ijems|scientificarticle TheInfluenceoftheMediterranean onFuneralCeremoniesandFuneral MusicinSlovenianCoastalAreas anitaprelovšek Freeculturalworker,Slovenia anita.prelovsek@gmail.com ThearticledescribescontemporaryfuneralmusicpracticesinPri- morska,aMediterranean-borderingregioninSlovenia.Aftera briefoverviewofthehistoryoflamentsintheMediterranean,the articlefocusesontheshapeandmusicalaccompanimentofmod- ernfunerals.ItpointsouttheinfluenceofMediterraneancoun- tries,especiallyItaly,onfuneralsinPrimorska.Itexplainshowthe typeoffuneralceremonyandthechoiceofmusicarecolouredby thepresenceofthesea,givinganaccountofthemostcommon musicalensemblesandrepertoiresofsongs.Itcomparesfuner- alsofmembersoftheItalianminorityinSloveniawithfunerals inItaliancoastalregions.Theresearchisbasedonethnographic workandscientificliterature,aswellasarticlesonfuneralcere- moniestakenfromdailynewspapers,magazinesandtheinternet. Thefieldworkisbasedonresearchatcemeteriesusingthepartic- ipatoryobservationmethodandsemi-structuredinterviews.In Primorska,funeralsaccompaniedbythescatteringofashesinto theseaarebecomingmorefrequent,asaresongswithamaritime themeandsongsinItalian.Althoughthechoiceoffuneralmusic isveryoftenindividualizedandtherearemoreandmorepopular songs,classicalmusicremainsthechoiceofmanypeopleinPri- morskaandalsoDalmatiansongsarequitecommon.Traditional laments,whicharepresentthroughoutSlovenia,arefoundatfu- neralslessfrequently. KeyWords:funeral,music,laments,Sloveniancoast,southernItaly introduction Thepurposeofthisarticleistopresentcontemporaryfuneralmu- sicpracticesinSloveniancoastalareas.Afterabriefoverviewoftra- volume14|2021|number2|39–60 [40] AnitaPrelovšek ditionallamentsintheMediterranean,itfocusesonthenatureof funeralmusicinSloveniancoastalcemeteriestoday,comparingfu- neralceremoniesinPrimorskawithfuneralsinItaly,aneighbouring Mediterraneancountry. Themainargumentadvancedinthisarticleisthatmusicatfu- neralsinvariousSlovenianregionsalsoreflectstheirgeographical, culturalanddialectologicaldiversity,sothatfuneralmusicinthe Primorskaregionwouldbeexpectedtoreflectthepresenceofthe Mediterranean.Thearticleexplainshowthetypeoffuneralcere- monyandthechoiceofmusicarecolouredbythepresenceofthe sea,givinganaccountofthemostcommonmusicalensemblesand songstogetherwithadescriptionofthemoreunusualmusicalprac- tices.MentionismadeofthefuneralsofmembersoftheItalianmi- norityinSloveniaaswellasoffuneralsinItaliancoastalregions. Theresearchisbasedonethnographicworkcarriedoutbetween 2014and2020,scientificliteratureandarticlesonfuneralcere- moniestakenfromdailynewspapers,magazinesandtheInternet. Thefieldworkisbasedonresearchatcemeteriesusingthepartic- ipatoryobservationmethodandsemi-structuredinterviewswith musiciansperformingatfunerals,directorsoffuneralcompanies andclientswhoorderfuneralceremonies. Thearticlealsodescribesthechangesthathavetakenplacein funeralmusicinSloveniancoastalregionsoveraperiodofsixyears. Thearticleispartlybasedontheauthor’sdoctoralthesisonmusic atfuneralceremoniesintoday’sSlovenia,butitalsointroducesnew aspectsofthetopicinthelightofMediterraneanstudies. musicatfuneralritualsinthe mediterraneaninthepast–ritual mourningandlaments Althoughmourningisnotalwaysassociatedwithfuneralcustoms, asitisalsocharacteristicofotherritesofpassage,suchasmar- riage,lamentsaremostoftenassociatedwithdeathandmourning. Lamentsareknownallovertheworld.Weepingoverthedeparted togetherwiththespontaneouscreationoflamentswasalsotypical forSlovenia.AsAmydelaBretèquepointsout,‘lamentsareamong ijems TheInfluenceoftheMediterraneanonFuneralCeremonies [41] thoserareformsfoundallovertheworldthat,regardlessofthe ethnographiccontext,havemuchincommon’(2013inKölbl2017, 89). Thehistoryofmourningislong;inEurope,thefirstmourning wasdocumentedinantiquity.MarcelloSorceKellerdescribesthe poetrygenreinclassicalGreece(which,likeallancientGreekpoetry, containedmusic)asepikedeion,afunerealmourningandahymnto thedeceased;thesesongsweresungnexttothecorpse,whilethrènos weresongsinmemoryofthedeceased(SorceKeller2013,3).Asung ritualmourningisalsomentionedbyHomerintheIliadinconnec- tionwiththefarewelltoHector(Homer2017,256).AmongtheRo- mans,nenia(lat.nenia)was‘amourningsong,sungbypaidwomen (mourners,weepingoverthedeceased)inthepresenceofthecorpse andatfunerals’(Verbinc1979,479). Terseglavwritesthatlamentswereatributetothedeceased, performedinpublicbythedeceased’srelatives,acquaintancesand friendsorbyhiredprofessionalmourners.Theimprovisationof lamentstookplaceaccordingtocertainconventionsandrequired theglorificationofthedeceased(Terseglav1987,95).SorceKeller writesthattherepresentationofgriefoverdeathhadacathartic, therapeuticeffectontherelativesofthedeceasedandatthesame timearousedempathyinothermembersofthecommunity.The