Trieste - Maribor 2022 International Scientific Review for Contemporary Archival Theory and Practice 32/1 Trieste - Maribor 2022 INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR ARCHIVAL SCIENCE TRIESTE -MARIBOR ALMA MATER EUROPAEA - EUROPEAN CENTER MARIBOR ISSN 2670-4560 ©ATLANTI + International Scientific Review for Contemporary Archival Theory and Practice 32/1 Editor-in-Chief: Peter Pavel Klasinc (International Institute for Archival Science Trieste – Maribor, Alma Mater Europaea – European Center Maribor, Slovenia) Managing Editor: Manja Konkolič (Alma Mater Europaea – European Center Maribor, Slovenia) Associate Editors: Živana Heđbeli (Croatian State Archives Zagreb, Croatia), IIAS member Mikhail V. Larin (Historical and Archival Institute of the Russian State University for Humanities (RGGU, Moscow, Russia), IIAS member Elisabeth Scöggl-Ernst (Styrien States Archives, Graz, Austria), IIAS member Grazia Tatò (International Institute of Archival Science Trieste/Maribor, Trieste, Italy), IIAS member Reviews Editor: Manja Konkolič (Alma Mater Europaea – European Center Maribor, Slovenia) Head of the Editorial Board: Ludvik Toplak (Alma Mater Europaea – ECM, Maribor, Slovenia, European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg, Austria) Journal Manager: Katarina Pernat (Alma Mater Europaea – European Center Maribor, Slovenia) Technical Editor: Anja Prša (Alma Mater Europaea – European Center Maribor, Slovenia) © ATLANTI + as the International Scientific Review for Contemporary Archival Theory and Practice is a peer-reviewed journal containing original scientific papers published two times a year by International In- stitute for Archival Science Trieste – Maribor. The journal is co-published by Alma Mater Europaea – Europaen Center Maribor. The publisher resumes no responsability for the contents of the reports. The authors are fully responsible for the contents. Annual subscriptions are € 240 /print & online for institutions, and € 90/print & online for individuals. For more information, please visit our website at www.iias-trieste-maribor.eu. The figure of Atlant taken from: ATLAS NOUVEAU, Contenant toutes les parties du monde, Ou sont exactement Remarquées les Empires, Mon- archies, Royaumes, Etats, Republiques etc. Par Guillame dI’Isle, a Amsterdam, Chez Jean Covens & Corneille Morties, 1733. Editorial Board Jedrt Vodopivec Tomažič (Alma Mater Europaea - ECM, Maribor, Slovenia), Gianni Penzo Doria (State Archives of Venice, Ita- ly), Martin Stürzlinger (Archiversum, Vienna, Austria), Marcus Schmalzl (Bavarian State Archives, Munich, Germany), Joachim Kemper (City and Monastery Archives, Aschaffenburg, Germa- ny), Pavel A. Kyung (All-Russian Scientific and Research Institute of Records and Archives Management, Moscow, Russia), Magda- lena Marosz (University of Pedagogy, Krakow, Poland), Svetla- na Usprcova (State Archives of the Republic of North Macedonia, Skopje, North Macedonia), Branka Doknić (Archives of Yugosla- via, Belgrade, Serbia), Ivan Martinović (State Archives of Mon- tenegro, Cetinje, Montenegro), Robert Nahuet (Library and Ar- chives Canada, Ottawa, Canada), Luciana Duranti (University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada), Azem Kožar (University of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina), Izet Šabotić (Univer- sity of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina), Mario Plenković (University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia), Bogdan Florin Popo- vici (National Archives of Romania, Brasov, Romania), Andrei Rybakou (Belarusian Research Institute for Documentation and Archival Science, Minsk, Belarus), Loan Thi Tran (Hanoi Universi- ty of Home Affairs, Hanoi, Vietnam), Ana-Felicia Diaconu (Uni- versity of Bucharest, Romania), Yolanda Cagigas Ocejo (Univer- sity of Navarra, Spain), Dimitri Brunetti (Università degli Studi di Udine, Italia), Dieter Schlenker (Historical Archives of the Eu- ropean Union, Italy), Stefano Allegrezza (University of Bologna – Italy), Pekka Henttonen (Tampere University – Finland), Ildikó Szerényi (National Archives of Hungary), Yaqoob Salim Khalfan Al-Mahrouqi (NRAA, Maskat, Sultanat Oman) Editorial Office Address International Institute for Archival Science Trieste - Maribor, Via La Marmora 17, Trieste, Italy, tel.: +39 040 39 00 20, fax: +39 040 98 800 33, e-mail: info@iias-trieste-maribor.eu Alma Mater Europaea – European Center Maribor, Slovenia, Slovenska 17, 2000 Maribor, tel: +386 59 333 077, Faks: +386 2 250 19 98, e-mail: info@almamater.si. Contacts Peter Pavel Klasinc, peter.klasinc@almamater.si Number of copies 300 copies IIAS since 1985 Atlanti+ are included in the multidisciplinary bibliographic database with SCOPUS citation indexes. 5TABLE OF CONTENT TABLE OF CONTENT MESSAGE OF EDITOR-IN- CHIEF 7 Marie Ryantová 9 ARCHIVAL COLLABORATION OF CZECH ARCHIVES WITHIN CENTRAL EUROPE Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović 19 WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? Bogdan-Florin Popovici 30 FACETS OF ARCHIVAL MEMORY: BETWEEN LEGAL AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Aliya Mustafina 36 THE EXPERIENCE OF DUAL TRAINING OF ARCHIVISTS IN KAZAKHSTAN Ameera Yahya Ahmed AL-Hooti 42 ARCHIVES IN SHAPING COLLECTIVE MEMORY Karen J. Trivette 50 ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS 65 7 MESSAGE OF EDITOR-IN- CHIEF In October 2022, it was with great enthusiasm that I received the message, that the At- lanti+ journal (International Scientific Journal for Contemporary Archival Theory and Practice) had been accepted into Scopus. The efforts have paid off and we thus have the opportunity to publish our independ- ent scientific articles in a relevant journal. Requirements regarding publications in relevant journals are the precondition for promotion, academic habilitations and/or research titles. Scopus is known as Elsevier's abstract and citation database, the best for peer-reviewed journals. Scopus covers over 36,300 reviewed and top-quality research scientific papers titles from over 11,600 publishers, including archival science as an independent, aca- demic, multidisciplinary, and interdisciplinary science. The Scopus information service enables searching in multidisciplinary bibliographic da- tabases with a citation index. The reviewers wrote about Atlanti+ to be a well-organ- ized journal, suggesting increasing the citations of articles, already existing in Scopus journals. They recommended not to delay publishing individual volumes of Atlanti+. The contents of our journal will be interesting for users because the articles undoubted- ly have an international potential. It was further suggested to continue with implemen- tation of measures for international recognition. We have thus prepared summaries in compliance with the requirements, and the content of the articles in accordance with the scope and goals of the journal. This leaves me wondering why authors do not consider contributions from relevant journals currently covered by Scopus. It is a fact, that there is a lack of journals from the field of archival science. Atlanti+ has clear goals and areas of application through journal-policies that are in line with the content of our magazine. The very title of the journal Atlanti+ introduces us to the International Scientific Journal for Contemporary Archival Theory and Practice, for which more efforts will have to be made in the future to achieve the justification of such a title. I would like to personally thank the reviewers, whose findings I partially used in the text above. The archivists have joined two communities, Scopus and Inter PARES Trust A1. I am pos- itive that we will be able to use this to our advantage and follow the Latin saying "age quod agis", which means, do what you are doing well. Assoc. prof. dr. Peter Pavel Klasinc, archival councilor Head of Archival study programs at Alma Mater Europaea MESSAGE OF EDITOR-IN- CHIEF Peter Pavel Klasinc Marie Ryantová1 ARCHIVAL COLLABORATION OF CZECH ARCHIVES WITHIN CENTRAL EUROPE Abstract The aim of this paper is to present the main areas of international cooperation in Czech archives, especially within Central Europe. Cooperation is developed both within the framework of membership in the International Council on Archives (and its organ- isations) and on the basis of direct cooperation agreements with archival institutions abroad. Long-term research of archival materials in various foreign archives, as well as participation in various conferences and meetings, is ongoing. Significant international cooperation is associated in particular with the ICARUS association, in connection with the “Monasterium” project. An example of international cooperation, this time connect- ing two countries/regions, the Czech Republic and Bavaria, is the archival web portal “Porta fontium”. The Czech Archival Society, as a professional organisation of Czech ar- chivists, has also been developing cooperation with neighbouring Central European countries for a long time. The official concept of archival development in the Czech Re- public between the years 2018 and 2025 with a view to 2035 emphasises internal prob- lems and does not mention international cooperation, but there is no reason to fear that this area will not continue to be developed. Keywords: International Council on Archives, National archive, state archives, research of archival material, ICARUS - Monasterium, Czech Archival Society 1 Marie Ryantová, Doc. PhDr., CSc. The Institute of Archival Science and Auxiliary Historical Sciences of the Faculty of Arts at the South Bohemian University in České Budějovice, Branišovská 31a, CZ 370 České Budějovice, ryantova@ff.jcu.cz 9ARCHIVAL COLLABORATION OF CZECH ARCHIVES WITHIN CENTRAL EUROPE Marie Ryantová ARCHIVAL COLLABORATION OF CZECH ARCHIVES WITHIN CENTRAL EUROPE International cooperation between Czech archives has been underway since the times of Czechoslovakia (Simkovičová, 2009), which became a member (or rather its archival administration) of the International Council on Archives in 1958 (Wanner, 2019).2 Joining the Council resulted in an opportunity to renew or establish good relations with for- eign colleagues and to take a more intense interest in archival developments abroad. However, the actual cooperation was primarily influenced by the political conditions and limited to other socialist countries. 1.1 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHIVAL ADMINISTRATION AND RECORDS SERVICE AT THE MINISTRY OF THE INTERIOR The independent Czech Republic, which came into being on 1 January 1993, has contin- ued its membership in the International Council on Archives and is a member of the Eu- ropean Regional Branch of the International Council on Archives (EURBICA) (Simkovičová, 2009, pp. 362–363). After 2001, activities related to the membership of the Department of Archive Administration and Records Service of the Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic in the European Board of National Archivists (EBNA) increased, bringing to- gether representatives of national archives or archival administrations or directorates of EU members and accession countries. The meetings take place twice a year in the country holding the EU Presidency. Closely related to this was the creation of the Com- mission of National Archives Experts, organised by the European Commission, which has evolved into the European Archives Group (EAG), which meets twice a year in Brussels (Simkovičová, 2009, pp. 364–365; Wanner 2013a,b). Another area is cooperation on the basis of implementing protocols for intergovern- mental cultural agreements, especially within the framework of direct cooperation agreements with archival institutions abroad. From 1991 to October 2006, fourteen such agreements were concluded, mainly with neighbouring countries (Germany, Po- land, Austria, Russia, Slovenia, Italy, France, Romania, Croatia, and the Ukraine) (Simk- ovičová, 2009, pp. 368–369). These agreements include visits by foreign guests, arranged by the Department of Archive Administration and Records Service of the Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic, primarily to study in archives and learn about the Nation- al Archives’ professional activities. 