaledonski prekop Faguibinsko jezero Voltsko zajezitveno jezeroKossoujsko zajezitveno jezero E F 2 3 VI 1 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 135 Drago Perko, Drago Kladnik, Slovenian exonyms in North America 136 Bakerjev in Howlandov otok H a v a j i A l j a s k a J u k o n s k o o z e m l j e B r i t a n s k a K o l u m b i j a Kalifornija A l j a s k a A B 1 2 3 VII 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 136 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 137 Havana Bogota Gvatemala Washington Panama Otoki Turks in Caicos Deviški otoki Združenih držav Kolumbijsko okrožje Otok princa Edvarda Br ita ns ki De viš ki oto ki T e k s a s Misuri Jukatan Bermudi Angvila Monserat Gvadelup Misisipi Martinik Kolorado Georgija Virginija Portoriko Nova Mehika Kalifornija Pensilvanija Nova ŠkotskaJužna Dakota Severna Dakota Novi Brunswick Južna Karolina Kajmanski otoki Severna Karolina Zahodna Virginija S e v e r o z a h o d n a o z e m l j a Haiti Panama M e h i k a K a n a d a Bahami Jamajka Salvador Dominika Nikaragva Kostarika Kolumbija Gvatemala Sveta Lucija Trinidad in Tobago Antigva in Barbuda Sveti Krištof in Nevis Z d r u ž e n e d r ž a v e A m e r i k e Sveti Vincencij in Grenadine Dominikanska republika Kuba Nov a Ang lija S r e d n j i z a h o d K a n a d s k i š č i t S r e d n j a A m e r i k a Grantova dežela Sonorska puščava Pobarvana puščava Wash ingto nova dežela Moskitija C D 1 2 3 VIII 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 137 Drago Perko, Drago Kladnik, Slovenian exonyms in North America 138 Safi Oran Lurd Akra Rabat TetuanTanger Agadir Lizbona Kordova Abidžan Timbuktu Edinburg Casablanca Marakeš Kenitra Fez Vzhodna Grenlandija Severna Grenlandija Sveta Peter in Mihael Nova Fundlandija in Labrador Azori G r e n l a n d i j a Ferski otoki Kanarski otoki Madeirski otoki Fr an co sk a G va ja na Zahodna Grenlandija Irska Maroko Španija Su rin am Senegal Gvineja G va ja na Gambija Liberija Islandija Portugalska Mavretanija Zahodna Sahara Gvineja Bissau Zelenortski otoki Slonokošèena obala Združeno kraljestvo Gana erg Šeš Z a h o d n a A f r i k a Zgornja Gvineja Pearyj eva dežela Jamesonova dežela S e v e r o z a h o d n a A f r i k a Dežela kralja Viljema Nigrova notranja delta Dežela Knuda Rasmussena Dežela Myliusa Erichsena Dežela kralja Kristijana X. Dežela kralja Friderika IX. Dežela kralja Kristijana IX. Dežela kralja Friderika VIII. Dežela kronskega princa Kristijana J u g o z a h o d n a E v r o p a S e v e r o z a h o d n a E v r o p a G v i n e j a Stara Kastilija Ob ala kr alj a Fr ide rik a V I. Nova Kastilija E F 2 3 1 IX 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 138 The level of exonymization for all geographical names in the world is therefore lower in Czech than in Slovenian, and for Polish is considerably greater, although the share of Polish exonyms for North America among all Polish exonyms is considerably smaller than the same share of Czech and especially Slovenian exonyms, which once again confirms the greater importance of Slovenian exonyms from North America, which would be expected given the distance of this continent from Slovenia. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The authors acknowledge financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency and the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts (project no. L6-0111: Slovene exonyms: methodology, standardization, GIS, and program no. P6-0101: Geography of Slovenia). 7 References Atlant, 1869–1877. In the bound version of the atlas kept at the National and University Library in Ljubljana. Ljubljana. Beránek, T., Boháč, P., Drápela, V., Harvalik, M., Liščák, V., Šimůnek, R., Šrámek, R. 2006: Index českých exonym. Prague. Internet 1: http://giam.zrc-sazu.si/sl/zbirka/zemljepisna-imena#v (12. 10. 2016). Internet 2: http://eng.slovenscina.eu/korpusi/gigafida (15. 10. 2016). Internet 3: http://ksng.gugik.gov.pl/pliki/zeszyty/zeszyt_01.pdf (15. 10. 2016). Kadmon, N. 2000: Toponymy: The Lore, Laws and Language of Geographical Names. New York. Kladnik, D. 2009: Odprte dileme pomenske razmejitve izrazov endonim in eksonim. Geografski vestnik 81-1. Kladnik, D., Ciglič, R., Hrvatin, M., Perko, D., Repolusk, P., Volk, M. 2013: Slovenski eksonimi. Geografija Slovenije 24. Ljubljana. Kladnik, D., Crljenko, I., Čilaš Šimpraga, A., Geršič, M. 2017: A comparison of Croatian and Slovenian exonyms. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4653 Kladnik, D., Urbanc, M., Fridl, J., Orožen Adamič, M., Perko, D. 2006: Ein Kartenfund in Slowenien und sein Faksimilendruck: Ein wichtiges Ereignis für Sloweniens und Österreichs historische Geographie. Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Geographischen Gesellschaft 148. Krauze-Tomczyk, I., Kondracki, J. 1994a: Polskie nazwy geograficzne świata. Część III Afryka, Ameryka Północna, Ameryka Południowa, Australia i Oceania, Antarktyka. Warszawa. Krauze-Tomczyk, I., Kondracki, J. 1994b: Polskie nazwy geograficzne świata. Część IV Oceany i morza. Warszawa. Slovenski pravopis, 2001. Ljubljana. Urbanc, M., Fridl, J., Kladnik, D., Perko, D. 2006: Atlant and slovene national consciousness in the second half of the 19th century. Acta geographica Slovenica 46-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS46204 Veliki splošni leksikon v osmih knjigah, 1997–1998. Ljubljana. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 139 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 139 140 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 140 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017, 141–152 MICROTOPONYMS AS AN IMPORTANT PART OF SLOVENIAN CULTURAL HERITAGE Jožica Škofic Plaque with the oeconym Pr Píž in Lancovo. JO Ž IC A Š K O F IC 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 141 Jožica Škofic, Microtoponyms as an important part of Slovenian cultural heritage Microtoponyms as an important part of Slovenian cultural heritage DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4670 UDC: 811.163.6’373.21(497.4) COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: This article presents a methodology for data collection and documentation of microtoponyms in the Upper Carniola / Gorenjsko dialect of Slovenian based on visual and audio recordings. Special atten- tion is placed on transcription (phonetic or simplified phonological transcription and standardization), which should be based on a morphological analysis of the toponyms examined. Linguistic analysis and its con- sideration of the dialect characteristics of toponyms can help reconstruct their naming motivation and origin. The article presents selected toponyms lexicographically and cartographically. KEY WORDS: microtoponyms, linguistic analysis, standardization of dialect names, orthography, lexicography, geolinguistic presentation of toponyms, Upper Carniola / Gorenjsko dialect, Slovenia The article was submitted for publication on September 5th, 2016. ADDRESS: Jožica Škofic, Ph.D. Fran Ramovš Institute of the Slovenian Language Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 4, SI –1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: guzej@zrc-sazu.si 142 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 142 1 Introduction Slovenia ratified the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage, adopted by UNESCO in 2003 in Paris, on December 19th, 2007. With this ratification, Slovenia committed itself to protecting oral traditions and vocabulary, including language as a bearer of intangible cultural heritage. From this point of view, dialect forms of microtoponyms in the broad sense (including oeconyms and cadastral toponyms) that are used in everyday life by local people are also an important part of Slovenian cultural heritage. An oeconym (also known as a house name, farm name, etc.) is a toponym that denotes an occupied or unoccupied house with a street number in a settlement, a farm with or without land, farm outbuildings (e.g., grain mills, sawmills, etc.), or communal village buildings (e.g., a church, rectory, school, inn, fire station, etc.). Oeconyms remain connected to houses and estates even after the original owners move on and may remain unchanged for centuries. A microtoponym in the narrow sense (also known as a cadas- tral toponym, field name, etc.) is a non-settlement-related toponym in the narrow (toponymic) and wider (geonymic) senses, denoting parts of the land used for cultivating crops or fodder, fields, orchards, vine- yards, meadows, pastures, and forests (agronyms); water areas (hydronyms); small slopes and mountains (oronyms); paths; and orientation points (overlooks, signs, wayside crosses, mountain cabins, etc.). They often reflect the geomorphological, historical, biological, geological, and social characteristics of a coun- try, as well as the historical development of the spoken language. People use microtoponyms to designate the space where they live and work, and to make orientation in it easier. Slovenian oeconyms and microtoponyms are of great interest to linguistics, and so many onomastics articles have been published on this topic in recent years (this article draws upon Šivic-Dular 1988, 2000; Merkù 1993; Furlan, Gložančev and Šivic-Dular 2000; Škofic 2001, 2007, 2009; Keber 2002; Čop 2007; Šekli 2008; Snoj 2009). In recent years, many projects have also been carried out to collect oeconyms and microtoponyms. »Their