sameauthorpointsoutthatmourningisnotregardedasmusicin traditionalMediterraneancultures,asitissaidtobeinappropriate tosinginthepresenceofthedead.Alamentisjustalamentand nothingelse,oritisanemotionalspeech(SorceKeller2013,7). SorceKeller(2013,2)maintainsthatallnationshavetheirspecial typeoflament,eachwithitsownestablishedmetricalform.Itis characteristicofallofthem,however,thattheyaremostlylonger, withepic,rhythmicformsand,onaccountoftheemotionsinvolved, theyarelyrical.Lamentsconsisted,atleastintheMediterranean area,ofonlyafewtones–lessthanfive–andwerenotstrophicin character,whichwouldseemtoconfirmtheirorigininantiquity. AsTerseglavwrites(1987,95),intheMediterraneanarea,espe- ciallyinsouthernItaly,CorsicaandRomania,lamentswereper- formedbyhiredprofessionalwomenmourners.InCorsica,where volume14|2021|number2 [42] AnitaPrelovšek hiredmournerswerecalled voceratrici,adistinctionwasmadebe- tweentwotypesoflament:lamentiwereperformedatdeathsfrom naturalcauses,andvoceriatviolentdeaths. Inhisautobiography,theconductorRiccardoMutirecallsthatin hischildhood(hewasbornin1941)so-calledprefichestillexistedin thesouthofItaly.Thesewerewomenwhowenttothehomesofthe deadandrecitedakindoflaudatiofunebris,forwhichtheywerepaid (Muti2017,17–18). Themostfamousandprobablythelastofthemwasawoman namedGiustina‘delCamposanto,’whoisstillrememberedbythe conductor;shewasdressedallinblack.In1958,E.DeMartinowrote inabookondeathandritualmourningthatintheprovinceofLu- caniaitwasnolongerhiredprofessionalsbutfemalerelativesofthe deceasedwhotookpartinthemourningforthedeceased.Profes- sionalmourners,prefiche,werepresentatfuneralsuntilrecently.At thetimethisbookwaswritten,however,hiringprofessionalmourn- erswasalreadyconsideredshameful,andvillagesaccusedeachother ofstillpractisingthistradition(DeMartino1977,79). AlsoinSlovenia,especiallyintheborderareasofIstria,Resia, PrekmurjeandBelaKrajina,therewasatraditionofmourninga corpsewithaspecialloudmourning‘withselectedpatheticwords, whichsometimessoundslikeasadsong’–asiswrittenin Naro- dopisjeSlovencev(Breznik1944,310).Thiswascalled‘narekovanje,’ ‘narek’or‘narekanje’(dictation):‘Everywomancomposesthese wordsinherownway,accordingtomomentaryimpressions,asher sadheart dictates...’(Ložar1944,310).ZmagaKumerdiscovered that‘althoughweSlovenesaregenerallyreluctanttoexpressour emotions,aloud,improvised,half-singingmourningforthede- ceasedtookplaceatsomefuneralsasanexpressionofthepainful sufferingofthefamilyatitsloss’(Kumer2003,26). Inherresearchinto‘naricanje’inCroatia,GrozdanaMaroše- vićconcludesthatwithchangingattitudesaboutdeathandthe expressionofemotions,‘naricanje’isnolongerregardedasnor- malsocialbehaviour,‘loud’weepinginthepresenceofothershav- ingbeenreplacedby‘quiet’intimatesobbing,withfreeimprovi- sationincreasinglyfavouredinplaceofthenow-defunctpractice ijems TheInfluenceoftheMediterraneanonFuneralCeremonies [43] of‘naricanje.’Also,attitudestowardsprofessionalfemalemourn- erschangedaroundthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,whena mourningwasmorefrequentlyperformedbyfemalemembersof thefamilyofthedeceased(Marošević2005,44–45). AccordingtoHelenaLožarPodlogar(1999inBrunandRemic 1999,22)how‘narokanje,’‘narekovanje’or‘naricanje’waspracticed infrontofthehouseandinthecemetery,andlessoftenafewdays afterthefuneral.Thisconsistedofamourningwithloudweeping andmoaning,duringwhichthegooddeedsperformedbythede- ceasedwerepraisedandadviceofferedforhisjourneytotheafter- life.Itwasakindofsingingrecitationthatsometimeseventurned intoasongandwaspractisedespeciallybywomen.Evenmoreoften, womenmournerswerehiredandpaidfortheirservices. ZmagaKumerwroteandthuspreservedfromobliviontwosongs ofmourningforthedeceasedatfuneralsfromtheSlovenianvil- lagesofKoštabonaandKrkavčeinIstria(Kumer2003,149).Shealso wroteanexampleoftheso-calledslovésa(i.e.,specialsongstypically performedinthecaseofviolentdeaths)fromtheIstrianvillageof SvetiPeter.Thelyricsofthepoemtellofthemurderofagirlbya jealoussuitor(Kumer2003,212–213). Today,so-called‘narekanje’nolongerexists;instead,funeral ritesinSloveniaareassociatedwithcertaintraditionalmourning songs,whichhavebecomefunerallaments par excellence.Inthe followingpartofthisarticle,Iwillalsoinvestigatewhetherthese songsarestillcommonlysungatfuneralsontheSloveniancoast,or whetherfuneralmusicpracticesarechangingtosuchanextentthat theiruseissteadilydecreasing. musicatfuneralsinslovenian coastalareas AfuneralritualintheSloveniancoastalareaisusuallydividedinto threeparts,dependingonthepositionofthemourners.Thefirst parttakesplaceinfrontofthemortuary,wherethecoffinorthe urnisplacedandthemournerscometoconveytheircondolencesto therelativesofthedeceased.Musicmaybeplayedornotinthisin- troductorypart,butnotnecessarily,involvingrecordedmusicona