1.2 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION OF THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES AND STATE ARCHIVES Since 2005, the Czech archival sector has also been represented in the DLM (Document Lifecycle Management) Forum, of which the National Archives is currently a member. The DLM Forum includes public archives, IT companies, academics and other entities in- terested in archiving, records management, document management and information lifecycle. It is an EU partner organisation that issues expert recommendations and opin- ions, model requirements, etc. in handling various documents in digital form, including their long-term preservation. It currently takes the traditional form of a foundation. In recent years, representatives of the National Archives in Prague, as well as Dr Michal Wanner, the permanent representative of the Department of Archival Administration and Records Management of the Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic, have par- 2 The Czech archivist and historian Václav Husa (1906–1965) was one of the members of the so-called Tem- porary Council, which met in Paris from 9 to 11 June 1948, and a member of the first Executive Commit- tee. The application to the International Council on Archives was sent to Paris in June 1958, after the ar- chival administrations of the USSR, Poland, Romania and Hungary and the main state archives of the GDR had become members of the ICA, and after the application had been approved by the Political Bureau of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. 10 ARCHIVAL COLLABORATION OF CZECH ARCHIVES WITHIN CENTRAL EUROPE Marie Ryantová ticipated in meetings in Lisbon, Oslo, Bern, Helsinki and Tallinn (Simkovičová, 2009, pp. 365–367).3 The DLM Forum and other areas of European cooperation (EBNA, EAG) were connected with several projects in which Czech archivists also participated – Standard MoReq2, APEx (Archives Portal Europe), APEnet, Europeana, European cooperation in the field of conservation, etc. (Wanner, 2010, 2015a,b, 2017a,b, 2018). Long-term research of archival materials in various foreign archives is ongoing. In recent years, the National Archives staff, have been studying materials in German archives (Ber- lin, Munich) as a part of the project “Nazi Occupational Administration”, relating to the ad- ministration of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.4 To publish an edition of reports of the papal nuncios at the imperial court in Prague (Cesare Speciano, 1592–1598, and An- tonio Caetano, 1607–1611), long-term research has been carried out in the Vatican Apos- tolic Archives, as well as in the Vatican Library or the Ambrosian Library in Milano and oth- er archives in Rome, in cooperation with the restored Czech Historical Institute in Rome (Černušák, 2013, 2017; Pazderová, 2016). The collaboration between the National Archives in Prague and the Austrian State Archives in Vienna has been intensive and long-lasting (Simkovičová 2009, p. 370), resulting in the extensive book A Guide for the Czech Visitor, pub- lished in 2013 (Drašarová et al., 2013), and various studies (e. g. Vojáček – Kahuda, 2014). Since the 1990s, cooperation between the National (formerly State Central) Archives in Prague and the Italian archivists has been successfully developing within the frame- work of a cultural agreement between the archival administrations of the Czech and Italian Republics, as well as research into the holdings of the State Archives in Florence in connection with the archival fonds of the Tuscan Habsburg Family Archives, stored at the National Archives in Prague (Gregorovičová, 2013; Simkovičová, 2009, pp. 369–370). In addition to the actual study of archival materials, cooperation also took the form of various consultations, preparation of inventories, participation in conferences and pub- lications (editions, articles). The most visible result of this cooperation was the organi- sation of exciting exhibitions (Benešová, 2004). Already in 1991, the then State Central Archive lent a large set of maps and plans from the collection above, first for a show at the State Archives in Florence (“Lorraine Tuscany in the Maps of the State Central Archive in Prague”) (Gregorovičová – Semotanová, 1992), and then for a similar exhibition in Siena in 1997 (“Manuscripts and Maps of the State Central Archive in Prague. The Treasure of the Grand Dukes of Tuscany”). A selection of the exhibited materials was later presented in Prague, first in the exhibition “Italian Tuscany on Maps of the 18th and 19th Centuries” (1992) and later in the exhibition “Siena in Prague”, organised in 2000 in cooperation with the National Gallery in Prague and the Archive and University of Siena, so that it was possible to supplement the archival material with loaned works of art (Pazderová – Bonneli Conenna, 2000; Siena in Praga). This was followed in 2003 by a smaller exhibition at the State Central Archive entitled “The Hidden Charm of Letter Papers, Small applied arts in Tuscan correspondence stored in the State Central Archive in Prague” (Gregor- ovičová – Nevímová, 2003). These exhibitions have thus also become an important proof of the cooperation between Czech and Italian archivists. Archivists from the Czech Republic also actively participate in meetings of archivists and staff of other memory institutions from Germany and the countries of Central and Southeastern Europe, where Germans lived in the past and which manage the archives of the German-speaking population, i.e. in the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, Roma- 3 See https://www.nacr.cz/o-nas/vyrocni-zpravy/vyrocni-zprava-za-rok-2019#zahranici, https://www. nacr.cz/o-nas/vyrocni-zpravy/vyrocni-zprava-za-rok-2021#zahranici21. 4 See https://www.nacr.cz/o-nas/vyrocni-zpravy/vyrocni-zprava-za-rok-2021#zahranici21, https://www. nacr.cz/o-nas/vyrocni-zpravy/vyrocni-zprava-za-rok-2019#zahranici. 11ARCHIVAL COLLABORATION OF CZECH ARCHIVES WITHIN CENTRAL EUROPE Marie Ryantová nia, Slovenia, etc. These meetings have been held regularly since 2010 (annually until 2013 and biennial since 2015) in the German spa town of Bad Kissingen in Bavaria and are devoted to various issues related to archives and archival material (information on different archival materials and archival collections, their content, processing and use, digitisation of archival materials and making them available online, as well as the re- trieval of personal archival materials such as memories or diaries and interviews with survivors) (Kravar, 2012, 2013, 2016, 2018, 2020; Heßdörfer – Kluttig, 2011; Riedel – Souhr, 2012; Armgart, 2013; Armgart, 2014; Krämer-Riedel, 2016). Various archival internships are also available on the basis of international agreements, especially at the French National Archives or the German Archivschule Marburg (Simk- ovičová, 2009, p. 373). Most of the international cooperation, however, is carried out with- in the framework of specific projects between Czech archives and various foreign institu- tions, within the framework of cross-border cooperation, in the framework of research projects and also in the form of research stays in multiple archives, especially in neigh- bouring countries (Slovakia, Austria, Germany, Hungary). The project “The process of the constitution of historical sources in the perspective of the interaction of archival and his- torical science and the theory of the value of (archival) documents” implemented at the State Regional Archives in Prague and supported by the DAAD (Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst) in cooperation with the Archivschule Marburg (Germany), was one of the most recent projects.5 Information on foreign contacts and trips is mainly provided by the annual reports of individual archives and summary reports published in the leading archival periodical, the Archivní časopis (Archival Journal) (Weinlichová, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018; Dostálová, 2019, 2020; Simkovičová, 2009, pp. 376–438).6 1.3 MONASTERIUM AND ICARUS Significant international cooperation is associated primarily with the ICARUS association, founded in 2008, following the “Monasterium” project (www.monasterium.net), found- ed in 2001 in the diocesan archives in St. Pölten in Lower Austria. Its main aim was to cre- ate a virtual online archive of medieval and early modern documents, first from Lower Austrian and Austrian monasteries, but gradually also from monastic archives in other countries and from other archives of mainly ecclesiastical provenance from the whole of Central Europe. The main coordinators of the project were representatives of the In- stitute zur Erforschung und Erschließung kirchlicher Quellen, based in St. Pölten. The project involved numerous church institutions, public and private archives and univer- sities from Austria, but also from other countries – Bavaria, Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Slovakia, Switzerland and Italy. In 2005, the National Archives in Prague began to participate in this project. The National Archives contain archives and documents of important church institutions, including the archives of formerly dissolved monasteries and deposited materials of monasteries restored after 1990 (Simkovičová, 2009, p. 371; Křečková, 2009, 2010). In total, there are 13 archival fonds of ecclesiastical provenance and, in addition, five non-ecclesiastical fonds, whose documentary collections, howev- er, also primarily concern ecclesiastical issues. These documents were digitised by the end of 2006, followed in 2007 by the digitisation of the records of the Archive of the Czech Crown. This is one of the oldest and most valuable archival collections of the Czech state, and its content goes beyond its scope, and gradually the documents from other 5 See http://www.soapraha.cz/Files/vyrocni-zprava-2018.pdf. 6 However, only the travels of employees of state archives and the archival administration of the Ministry of the Interior are recorded, not those of other types of archives (especially archives of universities and scientific institutions). Simkovičová 2009, pp. 376–438, gives an overview of foreign trips of Czech archi- vists after 1945, but especially after 1990, until 2007. 12 ARCHIVAL COLLABORATION OF CZECH ARCHIVES WITHIN CENTRAL EUROPE Marie Ryantová collections were digitised. In the next phase, documents from other archives, not only from the state archives (the Moravian Land Archive in Brno, the Land Archive in Opava, the state regional archives in Prague, Třeboň, Plzeň, Litoměřice and Zámrsk) were digitised, but also from other archives in the Czech Republic holding important collections of eccle- siastical documents (the Archives of Charles University, the Archives of Prague Castle, the Archives of the National Museum, the Archives of the Cistercian Monastery in Vyšší Brod) (Křečková – Pazderová 2007; Křečková 2007, 2008). The International Center for Archival Re- search (ICARUS) itself was founded on the basis of written statements from the archives and institutions of the countries participating in the “Monasterium” project as a platform for the exchange of knowledge and experience in European archiving, which was also intended to assist in the creation and implementation of specific projects, including the raising of funds. The founding general assembly of the association took place on 11 June 2008 in Bratislava and today the association brings together over 180 archives and re- search institutions (mainly university departments) from 33 European countries as well as Canada and the United States (Křečková, 2009, 2010).7 The “Monasterium” project was then gradually followed by other new projects – “Ma- tricula” (creation of a portal of church registers of Central Europe – however, only the Moravian Land Archive in Brno was involved from the Czech Republic), “Charters Net- work 2008–2010” (with the involvement of the National Archives in Prague, Moravi- an Land Archive in Brno, the Land Archive in Opava and the state regional archives in Prague, Třeboň, Plzeň, Litoměřice and Zámrsk), “Cadastral Maps” (the Czech Republic is involved in the Land Archive in Opava), ENAC (European Network on Archival Coopera- tion), “Topoteque”, “Timemachine”, “European Digital Treasures”.8 In cooperation with the Institut de Recherche et d’Histoire des Textes (IRHT) in Paris, a research institution under the Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS), the project “History of Medieval Europe” (HOME) has been running since 2019, focusing on the processing of texts of scanned documents of medieval offices in the framework of eHumanities.9 For now, the latest event within the ICARUS organisation (and the European Digital Treasures project) is the exhibition “Europa, wer bist du? Menschen, Mächte, Mythen” (The Construction of Europe; European Discoveries; Exiles, Migrators, Flows and Solidarity), organised in cooperation with the national archives of Hungary, Malta, Spain, Portugal and Norway (using some documents from other national archives, including the Nation- al Archives of the Czech Republic), which will take place at the Diocesan Museum in St. Pölten in three parts from 7 May to 30 October 2022.10 1.4 ARCHIVE WEB PORTAL PORTA FONTIUM Another example of significant international cooperation, this time connecting two countries, is the archival web portal “Porta fontium” (http://www.portafontium.eu/), implemented in cooperation between the State Regional Archives in Pilsen and the General Directorate of the Bavarian Archives. At its very inception there was the project named “Bavarian-Czech Network of Digital Historical Sources” (2010–2012), followed upon by “Czech-Bavarian Archival Guide” (2013–2015), the purpose of which was to map the terrain of archival materials on both sides of the Czech-Bavarian border. Soon digi- tisation of selected archival material from West-Bohemian and some Bavarian state ar- 7 See https://www.icar-us.eu/en/. 