collection and research was unsystematic, spatially dispersed, and used varying research methodologies. Regarding the researchers’ profiles, these types of issues were at the center of inter- est of not only professionals from various scholarly disciplines, but also individual amateur researchers« (Klinar and Geršič 2014, 414). This article presents oeconyms that were collected by RAGOR (the Northwest Upper Carniola Develop - ment Agency) in cooperation with the author of this article in projects such as »Nomen vulgare« and others (Klinar 2013) and in the cross-border project »FLU-LED – Kulturni portal ledinskih in hišnih imen« (The Cultural Portal of Microtoponyms and Oeconyms), which is being carried out as part of the EU’s 2007–2013 Slovenia–Austria Operational Program in the border area of southern Carinthia and Upper Carniola (Klinar et al. 2012; Internet 1). In this project, the methodology for recording microtoponyms was set up and presented in the volume Metode zbiranja hišnih in ledinskih imen (Methods for Collecting Oeconyms and Microtoponyms; Klinar et al. 2012). The results were published in special booklets titled Kako se pri vas reče? (What’s the Name of Your House?; Klinar 2011; Škofic 2011), on printed and e-maps of the FLU-LED project (Klinar and Škofic 2015a, 2015b, 2015c) and also on some internet portals (for more about col- lecting and marking oeconyms in these projects, see Klinar and Geršič 2014). Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 143 Figure 1: Booklets in the series Kako se pri vas reče? (What’s the Name of Your House?).JO Ž IC A Š K O F IC 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 143 Jožica Škofic, Microtoponyms as an important part of Slovenian cultural heritage 2 Methods and transcription Not only contemporary dialect information from local people but also historical sources are important for collecting and recording oeconyms and microtoponyms: »An overview of written sources is a good basis for fieldwork, in which the selection of good informants is vital« (Klinar and Geršič 2014, 415). Because Slovenian is an inflective language, the nouns and adjectives in a toponym must be documented in the various forms they appear in; namely, in the nominative case, the bare genitive (as a subject in ne - gative clauses or as a negated direct object), and in the locative, accusative, genitive with a preposition (corresponding to where at? where to? where from?). Names that are prepositional phrases must be record- ed as well. In the next stage of research (transcribing the material collected), the collaboration of linguists is also of great importance because they can offer advice on how to design a simplified dialect transcription that can be used by local people and non-linguists, even though linguists and dialectologists need more pre- cise information about the pronunciation of oeconyms and microtoponyms. In Slovenian dialectology (and in this article) a standardized Slovenian phonetic transcription is used (see Kenda-Jež 2016) to mark all qualitative and quantitative features of the spoken language and its phonemes (e.g., Pər Matíːjọc, Matíːjọčọ vòːx). Unlike IPA transcription, this simplified transcription uses only the Slovenian alphabet, a special letter for schwa (ə), three diacritics to mark accent (acute, grave, and circumflex), and the IPA length mark. Careful consideration is needed for deciding how to write or mark accents, the length and quality of accent- ed vowels, syncopated and reduced vowels, and semivowels. One should also consider other dialect developments of vowels and consonants, means of preserving morphological word-formation, and syn- tactic features as preserved in names (such as Pər Matíjovc, Matíjovčov vóh, to repeat the same two examples). A third possibility for writing these names is to standardize them on the basis of careful linguistic (mor- phonological) analysis; for example, Pri Matijevcu and Matijevčev log (to repeat the same two examples). In Slovenian onomastics, the practice is to standardize oeconyms only at the phonetic and orthographic levels (because people can identify with them easily), whereas microtoponyms and other toponyms used by the general public are standardized in line with etymological and historical principles (e.g., [špáːnove níːve] is written as Španove njive, and not *Županove njive). 3 Linguistic analysis and presentation 3.1 The motivation, origin, and structure of oeconyms and microtoponyms Oeconyms often have one of the following naming motivations: the surname of the first owner (Klinar, Potočnik, etc.), the first name of the first owner (Balont »Valentin«, Jernač »Jernej«, Matevžek »Matej/Matevž«, Šema »Simon«, Jerca »Jera, Gertruda«, etc.), a nickname of the first owner, which may have arisen from characteristics of the property (Vretena »spindle«, Loden »shop (cf. Germ. Laden)«, Oštarija »inn (cf. It. osteria)«, etc.), typical foods (Štrukelj »dumpling«, Klobasa »sausage«, Kašar »porridge«, Zabela »butter, fat, lard«, Prata »smoked pork«, etc.), typical plants (Smrekar »spruce«, Podlipnik »linden«, Žavbla »sage«, etc.), typical animals (Volk »wolf«, Komar »mosquito«, Zajček »rabbit«, Muren »cricket«, Miška »mouse«, etc.), physical characteristics of the owner (Kobala »bowlegged«, Ta dolgi »long«, etc.), psychological character- istics of the owner (Fovšaritnica »envious«, Alelojovka »alleluia«, Tajč »German (cf. Germ. Deutsch)«, etc.), or the geographical origin of the owner (Kropar »Kropa«, Dražgošan »Dražgoše«, Korošček »Carinthia«, Bohinjec »Bohinj«, Rezijan »Resia«, Amerikanc »America«, etc.). Oeconyms are also frequent that have arisen from the profession of the owner (Kovač »blacksmith«, Šuštar »shoemaker«, Žnidar »tailor«, Mlinar »miller«, Fadajinka »noodle-maker«, Skirar »ax-maker«, etc.), the social status of the owner (Špan »mayor«, etc.), the position of the house (Na Skalci »rock«, Podgradovc »castle«, Mostar »bridge«, etc.), the function of the house (Mežnarija »sexton«, Šola »school«, etc.), and so on. Microtoponyms often have one of the following naming motivations: position (Zgornji/Srednji/Spodnji konec »upper/middle/lower part«, Za krajem »at the end«, etc.), geomorphological characteristics (Čelce »forehead«, Ojstra peč »sharp rock«, Zjavka »cave«, Galerije »gallery«, Frtala »to spin«, Vilice »fork«, Podplatasta skala »rock like a sole«, etc.), typical color (Črni vrh »black peak«, Črni potok »black stream«, etc.), plant names (Bukovlje »beech«, Pod Lipo »linden«, Brezovica »birch«, Hrinovec »horseradish«, etc.), animal names 144 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 144 (Junčevica »steer«, Jagnjevica »lamb«, Petelinovec »rooster«, Konjski britof »horse boneyard«, Gamsov skret »chamois dung area«, Medvehka »bear«, etc.), structures (Zgornji bajer »upper pond«, Za mlinom »mill«, Skakalnica »ski jump«, Pri stogu »hayrack«, Pretvornik »convertor«, Kapelica »wayside shrine«, Plac »mar- ket square«, Mala gasa »little alley«, etc.), personal names (Na Jernaškem »Jernej«, Pri Marijici »Marija«, Petrovec »Peter«, Boštjanov bošt »Boštjan«, Mihovčev strmec »Miha«, Martinček »Martin«), owned pro perties (Koničarjev travnik »Koničar’s meadow«, Klofčarjev graben »Klofčar’s ravine«, etc.), and people’s activity (Za Dolgo njivo »long field«, Streljavnica »to shoot«, Dekliški tomf »maiden pool«, Mili pogled »gentle view«, Tam, kjer je ta mrtvi ta živega ubil »Where the dead one killed the living one«, Žegnan studenec »blessed well/spring«, etc.). As can be seen, many of these names are of Slavic origin, but many of them are loanwords from va - rious contact languages (mostly German and Italian). Oeconyms and microtoponyms also have different structures because these »are mainly one-word toponyms with masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, in the singular or plural. Quite common are also noun phrases with left attributes that specify possession, position, and other characteristics of the places named. Special attention is given to prepositional and com- pound names, which are interesting because of their polymorphic structure; such toponyms are often in a process of formation (nomina propria in statu nascendi »developing proper names«), and so these names often show an intermediate stage between common and proper name, pointing to their false propriety (pseu- do-propriety or proto-propriety)« (Škofic 2016, 220). Toponyms with more complex structures (such as a sentence) are quite rare. 3.2 Lexicographic and cartographic presentation of oeconyms This subsection presents the microstructure of entries in the dictionary of Slovenian dialect oeconyms (Škofic 2014). Although many names have the same root, it is necessary to present not only the root but also all deri - vative forms with various suffixes in their Proto-Slavic forms. The standardized form of an oeconym (formed on the basis of morphological analysis, in which the phonetically abstracted name, following the phonetic rules of the dialect, is followed by its Proto-Slavic equivalent and by its derivational predecessors or sources from foreign languages) is followed by the symbol  and an identification of the name (i.e., places/villages with house numbers) with the dialect form of the oeconym accented and standardized (in square brackets). This is followed by the standardized and dialect names for the male and female head of the property (following the symbols ♂ and ♀) in