volume14|2021|number2 [44] AnitaPrelovšek figure1 TheSolinarkaBoatDuringitsJourneyfromthePierinAnkaran totheOpenSea,WheretheAshesAretoBeScattered cdorusbkeyoraliveperformancebyamusician.Thesecondpart oftheritualconsistsinmovingfromthemortuarytothegraveside. Thispartusuallytakesplaceinsilenceorstartswithrecordedmusic whichcanbeheardaslongasitiswithintherangeofthemicro- phones(bearinginmindthatthegravemayberelativelyfaraway fromthemortuary).Atthegraveside,musicisusuallyperformedas soonasthefuneralprocessionarrives,afterwhichspeechesmaybe saidorread.Ifthefuneralisofareligiousnature,thewordisgiven toapriest,whoblessesthegrave.Thespeechesmaybefollowedby moremusic.Burialusuallytakesplaceinsilenceandoftenanother musicalpieceisplayedattheveryendoftheritual.InSlovenian coastalareas,thereisalsoafuneralritualthattakesplaceonaboat, afterwhichtheashesarescatteredintothesea. AtKoper’scentralcemeteryIspoketotheheadofthefuneralser- vices,MarkoUgrin,whotoldmethattheircemeterybelongstoMar- jeticaKoper(whichistheformerKomunalaKoper)andincludesan- otherforty-fivecemeteriesinthesurroundingvillages.Theservices theyofferalsoincludethescatteringofashesintothesea.Accord- ingtothewebsitePogrebi.info,afuneralceremonywithaboatthat takesuptothirtypeopleonboardbeginsatthepierinValdoltra. Itmovesouttoaspecificpointontheseaabouttwomilesfrom DebeliRtič,wherethescatteringtakesplace.Accordingtotheweb- site,theboatmakesanotherroundafterthescatteringceremony ijems TheInfluenceoftheMediterraneanonFuneralCeremonies [45] andbidsfarewelltothedeceasedwithasirensalute.¹Accordingto ElvinaBabajićMuratagićfromtheVelenjefamilycompany,which specialisesintheinternationaltransportofthedeceased,manyre- questsforthescatteringofashesatseaarereceivedfromAustria andHungary,whichhavenocoastline(Kališnik2020).Musicians canalsotakepartinthistypeoffuneralattherequestofrelatives. Upuntiltheyear2016,some450funeralstookplace,ofwhich about70involvedinhumationbycremation,whileonlyadecade ago50involvedcoffinsand50crematedashes.In2020,wewere told,anestimated20–25ofthefuneralstheyhandledinvolvedthe scatteringofashesintothesea.AccordingtoUgrin,Istriansremain quitetraditionalintheirhandlingoffuneralceremonies.Eventhe useofawhitedoveatfunerals(whichisacommonpracticeinother Sloveniancemeteries,especiallyintheLjubljanaregion,wherethe dovefliesawayinmemoryofthedeceasedperson)isstillnotchosen asanoption,evenwhenofferedgratuitously(M.Ugrin,personal communication,5October2016). thetraditionalchoiceofmusic: malechoirsandtrumpet WeaskedwhetherIstrianswerealsotraditionalintheirchoiceof music.Thecemeteryhasnocontractswithmusicians;asUgrinsays, ‘manypeoplewouldliketohavemusicatafuneral,andthemusi- ¹Thepassagetothelandofthedeadisoftenassociatedwiththecrossingofwater. InGreekmythology,theferrymanCharontransportedsoulsintotheunderworld alongtheAcheronRiver.AccordingtoSlavoniclegend,theafterlifeisalsosepa- ratedfromthelivingworldbywater.Mostauthorsassociatethismythwithburial orcremationinboatsorships.AsMirjamMencej(1995,3)states,scholarsdonot agreeonwhethertheSlavsinheritedthismythandritualfromtheancientGreeks, fromtheScandinavians(whowerefamiliarwithburialritesinships)orwhether itwasautochthonous.TheauthorherselfisinclinedtobelievethattheSlavsdid nottakethisbelieffromothernations,asitextendsthroughoutalmosttheentire world,bothamongIndo-EuropeanpeoplesandinEgyptianandMesopotamian folkloretraditions,Indonesia,Melanesiaandshamans(Mencej1995,6).Sloveni- ansalsoimaginedthattheworldofthedeadlaybeyondwater(Šmitek2004,34). Someresearchersevenbelievethattheetymologyofthewordnavje(accordingto theSlovarslovenskegaknjižnegajezika(1997)inthemythologicalsense‘residenceof thedead’ortheancientwordforthecemetery)isrelatedtotheLatinnavis(ship). volume14|2021|number2 [46] AnitaPrelovšek cianswouldliketohavecontractswiththefuneralcompany,but theKoperfuneralcompanyisunabletogivecontractstoallthe musiciansavailable,’socontractsareawardedbasedonbidsonthe commercialmarket.Atthecemetery’sreceptionoffice,relatives²can contactmusicianswhoplayatfuneralsandthenarrangethingsdi- rectlywiththem.AccordingtoUgrin,relativesmostlyhiremusi- cianstheyalreadyknow.Thelistofmusiciansincludesfourmale singingquartets,onesextetandonemixedquartetwithmusicalin- struments.Inadditiontothis,theyofferalso‘Silence/Silenzio’with trumpetplayers,atrombone,onesoloistsingerandasoloclarinet- tist,NevenStipanov. Ugrintoldmethatinadditiontoclassicfunerallaments–of whichhestatedtherewereadmittedlyveryfew–Dalmatiansongs arequitecommonatfunerals.Dalmatiansongsareoftenchosenfor thefuneralsofyoungerpersons,whiletraditionallaments³aremore commonfortheelderly(A.Pucer,telephoneconversation,30De- cember2020).Theheadofthecemeteryalsosaidthatchurchchoirs oftensingatfuneralsinruralcoastalcemeteries(A.Pucer,personal