8 See https://www.icar-us.eu/en/cooperation/online-portals/, https://www.icar-us.eu/en/coopera- tion/projects/, https://data.matricula-online.eu/en/, https://www.topothek.at/de/, https://www. timemachine.eu/, https://www.digitaltreasures.eu/. 9 See https://www.nacr.cz/o-nas/vyrocni-zpravy/vyrocni-zprava-za-rok-2019#zahranici. 10 See https://www.digitaltreasures.eu/, https://www.museumamdom.at/. 13ARCHIVAL COLLABORATION OF CZECH ARCHIVES WITHIN CENTRAL EUROPE Marie Ryantová chives started, namely parish records (which Pilsen started to digitise even before and made them accessible, from 2010, through Acta Publica web application in partnership with Moravian Land Archive), but also land registers and urbaria, chronicles, photo- graphs, documents, census logs, periodicals, police conscription records for the city of Pilsen from years 1918–1941 or list of guests in West-Bohemia spas. Digitised materials have been accessible on the portal since November 2012, and they are still used by the researchers. The original project has expanded and taken the form of a database, which was made accessible in May 2015 and is to bring detailed information on archival col- lections in all state archives of the Czech Republic (not just in Western Bohemia) which include the so-called Bavariana, and collections in the state archives of Bavaria which include the so-called Bohemica. At the same time, archival collections, formerly divided and located in various archives on both sides of the border, are to be virtually intercon- nected, such as documents from the Waldsassen monastery stored in the State Archive in Amberg and in the State District Archive in Cheb (Augustin – Halla, 2017). This Czech-Bavarian project continued in the years 2014–2020 under the title “Modern Access to Historical Sources”, in June 2021 its results were presented at the final work- shop “New Technologies in Exploring the Past” in the Czech Republic, on 29 June 2022 a similar workshop “Digitale Quellen – digitale Methoden” was held in Munich.11 1.5 ACTIVITIES OF THE CZECH ARCHIVAL SOCIETY The Czech Archival Society, a professional organisation of Czech archivists founded in 1990, has been developing cooperation with neighbouring Central European countries for a long time. The cooperation is mainly in the form of participation of representatives of the CAS at archival congresses or conferences in neighbouring countries (Slovakia, Germany, Austria, Poland, Hungary) and, in turn, representatives of archival organisa- tions of these countries at national archival conferences in the Czech Republic. Reports of participants in foreign events are regularly published in the yearbook of the ČAS. More significant is the cooperation within the so-called Visegrad Group (Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary), which was established on the basis of a mutual declaration in 2007. It has resulted in several joint meetings, such as the conference “Culinary Her- itage in Documents” (Warsaw 2009) (Ryantová, 2010), a meeting on sources in Russian archives (Gödöllö 2015) or an “archival picnic” (Warsaw 2015) (Ďurčanský – Ryantová, 2016), and in 2016 a joint international travelling exhibition of reproductions of archival documents entitled “From Visegrad to Visegrad” was organised, launched in Warsaw and then presented in other countries and cities (Svoboda – Valůšek, 2017). In June 2010, the Czech Archival Society also organised a Czech-Saxon meeting of ar- chivists, following on from the previous Saxon-Czech meetings and associated with a conference on “Sources for Bohemian/Saxon history in the archives of both countries” (Richter-Laugwitz, 2010; Ryantová et al., 2011). Two years later, an international confer- ence on “Tuition Archival Science – Development, Tasks and Perspectives” was held in České Budějovice, co-organised by the Czech Archival Society and the Institute of Ar- chival Science and Historical Auxiliary Sciences of the Faculty of Arts of the University of South Bohemia, with speakers from the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary, as well as from Austria, Germany and the Netherlands (Ryantová, 2014), and students of archival science also participated in the organisation of the conference. 11 See https://www.portafontium.eu/article/moderner-zugang-zu-historischen-quellen?language=de, https://www.portafontium.eu/article/workshop-2021-bericht, https://www.portafontium.eu/article/ workshop-juni-2022, https://www.portafontium.eu/sites/default/files/programm-anmeldung-work shop-2022-06.pdf. 14 ARCHIVAL COLLABORATION OF CZECH ARCHIVES WITHIN CENTRAL EUROPE Marie Ryantová In March 2013, the Czech Archival Society co-organised the traditional spring meeting of German and Austrian archivists of universities and scientific institutions (associated in Germany since 1978 in the professional group of the Association of German Archivists and Archivists and similarly since 2008 in Austria in the professional group of the Association of Austrian Archivists). This meeting took place in Prague in the context of the idea of a wider cooperation between university archives and scientific institutions in the Central European area (Becker, 2013; Blecher – Happ, 2014). Due to the positive course of this event, it was decided to continue these wider meetings, and so the next one was held in Vienna in April 2017 (Blecher – Happ – Mikoletzky, 2018) and the last one in Munich in April 2022.12 CONCLUSION The presented paper could not present the archival cooperation of archives and archi- vists of the Czech Republic in its entirety (it is only possible to mention, for example, the study stays of university teachers, but also teachers within the Erasmus programme and related contacts). Its aim was to highlight at least the most important activities. Although the official concept of archival development in the Czech Republic between the years 2018 and 2025 with a view to 2035 emphasises internal problems and does not mention international cooperation, there is no reason to fear that this area will not continue to be developed, whether it is participation in the activities of international organisations, participation in various conferences or meetings, research of archival material in various foreign archives or other activities. REFERENCES Armgart, M. (2013), Drittes mitteleuropäisches Archivarstreffen. Der Archivar, Nr. 2, pp. 194–197. Armgart, M. (2014), Viertes mitteleuropäisches Archivars- und Archivarinnentreffen. Der Archivar, Nr. 2, pp. 192–196. Augustin, M. – Halla, K. (2017), Projekt Česko-bavorský archivní průvodce po roce fun- gování. Archivum Trebonense 14, pp. 160–169. Becker, T. (2013), Gemeinsame Frühjahrstagung der tschechischen, österreichischen und deutschen Wissenschaftsarchive 2013 in Prag. 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Pragae. 12 See https://app.guestoo.de/public/event/e843dcae-ca91-467f-ba61-6fcacc48febe. 15ARCHIVAL COLLABORATION OF CZECH ARCHIVES WITHIN CENTRAL EUROPE Marie Ryantová Dostálová, I. (2019), Zahraniční cesty odboru archivní správy a spisové služby, NA, MZA, ZA a státních oblastních archivů za rok 2018. Archivní časopis 69, pp. 403–420. Dostálová, I. (2020), Zahraniční cesty odboru archivní správy a spisové služby, NA, MZA, ZA a státních oblastních archivů za rok 2019. Archivní časopis 70, pp. 400–421. Drašarová, E. et al. (2013), Průvodce po Rakouském státním archivu ve Vídni pro českého návštěvníka. Praha – Dolní Břežany. Ďurčanský, M. – Ryantová, M. (2016), Konference maďarských archivářů v Gödöllö (6. – 8. července 2015). ČAS v roce 2015. Ročenka České archivní společnosti. Praha, pp. 94–98. European Discoveries. From the New World to New Technologies. Leobersdorf [2022]. Exiles, Migrators, Flows and Solidarity. Leobersdorf [2022]. Gregorovičová, E. – Semotanová, E. (1992), Italské Toskánsko na mapách 18. a 19. století z rodinného archívu toskánských Habsburků. Praha. Gregorovičová, E. – Nevímová, P. (2003), Skrytý půvab dopisů toskánských Habsburků. Il facino nascosto del carteggio dei Granduchi di Toscana. Praha. Gregorovičová, E. (2013), Přehled výsledků průzkumu fondů ve Státním archivu ve Flor- encii za léta 2002–2011. Archivní časopis 63, pp. 243–264. Heßdörfer, S. – Kluttig, T. (2011), Mitteleuropäisches Archivars- und Archivarinnentref- fen aus Einrichtungen mit Sammlungen von Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte im östlichen Europa. Der Archivar, Nr. 2, pp. 218–220. Krämer-Riedel, J. (2016), Fünftes mitteleuropäisches Archivars- und Archivarinnentref- fen aus Einrichtungen mit Quellensammlungen zur deutschen Geschichte im östli- chen Europa. Der Archivar, Nr. 1, pp. 47–48. Kravar, Z. (2012), Archivní setkání v Burg Hohenberg ve dnech 24. – 26. října 2011. Ar- chivní časopis 62, pp. 71–73. Kravar, Z. 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Křečková, J. (2010), Vznik mezinárodního spolku ICARus a pokračování digitalizace listin v rámci projektu Monasterium. Archivní časopis 60, pp. 249–251. Pazderová, A. – Bonneli Conenna, L. (edd.) (2000), Siena v Praze. Dějiny, umění, společnost... Praha. Pazderová, A. (ed.) (2016), Epistulae et acta nuntiorum apostolicorum apud imperatorem 1592– 1628. Tomus I. Epistulae et acta Caesaris Speciani 1592–1598. Pars I. Mai 1592 – Dezember 1592. Pars II. Januar 1593 – Dezember 1593. Pars III. Januar 1594 – Dezember 1594. Pragae. 16 ARCHIVAL COLLABORATION OF CZECH ARCHIVES WITHIN CENTRAL EUROPE Marie Ryantová Richter-Laugwitz, G. (2010), Erstes Tschechisch-Sächsisches Archivarstreffen vom 4. bis 6. Juni in Děčín. Der Archivar, Nr. 3, pp. 331–332. Riedel, J. – Souhr, A. (2012), Zweites mitteleuropäisches Archivarstreffen. Der Archivar, Nr. 3, pp. 303–305. Ryantová, M. (2010), Další setkání představitelů archivních asociací zemí Visegrádské čtyř- ky ve Varšavě. ČAS v roce 2009. Ročenka České archivní společnosti. Praha, pp. 58–59. Ryantová, M. et al. (2011), Bohemia – Saxonia. Vybrané otázky dějin českých zemí a Saska a jejich prameny v archivech obou zemí/ Ausgewählte Probleme von Geschichte Böhmens und Sachsens und ihre Quellen in den Archiven beider Länder. Praha. Ryantová, M. (ed.) (2014), Výuka archivnictví – vývoj, úkoly a perspektivy. Mezinárodní konference 14. – 16. 3. 2012. Archivní časopis 64 – supplementum. Siena in Praga. Storia, artem societa... Praga 2000. Simkovičová, J. (2009), Mezinárodní vztahy československého a českého archivnictví po roce 1918 do současnosti. Sborník archivních prací 59, Nr. 2, pp. 315–440. Svoboda, M. – Valůšek, D. (2017), Mezinárodní archivní výstava Od Visegrádu k Visegrá- du. ČAS v roce 2016. Ročenka České archivní společnosti. Praha, pp. 46–50. Vojáček, M. – Kahuda, J. (2014), Archivquellen zum Weltkrieg 1914–1918 im Nationalar- chiv Prag – Übersicht der wichtigsten Bestände und Teilbestände. Mitteilungen des Österreichischen Staatsarchivs 57, pp. 33–52. Wanner, M. (2010), Členské zasedání Fóra DLM ve švédském Härnosandu. Archivní časopis 60, pp. 74–85. Wanner, M. (2013a), Zasedání Evropského výboru národních archivářů a Evropské ar- chivní skupiny v Nikósii 11. – 12. října 2012. Archivní časopis 63, pp. 91–98. Wanner, M. (2013b), Vybrané poznatky ze zasedání Evropského výboru národních ar- chivářů a Evropské archivní skupiny ve Vilniusu 8. – 9. října 2012. Archivní časopis 63, pp. 412–414. Wanner, M. (2015a), 7. tříletá konference Fóra DLM v Lisabonu. Archivní časopis 65, pp. 85–88. Wanner, M. (2015b), Archivní konference v Lucemburku 11. – 15. října 2015. Archivní časopis 65, pp. 420–425. Wanner, M. (2017a), Členské zasedání Fóra DLM v Oslu 15. – 16. listopadu 2016. Archivní časopis 67, pp. 63–65. Wanner, M. (2017b), 8. tříletá konference Fóra DLM. Archivní časopis 67, pp. 403–407. Wanner, M. (2018), Členské zasedání Fóra DLM v Tallinu 29. května – 1. června 2018 a nová budova Estonského národního archivu v Tartu. Archivní časopis 68, pp. 321–331. Wanner, M. (2019), Vznik Mezinárodní archivní rady a počátky české účasti na jejích ak- tivitách 1948–1960. Archivní časopis 69, pp. 117–139. Weinlichová, V. (2012), Zahraniční cesty OASSS, NA, MZA, ZA a státních oblastních archivů v roce 2011. Archivní časopis 62, pp. 272–285. Weinlichová, V. (2013), Zahraniční cesty OASSS, NA, MZA, ZA a státních oblastních archivů v roce 2012. Archivní časopis 63, pp. 279–292. Weinlichová, V. (2014), Zahraniční cesty OASSS, NA, MZA, ZA a státních oblastních archivů za rok 2013. Archivní časopis 64, pp. 407–425. Weinlichová, V. (2015), Zahraniční cesty OASSS, NA, MZA, ZA a státních oblastních archivů za rok 2014. Archivní časopis 65, pp. 279–296. 