the nominative and genitive as well as the corresponding adjective in standardized and dialect variants (in the masculine, fem- inine, and neuter forms). Each identification unit may also have a documentary section (after the symbol ❖), stating the name in its historical sources: FK = the Franciscan cadaster (Protocols … 1823–1896); SA = Status animarum (parish family records; Parish … 1750–1950; Škofic 2013, 2014). kovač- ➩ Kovač, Kovaček, Kovačevec, Kovačič, Kovačijovec, Kovačnica ← *kov-a-č-ь (»smith«) ← *kov-a-ti kuj-ǫ »to forge« Pri Kovaču < *pri »at« + *kov-a-č-ь  HN Bašelj 14: Pri Kováču [pər kováːč], ♂ Kováč [kováːč -a], ♀ Kovačíca [kovačíːca -e], adj. Kováčov [kováːčo -ova -o] ❖ FK 1827 Kovatsch, SA 1771 Kovazh, SA 1880 Kovač  HN Begunje na Gorenjskem 109: Pri Kováču [pər kováːč], ♂ Kováč [kováːč -a], ♀ Kovačíca [kovačíːca -e], adj. Kováčov [kováːčo -ova -o] ❖ SA 1750–1859 Kovazh, SA 1750–1873 Kovazh  HN Bistrica (Naklo) 16: Pri Kováču [pər kováːč], ♂ Kovàč [koˈvəč kováːča], ♀ Kovačíca [kovačíːca-e], adj. Kováčov [kováːčo -ova -o] ❖ /  HN Bled, hamlet of Rečica, Triglavska cesta 5: Pri Kováču [pər kováːčo], ♂ Kováč [kováːč -a], ♀ Kovačíca [kovačíːca -e], adj. Kováčov [kováːčo -ova -o] ❖ /  HN Bodešče 22: Pri Kováču [pər kováːč], ♂ Kováč [kováːč -a], ♀ Kovačíca [kovačíːca -e], adj. Kováčov [kováčo -ova -o] ❖ FK 1827 Kovatsch, SA 1900–1910 Kovač  HN Bohinjska Bela 118: Pri Kováču [pər kováːč], ♂ Kováč [kováːč -a], ♀ Kovačíca [kovačíːca -e], adj. Kováčov [kováːčo -ova -o] ❖ SA 1900–1910 Kovač Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 145 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 145 Jožica Škofic, Microtoponyms as an important part of Slovenian cultural heritage 146  HN Bohinjska Bela 24: Pri Kováču [pər kováːč], ♂ Kováč [kováːč -a], ♀ Kovačíca [kovačíːca -e], adj. Kováčov [kováːčo -ova -o] ❖ FK 1827 Kovatsch, SA 1900–1910 Kovač  HN Bohinjska Češnjica 73: Pri Kováču [pər kováːčo], ♂ Kováč [kováːč -a], ♀ Kovačíca [kovačíːca -e], adj. Kováčov [kováːčo -ova -o] ❖ FK 1827 Kovazh, SA 1831 Kovazh, SA 1882 Kovač  HN Brezje 52 and 76: Pri Kováču [pər kováːč], ♂ Kovàč [koˈvəč kováːča], ♀ Kovačíca [kovačíːca -e], adj. Kováčov [kováːčo o] ❖ /  HN Češnjevek 29: Pri Kováču [pər kováːč], ♂ Kováč [kováːč -a], ♀ Kovačíca [kovačíːca -e], adj. Kováčov [kováːčo -ova -o] ❖ / Pri Kovačku < *pri »at« + *kov-a-č-ьk-ъ  HN Begunje na Gorenjskem 131: Pri Kovačkù [pər kovačˈko], ♂ Kovačèk [kovaˈčək -čˈka], ♀ Kovačkôva [kovačkóːva -e], adj. Kovačkôv [kovačkóː -óːva -óː] ❖ SA 1750–1859 Kovazhik, SA 1750–1873 Kovazhik  HN Koroška Bela, Cesta Ivana Cankarja 14: Pri Kovačkú [pər kovačk.óː], ♂ Kovačkóv [kovačkóː -ga], ♀ /, adj. Kovačkóv [kovačkóː - .óːva -óː] ❖ / Pri Kovačevcu < *pri »at« + *kov-a-č-ev-ьc-ь  HN Bohinjska Češnjica 8: Pri Kovačévcu [pər kovačːco], ♂ Kovačévc [kovačːc -a], ♀ Kovačévka [kovačːka -e], adj. Kovačév [kovačː -ːva -ː] ❖ FK 1827 Kovazhouzh, SA 1831 Kovazheuc, SA 1882 Kovačevc Pri Kovačiču < *pri »at« + *kov-a-č-i-ь (< surname Kovačič)  HN Slovenski Javornik, Pionirska ulica 11: Pri Kováčiču [pər kováːčič], ♂ Kováčič [kováːčič -a], ♀ /, adj. Kováčičev [kováːčičo -ova -o] ❖ / Legend Pri Kovaču Author of content: Jožica Škoc Author of map: Matjaž Geršič Source: Državna pregledna karta 1 : 500.000 Geodetska uprava republike Slovenije © ZRC SAZU Figure 2: Spatial distribution of the oeconym Pri Kovaču in Upper Carniola. It is interesting that there are no oeconyms motivated by the profession smith (Slov. kovač) in Kropa. Kropa is known for its traditional iron forging and smithies, and almost all of the inhabitants made their living by hammering and blacksmithing, so any naming motivated by this activity would not be useful. 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 146 Pri Kovačijovcu < *pri »at« + *kov-a-č-(ij)-ov-ьc-ь  HN Begunje na Gorenjskem 31: Pri Kovačíjovcu [pər kovačíːjoc], ♂ Kovačíjovc [kovačíːjoc -a], ♀ Kovačíjovka [kovačíːjoka -e], adj. Kovačíjev [kovačíːjo -ova -o] ❖ SA 1750–1859 Kovashijouz, SA 1750–1873 Kovashijouz Na Kovačnici < *na »on« + *kov-a-č-ьn-ic-a »smithy«  HN Bohinjska Češnjica 95: Na Kováčnici [na kováːčənce], ♂ /, ♀ /, adj. / ❖ /  HN Jereka 34: Na Kováčnici [na kováːčənc], ♂ Kovačíčən [kovačìːčən] ♀ /, adj. / (s Kováčənce) ❖ / Many of the oeconyms in the Upper Carniola dialect have their origin in male proper names (1030/5450 or 18.9%), whereas the percentage of oeconyms originating in female proper names is much lower (87/5450 or 1.6%); the most common female proper names are Katra (9), Jera (6), Majda/Magdalena (7), Alenka/Lenka (5), and Johana (5). The most common male proper names from which Upper Carniolan oeconyms are derived are Jurij (59), Janez (52), Anton (43), Matija (41), Jakob (40), Miha (40), Peter (40), Martin (37), Marko (35), Tomaž (32), Andrej (30), Urban (30), Gregor (30), Blaž (31), Jožef (29), Simon (28), Klemen (27), Luka (24), Jernej (22), Štefan (20), Lovrenc (18), Franc (17), Matevž (16), Pavel (15), and Valentin (14, plus Tine with 10), and the rarest are Adolf, Karl, Maks, Mohor, Metod (all only once), and Ciril (twice). The most frequent suffixes in oeconyms derived from male proper names are: -Ø (e.g., Pri Alešu, Filipu, Luku), -ač (e.g., Pri Mrtnaču, Vožbaču, Jernaču, Milaču), -ak (e.g., Pri Klemenaku), -ček (e.g., Pri Andrejčku, Štefančku, Jančku, Martinčku, Petrčku, Tinčku), -e (e.g., Pri Bvažetu, Anžetu), -ec (e.g., Pri Jakcu, Lukcu, Markcu, Šmoncu, Toncu, Rbancu), -ečman (e.g., Pri Anžečmanu), -ej (e.g., Pri Toneju, Jurčeju, Miheju, Tineju), -ejček (e.g., Pri Tonejčku), -ejovec (e.g., Pri Tonejovcu), -ek (e.g., Pri Pavleku, Anžku, Francku), -elj (e.g., Pri Franceljnu, Gusteljnu, Lojzeljnu, Miheljnu, Vrbanceljnu), -eljc (e.g., Pri Anzeljcu), -eljič (e.g., Pri Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 147 Legend *-ač-ь Author of content: Jožica Škoc Author of map: Matjaž Geršič Source: Državna pregledna karta 1 : 500.000 Geodetska uprava republike Slovenije © ZRC SAZU Figure 3: The suffix -ač in oeconyms derived from male proper names. 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 147 Jožica Škofic, Microtoponyms as an important part of Slovenian cultural heritage Markoteljču), -ež (e.g., Pri Matiježu, Pavležu, Tinežu, Vertežu, Učežu), -ežek (e.g., Pri Učešku), -i (e.g., Pri Pepiju, Poldiju; Pri Žanitu), -ic (e.g., Pri Petricu), -ič (e.g., Pri Uriču, Jakobču, Jožefču, Lenarču, Petrču), -iček (e.g., Pri Anžičku), -in (e.g., Pri Gregorinu, Tomažinu), -ko (e.g., Pri Andrejkotu), -kulež (e.g., Pri Anžkuležu), -lin (e.g., Pri Anžlinu, Marklinu), -man (e.g., Pri Jožmanu, Jurmanu, Lešmanu), -nik [-nek] (e.g., Pri Tomažneku, Bvažneku, Jožneku), -ovček (e.g., Pri Udamovčku), -ovec (e.g., Pri Grogorjovcu, Matevžovcu, Mihovcu, Petrovcu), -ovi (e.g., Pri Jakupovih, Jurjovih, Petrovih), -uc (e.g., Pri Štefucu), -uč (e.g., Pri Mrkuču), -ulič (e.g., Pri Bažulču), -un (e.g., Pri Bvažunu, Martunu), and -uš (e.g., Pri Markušu). Some examples of the lexicographic and cartographic presentation of oeconyms derived from male and female proper names: Vid- ➩ Bid, Bidec, Bisc, Vidic, (Videc) ← Lat. Vitus (+ Germ. Wido, Witto, Wito) Pri Bidu < *pri »at« + (Vid)-ъ  HN Črnivec 26: Pri Bídu [pər bìːt], ♂ Bídovc [bìːdo -ga], ♀/, adj. Bídov [bìːdo bìːdova bìːdo] ❖ / Pri Bidcu < *pri »at« + (Vid)-ьc-ь  HN Zgornje Gorje 39: Pri Bídcu [pər bìːsco], ♂ Bídec/Bísc [bìːdəc/bìːsc bìːsca], ♀ Bíhka [bìːxka -e], adj. Bíščev [bìːščo -ova -o] ❖ FK 1827 Widitz, SA 1759–1877 Vidiz, SA 1790–1905 Vidic (Bisc), Kunstelj 1954 Bidac  HN Bled, Zagoriška cesta 13: Pri Bídcu/Pri Bíscu [pər bìːsc], ♂ Bídec [bìːdəc bìːsca], ♀ Bíhka [bìːxka -e], adj. Bíščev [bìːščo -ova -o] ❖ FK 1827 Widitz, SA 1769–1869 Vidiz  HN Bled, Partizanska cesta 1: Pri Bídcu [pər bìːsco], ♂ Bídec [bìːdəc bìːsca], ♀ Bíhka [bìːxka -e], adj. Bíščev [bìːščo -ova -o] ❖ FK 1827 Widetz, SA 1771–1869 Vidiz, SA 1799–1869 Vidic  HN Podhom 20: Pri Bíscu [pər bìːsc], ♂ Bídec [bìːdec bìːsca], ♀ Bíhka [bìːxka -e], adj. Bíščev [Bìːščo -ova -o] ❖ FK 1827 Widitz, SA 1790–1905 and SA 1900 Vidic, Zupan 1995 Bisc 148 Author of content: Jožica Škoc Author of map: Matjaž Geršič Source: Državna pregledna karta 1 : 500.000 Geodetska uprava republike Slovenije © ZRC SAZU Legend *-ov-i Figure 4: The suffix -ovi in oeconyms derived from male proper names. 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 148 Pri Biscu < *pri »at« + (Vid)-ьc-ь  HN Kamnje 15a: Pri Bíscu [pər bìːsc], ♂ Bísc [bìːsc ‑a], ♀ Bíhka [bìːxka ‑e], adj. Bíščev [Bìːščo ‑ova ‑o] ❖ FK 1827 Widtz, SA 1891 Bisz, SA 1910  HN Ravne v  Bohinju 5: Pri Bíscu [pər bìːsc], ♂ Bísc [bìːsc -a], ♀ Bíhka [bìːxka -e], adj. Bíščev [Bìːščo -ova -o] ❖ SA 1910 Bisc Pri Vidicu < *pri »at« + surname Vidic < (Vid)-ьc-ь  HN Srednji Vrh 11: Pri Vídicu [pər vìːdic], ♂ Vídic [viːdic -a], ♀ /, adj. / ❖ SA 1903 Vidic  HN Slovenski Javornik, Terenska ulica 10: Pri Vídicu [pər vìːdic], ♂ ♂ Vídic [viːdic -a], ♀ /, adj. / ❖ / Katr- ➩ Katra, Katrnek, Katrnjek, Katerinc, Katračnek, Katrjačnek, Katričnek ← Katarina ← (Germ. Catarina) ← Lat. Caterina (← Gr. Aikateríne) Pri Katri < *pri »at« + *(Katr)-a  HN Bistrica pri Tržiču 43: Pri Kátri [pər kàːtrə], ♂ Kátərən [kàːtərən -ga], ♀ Kátra [kàːtra -e], adj. Kátrən [kàːtrən kàːtərna kàːtrən] ❖ / Pri Katrnek < *pri »at« + *(Katr)-ьn-ik-ъ  HN Spodnje Gorje 56: Pri Kátrneku [pər kàːtərnek], ♂ Kátrnek [kàːtərnek -a], ♀ /, adj. Kátrnekov [kàːtərneko -ova -o] ❖ Kunstelj 1954 Katrnek  HN Zgoša 45: Pri Kátrneku [pər kàːtərnek], ♂ Kátrnek [kàːtərnek -a], ♀ Kátrnca [kàːtərənca -e], adj. Kátrnekov [kàːtərneko -ova -o] ❖ SA 1750–1859 and 1750–1873 Katernjek, Sinobad 1998 Katernek  HN Zvirče 12: Pri Kátrneku [pər kàːtərnek], ♂ Kátrnek [kàːtərnek -a], ♀ /, adj. Kátrnekov [kàːtərneko ‑ova ‑o] ❖ SA 1767–1856 (1846) Katernik, SA 1792–1912 (1869) Katernek Pri Katrnjek < *pri »at« + *(Katr)-ń-ak-ъ Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 149 Legend Pri Vidicu (< *Vid-ьc-ъ) Pri Bidcu (< *Vid-ьc-ь) Pri Biscu (< *Vid-ьc-ь) Pri Bidu (< *Vid-ь) Author of content: Jožica Škoc Author of map: Matjaž Geršič Source: Državna pregledna karta 1 : 500.000 Geodetska uprava republike Slovenije © ZRC SAZU Figure 5: Spatial distribution of the oeconym Pri Vidicu/Pri Vidu/Pri Bidcu/Pri Biscu in Upper Carniola. Phonological variants of oeconyms motivated by the male proper name Vid. 