conversation,7October2016).Funeralsinvillagesaremostlyreli- giousandlastuptotwoandahalfhours,asthefuneralprocession mayspenduptohalfanhourwalkingandtheservicealsoincludes amassinthechurch⁴(M.Ugrin,personalconversation,5October 2016). MusicatfuneralsinvariousregionsofSloveniaalsoreflectsthe localcharacteristicsofindividualareas.InPrimorska,forinstance, songswithamaritimethemearealsoperformed,aswellassongsin Italian,thelanguageoftheItalianminorityinthatarea. TherepertoireofmusicissimilarinallpartsofSlovenia,espe- ²Usually,therearerelativesofthedeceasedtoorganizeafuneral,butsometimes friendsoraninstitutioncanindeedhelpwiththeorganizationor,rarely,theycan takeovertheentireorganization. ³ThesearemostlyfolksongsthatarefamiliarelsewhereinSloveniaaswell,suchas ‘Lipa’and‘Vsisovenci.’ ⁴InotherpartsofSloveniaalso,funeralsinruralareasareusuallydifferentfrom thoseinurbanareasandarefrequentlyreligious,oneofthemostpopularsongs atchurchfuneralsinSloveniabeingthehymn‘Nearer,myGod,toThee.’ ijems TheInfluenceoftheMediterraneanonFuneralCeremonies [47] ciallythatinvolvingstandardlamentsandthe‘Silence’onthetrum- pet,butInoticedsomepeculiaritiesinthePrimorskaregion.The choiceofmusicatfuneralsdependsprimarilyonwhetheritisareli- giousorcivilfuneral,onthedeceased’spoliticalbeliefsandhismu- sicalpreferences,andalsoonwhetheritisthefuneralofayounger person.Ifthedeceasedalsoperformedmusic,forexampleasamu- sicianinawindbandorasasingerinachoir,theensembleinwhich hewasactivewillplayforhimathisorherfuneral. themoderntrendtowards individualisedfunerals AstheheadoftheKoperfuneralservicetoldmeinmyfieldre- search,‘90percentofpeoplearrangefuneralsforothers,notfor themselves.’Accordingtohim,funeralswithculturalsupplements, suchasmusicandspeeches,arenottypicalofbigEuropeancities, ‘therebeingonlyalimitednumber.’Healsopointedoutthatfuner- alsabroadwereoftenmuchshorter.⁵ AccordingtoLouis-VincentThomas(1985,107),aFrenchanthro- pologist,sociologistandethnologistwhohasworkedextensivelyon theanthropologyofdeathanddeath-accompanyingrituals,inthe modernWesternworld,funeralritesfollowapatternbasedonprac- ticality,thegoverningconsiderationsbeingspeedandprice,i.e.,to disposeofthedeadperson’sremainsasquicklyandcheaplyaspossi- ble.Thomas(1985)alsoaskedwhetherinourmoderntechnicallyori- entatedsocietytheprocessofdisposingofthedeadwillultimately cometobetreatedcompletelywithoutsymbolism.Atthetimeof ⁵Thesepracticesarealsorelatedtothefactthatnowadayspeoplestronglydiscour- ageandevenrejectanymentionoroccurrenceofdeatharoundthem,asevidenced inthewritingsoftheRussianauthorDmitrySokolov-Mitrich(2015,16).Hewrites thatpeoplearewillingtopayanythingtokeepdeathoutoftheirworld.Wewould notkeepthedeadpersoninourhomeuntilthefuneralatanycost,wewouldnot washhimandwewouldnotreadaprayeroverhishead.Theshorterthepathfrom thedeathbedtothegrave,thebetter,saystheauthor,asthe‘lastpath’hasturned intoameresanitaryprocedure.Relativesspendhalfanhourinaspecial,dedicated space,thenit’stheturnofthenextoccupant.Ifthedeceasedwasreligious,heat leastrestsawhileinthechurch,butotherwiseheistakendirectlytothecemetery. volume14|2021|number2 [48] AnitaPrelovšek hisreflections,funeralceremoniesdifferingfromestablishedprac- ticeswererare.Cremationwasnotyetwidespread:accordingtothe author,in1983theproportionofcremationsinFrance,forexample, wasonly2.Theauthorthereforeatthattimecalledforthedevel- opmentofanewsymbolismforthefuneralritualsofthefuture,so thatfuneralswouldlosetheirdullandneutralcharacterandbecome morepersonalised. Exactlythirty-fiveyearslaterthisisnowthetrendwithmodern funerals;thecriterionappliedintheirorganizationbeingto‘tailor thefuneraltotheman.’Inmoderntimes,withthepredominance ofcremation,thepracticeofscatteringashesonameadow,intothe seaorinthemountainsbecameincreasinglycommonandwithnew formsofburialsuchasdiamondburials(whenthedeceased’sashes aretransformedintoadiamondbyspeciallaboratoryprocedures),⁶ thenatureoffuneralceremoniesandthepresenceofmusicalaccom- panimentmaychange. Withtheemergenceofthemoderntrendtowardspersonalised or‘bespokefunerals,’traditionalfuneralsaccompaniedbymusicare becomingunconventional.Musicatfuneralsisnotnecessarilylim- itedtotraditionallaments;itcanbeadifferentkindofmusicthat bestsuitsthecharacterofthedeceasedorissomehowrelatedto him,sotherangeandnatureofthemusicchosenandthekindof musicalensembleshavebecomeverywide.Duringmyfieldworkin Sloveniancemeteries,Ifoundoutthatthispracticeisalreadyquite common. moderntrendsofthemusicatfunerals: fromdalmatiansongstopopmusic Duringmyresearchin2020,theheadofthefuneralservicenoted thatthechoiceofmusichadchangedsomewhatinrecentyears, nowbeing‘amoreopenattitudetowardsfuneralmusic.’According tohim,thereismoreandmoremodernmusic,whichmeanspop- ularsongs,mostlyinEnglish.Thereisalsoalotofrockmusic,for example(M.Ugrin,telephoneconversation,22December2020). ⁶ThiscustomisalsotobefoundinSlovenia. ijems TheInfluenceoftheMediterraneanonFuneralCeremonies [49] Thekindofmusicthatthedeceasedlikedtolistentoisoften performedatfunerals.InDecember2020,forexample,afuneral washeldatKopercemeterywithrecordedhousemusic,asina discotheque.Thedeceasedwasrelativelyyoung,beingagedabout forty.AccordingtotheheadoftheKoperfuneralservice,‘people abroadarenotfamiliarwithallthispompinvolvingflowers,can- dles,speeches,music,etc.,whichiswhymanypeoplewhocome fromoutside,forinstancefromTrieste,aresurprisedbyfuneral ceremoniesinourcountry.’