17ARCHIVAL COLLABORATION OF CZECH ARCHIVES WITHIN CENTRAL EUROPE Marie Ryantová Weinlichová, V. (2016), Zahraniční cesty OASSS, NA, MZA, ZA a státních oblastních archivů za rok 2015. Archivní časopis 66, pp. 185–197. Weinlichová, V. (2017), Zahraniční cesty OASSS, NA, MZA, ZA a státních oblastních archivů za rok 2016. Archivní časopis 67, pp. 416–430. Weinlichová, V. (2018), Zahraniční cesty OASSS, NA, MZA, ZA a státních oblastních archivů za rok 2017. Archivní časopis 68, pp. 385–397. 18 ARCHIVAL COLLABORATION OF CZECH ARCHIVES WITHIN CENTRAL EUROPE Marie Ryantová Živana Heđbeli1, Nikola Mokrović2 WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? ABSTRACT The concept of collective memory has been in use for a relatively short time. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to define collective memory, to determine what is the relation- ship between archives and collective memory in the Republic of Croatia (RC) and how they affect each other, in order to deduce whether archives shape collective memory, and if so, to what extent. The paper draws on RC laws and regulations, publicly avail- able Culture and Media Ministry strategic documents, statistical data compiled by the Croatian Bureau of Statistics, as well as the relevant literature and articles. These served as the basis for applied descriptive and empirical methods that led us to the conclusion. There are no archives in the RC other than state archives. These are financed from the state budget, while their directors and governing boards are appointed by governmen- tal bodies. Archives in the RC are entirely dependent upon the state. Their main task, for which they are in many ways under-resourced and fail to fully execute, is to receive national archival records and take care of them. It is the task of archives to preserve and process archival material and make it available for use. The work of archives needs to be based on scientific and professional principles and methods. A history shaped by col- lective values is not a scientific, objective history, but a generator of future conflicts, wars, and friction. The work of archives cannot and may not be determined by collective memories; on the contrary, it is archives that should shape collective memory. KEYWORDS: Croatia, collective memory, archive, state, Homeland War 1 dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, archival adviser, The Croatian State Archives, Marulićev trg 21, 10000 Zagreb, Cro- atia, zivana.hedbeli@gmail.com 2 Nikola Mokrović, research associate, Documenta – Center for Dealing with the Past, Human Rights House, Selska cesta 112c, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia, nikola.mokrovic@documenta.hr 19WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović 1. PURPOSE Members of the International Institute for Archival Science of Trieste and Maribor (IIAS) chose two topics for the 2022 conference, one of which was The role of archives in shap- ing collective memory. The concept of collective memory has been in use for a relatively short time, and this paper aims to determine what is collective memory, what is the re- lationship between archives and collective memory in the Republic of Croatia (RC) and how they affect each other and, if so, to what extent. On the whole, the Institute did not deal with this topic, and one struggles to find relevant papers in Atlanti, the Institute’s publication. The situation is similar when it comes to papers and articles in Croatian ar- chival publications. To take the major Croatian journal in the field of archival studies, Arhivski vjesnik (Archival Gazette), there are no relevant articles in more recent issues. The major Croatian archival association, the Croatian Archival Society, had not yet held a conference on the relationship between archives and collective memory (now referring to the time when this article was written). The 49th symposium of Croatian archivists – Archives and the Homeland War, and the 4th Congress – Archives and Politics – can to a certain extent be linked to the topic of archives and collective memory, although papers presented at these two conferences rather reflect on concrete topics, such as the oper- ations of a specific archive during the Homeland War, or the use of archival holdings for political purposes. 2. METHOD This work has drawn on RC laws and regulations, publicly available strategic documents of the Ministry of Culture and Media, statistical data compiled by the Croatian Bureau of Statistics, as well as the relevant literature and articles. These served as the basis for the descriptive and empirical methods in order to reach a conclusion. The relationship between collective memory and archives cannot be addressed without defining these two concepts. In this paper, we have used the definitions available on- line on frequently used web portals such as Wikipedia, or the Croatian Encyclopaedia. What is collective memory? The English language Wikipedia defines it as follows: Col- lective memory refers to the shared pool of memories, knowledge and information of a social group that is significantly associated with the group’s identity. The online edi- tion of the Croatian Encyclopaedia does not have a single entry on the term “collective”, there is an entry under “collective memory”, but provided definition is a psychological definition of memory, i.e. memory is defined as the capacity to retain and use informa- tion. The Croatian Language Portal likewise does not feature the concept of collective memory. The Portal defines a collective as a group of people gathered around a com- mon project, job, task, promotion of an idea, that is, as people who make up an organ- isation, working community or unit. Memory is the process of acquiring and retaining new information or new modes of behaviour; i.e. memory. We do find a definition of collective memory on Struna, the database of Croatian special-field terminology, which defines collective memory (as synonymous with social memory) as the political process of selecting, shaping, structuring, and reorganising particular details from the past in line with the requirements of maintaining social order. Collective memory is based on mechanisms by which the past is distorted, such as selective omission of, or systematic silence on events that do not accord with the existing social order, or, conversely, exag- gerating, and embellishing facts. The dynamics of social memory is shaped by institu- tions, the education system, historiography, museums, the practice of memorialisation, etc. Benčić’s dissertation (2015) defines collective memory (p. 39) as follows: “Collec- tive memories are therefore memories shared by a certain group of people. Collective 20 WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović memories are socially constructed and pertain to the ways in which a group of people construct their past (most often, a nation).” It also specifies that, from the point of view of the politics of memory, memory is the experience of a social group with power (p. 28). Memory is always immersed in complex political and class relations that determine what is to be remembered (or forgotten), who should remember, and to what purpose. What is an archive? The online edition of the Croatian Encyclopaedia defines an archive as a private or public collection of documents that need to be preserved, that is, an in- stitution tasked with collecting and safekeeping archival materials (archivalia) for the purposes of scholarly research. In the RC, in an ideal case, the regulations on records management and archival management, whose principles have remained practically unchanged since 1945 to this day, mandate that in performing their work, as well as in official correspondence with natural and legal entities, governmental bodies receive or collect documents, that is, documentary (registry) materials. The entire documents must be registered in the official records of each body. Each body’s record office receives complete files, organises the use, processing and disposition of records and other doc- uments, keeps records of documents, attends to the integrity and arrangement of ar- chival material, supervises it, safeguards it, and performs tasks related to transferring custody of its materials to the relevant archival institution. The tasks of processing, se- curing, and managing documents and archives are entrusted to professionally qualified individuals trained to perform certain tasks. Documents are kept in the record office until they are disposed or transferred to the relevant state archive. The relevant state archive is in charge of expert supervision of the records kept by the bodies. Archival ma- terials are transferred to the relevant state archive within a deadline that typically does not extend beyond 30 years from their origination. This paper is based on the relationship between archives and collective memory in the RC, and briefly presents information about the key event in the recent history of Croatia – its independence and the Homeland War.3 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY), made up of six republics, one of them Croatia, fell apart in the bloody wars at the end of the 20th century. New states emerged in its former territory, among them the RC, where the war is known as the Homeland War. The Homeland War was a defensive war of liberation for the independ- ence and integrity of the RC, against the aggression of the allied Greater-Serbian forces – extremists from Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (especially the Republika Srpska), and Serbia and Montenegro. During the initial stages of the war, an important role in the attacks on the RC was also played by the Yugoslavian National Army (YNA), then still at least nominally the common armed forces of all the SFRY member-states, which was to be reorganised over several months into three substantially interconnected – through common command and supply – militaries: the Serbian Army of Krajina in Croatia, the Republika Srpska Army in BH, and the Yugoslavian Army in Serbia and Montenegro. After the Bljesak and Oluja (Flash and Storm) operations, the biggest part of the occupied ter- ritory of the RC was liberated, while the remainder was peacefully reintegrated without the use of military force, with the help of the transitional international administration (1996-1998). The Homeland War came at a high price. According to data available at the online edition of the Croatian Encyclopaedia, at least 12,500 people were killed on the Croatian side, 3 The paper cites the most basic information. There are many articles, papers, information available on- line, both in the languages of the former SFRY and in international languages, about the dissolution of the SFRY, the emergence of new states within its erstwhile territory, the war of the 1990s, the work of the Hague Tribunal and related topics. 21WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović while the 1,030 whose fates are still unknown were considered missing persons. The wounded (33,043 people, of whom 9,816 civilians), prisoners of Serbian camps, children who lost their parents and veterans with lasting health issues also fall into the category of victims of war. On the Serbian side, there were 6,153 soldiers and civilians who were killed or missing. A total of 183,526 residential buildings were damaged or destroyed. However, neither the Croatian Homeland War Memorial Documentation Centre, as an archive founded by the RC, nor the various civil society organisations that took it upon themselves to produce a verifiable list containing names of all those who perished or disappeared on Croatian territory, have managed to do so even though more than thirty years have elapsed since the wartime hostilities first broke out. According to statistical data (Statistical Yearbook 2011, p. 107), in 1991, Croatia had a population of 4,784,265, while in 2011 this number had shrunk by 346,805, to 4,437,460 inhabitants. In 1991, 581,663 Serbs lived in Croatia, which decreased by 380,032 to 201,631 by 2011. In 1991, there were 9,724 Montenegrins, while in 2011 there were 4,926, a decrease of 4,798. Due to the crimes committed within the territory of the former Yugoslavia, the United Nations Security Council established a judicial body, the International Criminal Tribu- nal for the former Yugoslavia (an abbreviated form of the name) by Resolution 827 of 25 May 1993. The tribunal was the first such institution to be established on the basis of Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, and its Statute is legally binding for all UN member-states. It began to operate on 18 November 1993 at its headquarters are in the Hague (the Netherlands).4 3. RESULTS 3.1. ARCHIVES IN CROATIA The RC adopted its first archival legislation in 1997. Archival materials are records or doc- uments that are the products of legal or natural entities performing their tasks, which hold permanent significance for culture, history and other disciplines, regardless of the place and time they originated, the form and physical medium on which they are pre- served. Archival holdings are the product of selecting material from registry holdings. The legislation stipulates that archival services are provided by public institutions – the Croatian State Archives (CSA), local state archives, and local self-government and ad- ministration units’ archives; while specialised and private archives can, as institutions, also perform certain tasks pertaining to archival services. 