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 149 Jožica Škofic, Microtoponyms as an important part of Slovenian cultural heritage  HN Studor 38: Pri Kátrnjeku [pər kàːtərnjeko], ♂ Kátrnjek [kàːtərnjek -a], ♀ /, adj. Kátrnjekov [kàːtərnjeko ‑ova ‑o] ❖ FK 1827 Katerneg, SA 1821 Katernek Pri Katerincu < *pri »at« + *(Kater)-in-ьc-ь  HN Rateče 66: Pri Kateríncu [pər katerìːnc], ♂ Katerínčnjak [katerìːnčnjak -a], ♀ Katerínca [katerìːnca -e], adj. Katerínčən [katerìːnčən -čna -čən] ❖ FK 1827 Cartarinz, SA 1846 Katarinz Pri Katračneku < *pri »at« + *(Katr)-ač-ьn-ik-ъ (← surname Katrašnik (SA 1900–1910))  HN Bodešče 7: Pri Katráčneku [pər katràːčnek], ♂ Katráčnek [katràːčnek -a], ♀ Katráčnica [katràːčənca -e], adj. Katráčnekov [katràːčneko -ova -o] ❖ SA 1900–1910 Katračnik Pri Katrjačneku < *pri »at« + *(Katr)-j-ač-ьn-ik-ъ (maybe adjectival derivation, like Martin-j-i)  HN Velesovo 42: Pri Katrjáčneku [pər kətərjàːčnek], ♂ Katrjáčnek [kətərjàːčnek -a], ♀ Katrjáča [kətərjàːča -e], adj. Katrjáčnekov [kətərjàːčneko -ova -o] ❖ FA 1827 Katerjazhnek, SA 1789–1816 Katriazhnek, SA 1785–1887 (1879) Katerjačnik Pri Katričneku < *pri »at« + *(Katr)-i-ьn-ik-ъ  HN Bohinjska Bela 70: Pri Katríčneku [pər katrìːčnek], ♂ Katríčnek [katrìːčnek -a], ♀ Katríčnca/Katríška [katrìːčənca ‑e/katrìːška ‑e], adj. Katríčnekov [katrìːčneko -ova -o] ❖ SA 1900–1910 Katričnjek Jer- ➩ Jera, Jerca, Jerčnek, Jerčini ← Gera ← OHG Gertrud (← Lat. Gertrudis) Pri Jeri < *pri »at« + *(Jer)-a  HN Praše 5: Pri Jéri [pər jːr], ♂ Jérnik [jːrnək -a], ♀ Jérnica [jːrənca -e], adj. Jérin [jːrən -rna -rən] ❖ SA 1907 Stari Zlekar (Pri Jeri)  HN Rateče 74: Pri Jêri [pər jèːr], ♂ Jêrin [jèːrən -ga], ♀ Jéra [jèːra -e], adj. Jêrin [jèːrən -rna -rən] ❖ /  HN Trstenik 6: Pri Jéri [pər jːr], ♂ Jérnik [jːrnek -a], ♀ Jéra [jːra -e], adj. Jérin [jːrən -rna -rən] ❖ / Pri Jerci < *pri »at« + *(Jer)-ic-a  HN Prihodi 1: Pri Jérci [pər jːrc], ♂ Jércən [jːrcən -ga], ♀ /, adj. Jércin [jːrcən -cna -cən] ❖ / 150 Legend Katr-a (< *Katr-a) Katr-nek (< *Katr-ьn-ik-ъ), *Katr-njek (< *Katr-ñ-ak-ъ) Katr-ačnek (< *Katr-ač-ьn-ik-ъ) Katr-ičnek (< *Katr-i-ьn-ik-ъ) Katr-jačnek (< *Katr-j-ač-ьn-ik-ъ) Kater-inc (< *Kater-in-ьc-ь) Author of content: Jožica Škoc Author of map: Matjaž Geršič Source: Državna pregledna karta 1 : 500.000 Geodetska uprava republike Slovenije © ZRC SAZU Figure 6: Suffixes of oeconyms derived from the female proper name Katr-a: -a, -nek (< -ьn-ik-ъ), -njek (< -ń-ak-ъ), -ačnek (< -ač- ьn-ik-ъ), -ičnek (< -i-ьn-ik-ъ), -jačnek (< -j-ač-ьn-ik-ъ), -inec (‑in-ьc-ь) 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 150 Pri Jerčnih < *pri »at« + *(Jer)-ič-in-ъ (< Jer-ic-a)  HN Podreča 2: Pri Jérčnih [pər jːrčnəx], ♂ Jérčenk [jːrčənk -a], ♀ Jérčna [jːrčna -e], adj. Jérčin [jːrčən -čna -čən] ❖ / Pri Jerčneku < *pri »at« + *Jer-ič-ьn-ik-ъ (< Jer-ic-a)  HN Poljšica pri Gorjah 31: Pri Jérčneku [pər jːrčneko], ♂ Jérčnek [jːrčnek -a], ♀ /, adj. Jérčnekov [jːrčneko -ova -o] ❖ SA 1900 Pri Jeri, Kunstelj 1954 Jernek Pri Jeriču < *pri »at« + *Jer-i-ь  HN Bašelj 5: Pri Jeríču [pər jeríːč], ♂ Jerìč [jeˈrəč jeríːča], ♀ Jeríčka [jerìːška -e], adj. Jeríčov [jeríːčo -ova -o] ❖ FK 1827 Jeretsch, SA 1771 Jerezh, SA 1880 Jerič  HN Spodnje Gorje 11: Pri Jeríču [pər jeríːčo], ♂ Jerìč [jeˈrəč jeríːča], ♀ Jeríčka [jerìːška -e], adj. Jeríčov [jeríːčo -ova -o] ❖ FK 1827 Jerizh, SA 1771 1759–1877 (1836) Jerizh, SA 1790–1905 Jerič 4 Conclusion Microtoponyms, and especially oeconyms, are an important part of national cultural heritage and are inter- esting not only to their local users but also to various disciplines: geography, history, ethnology, and linguistics. One can study various connections between the linguistic viewpoints on the toponyms presented in this article and the geographical locations in a specific area. Geographical and historical data about named places can help linguists understand naming motivations and, vice versa, linguistic information can help geog- raphers understand how toponyms have developed through time. From the linguistic point of view, the recorded dialect form of oeconyms and microtoponyms is especially valuable because it provides infor- mation about the pronunciation, inflection, and historical development of a language and its local dialects. Proper names can be compared to common nouns (synchronically and diachronically) and presented in a specially designed dictionary of toponyms as well as geolinguistically on maps. This article offers some solutions for such presentations of these toponyms. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 151 Legend Jer-a (< *Jer-a) Jer-ca (<*Jer-ic-a) Jer-čini (<*Jer-ič-in-ъ) Jer-čnek (<*Jer-ič-ьn-ik-ъ) Jer-ič (<*Jer i-ь) Author of content: Jožica Škoc Author of map: Matjaž Geršič Source: Državna pregledna karta 1 : 500.000 Geodetska uprava republike Slovenije © ZRC SAZU Figure 7: Suffixes of oeconyms derived from the female proper name Jer-a: -a, -ca (< -ic-a), -č-in-i (< -ič-in-ъ), -č-nek (< -ič-ьn- ik-ъ), -ič (< -i-ь) 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 151 Jožica Škofic, Microtoponyms as an important part of Slovenian cultural heritage 5 References Čop, D. 2007: Imenoslovje in etimologija imen. Jezikoslovni zapiski 13, 1–2. Furlan, M., Gložančev, A., Šivic-Dular, A. 2000: Pravopisna ustreznost zapisa lastnoimenskega gradiva v Registru zemljepisnih imen in Registru prostorskih enot. Geografski vestnik 80-1. Internet 1: http://www.ledinskaimena.si/ (31. 8. 2016). Keber, J. 2002: Rojstna imena, hišna imena, vzdevki, psevdonimi v Sloveniji. Jezikoslovni zapiski 8-2. Kenda-Jež, K. 2016: Fonetična transkripcija. Slovenski lingvistični atlas – SLA 2.2 Atlas. Ljubljana. Klinar, K. 2011: Kako se pri vas reče? Hišna imena v naseljih Breznica, Doslovče, Rodine, Smokuč in Vrba. Žirovnica. Klinar, K. 2013: Hišna imena na Gorenjskem. Jesenice. Internet: http://www.hisnaimena.si/ (31. 8. 2016). Klinar, K., Geršič, M. 2014: Traditional house names as part of cultural heritage. Acta geographica Slo - venica 54-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS54409 Klinar, K., Škofic, J. 2015a: Ledinska imena v občini Jesenice. Jesenice. Klinar, K., Škofic, J. 2015b: Ledinska imena v občini Kranjska Gora. Jesenice. Klinar, K., Škofic, J. 2015c: Ledinska imena v občini Tržič. Jesenice. Klinar, K., Škofic, J., Šekli, M., Piko-Rustia, M. 2012: Metode zbiranja hišnih in ledinskih imen: Projekt FLU-LED v okviru Operativnega programa Slovenija–Avstrija 2007–2013. Jesenice, Celovec. Merkù, P. 1993: Svetniki v slovenskem imenoslovju. Trst. Parish records – Status animarum, 1750–1950. Škofijski arhiv Ljubljana. Protocols for Emperor Francis I. cadastre, 1823–1869 for Kranjska/Carniola (Arhiv RS, SI AS 176) and Koroška/Carinthia (Arhiv RS, SI AS 178). Ljubljana. Snoj, M. 2009: Etimološki slovar slovenskih zemljepisnih imen. Ljubljana. Šekli, M. 2008: Zemljepisna in osebna lastna imena v kraju Livek in njegovi okolici. Linguistica et philo- logica 22. Ljubljana. Šivic-Dular, A. 1988: Temeljna načela pri pisanju slovenskih zemljepisnih imen. Jezik in slovstvo 34, 1–2. Škofic, J. 2001: Hišna imena v Kropi. Simpozij Slovenska lastnoimenskost: zbornik s simpozija ’99 v Pišecah. Novo mesto. Škofic, J. 2007: Narečno besedilo kot vir za imenoslovno raziskavo. Jezikoslovni zapiski 13-1/2. Škofic, J. 2009: Zemljepisna lastna imena med narečjem in knjižnim jezikom. Slovenska narečja med sis- temom in rabo. Obdobja, Metode in zvrsti 26. Ljubljana. Škofic, J. 2011: Kako se pri vas reče (in kako se to napiše)? Izzivi sodobnega slovenskega slovaropisja. Zora 75. Škofic, J. 2013: Zasnova slovarja narečnih hišnih in ledinskih imen. Slavistika v regijah. Ljubljana. Škofic, J. 2014: Zasnova vseslovenskega slovarja narečnih hišnih in ledinskih imen. Annales, Series historia et sociologia 24-2. Škofic, J. 2016: Predložna ledinska imena v gorenjskem narečju. Rojena v narečje: akademikinji prof.dr. Zinki Zorko ob 80-letnici. Maribor. 