(M.Ugrin,personalcommunication,22 December2016). WritingaboutfuneralceremoniesatStAnnacemeteryinTri- este,MartaGregorčič(1999,168–9),statesthatthereisagreatlack ofspaceinthiscemetery,whichisreflectedintheso-calledserial gravesofstrangersconnectedonlybytheiridenticaldateofdeath andthelackoftimereflectedintheburialrites.Thefuneralcer- emonylastsonlytwominutes,relativesaccompanyingthecoffin fromthechapeltothegravewithoutspeechesandothercultural embellishments.Accordingtotheauthor’sfieldresearch,achurch funeral,includingthepriest’sfarewellwords,lastsonaverageonly 3.48minutes(p.169). Accordingtotheresultsofmyfieldresearch,musicatfunerals throughoutSloveniastillconsistsof(mostlymale)singinggroups andsolotrumpetsattheendofthefuneral,whichtraditionallyplay the‘Silence.’Today,thispracticeisincreasinglycomplementedby adifferentrangeofmusic,suchasexclusivelyfemalevocalandvo- cal/instrumentalensemblesandsolosingers.Instrumentalmusicis oftenplayedatfuneralsbyflute,violin,guitarorclarinet;theoret- ically,allinstrumentsarepossible,butinpracticetheyoccurless frequently.Atreligiousfunerals,thefuneralisalsoaccompaniedby anorganduringthechurchceremony. performersandrepertoire SingerandclarinettistNevenStipanovfromPiran,whoperforms atvariouscemeteriesinthecoastalregion,toldmemoreaboutthe repertoireinPiranandothercemeteriesinPrimorska.Healsosang severaltimesonaboatwhileasheswerescatteredatsea.Hesays volume14|2021|number2 [50] AnitaPrelovšek hefeelsthedifferentatmosphereofindividualcemeteries.Hisper- formanceatfuneralsbeganwhenhewasaskedtodoitbyacquain- tances,andthenathomehewasencouragedtoofferhisservicesto thecemeteries.Atfirst,hewasquiteembarrassedtoperformatfu- nerals‘becauseoftheproximityofdeath,’butafteraboutayearhe becameusedtoit.Hisrepertoireincludesvariousmusicalgenres, fromclassical,folkandfilmtopopularmusic.Hepreferstosuggest aclassicalmusicrepertoiretohisclientstoderivethegreatestben- efitfromhisvoice.Sometimes,inadditiontosinging,heplaysthe clarinet.Heoftenplays‘Silence’ontheclarinetinsteadofthetrum- pet,aswellassometimestheblackspiritual‘AmazingGrace’orthe filmsong‘OvertheRainbow’(composedbyHaroldArlenwithlyrics byYipHarburg). Hefoundthat,ingeneral,peopleoftendon’tcarewhatissung but‘justwantsomethingtobesung,’thoughsomepeoplehavespe- cificwishesabouttherepertoire.Forexample,atthefuneralofalady ofFrenchdescent,attherequestofrelatives,hesang‘Lesfeuilles mortes’(writtenbyJacquesPrévertandsettomusicbyJoseph Kosma)and,atthefuneralofa104-year-oldfisherman,acompo- sitionbytheTriestemusicianPubliusCarnielwiththelyricsofRai- mondCornet’s‘Triestedormi.’Atthescatteringofashesatsea,he especiallyrememberedonefuneralatwhichhesang‘Osolemio’and ‘Roserosse,’asongperformedbytheItaliansingerMassimoRanieri (lyricsbyGiancarloBigazzitomusicbyEnricoPolito).Forthisocca- sion,therelativesaskedhimtobedressedcompletelyinwhite,and theirchoiceofmusicdidnotincludesadsongs. Amongthesongshehassungatfunerals,healsomentions ‘Smile’fromChaplin’sfilmModernTimesandthethemefromChap- lin’sfilmLimelight,whichheplayedontheclarinet.Henoticedthat the klapasong‘Datemogupismomzvati,’whichpeopleliketore- quest,or,forexample,OliverDragojević’s⁷songs,arealsoverypop- ular.Hesang,amongotherthings,Dragojević’s‘Mybeautifulangel.’ ⁷AtthefuneralofOliverDragojevićon31July2018,whenhewastransportedby catamaranfromSplittohisnativeVelaLukaonKorčula,andthenextdayhissongs weresunginthecemetery(Grgič2018). ijems TheInfluenceoftheMediterraneanonFuneralCeremonies [51] Healsosang,forexample,thesong‘Dokpalmenjišugrane,’origi- nallyperformedbytheDubrovnikTroubadours.Thepopularsongs hesangincluded‘YouRaiseMeUp’byJoshGrobanor‘Lahkonoč, Piran’byAnikaHorvat.Hehasalsoperformedalotofclassicalmu- sic,includingthefamousaria‘Nessundorma’fromPuccini’sopera ‘Turandot.’Hehasalsoreceivedapplause,likeataconcert,after performingHändel’saria‘Lasciach’iopianga.’