4 On 19 April 1996, the Croatian Parliament, the Republic’s highest legislative authority, adopted the Con- stitutional Act on the Cooperation of the Republic of Croatia with the International Criminal Tribunal, which regulated the cooperation of the Republic of Croatia with the International Tribunal on serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of the former Yugoslavia since 1991, and the fulfilment of the commitments of the Republic of Croatia pursuant to the Security Council resolution 827 (1993), the Statute and the Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the Tribunal. On 5 March 1999, the Croatian State Parliament adopted the Resolution on Cooperation with the International Crim- inal Tribunal, which states in Clause 7 that “The Croatian State Parliament denounces the politicisation of the operation of the International Criminal Tribunal, dismissing the imprudent public statements by the representative of the Court’s Prosecution regarding the military and police operations Bljesak and Oluja. Considering the incontrovertible legitimacy of these counter-terrorist actions on Croatia’s own territory, the Croatian State Parliament holds that any individual criminal acts committed in connection to the aforementioned are a matter solely for the Croatian judiciary.” On 14 April 2000, the Croatian State Parliament adopted a Declaration on Cooperation with the International Criminal Tribunal in the Hague, which expresses the general view that “The RC holds that all the perpetrators of war crimes committed within the territory of the former Yugoslavia need to be punished regardless of their nationality, mili- tary formation or role they performed.” 22 WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović State archives: implement measures to preserve their archival holdings and look after their security; arrange, catalogue and publish archival materials and enable their use; supervise the safekeeping and selection of archival materials outside the archives, and determine measures to preserve them; continuously supervise the work of archives and other holders of archival materials outside the system of state archives; receive public archival materials; collect private archival materials through purchases, gifts or stor- age; capture archival material for safekeeping and preservation, and perform restora- tion and conservation work on archival materials; issue data, extracts from documents and certified transcripts at users’ requests; produce and publish finding aids for specific archival fonds and collections; organise lectures, courses and other forms of profession- al training and development for personnel; organise exhibitions, lectures and other forms of cultural activities that promote interest in archival holdings and archival prac- tice; cooperate with each other and with other cultural institutions, academic and relat- ed institutions providing documentation and information services in order to improve archival practice and scientific production, as well as auxiliary historical and informa- tion sciences; they also perform other tasks defined by this Law and other regulations. State archives are established by the RC. Their operations are financed from the national budget. As the central and principal archive, the CSA performs archival services on the ar- chival and registry holdings of governmental bodies, national and public institutions, and companies, as well as legal entities, families and individuals whose activities extended or extend throughout (the majority of) the RC, that is, are of significance to the RC. Local state archives perform archival services on the archival and registry holdings of govern- mental bodies, legal entities with public competences and public services who perform their activities within one or more local self-government and administration units, and on material that originates within the area where the archive in question operates. The archive is managed by its director. To be appointed as director of an archive, a person has to have a university degree, pass the archival certification examination, have published valuable scholarly or scientific papers and possess skills as professionals, workers and or- ganisers. In exceptional cases, a person who did not take the archival certification exam can be appointed director, if their work so far gives ground to expect that they will successfully manage the archive, undertaking to pass the certification exam within two years from their appointment. The CSA director is appointed and discharged by the Government of the RC. Directors of local state archives are appointed and discharged by the Minister of Culture. The Ministry of Culture is in charge of administrative supervision of state archives. The CSA is tasked with technical supervision of the work of the local state archives, and the Min- istry of Culture with technical supervision of the CSA. Archives also have expert councils, whose composition is defined by each archive’s statute. The 2018 archival legislation also introduced supervisory boards for state archives with more than twenty employees. A supervisory board has five members, four of whom are appointed by the founder of the state archive, and one is elected by the employees pursuant to the labour laws. According to the 2018 Statistical Yearbook, in 2017, Croatia had 19 state archives,5 which stored 15,763 fonds and collections, 117,268 metres of material (p. 518). There were 9,928 users, and 495 employees worked at the archives, 318 of whom were archivists by profession. In 2017, the RC had a population of 4,284,889 (p. 60). The 318 profession- al archivists employed in the state archives make up 0.0074% of Croatia’s population, while 9,928 users present 0.23% of the population. 5 The basic information on national archives is available at http://www.arhiv.hr/hr-hr/Arhivs- ka-slu%C5%BEba/Arhivi-u-Hrvatskoj [website partly available in English]. 23WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović According to Statistical Report no. 1690, Culture and the Arts in 2020 (pp. 79-82), 19 Cro- atian archives stored a total of 16,558 fonds and collections, 115,706 metres, of which 68.86% had been processed, and 2.5% available in digital form. Figure 1. Archival fonds and collections in 2022, Statistical Report 1690, Culture and the Arts in 2020, p. 79 In 2020, there were 780,103 metres of materials outside archives. In 2020, archives had 10,141 users, and 503 employees worked there, of whom 330 were professional archivists. Figure 2. Archival holdings outside archives in 2020, Statistical Report 1690, Culture and the Arts in 2020, p. 80 24 WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović The National Plan for the Development of Archival Practice for the period 2020-2025 (p. 5) shows that the development of archival services outside the network of state ar- chives envisaged in the 1997 Law has entirely failed to materialise. The Ministry of Culture’s Strategic Plan for 2020-2022 (p. 60) shows that the existing spa- tial and technical resources of the majority of archives preclude the storage of the ma- terials that need to be received. Especially limiting is the as yet insufficiently developed system for receiving, processing, and using materials in digital form, while the finding aids data for around 50% of the materials held in archives need to be harmonised or filled in, which, with the resources available, can only be done over a relatively longer period. The majority of archives lack the storage space and/or equipment for storing new materials coming in to be received within the legally determined deadlines. As a result, the materials remain longer in inappropriate spaces outside archives where they are exposed to the risk of rapid decay and are unavailable to users. 3.2. ARCHIVES AND THE HOMELAND WAR For the RC, the Homeland War was, as the 13 October 2000 Declaration by the Croatian State Parliament specifies, just and legitimate, a war of defence and liberation, and not aggression or conquest against anyone. The RC defended its territory from Greater-Ser- bian aggression, within its internationally recognised borders. The Declaration was also adopted to stop the radical politicisation of the Homeland War and the worrying polar- isation of the Croatian society, which could have had far-reaching consequences. The fundamental value of the Homeland War was the establishment and defence of Cro- atia’s state sovereignty and territorial integrity, which created the conditions for the legal state and the rule of law, as well as the legal functioning of governmental bodies as the best way to continue to affirm the dignity of the Homeland War. The House of Representatives of the Croatian State Parliament called on all citizens, state and social institutions, unions, associations, and media, and mandates all RC officials and govern- mental bodies, to adhere to these principles as a bulwark to protect the basic values and dignity6 of the Homeland War as a token of our common future. On 10 December 2004, the Law on the Croatian Memorial-Documentation Centre of the Homeland War was adopted, establishing the CMDCHW to collect, arrange, preserve, keep custody of all documentation and data related to the Homeland War, as well as to foster scholarly and scientific research into such documentation and data, to investi- gate the truth about the Homeland War and introduce the general public, both locally and globally, with the established facts. The centre was established as a public scientific institution – a specialised archive and a Croatian national interest. The founder of the Centre is the RC. In performing its functions, the CMDCHW is responsible for collecting, consolidating, ar- ranging and preserving all the documentation and all the data that originated during the Homeland War or is related to it. It collects, arranges, classifies and processes regis- try and archival materials that originated during the Homeland War or are related to it, 6 Regarding whether war as such can even have dignity, Puhovski, Ž. (2020.) states: “It is precisely why it is irresponsible to link dignity to extreme situations where options are necessarily limited (and there is mostly no luxury) – local talk about “the dignity of the Homeland War” is a persuasive instance of the dismal (and unoriginal) abuse of a great (both traditional and contemporary) value. Because dignity can primarily be attributed to persons (in this case, warriors), rather than a historical phenomenon, which a war certainly is. Especially in light of the slaughterous nature of war, which truly has nothing to do with dignity; a war can be waged for higher goals, it is (occasionally) possible even to act with dignity in a war, but its taking place is dignified only to those who simply despise human survival, believing it not to be merely necessary, but right to sacrifice thousands of lives for the Goal.” 25WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović in line with the Law on Archival Holdings and Archives; performs scholarly and scientific processing, analysis and appraisal of data, documentation and materials related to the Homeland War; publishes publications and other works that are the products of its ac- tivities; publishes registry and archival materials that originated in the Homeland War; issues data, excerpts from documents and certified transcripts at users’ requests, in line with the Law on Archival Holdings and Archives; organises scholarly and scientific lec- tures and exhibitions, as well as scientific conferences and other modes of exploring the truth about the Homeland War and introducing the general public at home and abroad with the established facts related to the Homeland War; cooperates with archives, mu- seums and other legal entities in order to improve its work. Archives and other legal and natural entities that hold documentation that originated in the Homeland War or is related to it are obliged to hand it over to the Centre. The Centre is managed by the Governing board, which is appointed and discharged by the Croatian Parliament. The Centre is led by a director, who is appointed and discharged by the Croatian Government. A person who meets the conditions in the Law on Archival Holdings and Archives can be appointed director of the Centre. The Centre has an expert council, whose composition, as well as the mode and procedure of electing its mem- bers, is determined by the Centre Statute. The Centre is financed from the RC national budget. The CMDCHW has a Department for archival materials related to the Homeland War, and a Department for Scientific Research into the Homeland War. 4. CONCLUSIONS There are no archives in Croatia other than state ones, which are financed from the budget. The directors of the CSA and the CMDCHW are appointed by the highest national authorities, while the archives are founded by the RC, which also appoints their govern- ing boards. 