152 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 152 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017, 153–159 DOES GOOGLE SERVE AS A MODEL FOR USING PLACE NAMES? Gábor Gercsák, Gábor Mikesy GrácMező instead of Feldkirchen bei Graz. G Á B O R G E R C S Á K 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 153 Gábor Gercsák, Gábor Mikesy, Does Google serve as a model for using place names? Does Google serve as a model for using place names? DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4668 UDC: 91:811.511.141’373.21 811.511.141’373.21:004.738.5 COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: This paper examines the reliability of geographical names published on various internet plat- forms and seeks to improve the place-name content of internet maps. Hungarian examples of incorrect place names from various online maps draw attention to the need for cooperation between those that pro- vide internet maps or map-based applications and relevant national or professional institutions. KEY WORDS: geographical name, Hungarian name, place name, toponymy, internet, Google The article was submitted for publication on August 30th, 2016 ADDRESSES: Gábor Gercsák, Ph.D. Department of Cartography and Geoinformatics Eötvös Loránd University Pázmány P. s. 1/A, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary E-mail: gercsak@map.elte.hu Gábor Mikesy, Ph.D. Institute of Geodesy, Cartography, and Remote Sensing Bosnyák tér 5, H-1149 Budapest, Hungary E-mail: mikesy.gabor@fomi.hu 154 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 154 1 Introduction Not only have printed maps been losing importance, but several traditional tools that help in correctly under- standing and interpreting place names on maps, such as names indexes and legends, also seem to be disappearing from everyday use. In the world of computers, most map users are turning to online meth- ods or mobile applications when they look for any spatial information. This approach has also become the primary source of information for places and place names. Unfortunately, automatic and non-critical acceptance of names from the web is everyday practice; therefore, it is very important that the names avail- able from these sources be reliable and correct in all aspects, including linguistics, science, and administration, and that the names be professionally verified. 2 Examples of misused place names This article presents the most common types of names arranged according to type of mistake. These exam- ples are mostly taken from Google Maps and Google Earth pages and from applications based on them accessed from Hungarian IP addresses. These place names demonstrate a lack of critical use of sources or distortions of names due to various technical reasons. The most common mistakes are missing diacritics, use of historical names without modern equivalents, use of names never approved, false linking of exonyms, and automatic translations of place names. 2.1 Missing diacritics The name of the Hungarian village Kővágószőlős appears in the form Kovágószolos (Figure 1), although the correct spellings of all town and village names can be accessed freely and without any restriction (e.g., from the homepage of the Hungarian Central Statistical Office). It is worth mentioning that no other alpha- bet uses the letter ő but the Hungarian alphabet. 2.2 Historical names without modern equivalents The name of the capital city of the Italian region Piedmont is unanimously Torino in Hungarian today. This form has been used consistently in the press, schoolbooks, and atlases. Only well-educated people and the older generation with some knowledge of German can match the form Turin (Figure 2) on this Google Earth map with Torino. Similarly, a major historical site for Hungarians is Rodostó in Turkey, but Tekirdağ, the Turkish form, has geographical relevance. There are several similar cases. The Croatian town of Opatija has always been a popular holiday resort for Hungarians. Its exonym is Abbázia, which obviously exists for Hungarians, Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 155 Figure 1: Kővágószőlős with incorrect diacritics. Meanwhile, this mistake has already been corrected on the internet (Internet 1). Figure 2: Turin; the old Hungarian form of Torino. This mistake has already been corrected on the internet (GoogleEarth, 4. 10. 2013). 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 155 Gábor Gercsák, Gábor Mikesy, Does Google serve as a model for using place names? 156 but is passing out of use (this exonym is not listed in the official catalogue of approved place names; Pokoly 2012). It is interesting to note that some town names that reflect German and Italian influence and belong to the same name type appear in Hungarian (Zára for Zadar and Zengg for Senj), whereas others are shown without their historical exonyms (Raguza, Trau, and Spalato) and only the modern Croatian names appear (Dubrovnik, Trogir, and Split, respectively). These examples demonstrate the inconsistent use of place names. Hungarian names used in medieval sources are revitalized in those areas of Romania that were out- side the territory of historical Hungary (e.g. Karácsonkő for Piatra Neamţ, or Németvásár for Târgu Neamţ; Figure 3). These forms do not respect the requirement of correct information and they also do not follow the modern use of these geographical names by the Hungarians living in Romania (Mikesy 2014, 219). It seems that the use of historical names depends on the country concerned. We found that name forms that can be considered either exonyms or historical exonyms are less frequently shown, although their appear- ance would be much more reasonable for Hungarian readers (e.g. Boroszló for Polish Wrocław, Lemberg for Ukrainian Lviv, Drinápoly for Turkish Edirne, or Spárta for Greek Spárti »Sparta«). 2.3 Names never approved Newly created Hungarian names have begun to appear on online maps (Hlács 2015). Some of them come from false etymologies or incorrect associations. Reliable sources indicate that the Moldovan town of Chişinău never had a Hungarian exonym, although the form Kisjenő (Figure 4) can be seen increasingly frequent- ly today. This name is based on a false etymology. However, the historically ethnically Hungarian settlement of Kisjenő in Transylvania has an official Romanian name, Chişineu, which is indeed spelled almost in the same way as the name of the capital city of Moldova (Kiss 1987, 230). The Hungarian name comes from the ancient Hungarian tribal name Jenő and the modifier kis »little«. Figure 3: Only historical names in Moldavia (Internet 2). Figure 4: Kisjenő in place of Chişinău (Internet 3). Figure 5: Ónfalva in place of Oneşti/Onyest (Internet 4). Figure 6: Magyarsárvár in place of Uherský Ostroh (Internet 5). 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 156 The Romanian settlement of Oneşti is a place with a considerable number of Hungarian speakers. Its Hungarian forms Onest and Onyest are justified by old documents. The name Ónfalva (with the meaning »tin village«) appeared in the first half of the past century, but there are no historical or folk data to con- firm this name as an exonym (Figure 5). The Hungarian ethnographer Pál Péter Domokos presumed that the first part of Onest includes ón, the Hungarian word for »tin« (Domokos 1987, 179). The new name was developed from this explanation. The renowned etymologist Lajos Kiss derived it from the personal name Ion (Kiss 1988, 746). The name Magyarsárvár (Figure 6) can be found in place of the Czech settlement Uherský Ostroh. The Czech word uherský means »Hungarian« and relates either to the nearness of the Hungarian border or to the fact that the place was controlled by the king of Hungary for a short time at the end of the fif- teenth century. The use of the Hungarian exonym is justified by nothing else than an association based on the meaning. There are no traces of any Hungarian population here or in the area that could have pro- vided the name. The common word ostroh »enclosed place«, »fence« was replaced by Hungarian sárvár »mud castle« because an early medieval chronicle mentions a place called saruuar (Anonymous c. 1200) that might have been located there. However, this name had no any relevance in later documents. The new name is a combination of a vaguely justified anterior constituent and a questionable medieval item. 2.4 False linking of exonyms Urziceni is an important Romanian place north of Bucharest in Ialomiţa County. Its name on the inter- net is Csanálos in Hungarian (Figure 7). However, there is a Hungarian village named Csanálos (»nettle place«) near Carei in the Romanian part of the former Hungarian Szatmár County (Figure 8); its name was directly translated into Romanian as Urziceni, which is an officially established name. Because the mak- ers of the electronic map probably had no available sources that would have provided coordinates for the location of Csanálos, they applied it to both places named Urziceni. A  similar mistake was made in the case of two Ukrainian settlements, both named Новоселиця (Novoselytsya). One of them lies in Zakarpattia Oblast, in the area of historical Hungary, and the other in Chernivtsi Oblast. The former settlement has the Hungarian name Taracújfalu; however, it is not shown there (Figure 9) but on the other side of the Carpathian Mountains (Figure 10). The Hungarian name of the place was incorrectly assigned to another place due to their identical forms in Ukrainian. 2.5 Automatic translations? The question mark in the header of this section indicates that the authors can only guess at the reasons for the creation of sometimes comic Hungarian names, which absolutely depart from correct Hungarian place-name practice. These strange names typically appear on the web pages of Austrian and Slovenian territories. For instance, the Austrian name Leitersdorf im Raabtal near Feldbach was replaced by the name Rábakarmestere, which means »conductor of the Rába River«; instead of Raabau one finds Rábaakadálymentes, which roughly means »obstacle-free Rába River« (Figure 11); the name Radkersburg/Gornja Radgona on Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 157 Figure 7: Csanálos in place of Urziceni (Internet 6). Figure 8: Csanálos in the correct location (Internet 7). 