⁸However,relatives usuallythankhimandoffertheirpraisebywordofmouthorby textmessageafterthefuneral(N.Stipanov,personalconversation, 10October2016and28December2020). Theintervieweementionedthatsometimesclientsexpressa wishfor‘atasteofthesea’whenchoosingmusic.Forexample,he oftensingsthefamous‘Contepartirò’(musicbyFrancescoSartori withlyricsbyLuciaQuarantotta,performedbyAndreaBocelli). AtfuneralsofmembersoftheItalianminority,heoftenperforms songsinItalian,suchas‘Signoredellecime.’TheIstriansongsre- questedinclude‘Vaall’ombraNineta,’thefolksong‘BellaIstriana mia,’andhehasalsosunganoldItalianfolksongfromPiranwitha humoroustextinthelocaldialect,‘Sepassiperdiqua.’Atoneofthe funeralsofamemberoftheItaliancommunity,whichherecalledes- peciallybecauseofthehugenumberofpeoplepresent,hesangonly ‘Lacrimosa’fromMozart’sRequiem.Henotedthatmembersofthe ItalianminoritywereveryfondofSchubert’s‘AveMaria,’whichhe performsfrequently.‘Itstaysintheirmemory,probablybecauseit isinLatinandbecauseithassuchabeautifulmelody’(N.Stipanov, telephoneconversation,28December2020). Heobservedthatatthefuneralsofpersonswhoarenotfrom theItalianminority,thoseattendingsometimesrequestasongin Slovenebecausetheywishtopleaseotherrelativeswhowillbecom- ing,buttheyoftensaythattheydonotwantstandardSlovenefolk laments,⁹becausethey’re‘toodepressing’(N.Stipanov,telephone ⁸‘Lasciach’iopianga’isasopranoariafromthesecondactofHändel’sopera‘Ri- naldo,’inwhichthecapturedAlmirenalamentsherfate.Asametaphorforhuman suffering,thisariacanalsobeperformedinafuneralcontext. ⁹Accordingtotheresultsofmyfieldresearch,‘Lipa’and‘Gozdičježezelen’arethe volume14|2021|number2 [52] AnitaPrelovšek conversation,28December2020).Henoticedthatclientsoftenem- phasisethattheydonotwanttoomanysad,‘depressing’songs,as thiswouldmakethemevensadderinanalreadydifficultsituation. Perhapsthischaracteristiccanalsobesomehowrelatedtothetem- peramentofpeoplefromPrimorska,inwhichtheinfluenceofthe Mediterraneanclimatecouldbeobserved. Thetable1listssongsfromtherepertoireofindividualensem- blesthatwereactiveinPrimorskain2016.Thesongsareclassified intoSlovenianfolksongs,religiouslaments,¹⁰partisanmourning songs,OrthodoxsongsandDalmatiansongs;thisistheranking givenintheirofferbythesingersfromtheensemble7PlusQuar- tet.Underthelistofsongsintheiroffer,themembersofthequar- tetwrote:‘Thisisonlyapartoftherepertoireofourquartetwhich ismostoftenusedatfunerals.Atrelatives’request,wecanalso singsomethingelsesuitableforsuchevents,butthewishesshould becommunicatedintimesothatwecanlearnthesong.’Itshould beemphasisedthatthisisonlytheterminologyoftheensembles andnotobjectivescientificterminology.Thepracticeoftransferring songsintoapopularfolkrepertoirewasalsoencountered. ThesoloistMarjetkaPopovskiclassifiedthesongssheofferedin herrepertoireintofolksongsaccordingtothetheme(i.e.,thesea, flowers,mountains,rivers,birds,loveandwine),patrioticsongs, laments,partisansongs,oldsongsabouttheVirginMary,Dalma- tiansongsandsevdalinka.Sheoffersavariedchoice,whichcanbe ‘greatlyexpandeduponagreement.’Thissinger,whosingstoguitar accompaniment,alsooffersherservicesasawriterandreaderof speeches. AllensemblescanofferIstrianfolksongs;partoftherepertoire areDalmatiansongs,especiallythoserelatedtotheseaandfisher- men.Theselectionavailableatfuneralceremoniesthereforealsore- mostfrequentlyperformedlamentsinSlovenia,togetherwith‘Vsisovencivejli,’ ‘Kjesotistestezice,’‘Pojezeru’and‘Hodilsem.’ ¹⁰‘AveMaria’islistedunderreligiouslaments.NevenStipanovtoldmethatwhen hesuggeststhissong,relatives’initialreactionisoftentosaynobecauseitissup- posedtobeahymn.Butwhenheexplainsthatitisabeautifulsongthattalks aboutlife,theyagree(N.Stipanov,personalconversation,10October2016). ijems TheInfluenceoftheMediterraneanonFuneralCeremonies [53] table1 SongsfromtheRepertoireoftheEnsemblesThatWereActive inPrimorskain2016 Category Title () () () Slovenianfolksongs Gozdičježezelen • • • Spavajmirno • • Kamodhajaš,dragioče • • Vigredsepovrne • Polje,kdobotebeljubil • • Napoljani • Vtihinoči • Kjesotistestezice • • • Temnanoč • • Dateni • • Vsisovencivejli • • Vsenajlepšerožice • Lipazelenelaje • • • GorčezIzaro • Tečemivodica • Slovenskodekle • Tihaluna • Oblačekmilimoj • Zrejloježito • Zakrivljenopalicovroki • Enodrevcemijezraslo • Mrzelvetertebežene • Zabučalegore • Oljki • Solinar • Continuedonthenextpage flectsthecharacteristicsofthePrimorskaregion:olivegrowingand fishing,aswellassongsinItalian. recordedmusic Until2016,itwasveryrareforrelativestobringmusiconacd orusbkey,and,beforeOctober2016,nofuneralswereheldwith volume14|2021|number2 [54] AnitaPrelovšek table1 Continuedfromthepreviouspage Category Title () () () Religiouslaments Tiholučkagori • Nearer,MyGod,toThee • • Jazsemvstajenje • Nadzvezdami • • Signoredellecime • Uslišinasgospod • Vnebesihsemdoma • AveMaria • Molimteponižno • Gospodjemojaluč • Priditenapomoč,svetnikibožji • Blagormu • Partisanlaments SmrtvBrdih • Počivajezerovtihoti • • • Prečudencvet • • Naoknuglejobrazekbled • • • Kajtijedeklica • Bellaciao • • Bilečanka • Continuedonthenextpage recordedmusic.Theresearchprovedunabletodetermineprecisely whatpercentageoffuneralswereheldwithlivemusic,buton5Octo- ber2016,forinstance,twofuneralswereperformedwithoutmusic andonewithit. Fouryearslater,inDecember2020,thispracticechanged.The headofthefuneralservicetoldmethattheyholdmanyfunerals whererelativesbringrecordedmusiconausbkey.Accordingtohis estimation,inabout30ofthefuneralswheremusicisplayed,¹¹the musicisrecorded,while70islive.Inreplytothequestionwhether ¹¹Theabsenceofmusicatsomefuneralsmaybeduetoseveralfactors,suchascost orthefactthatthefuneralisforaMuslim,therebeingnomusicatthistypeof funeral. ijems TheInfluenceoftheMediterraneanonFuneralCeremonies [55] table1 Continuedfromthepreviouspage Category Title () () () Orthodoxhymns Gospodpomiluj • • Tebepojem • Otčenas • Dalmatiansongs Tihanoć • • • DalekomijebiserJadrana • • Ribari • Ružomojacrvena • • Ribarplite • • • Akosipošlaspat • Maslinajeneobrana • Datemogupismomzvati • Countrymusic Vdolinitihi • notes Columnheadingsareasfollows:(1)Quartet‘7Plus,’(2)Quartet‘Riba,’ (3)MarjetkaPopovski. thesmallerpercentageoflivemusicmightbebecauseoftheCovid epidemic,Ugrinrepliedthattherearenoproblemswiththatatthe moment,sincesingerscansingaroundtenmetresawayfromthe relatives.Relativesoptmainlyforsingers,butalsofortrumpets,al- thoughotherinstrumentsandensemblesappearonlyveryrarely. Inadditiontothecentralcemetery,Pirancemeteryalsoincludes threevillagecemeteries(Novavas,Sv.PeterandPadna).AsAljoša Pucertoldmein2016,inPiranonly‘onceintenyears’didithappen thatrelativesbroughtrecordedmusiconausbbecausetheceme- terydidnothavetheappropriateequipmentforplayingit,onlya speakerforspeeches(personalcommunication,7October2016),but inaninterviewin2020,thesamepersontoldmethatinorderto meetpublicdemandtheynowhavetheequipmenttoplayrecorded musicfromausbkey.However,relativesrarelywantrecordedmu- sic(telephoneconversation,30December2020). windbands Windbandsarerarelyfoundincemeteries,althoughoneisavailable atthecemeteryinNovaGorica.AsIlearnedfromthelocalauthor- volume14|2021|number2 [56] AnitaPrelovšek itiesthere,whenrequestingafuneralservice,relativescan,ifthey wish,contactsomeleadersofchoirsandgroupsofmusiciansand thencometoanagreementwiththemthemselves.Thewindband playsatafuneralwhenthedeceasedwasalsoamusician(Komunala NovaGorica,personalcommunication,20October2016). AwindbandalsoplayedinthecemeteryinPiran,when,on31 December2014,amusician,trumpetprofessorandconductorof thePiranYouthWindOrchestra,80-year-oldUmbertoRadojković, wasburied.HehadconductedthePiranWindOrchestrafortwenty yearsanddidnotwantflowersathisfuneral,butpreferredfinancial contributionsfortheorchestra.Hisfuneralwasattendedbymany ofthedeceased’smusiciancolleagues,professorsandformerstu- dentsaswellastheYouthWindOrchestra,whichplayedŠtrucl’s mourningmarch‘Rožmarin.’Anothercompositionperformedby theorchestrawasanexpressionofthecharacterofthedeceased. Hewasofacheerfuldisposition,andthemusicplayedwasŠtrucl’s march‘Pozdravljena,Slovenija.’Ashisexplicitlastwish,aquar- tetofhornsplayedathisgraveside‘Glejte,žesoncezahaja’and Beethoven’slaments‘DreiEqualeWoO30inDminor.’ InSlovenia,awindband,theofficialstateorchestra,knownas thePoliceOrchestra,playsmostlyatstatefuneralsandceremonies ofnationalmourning.Thecustomofhavingwindbandsatfunerals isanage-oldtraditiontypicalofsouthernItaly. southernitalyandsicily:atradition ofwindbandsandfuneralprocessions Theoldtraditionofwindbandsplayingfuneralmarchesduringthe majorstreetprocessionsonGoodFridaybeforeEasterisveryfa- miliarinSouthernItaly.MauroSclafani,anacademicoboistfrom Sicily,saidthatoneofthemostimportantprocessionsinSicilyis theso-calledprocessionoftheMysteries(Tartaron.d.).InSicily,it ismainlylinkedwiththecityofTrapani,butitalsoextendsbeyond Sicily(M.Sclafani,personalcommunication,19December2020).Ac- cordingtoWikipedia(2020),theprocessionoftheMysteriestakes placebetweenGoodFridayandSaturdaythroughthemainstreets ofthecityandisheldtorepresenttheViacrucis.Thetraditionissaid ijems TheInfluenceoftheMediterraneanonFuneralCeremonies [57] tobeaboutfourcenturiesoldanddatesbacktothetimeofSpanish ruleinSicilywhenitwasdevelopedfromAndalusiantraditions. InhisautobiographythefamousconductorRiccardoMutide- scribesthe‘musicworld’heknewfromhischildhoodintheApu- liantownofMolfetta:‘IgrewupinthefantasyworldofGoodFri- day,“PoveraRosa”andfuneralmarchesfromMolfetta’(Muti2017, 25).