115,706 metres of materials are stored in state archives; the finding aids for some 50% of the holdings are inadequate, while some 30% of the holdings have not been arranged. There are 780,103 m of materials outside archives. According to the archi- val legislation, by 2022, practically all of the materials that originated before 1991 should be in archives, which is impracticable, as the archives lack the human and material resources. People working in state archives are an extremely negligible segment of the popula- tion of the country – 0.0074%, while users are somewhat more numerous – 0.23%, which is still practically negligible. Quantitatively, the employees and users of archives do not represent a significant group that might impact the shaping of collective memory. Like all governmental bodies, state archives need to protect the dignity of the Homeland War, while the CMDCHW has an even more difficult task – to research the truth about the Homeland War. The occupied territory of the RC was peacefully reintegrated between 1996 and 1998. So far there has been no data on the proportion of the holdings, out of the 780 kilometres outside the archives, that pertains to the Homeland War. It is a widely known fact that different groups of people, different countries and nations, have different notions of events past. Establishing the truth can be a painful and pro- tracted process, which sometimes seems endless. Collective memory represents past events in line with the values, narratives and views of a certain group or community. Looking at the archives’ tasks as determined by the archival legislation, and the defini- tion of collective memory as a political process, sharing the values and prejudice of a certain group of people, shaping collective memory is not among the jobs, archives are 26 WHAT IS OUR JOB, ANYWAY? dr. sc. Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović supposed to do. Indeed, scientific, and scholarly work is encouraged. However, the Sci- entific Activity and Higher Education Act stipulates that scientific work is based, among other things, on fostering, and respect for, national specificities. If we look at the Courts Act, the courts do not determine the truth, but decide in disputes, about rights and obligations, hand down sentences and other measures to perpetrators of criminal and misdemeanour offences defined by the law and other regulations. The role of judicial institutions in the process of shaping collective memory is extremely important, although in its fundamental sense contrary to it: it is based on recognising individual responsibility and seeing justice done on the bases of their own legal stand- ards, rather than universal declarations. In their work, faced with a series of difficulties, judicial institutions have made an immeasurable contribution to shedding light on facts concerning the Homeland War. Archives in the RC are entirely dependent on the state. Their main task, for which they are in many ways under-resourced, and thus fail to fully perform, is to receive national archival materials and take care of them. It is the task of archives to preserve and pro- cess materials and enable their use. Preserving the dignity of war, researching the truth about it with an already determined, binding state-sanctioned view about the nature of the war defined by the state’s highest legislative authority, is not and cannot be the job of an archive, even a state one, at least not in the 21st century. The work of archives needs to be based on scientific and scholarly principles and methods. Scientific work of archives needs to be objective, systematic, logical, precise, based on reason, logic, critical thinking, doubt, and objective, free and independent thought. By its very nature, science questions and must question “sacred cows”. The wider goal of written history, the reason why documents and records are perma- nently preserved, is to give an objective, accurate, and fully comprehensive picture of past events. A history shaped by collective values is not scientific, objective history, but a generator of future conflicts, wars, and tensions. The work of archives that is deter- mined by collective values scorns the very essence of the existence of archives, and calls into question their relevance. Collective memory cannot and may not determine the work of archives; on the contrary, it is archives that should shape collective memory. REFERENCES 1690 Kultura i umjetnost u 2020, Statističko izvješće (2021) [Culture and the arts in 2020, statistical report] https://podaci.dzs.hr/hr/podaci/kultura/ Arhivi i domovinski rat / 49 savjetovanja hrvatskih arhivista. 2016. Plitvice, 26. – 28. listopada 2016. (2016) [Archives and the Homeland War / 49th symposium of Croatian archi- vists] http://online.fliphtml5.com/sqei/fghj/#p=1 Arhivi i politika / 4. kongres. 2013. Opatija, 22.-25. listopada 2013. http://online.fliphtml5. com/sqei/mgvl/#p=1 Arhivski vjesnik. Available at HRČAK, Portal hrvatskih znanstvenih i stručnih časopisa. https://hrcak.srce.hr/ Atlanti 29(2019) n. 2 Benčić. A. 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Živana Heđbeli, Nikola Mokrović Bogdan-Florin Popovici1 FACETS OF ARCHIVAL MEMORY: BETWEEN LEGAL AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Abstract During the ICA Conference in Rome (September 2022), the keynote speaker, Judge Rosa- rio Salvatore Aitala, delivered a very interesting plea for the value of archives, as instru- ments in international trials. He concluded his speech by asserting that archivists are the ”guardians of truths”. Nothing is more pleasing to archivists’ ears! For many recordkeep- ing professionals, but mostly for the vast majority of people outside of the field, this is the profession’s essence and the archival institutions’ main role. This is why a slight change of wording made by David Fricker after the judge’s speech, claiming that we, the archivists, are rather “custodians of evidence”, may look irrelevant to many; while for others, it may be just another form of saying the same thing. Is it really like this? This is the question that conveniently matched my exploring thoughts in the paper for the Trieste conference this year. Keywords: truth, records, archives, historical compensations. 1 Bogdan-Florin Popovici, Ph.D., National Archives of Romania, bogdanpopovici@gmail.com 30 FACETS OF ARCHIVAL MEMORY: BETWEEN LEGAL AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Bogdan-Florin Popovici EXAMINE CASES BASED ON ROMANIAN EXPERIENCE A. “ARCHIVAL SILENCE” 1. In 1948, the Romanian government of the new people’s republic proceeded with the nationalization of private companies (Legea 119/1948). The nationalization law re- quired that some compensations should have be paid (art. 13). After the fall of the Communist regime, the former owners—or successors of the owners—reclaimed the abuses of that law, asked for the companies to be returned or compensations be paid to them. Naturally, the claimant turned towards Archives to get the evidence about the past situations. The replies of the Archives varied. In some cases, records reflect- ing the situation of those companies at the time of nationalization were preserved. In other cases, such records from the moment of nationalization were missing, and the last recorded information dated back one or two years (e.g., the lists of sharehold- ers). In rare cases, evidence of compensation payments in 1948 was preserved. 2. During the Communist regime, a law for the expropriation of public utility was adopt- ed (Decret 467/1979). The article 2 of the law stipulates the compensations that were to be paid for expropriation. After the fall of Communism, many previous owners claimed the expropriated land to be returned or compensation for being expropri- ated be paid, and—again, turned to the Archives to find supportive evidence for their claims. In many cases the evidence of the expropriations was found; in fewer cases pieces of evidence of the payment of compensation were retrieved. 3. In 1999, a law was adopted in Romania (Ordonanța 105/1999) that granted com- pensations to people who suffered ethnical discrimination during the WW2 govern- ments’ rule (6.09.1940–0.03.1945). The claimants turned to the Archives for evidence supporting their demands. In many cases, the persons’ names were found in lists of refugees or deported persons. In some cases, the similarity of names did not allow to precisely identify the person. In other situations, names were not found at all. But the trickiest situation was when records about refugees were found accidentally in re- cords aggregations that nobody thought could contain information about refugees… The above examples show how historical records have been useful and relevant for the society over the years. Nobody was aware, at the moment of creation of records, that they were supposed to be evidence for rebuilding those circumstances for very practical needs and that the records were supposed to be evidence for a different purpose than originally intended. Perhaps at the moment of nationalization, some Communist be- lievers would have considered those records would show to the history how the work- ing class managed to take over the ownership from the bourgeoisie, as a historical act of the communist revolution. But they definitely did not think these were supposed to be legal evidence of their actions, to restore the expropriated goods. In many cases, the focus on “what we did” (action of nationalization) and not on “how we did it” (with or without compensations, recording the goods taken by the state etc.) led to poor qual- ity of records and archival series, not to mention the low interest for preserving those records. Communism was meant to last forever, so accountability for those actions (mirrored in records) was not relevant. And now, less than 100 years later, considering preserved records, nobody can truly attest if compensations were paid by the State or not—there are no records. No one can say with certainty if the shareholders from 1946 or 1947 were still shareholders at the moment of nationalisation in 1948, or if they had sold their shares meanwhile. Of course, it is not the Archives to decide if the plaintiffs are right or wrong, but courts of law. Nevertheless, the lack of proper records (irrespective the reason), from poor creation to poor preservation (Popovici 2011)) could affect the proper decision of the courts today. 