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 157 Gábor Gercsák, Gábor Mikesy, Does Google serve as a model for using place names? the Austrian–Slovenian border is translated as Kerékerősítővár (»wheel-strengthening castle«), and the name Podgrad on the Slovenian side is Keréknekfel (»up on the wheel«) in Hungarian (Figure 12). Another strange example is the Hungarian exonym Élőbecsület (»living honesty«) for the southern Austrian settlement of Ehrenhausen (Figure 13). The meaning of certain elements of the original names can be iden- tified in unjustified Hungarian forms; therefore, it may be presumed that a translation program was active in the background when the Hungarian names were uploaded, and these names were generated by a com- puter. In any case, a map with this »Hungarian« place name comes up with the hits for Ehrenhausen. The major problem here is that the names were not checked at all. When we searched for further infor- mation on the false names above, it turned out that various applications using computer procedures disseminate these names; for instance, we were able to find offers for transportation services to the »aforementioned« places (Internet 13; Internet 14). 158 Figure 9: Only the Ukrainian form for Taracújfalu (Internet 8). Figure 10: Taracújfalu in the incorrect place (Internet 9). Figure 11: Incorrect names for Raabau and Leitersdorf im Raabtal (Internet 10). Figure 13: Incorrect name for Ehrenhausen (Internet 12). Figure 12: Incorrect names for Radkersburg and Gornja Radgona (Internet 11). 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 158 3 Conclusion It is no exaggeration that, based on the examples discussed above, the birth of false geographic names in large numbers in popular media represents a considerable linguistic, cultural, informational, and economic danger, partly because the false names are mixed with relevant data. The authors believe it very impor- tant that there should be institutional contact between the responsible geographical name authorities and the developers of online maps. It is advisable to monitor and examine the use of place names on the inter- net. Geographical name committees and national cartographic services will do the most to disseminate and popularize correct forms of geographic names if they make increasingly more standardized databas- es of such names freely available on the internet. 4 References Anonymous, cca. 1200: Gesta Hungarorum. Translated by Dezső Pais. Internet: http://mek.oszk.hu/02200/ 02245/02245.pdf (1. 8. 2016). Domokos, P. P. 1987: A moldvai magyarság. Budapest. GoogleEarth (4. 10. 2013). Hlács, F. 2015: Határon túl is magyarít a  Google Maps. Internet: http://www.hwsw.hu/hirek/53626/ google-maps-terkep-varosnev-magyar-nyelv.html (26. 2. 2015). Internet 1: http://www.magyarorszag-terkep.hu (15. 6. 2015). Internet 2: https://www.google.hu/maps/@47.0798939,27.0650687,8z?hl=hu (21. 11. 2015). Internet 3: https://www.google.hu/maps/@47.4934968,29.4820609,7z?hl=hu (21. 11. 2015). Internet 4: https://www.google.hu/maps/@46.2636311,26.6874137,11z?hl=hu (24. 4. 2015). Internet 5: https://www.google.hu/maps/@48.9876058,17.3797622,9332m/data=!3m1!1e3?hl=hu (5.5.2015). Internet 6: https://www.google.hu/search?q=urziceni&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&client=firefox-b&gfe_rd=cr&ei= 2u-eV7vWNMjR8gfJl4LgAw (5. 5. 2015). Internet 7: https://www.google.hu/maps/@47.6823403,22.4756545,10z (21. 11. 2015). Internet 8: https://www.google.hu/maps/@48.1374067,23.7976661,11z?hl=hu (12. 5. 2015). Internet 9: https://www.google.hu/maps/@48.2252166,26.2669302,10z?hl=hu (30. 4. 2015). Internet 10: https://www.google.hu/maps/@46.9574786,15.9240737,12z?hl=hu (22. 11. 2015). Internet 11: https://www.google.hu/maps/@46.6849631,15.9676757,12z?hl=hu (22. 9. 2015). Internet 12: https://www.google.hu/search?q=ehrenhausen&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&client=firefox-b&gfe_ rd=cr&ei=NS2wV42ECKqo8weX547oCg (22. 9. 2015). Internet 13: https://www.google.hu/search?q=ehrenhausen&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&client=firefox-b&gfe_ rd=cr&ei=lxOfV7eiIsXR8gfZxY7wDg (1. 9. 2015). Internet 14: http://utitars.oszkar.com/honnan-Ker%C3%A9ker%C5%91s%C3%ADt%C5%91v%C3%A1r (22. 9. 2015). Kiss, L. 1987: Magyar helységnevek a Keleti-Kárpátokon túl. Magyar Nyelvőr 111. Kiss, L. 1988: Földrajzi nevek etimológiai szótára. Budapest. Mikesy, G. 2014: Historical, revived or new names? Problems of exonym use from Hungarian toponymic aspects. The Quest for Definitions. Hamburg. Pokoly, B. 2012: Trends in exonym use: Selected exonyms of the Hungarian language. The Great Toponymic Divide. Warszawa. Internet: http://ksng.gugik.gov.pl/pliki/the_great_toponymi_divide.pdf (1. 8. 2016). Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 159 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 159 160 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 160 Guidelines for contributing authors in Acta geographica Slovenica EDITORIAL POLICIES 1 Focus and scope The Slovenian geographical journal Acta geographica Slovenica (print version: ISSN: 1581-6613, digital ver- sion: ISSN: 1581-8314) is published by the Anton Melik Geographical Institute of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Research Center. 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All papers should have English and Slovenian abstracts. 2.3 Supplementary file submission Supplementary files (figures) can be submitted to the OJS packed in one zip file not exceeding 50 MB. 2.4 Submission date The journal publishes the submission date of papers. Please contact the editor, Blaž Komac, with any questions. 3 Citations Examples for citing publications are given below. Using “gray literature” is highly discouraged. 3.1 Citing articles • Fridl, J., Urbanc, M., Pipan, P. 2009: The importance of teachers’ perception of space in education. Acta geographica Slovenica 49-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS49205 • Perko, D. 1998: The regionalization of Slovenia. Geografski zbornik 38. • Gams, I. 1994a: Types of contact karst. Geografia fisica e dinamica quaternaria 17. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 163 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 163 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 • Gams, I. 1994b: Changes of the Triglav glacier in the 1955-94 period in the light of climatic indicators. Geografski zbornik 34. • de Kerk, G. V., Manuel, A. R. 2008: A comprehensive index for a sustainable society: The SSI – the Sustainable Society Index. Ecological Economics 66-2,3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.01.029 • van Hall, R. L., Cammeraat, L. H., Keesstra, S. D., Zorn, M. 2016: Impact of secondary vegetation suc- cession on soil quality in a humid Mediterranean landscape. Catena, In press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.catena.2016.05.021 (25. 11. 2016). 3.2 Citing books • Cohen, J. 1988: Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York. • Nared, J., Razpotnik Visković, N. (eds.) 2014: Managing cultural heritage sites in Southeastern Europe. Ljubljana. • Fridl, J., Kladnik, D., Perko, D., Orožen Adamič, M. (eds.) 1998: Geografski atlas Slovenije. Ljubljana. • Luc, M., Somorowska, U., Szmańda, J. B. (eds.) 2015: Landscape analysis and planning. Heidelberg. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13527-4 3.3 Citing parts of books or proceedings • Zorn, M., Komac, B. 2013: Land degradation. Encyclopedia of Natural Hazards. Dordrecht. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4399-4_207 • Hrvatin, M., Perko, D., Komac, B., Zorn, M. 2006: Slovenia. Soil Erosion in Europe. Chichester. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/0470859202.ch25 • Gams, I. 1987: A contribution to the knowledge of the pattern of walls in the Mediterranean karst: a case study on the N. island Hvar, Yugoslavia. Karst and man, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Human Influence in Karst. Ljubljana. • Komac, B., Zorn, M. 2010: Statistično modeliranje plazovitosti v državnem merilu. Od razumevanja do upravljanja, Naravne nesreče 1. Ljubljana. 3.4 Citing expert reports, theses, and dissertations • Breg Valjavec, M. 2012: Geoinformatic methods for the detection of former waste disposal sites in karstic and nonkarstic regions (case study of dolines and gravel pits). Ph.D. thesis, University of Nova Gorica. Nova Gorica. • Hrvatin, M. 2016: Morfometrične značilnosti površja na različnih kamninah v Sloveniji. Ph.D. thesis, Univerza na Primorskem. Koper. • Holmes, R. L., Adams, R. K., Fritts, H. C. 1986: Tree-ring chronologies of North America: California, Eastern Oregon and Northern Great Basin with procedures used in the chronology development work including user manual for computer program COFECHA and ARSTAN. Chronology Series 6. University of Arizona, Laboratory of tree-ring research. Tucson. • Šifrer, M. 1997: Površje v Sloveniji. Elaborat, Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU. Ljubljana. 