‘PoveraRosa’isprobablythemostfamousfuneralmarchand isperformedbyawindbandinthestreetsduringtheGoodFri- dayprocession.Therepertoireoffuneralmarchesplayedbybands isextremelyrich.Accordingtothewebsiteenumeratingthemost commonfuneralmarchesinTrapani,thecomposersofthemarches arefrequentlylocalmusicians,butpopulararrangementsofother worksbyEuropeancomposersarealsoplayed,suchasanadapta- tionofChopin’ssonata;often,however,thecomposerofthemarch isunknown.Inadditiontoperformingfuneralmarches,musicof variousotherkindsisperformedatfuneralsinSicilyandsouthern Italy.Atchurchservices,thesongsthatfindmostfavourinSicilyin- cludeMarcoFrisina’s‘Eccomi,’‘IlSignoreèmiopastore’and‘Chici separerà,’writtenforchoirandorchestraorchoirandorgan.Apop- ularcomposerofsacredmusicperformedduringafuneralservice isalsoGiuseppeLiberto(M.Sclafani,personalcommunication,19 December2020). Ascanbeseenfromthetraditionsdescribedabove,traditional funeralmusicinsouthernItalyandSicilyisverydifferentfrom thatencounteredinthesouthwesterncoastalpartofSlovenia.In southernItaly,funeralmusicisassociatedwitholdreligioustradi- tionsandtheplayingoffuneralmarches,thisbeingunknownin thecoastalareaofSloveniaandbeyond.Duringmyfieldresearch, Ilearntthatthepresenceofbandswasmorefrequentindecades past(forexample,theperformanceoftheRailwayBandattheŽale cemeteryinLjubljana)andnowadaysitisreservedforuseatofficial andstatefunerals.Thebandmaysometimesplayatafuneralby wayofanexception,usuallyifthedeceasedpersonhadalsobeen amemberofaband.Hereagain,weencounterthetrendtowards individualizedfuneralsor‘funeralstailoredtotheman’inorderto reflectthedeceased’sprofessionorinterests. volume14|2021|number2 [58] AnitaPrelovšek conclusions Modernfuneralritualshaveundergonenumerouschanges,someof whicharereflectedthroughmusicorinsomecaseshavetheirorigins inmusic.Accordingtofieldresearch,thereisalsoanewkindofmod- ernburialinPrimorska,involvingthescatteringofashesintothe sea.Thelyricsofthesongsperformedatfuneralsaresometimesre- latedtothesea;therearemoresongsinItalianandalsoIstrianfolk songsinthedialectspokenbytheItalianminorityincoastalplaces –songsthatarenottobefoundelsewhereinSlovenia.Traditional Slovenianlamentsabouttheseaandfishingareencounteredbutare lesscommon.AselsewhereinSlovenia,thechoiceoffuneralmusicis veryoftenindividualisedandreflectsthewishesofrelatives,aswell asthedeceased’sreligiousandpoliticalbeliefs,age,character,pro- fession,hobbiesandinterests.Thus,popularmusic,especiallyinEn- glish,isincreasinglypresentatfuneralsinthePrimorskaregion.We evenfounddiscomusicatthefuneralofayoungerdeceasedperson. Traditionallaments,whicharepresentthroughoutSlovenia(such as‘Lipa’and‘Vsisovencivejli’),arestillfoundintherepertoireof funeralmusic,butlessfrequently.Itisinterestingtonotethatsome- timespeopleinPrimorskadescribetheselamentsasbeing‘toode- pressing’andsaythattheywouldmerelyaddtotheirgrief;Ididnot findthiscuriosityelsewhereinSlovenia.Perhapsthisisrelatedto thecharacterofthepeoplelivingalongtheMediterranean,which alsoinfluencesthechoiceoffuneralmusic. ClassicalmusicremainsthechoiceofmanypeopleinPrimorska; popularcompositionsincludeSchubert’s‘AveMaria’andariasfrom operas,whicharemostlyinItalianandareoften(butnotexclu- sively)chosenbymembersoftheItalianminority.Standardensem- blesatfuneralsinPrimorskaarestillsingersandatrumpetatthe end,butsometimessolosingersappear,occasionallyalsootherin- strumentssuchastheclarinet,guitarorflute.Thereismoreand morerecordedmusic,whichisusedmainlyintheKopercemetery. IfwecomparefuneralmusicintheSloveniancoastalareaswith funeralmusicintheneighbouringMediterraneancountryofItaly, greatdifferencescanbeseen.InnearbyTrieste,funeralsareex- tremelyshort,withoutanyculturaladditions,whichisinstarkcon- ijems TheInfluenceoftheMediterraneanonFuneralCeremonies [59] trasttotheaveragefuneralinourcountry.Thepresenceofwind bandsisalsocompletelydifferentfrompracticesatSlovenianfuner- als.Windbandsplayinginprocessionsarefamiliarfromsouthern Italy;theyareauniquetraditionwithalonghistorybuthavehad noinfluenceonSlovenianfuneralmusicandarenotrelatedtoit. Itwouldbeinterestinginfurtherstudiestogivespecialatten- tiontoinvestigatinghowtheMediterraneaninfluencesthechar- acterofthepeopleandthustheirchoiceoffuneralmusic;howdo thesechoicesdifferfromthefuneralmusicpopularinthenorthern countries?Inaddition,itwouldbeinterestingtoobservefurther thedynamicsofthechanges.Aswasevidentfromthecaseoffu- neralmusicinKoper,changesbecameapparentinarelativelyshort periodoffouryears. references AmydelaBretèque,E.2013. Parolesmélodisées:récitsépiquesetlamentations chezlesYézidisd’Arménie.Paris:ClassiquesGarnier. Breznik,A.1944.NarodopisjeSlovencev.Part1.Ljubljana:Klas. Brun,N.,andM.Remic,ed.1999.Tihipomnikiminljivegačasa:drobciošegah slovesovinpokopališkikulturivslovenskemetničnemprostoru.Ljubljana: Forma7. DeMartino,E.1977.Morte e pianto rituale: dal lamento funebre antico al piantodiMaria.Torino:Boringhieri. Gregorčič,M.1999.‘Zmanjkalojesolz.’Etnolog,n.s.,9(1):163–78. Grgič,J.2018.‘SlovoodOliverjaDragojevića–spesmijo.’Delo,1August. 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