31FACETS OF ARCHIVAL MEMORY: BETWEEN LEGAL AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Bogdan-Florin Popovici The second presented case is more about the social functions of past institutions and how they are ‘hidden’ into records. Despite some shallow assumptions, the Communist regime was governed by laws; it created a legal framework for governing society2. Within this framework, institutions were created and mandated to exert certain functions in society. While the expropria- tion decision was rather an administrative attribute, the payment was a financial one. But not all past institutions transfered their records to the Archives and... who is sup- posed to know how the administrative or financial institutions worked 50 years ago?! The fact is some years ago, by accident, it was discovered that a bank was used for pay- ment of the compensations back then, and its records should prove if a compensation was paid or not (if those records were preserved—since the financial records have a lim- ited retention period…). This “discovery” occurred after many decisions of paying the compensations had already been issued. How many such requests were grounded or were falsely claimed, in how many cases the compensations were paid also back in the 1980s and again, in the 2000s, is up to the historians of the future to determine. In my opinion, this is a convincing argument for the fact that records may not be readily avail- able when needed. To trace them one needs to know who exerted certain attributes in the past, who is the current holder of those records, what type of records may contain the information needed. If one does not have this information, if one does not know where to search for evidence, the records are, in many regards, useless. But the society survives, nevertheless. A rather similar situation is described in the third example. The lists of refugees were drawn by Prefectures—the administrative institution of the state. Often, in times of war, not everybody managed to be registered as a refugee. Sometimes, in an innocent ad- ministrative report, or in a payroll from a factory, a small note about a certain person indicates they are refugees. Who can trace these in linear kilometres of records? What description system should be applied to retrieve such notes from millions of old pages? Furthermore, how to anticipate, as a description archivist, what to mention in a sum- mary of the file content, in order to anticipate all the future possible interests of users? I believe the cases above can be included under the “archival silence” (SAA Glossary, sub voce) heading. Either by the negligence of creation, the complexity of records creators’ network, management and use, or by the hidden meaning from records unrevealed in our finding aids—all these showed how Archives may not reveal “the whole truth”, but rather small pieces of evidence to be used. B. HISTORICAL SILENCE 1. In 1945, a law for appropriation was adopted in Romania (Legea 187/1945). It implies expropriation of land from those who have over a certain quota (or have their owner- ship confiscated from various motives, like being of German origin) and appropriation of those who do not have enough productive land. In Article 16, the law specified the price for the appropriated land, which should have been paid in long term (over 10 or 20 years). The evolution of historical events changed the plan envisaged by the law, because, starting from 1952, the so-called “cooperativisation” took place and individ- uals owning agricultural land (including new appropriated people) were step by step expropriated to create associations for shared production, according to the Communist doctrine. After the fall of Communism, previous beneficiaries of the appropriates turned to the Archives to ask for records to support the restitution of their former properties. As 2 if this framework contains abusive, unbalanced, restrictive clauses from a general perspective—it is very likely true, but is secondary to this paper. 32 FACETS OF ARCHIVAL MEMORY: BETWEEN LEGAL AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Bogdan-Florin Popovici in other cases, documents were not always properly preserved (also because owner- ship titles were considered outdated since the “cooperativisation” took place), but even in the case where documents attesting previous ownership existed, some historical is- sues arose. Firstly, many of the German ethnic individuals who were deprived of their goods were claiming the discriminatory approach of being punished based on their ethnicity back in 1944/45 and asked for compensation for the expropriated land. The persons (or their heirs) who were deprived of the land during “cooperativisation”, also asked back their plots, received during appropriation--sometimes, the same as the one belonging to the previous German population. That made it possible, that for the same land, more than one request for restitution/ compensation existed. The Archives had to deliver copies from the records available, without any sort of interpretation of historical facts, but… it is exactly where the records could be misleading for rebuilding the origi- nal events. Who could know—except as a result of long, extensive research—if a German person was expropriated based on ethnicity reasons or based on real war crimes or col- laboration with Germany? Moreover, who can attest if a person who was appropriated paid the price indicated by the law, to be considered owner in full rights? 2. In the case of the above-mentioned refugees, a similar situation occurred. During WW2 in Romania, several waves of refugees existed. Some of the people who ran away from the Eastern part after the Soviet invasion of 1940, returned in 1941 (after the re-establishment of Romanian administration) and went again to refuge after 1944 when Red Army occupied that territory again. Not in all cases records reflect with accu- racy these evolutions. Therefore, one individual can be traced in records as being dis- placed in 1940, and no further evidence about her/his status. The person might have gone back (ceasing the status of refugee) to Bassarabia in 1941, remained there or ran away in 1944 or, on the contrary, s/he could have settled in another part of the country after 1940 and never returned. How would this case be treated from the perspective of compensations? For which period is the person considered a refugee? Such questions are beyond archival competencies. The Archives are only mandated to deliver copies of relevant records upon request. If a petitioner asks for proof of being appropriated, such a record is searched. To deliver proof that they paid for the price indi- cated by the law would exceed the request. Also, not considering a person as displaced because their history cannot be traced in full it may seem a bit excessive. Hence, in using archival records for rebuilding past situations it is obvious that the completeness and integrity of archives are essential. However, this is not enough. History, by its mere definition, is a story. A story is a se- quence of events. The record, on the other hand, is a snapshot of one limited event. To understand a process (read: the story), you cannot have only one record, but a sequence of records generated each in probably different contexts. It is like the difference be- tween a still photography and a movie (Popovici, Cincu, 2010). As such, archives may contain evidence, but the way this evidence is used to rebuild past situations needs the ability to understand how those records were created, what records are needed to see the whole event, and what is the significance of the records in the whole process. Other- wise, the recorded evidence can lead to fragments of reality, and the rebuilding process is flawed (not to say frauded…). C. REPLACING RECORDS 1. In the case of the displaced persons, it was stated above that sometimes, records could not attest this status for some persons: the relevant records were missing, not found or, simply the persons in that time did not register as a refugee. To solve such cases, the legal makers offered an alternative way: legal statements of other refugees. 33FACETS OF ARCHIVAL MEMORY: BETWEEN LEGAL AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Bogdan-Florin Popovici The original, WW2 archival record was replaced by the statement today. The problem of lack of records is solved. 2. During the Communist regime, some incentives were granted to certain employees, due to their work conditions. When retired, as many former state companies bankrupt- ed and disappeared, the people turned to the Archives to find the evidence for their rights. Due to some legal complications, for a short period National Archives had to take over the payrolls—as these were considered the only “valuable” records from a compa- ny records centre and they were the only ones preserved. Initially, the paperwork logic was that such incentives, in many cases, were recorded in another type of records than payrolls, types that were not preserved… As such, many citizens today are requiring the courts of law to legally note they had the right to those incentives3. The lack of relevant contemporary records was compensated by court decisions. In this case there is not much that Archives could do. They are not mandated to interpret records for legal purposes (at least in Romania). But there are other institutions which can make such interpretations, to rebuild past events and take executive decisions that would equate as results for the lost or not preserved records. This means archives are not irreplaceable as information and society has the means to rebuild a legal situation of the past in the absence of relevant records. ARCHIVES—THE PLACE WHERE TRUTH RESIDES. OR NOT EXACTLY The examples above outline a reality where the records are essential tools for govern- ance, and democracy, and for compensating various vicious past decisions and actions. Indeed, everybody turns to the Archives when they need past information. Archives indeed played a central role in rebuilding past abuses, older or more recent. And yes, Archives have, by their social mandate, a monopole on the records which are useful for those purposes. But we must equally accept the fact that, legally, missing records do not mean an “the end of the world”. Indeed, records are a tool and a piece of evidence (Interpares Trust Terminology, sub voce). In the legal framework, preserved past records are evidence of past events and a tool to rebuild rights or circumstances. However, the lack of those re- cords does not mean the truth is lost. Or that, with the existence of those traces, unsub- stantiated and untruthful decisions cannot be taken today, due to the inability to inter- pret the past meanings and contexts (read processes and records associated with them). For many decades, archivists used to spoil themselves with assertions like: “archives are places of memory and archivists are guardians of memories”. On the other end, a postmodern trend brought a rather opposite position, claiming that archives are social constructs, and there is no objectivity in the archives, but rather biased information re- sources (e.g., Schwarz, Cook 2002). Even though it may be considered a bit extreme to remove any trace of objectivity from records and to describe this space where the record is king, due to its legal value in certain legal contexts, the reality shows that missing evidence can, in many cases, be replaced; that a past event can be rebuilt to produce legal effects today; that records are essential, but not vital for society. That, after all, archivists may have monopole over records, but not over information4. It may look disappointing, but I find it a fact. Records and archives are products of human activity, and they are created and preserved with a purpose. They are not preserved for 3 Including a person to such a category would imply benefits for the retirement pensions. 4 This assertion, which I resonate with, was made by one Austrian colleague, Martin Stürzlinger, during a workshop in Rome (2022). 34 FACETS OF ARCHIVAL MEMORY: BETWEEN LEGAL AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Bogdan-Florin Popovici being tokens, which concentrate truths. The role of records and archives is important because human memory may consign some histories to oblivion and then we need to turn to the archives to remind those historians or to check assertions made about past events. The “persistent representations”, whose contexts are documented, are more re- liable than human memory. But equally, bad quality of records may lead to bad quality of information and bad decisions today; bad preservation process may lead to lack of bits of information and again to bad decisions and interpretations; lack of understand- ing of what records are and how they work may lead to the same. Despite the possibility to replace records, the efforts to rebuild them, the risk of not being able to understand past processes, and the costs associated with all these should be an incentive to create, keep and preserve good records and archives. We must preserve good records to have good evidence and to make good decisions. But, if this is not happening, the truth is still out there (whatever “truth” may mean…). Eventually, this means records can be re- placed, and the truth is not the monopoly of the archives. REFERENCES Decret 467/1979 Decret nr. 467 din 28 decembrie 1979 privind evaluarea construcţiilor, terenurilor şi plantaţiilor ce se preiau, cu plata, în proprietatea statului prin ex- propriere sau în alte cazuri prevăzute de lege in Buletinul Oficial nr. 3 din 4 ianu- arie 1980 at https://legislatie.just.ro/Public/DetaliiDocument/511 (last consulted 1.10.2022) Interpares Trust Terminology http://interparestrust.org/terminology Legea 119/1948 Lege Nr. 119 din 11 iunie 1948pentru naţionalizarea întreprinderilor industriale, bancare, de asigurări, miniere şi de transporturi în Monitorul Oficial nr. 133 bis din 11 iunie 1948 at https://legislatie.just.ro/Public/DetaliiDocumentAf- is/46 (last consulted 1.10.2022) Legea 187/1945 Lege Nr. 187 din 23 martie 1945 pentru înfăptuirea reformei agrare in Monitorul Oficial nr. 68 bis din 23 martie 1945 at https://legislatie.just.ro/Public/ DetaliiDocument/34 (last consulted 1.10.2022) Ordonanța 105/1999 Ordonanța nr. 105 din 30 august 1999 privind acordarea unor drepturi persoanelor persecutate de către regimurile instaurate în România cu începere de la 6 septembrie 1940 până la 6 martie 1945 din motive etnice in Moni- torul Oficial nr. 112 din 13 februarie 2020 at https://legislatie.just.ro/Public/Detal- iiDocumentAfis/223042 (last consulted 1.10.2022) Popovici 2011 Popovici, Bogdan-Florin Despre calitatea surselor arhivistice și rolurile au- torului-creatorului-deținătorului de documente, in Revista arhivelor, Bucuresti, nr. 2/2011, p. 256-265 Popovici, Cincu 2009 Popovici, Bogdan-Florin, Cincu Monica, Autenticitate notarială, aut- enticitate istorică, autenticitate arhivistică, în „Hrisovul”, XV (2009), Serie nouă, Bu- cureşti, 2010, p. 33-45. SAA Glosary https://dictionary.archivists.org/ Schwarz, Cook 2002 Schwartz, Joan M., Cook, Terry, Archives, Records, and Power: The Making of Modern Memory in Archival Science 2: 1–19, 2002. 