3.5 Citing online material with authors and titles • Bender, O., Borsdorf, A., Heinrich, K. 2010: The interactive alpine information system GALPIS. Challenges for mountain regions, Tackling complexity. Internet: http://www.mountainresearch.at/images/Publikationen/ Sonderband/bender-borsdorf-heinrich.pdf (4. 8. 2014). 3.6 Citing online material without authors • Internet: http://giam.zrc-sazu.si (18. 11. 2016). • Internet 1: http://giam.zrc-sazu.si/ (22. 7. 2012). • Internet 2: http://ags.zrc-sazu.si (23. 7. 2012). 164 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 164 3.7 Citing sources without authors • WCED – World commission on environmental and development: Our common future – Brundtland report. Oxford, 1987. • Popis prebivalstva, gospodinjstev, stanovanj in kmečkih gospodarstev v Republiki Sloveniji, 1991 – končni podatki. Zavod Republike Slovenije za statistiko. Ljubljana, 1993. 3.8 Citing cartographic sources • Državna topografska karta Republike Slovenije 1 :25.000, list Brežice. Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana, 1998. • Franciscejski kataster za Kranjsko, k. o. Sv. Agata, list A02. Arhiv Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana, 1823–1869. • Buser, S. 1986: Osnovna geološka karta SFRJ 1 : 100.000, list Tolmin in Videm (Udine). Savezni geološki zavod. Beograd. • The vegetation map of forest communities of Slovenia 1 : 400,000. Biološki inštitut Jovana Hadžija ZRC SAZU. Ljubljana, 2002. • Digitalni model višin 12,5. Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana, 2005. 3.9 Citing official gazettes • Zakon o kmetijskih zemljiščih. Uradni list Republike Slovenije 59/1996. Ljubljana. • Zakon o varstvu pred naravnimi in drugimi nesrečami. Uradni list Republike Slovenije 64/1994, 33/2000, 87/2001, 41/2004, 28/2006 in 51/2006. Ljubljana. • 1999/847/EC: Council Decision of 9 December 1999 establishing a Community action programme in the field of civil protection. Official Journal 327, 21. 12. 1999. 3.10 In-text citations Please ensure that every reference cited in the text is also in the reference list (and vice versa). In-text cita- tions should state the last name of the author(s) and the year, separate individual citations with semicolons, order the quotes according to year, and separate the page information from the name of the author(s) and year information with a comma; for example: (Melik 1955), (Melik, Ilešič and Vrišer 1963; Kokole 1974, 7–8; Gams 1982a; Gams 1982b). For sources with more than three authors, list only the first followed by et al.: (Melik et al. 1956). Cite page numbers only for direct citations: Perko (2016, 25) states: »Hotspots are …« To cite online material with authors, cite the name: (Zorn 2010). To cite online material without authors, cite only Internet fol- lowed by a number: (Internet 2). 3.11 Works cited list Arrange references alphabetically and then chronologically if necessary. Identify more than one reference by the same author(s) in the same year with the letters a, b, c, etc., after the year of publication: (1999a, 1999b). Use this format for indirect citations: (Gunn 2002, cited in Matei et al. 2014). Include the Digital Object Identifier (DOI) in the reference if available. Format the DOI as follows: https://doi.org/… (for example: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1812). 4 Tables and figures Number all tables in the paper uniformly with their own titles. The number and the text are separated by a colon, and the caption ends with a period. Example: Table 1: Number of inhabitants of Ljubljana. Table 2: Changes in average air temperature in Ljubljana (Velkavrh 2009). Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 165 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 165 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 Tables should contain no formatting and should not be too large; it is recommended that tables not exceed one page. Upload figures to the OJS as separate supplementary files in digital form. If the graphic supplements prepared cannot be uploaded using these programs, consult the editorial board in advance. Number all figures (maps, graphs, photographs) in the paper uniformly with their own titles. Example: Figure 1: Location of measurement points along the glacier. All graphic materials must be adapted to the journal’s format. Illustrations should be exactly 134 mm wide (one page) or 64 mm wide (half page, one column), and the height limit is 200 mm. To make anonymous peer review possible, include the name of the author(s) with the title of the illus- tration in the supplementary file metadata, but not in the paper text. Maps should be made in digital vector form with Corel Draw, Adobe Illustrator, or a similar program, espe- cially if they contain text. They can exceptionally be produced in digital raster form with at least 300 dpi resolution, preferably in TIFF or JPG format. For maps made with CorelDraw or Adobe Illustrator, two separate files should be prepared; the original file (.cdr or .ai format) and an image file (.jpg format). For maps made with ArcGIS with raster layers used next to vector layers (e.g., .tif of relief, airborne or satellite image), three files should be submitted: the first with a vector image without transparency togeth- er with a legend and colophon (export in .ai format), the second with a raster background (export in .tif format), and the third with all of the content (vector and raster elements) together showing the final ver- sion of the map (export in .jpg format). Do not print titles on maps; they should appear in a caption. Save colors in CMYK, not in RGB or other formats. Use Times New Roman for the legend (size 8) and colophon (size 6). List the author(s), scale, source, and copyright in the colophon. Write the colophon in English (and Slovenian, if applicable). Example: Scale / merilo: 1 : 1,000,000 Content by / avtor vsebine: Drago Perko Map by / avtorica zemljevida: Jerneja Fridl Source / vir: Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, 2002 © 2005, ZRC SAZU Anton Melik Geographical Institute Graphs should be made in digital form using Excel on separate sheets and accompanied by data. Photos must be in raster format with a resolution of 240 dots per cm or 600 dpi, preferably in .tif or .jpg formats; that is, about 3,200 dots per page width of the journal. Figures containing a screenshot should be prepared at the highest possible screen resolution (Control Panel\All Control Panel Items\Display\Screen Resolution). The figure is made using Print Screen, and the captured screen is pasted to the selected graphic program (e.g., Paint) and saved as .tif. The size of the image or its resolution must not be changed. Examples of appropriate graphic data forms: see the templates of maps in cdr and mxd files for a whole- page map in landscape view and an example of correct file structure for submitting a map made with ESRI ArcGIS. SUBMISSION PREPARATION CHECKLIST As part of the submission process, check your submission’s compliance with the following items. Submissions may be returned to author(s) that do not follow these guidelines. 1. The journal policies have been reviewed. 2. The submission has not been previously published and is not being considered for publication else- where (or an explanation has been provided in comments to the editor). 3. The metadata (title, abstract, key words, full address, etc.) are provided in English and Slovenian, when applicable. 4. The submission is in Microsoft Word format and the document template was used (single-spaced text, 12-point font, no formatting except italics and bold). 166 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 166 5. The manuscript has been checked for spelling and grammar. 6. All figure locations in the text are marked. Figures are not in the text and are provided as supplementary files: cdr, .ai for maps and illustrations; .tif for photographs; xlsx for graphs. 7. Tables are placed in the text at the appropriate place. 8. The reference list was prepared following the guidelines. 9. All references in the reference list are cited in the text, and vice versa. 10. Where available, URLs and DOI numbers for references are provided. 11. Supplementary files are in one .zip file not exceeding 50 MB. 12. I agree for this article to be translated or copyedited at my expense AFTER the article is accepted for publication (see guidelines for details). 13. Permission has been obtained for the use of copyrighted material from other sources, including online sources; see the copyright notice below. 14. The instructions for ensuring a double-blind review have been followed. ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA EDITORIAL REVIEW FORM Acta geographica Slovenica editorial review form 1 The paper is an original scientific one – the paper follows the standard IMRAD scheme and is original and the first presentation of research results with the focus on methods, theoretical aspects or case study.) Yes No 2 The paper's content is suitable for publishing in the AGS journal – the paper is from the field of geog- raphy or related fields of interest, the presented topic is interesting and well presented. In case of negative answer add comments below.) Yes No 3 Editorial notes regarding the paper's content. 4 Length of the paper is acceptable for further processing (20.000 characters including space). If longer, the paper has to be shortened by the author and resubmitted. • The paper has less than 20.000 characters. • The paper has more than 20.000 characters, but less than 25.000. • The paper has more than 25.000 characters. 5 The style and formatting of the paper is according to the AGS guidelines – the paper is prepared in plain text, no other text formatting is used than bold and italic. See the Guidelines of AGS journal for details.) Yes No 6 Notes regarding style and formatting. 7 Citing in the paper is according to the AGS guidelines and style, including DOI identificators. Yes No 8 The reference list is suitable (the author cites previously published papers with similar topic from other relevant scientific journal). Yes, the author cited previously published papers on similar topic. No, the author did not cite previously published papers on similar topic. 9 Scientific language of the paper is appropriate and understandable. Yes No Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 167 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 167 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 10 Supplementary files (ai, cdr, pdf, tif, jpg, xlsx etc.) that were added to the paper are in proper format and resolution (including the introductory photo), maps are prepared according to the AGS Guidelines. (In this step contact the technical editor [rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si] for assistance if needed). • Supplementary files are correct. • Supplementary files are not appropriate and need a major correction. • Some supplementary files need corrections. 11 Describe the possible deficiencies of the supplementary files: 12 DECISION OF THE RESPONSIBLE EDITOR The paper is accepted for further processing and may be sent to the reviewer. The paper is accepted for further processing but needs technical improvements (see notes). The paper is accepted for further processing but its content needs additional improvements (see notes). The paper is not accepted for publication because: • It is more suitable for a specialized journal. • Does not fit the aims and scopes of the AGS journal. • Is not an original scientific paper. • The presentation of the results is poor. • The paper is of very low quality. • The paper has already been published elsewhere. • Other (see comments below). • Other reasons for rejection of the paper. ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA REVIEW FORM 1 RELEVANCE 1a) Are the findings original and the paper is therefore a significant one? yes no partly 1b) Is the paper suitable for the subject focus of the AGS journal? yes no 2 SIGNIFICANCE 2a Does the paper discuss an important problem in geography or related fields? yes no partly 2b Does it bring relevant results for contemporary geography? yes no partly 2c What is the level of the novelty of research presented in the paper? high middle low 168 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 168 3 ORIGINALITY 3a Has the paper been already published or is too similar to work already published? yes no 3b Does the paper discuss a new issue? yes no 3c Are the methods presented sound and adequate? yes no partly 3d Do the presented data support the conclusions? yes no partly 4 CLARITY 4a Is the paper clear, logical and understandable? yes no 4b If necessary, add comments and recommendations to improve the clarity of the title, abstract, keywords, introduction, methods or conclusion: 5 QUALITY 5a Is the paper technically sound? (If no, the author should discuss technical editor [rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si] for assistance.) yes no 5b Does the paper take into account relevant current and past research on the topic? yes no Propose amendments, if no is selected: 5d Is the references list the end of the paper adequate? yes no Propose amendments, if no is selected: 5e Is the quoting in the text appropriate? yes no partly Propose amendments, if no is selected: 5f Which tables are not necessary? 5g Which figures are not necessary? Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 169 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 169 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 6 COMMENTS OF THE REVIEWER Comments of the reviewer on the contents of the paper: Comments of the reviewer on the methods used in the paper: 7 RECOMMENDATION OF THE REVIEWER TO THE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF My recommendation is: Please rate the paper from 1 [low] to 100 [high]: Personal notes of the reviewer to editor-in-chief. COPYRIGHT NOTICE The Acta geographica Slovenica editorial board and the publisher, the ZRC SAZU Anton Melik Geographical Institute, are committed to ensuring ethics in publication and the quality of published books and jour- nals by following the Acta Geographica Slovenica Publication Ethics and Publication Malpractice Statement. Authors must respect the copyright rules of data owners; for example, the rules of the Slovenian Surveying and Mapping Authority are available at its webpage. For paper sent to Acta geographica Slovenica, authors agree that all moral rights of the authors remain with the authors; material rights to reproduction and distribution in Slovenia and other countries are exclusively ceded to the publisher for no fee, for all time, for all cases, for unlimited editions, and for all media; and mate- rial rights to the paper figures (maps, photos, graphs, etc.) are ceded to the publisher on a non-exclusive basis. Authors allow publication of the paper or its components on the internet. Authors give permission to the publisher to modify the paper to conform to its guidelines, including the length of the paper. Authors shall provide a professional translation of papers not originally in English. The name of the translator must be reported to the editor. No honoraria are paid for papers in Acta geographica Slovenica or for the reviews. The first author of the paper shall receive one free copy of the publication. FAQ Some common questions and answers are available on the journal webpage: ags.zrc-sazu.si. PRIVACY STATEMENT The names and e-mail addresses provided to this journal site will be used exclusively for the stated purposes of this journal and will not be made available for any other purpose or to any other party. PUBLISHER Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts PO Box 306 SI–1001 Ljubljana Slovenia SOURCES OF SUPPORT Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Slovenian Research Agency 170 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 170 JOURNAL HISTORY Acta geographica Slovenica (print version: ISSN: 1581-6613, digital version: ISSN: 1581-8314) was founded in 1952. It was originally named Geografski zbornik / Acta geographica (ISSN 0373-4498). Altogether 42 volumes were published. In 2002 Geographica Slovenica (ISSN 0351-1731, founded in 1971, 35 volumes) was merged with the journal. Since 2003 (from volume 43 onward) the name of the joint journal has been Acta geographica Slovenica. The journal continues the numbering system of the journal Geografski zbornik / Acta geographica. Those interested in the history of the journal are invited to read the paper “The History of Acta geo- graphica Slovenica.” All published issues of Acta geographica Slovenica are available free of charge at http://ags.zrc-sazu.si or http://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/ags. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-1, 2017 171 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 171 ISSN: 1581-6613 UDC – UDK: 91 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 57-1 2017 © Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2017 Print/tisk: Collegium Graphicum d. o. o. Ljubljana 2017 57-1-Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:31 Page 172 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKIZBORNIK 2017 57 1 0101661851779 ISSN 1581-6613 A C TA G E O G R A P H IC A S LO V E N IC A • G E O G R A FS K I Z B O R N IK • 57 -1 • 20 17ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 57-1 • 2017 Contents – Vsebina Drago PERKO, Mauro Hrvatin, rok Ciglič Determination of landscape hotspots of Slovenia 7 DoločanjepokrajinskihvročihtočkSlovenije 20 Urša Šebenik, Mitja brilly, Mojca Šraj Drought Analysis Using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) 31 Analizasušnihrazmers pomočjostandardiziranegapadavinskegaindeksa(SPI) 44 tin lUkić, Predrag Marić, ivana Hrnjak, Milivoj b. gavrilov, Dragan MlaDjan, Matija Zorn, blaž koMaC, Zoran MiloŠević, Slobodan b. Marković, Dušan SakUlSki, andries jorDaan, jasmina ĐorĐević, Dragoslav Pavić, rastislav StojSavljević Forest fire analysis and classification based on a Serbian case study 51 jaroslav biolek, ivan anDráŠko, jiří Malý, Pavlína ZrůStová Interrelated aspects of residential suburbanization and collective quality of life: A case study in Czech suburbs 65 Matjaž gerŠič Changing denotations of selected Slovenian choronyms 77 Spreminjanjedenotataizbranihslovenskihpokrajinskihimen 90 Spe cial issue – Geographical Names Drago Perko, Peter jorDan, blaž koMaC Exonyms and other geographical names 99 Drago klaDnik, ivana Crljenko, ankica čilaŠ ŠiMPraga, Matjaž gerŠič A Comparison of Croatian and Slovenian exonyms 109 Drago Perko, Drago klaDnik Slovenian exonyms in North America 119 jožica ŠkofiC Microtoponyms as an important part of Slovenian cultural heritage 141 gábor gerCSák, gábor MikeSy Does Google serve as a model for using place names? 153 naslovnica 57-1_naslovnica 49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 9:28 Page 1