35FACETS OF ARCHIVAL MEMORY: BETWEEN LEGAL AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Bogdan-Florin Popovici Aliya Mustafina1 THE EXPERIENCE OF DUAL TRAINING OF ARCHIVISTS IN KAZAKHSTAN ABSTRACT The topic of training and education of archivists in Kazakhstan is not understood widely and requires a revision of the basic approaches and teaching methods. But even a brief review in this area makes it possible to clearly trace the dependence of the develop- ment of the archivist’s profession on changes that are taking place in the society and utilized information technologies. The article notes that the formation of a professional training system is largely deter- mined by the development of historical science and historical archives in general. More- over, the creation of the archival education system begins “top-down”, with the creation of the highest level of professional training - as a specialization within the framework of classical university education. This approach does not allow adapting the archivist train- ing system to the real needs of the industry. The paper thus focuses on the importance of dual training of specialists who are willing to work in archives. Keywords: archive, archivist, archival education, dual education 1 Director of the Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Kazakhstan, Almaty, 050010, Dostyk ave., 87 b, e-mail: amustafina@archive.president.kz 36 THE EXPERIENCE OF DUAL TRAINING OF ARCHIVISTS IN KAZAKHSTAN Aliya Mustafina INTRODUCTION The training of archivists in Kazakhstan, as well as in other countries, is developing in the context of the information, scientific and technological revolution, which has af- fected all spheres of the society, but especially those related to the management of information resources. New requirements for specialists in the field of working with information have been formulated through time. The era of automation began, gradu- ally covering management, education, science, and everyday life. The changes primar- ily affected the content of the training of archivists and their status. The creation of a system of continuous professional training for clerks was completed, which acquired a multi-level structure and included institutions of primary, secondary and higher profes- sional education, supplemented by short-term advanced training courses. The purpose of this article is to describe the experience of organizing and developing dual training of archivists in Kazakhstan. The methodological basis of the study were the methods of general scientific knowledge: the laws of formal logic, analysis and syn- thesis, comparison, transition from general to the particular, and others, including the formal legal method. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Dual education occupies a special place in the system of organization of modern voca- tional education. The establishment of dual training is based on the need for a combi- nation of theoretical and practical training of qualified specialists. The use of such edu- cational approach allows graduates to obtain not only theoretical knowledge, but also to acquire basic practical skills and competencies, delivered by direct participation of potential employers. The dual education system is understood as a system where the education of young people in the chosen profession is carried out in two organizations; meaning that two institutions participate in the educational process. On the one hand, a vocational school, and on the other, a training enterprise. Both institutions are inde- pendent partners in relation to each other. At the same time, as a rule, the theoretical part of the training of specialists is implemented within an educational organization, and the practical part - in production. The dual system of education in our country pro- vides for a combination of stages of study at an educational institution with periods of work experience. The educational process is organized as follows: in parallel with tra- ditional studies at an educational institution, students work at a particular enterprise or firm, where they gain practical experience. The Republic of Kazakhstan is developing its own national model for the development of dual education, taking into account foreign experience in organizing a system of dual education. The adoption of the “ Act on Educa- tion” dated 27 July 2007 contributed to the formation and development of a popular na- tional model. This law sets guidelines for the ratio of theoretical training and industrial training in the proportion of 40/60 [2]. By order of the Minister of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated by the 21 January 2016, in pursuance of this law, the “Rules for the organization of dual education” were approved [8]. The undeniable advantages of dual education include, firstly, a high employability of graduates since they fully meet the requirements of the employer. Training is as close as possible to the requirements of the production. Secondly, the principle “from practice to theory” works: the student no longer works with texts and sign systems, but with production situations. Complex theories are easier to master through practice and solving real professional problems. 37THE EXPERIENCE OF DUAL TRAINING OF ARCHIVISTS IN KAZAKHSTAN Aliya Mustafina Thirdly, high motivation in obtaining knowledge is achieved. A new psychology of the future worker is being formed. Students, having first settled in the enterprise as poten- tial employees, learn in a completely different way, more consciously and with interest. The position of a passive consumer of educational information is replaced by an initia- tive position of a production specialist who needs to make decisions and bear responsi- bility for them. Next, the assessment of the quality of training of specialists is carried out by the em- ployers themselves. From the first day, the students spend most of their time at the workplace, showing their skills and diligence. Employers get the opportunity to assess the level of preparedness of future specialists directly in the production environment. Lastly, the requirements for teachers are increasing. The latter must not only have good theoretical knowledge, but also need to be practical and innovative. ARCHIVIST EDUCATION SYSTEM IN KAZAKHSTAN It should be noted that Kazakhstan has a certain tradition of training specialists in this field. The first stage began in the Soviet period, when the training of archivists in Ka- zakhstan was carried out through a special state recruitment at the Faculty of Archiving at the Moscow State Historical and Archival Institute (now the Historical and Archival Institute as part of the Russian State University for the Humanities). Since 1990, in Kazakhstan, state archives (certified historians-archivists) have been trained at the Faculty of History of al-Farabi Kazakh National University. In 1991, the “Ar- chive studies” were opened at at the Faculty of History within the Abai Kazakh Nation- al Pedagogical University, but in 2004, due to the orientation towards the pedagogical profile, this study programme discontinued. The duration of bachelor degree is 4 years. It takes place as full-time study only. Upon graduation, a graduate of the educational program is awarded the academic degree of a bachelor of social knowledge in the specialty “Archival Studies, Documentation and Documentation Provision”. In 2012, admission to the master’s program in the same study field began. Today, the training of specialists in the educational program 5B051500 “Archival Studies, Documentation and Documentation Provision of Management” at the university is carried out in accordance with the requirements of the state education- al standard. The development of the educational program “Archive science, document science and documentation support of management” is carried out with the involve- ment of representatives of the bodies of the archival and documentation services of the Republic of Kazakhstan and other employers. The results of the department’s scientific projects are implemented into the educational process as academic disciplines. Currently (according to the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakh- stan), the training of archivists is carried out according to the following educational programs: 6b02202 “History, Archive Business and Museology”; 6B03208 “Digital Archi- val and Document Science”; 6B03202 “Archives and Library and Information Activity”; 7M03205 “Archival Studies, Documentation and Documentation Provision”; 7M03208 “Archival Studies and Documentation Provision of Management”; 7M03207 “IT Archival studies and Documentation”; 6b03204 “Archival studies, Documentation and Documen- tation Provision of Management”; 8d03205 “Archival studies, Documentation and Docu- mentation Provision of Management”. Training for the qualification of “Archivarius” in organizations of technical and vocational education is carried out in 5 colleges of the country (West Kazakhstan Academic College, Zhezkazgan Humanitarian College, Karaganda Banking College named after Zh. Buke- 38 THE EXPERIENCE OF DUAL TRAINING OF ARCHIVISTS IN KAZAKHSTAN Aliya Mustafina nov, Karaganda Commercial College, and Almaty Multidisciplinary College). In 2014, the first graduation ceremony was carried out: 8 bachelors, 9 masters. This fig- ure is increasing every year. Currently, the contingent of students counts 146 people, 135 of which study under the state order. In 2021, enrolment in this specialization amounted to 98 people, including those by state order. COOPERATION BETWEEN ARCHIVES AND EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS ON THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF ARCHIVISTS One of the main activities of the Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan is interaction with higher and secondary specialized educational institutions on the issues of training and advanced training of professional personnel, dual education in the field of archiving and documentation support for the management. Currently, the Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan has existing agree- ments in the form of contracts, agreements, memorandums of mutual cooperation, social partnership with 12 universities and 3 colleges. Among them are al-Farabi Ka- zakh National University, Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Military Institute of the Ground Forces of the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Almaty Multidisciplinary College, Almaty Col- lege of Technology and Floristry, etc. These cooperation agreements contribute to the implementation of joint scientific projects, the organization of scientific and practical conferences, round tables, historical exhibitions, holding practical training, provision of information services and advisory assistance on various aspects of the activities of the Archive and universities. Of all the universities and colleges, the Archive of the President of the Republic of Ka- zakhstan most closely cooperates with the al-Farabi Kazakh National University in the field of dual education, in jointly holding the Summer School for Young Archivists, in the organization of the city’s Student Subject Olympiad, scientific and methodological sem- inars, industrial and research practice for students and undergraduates. In 2018, a memorandum of cooperation in the field of dual education was signed. Ac- cording to the memorandum, the parties undertake to jointly organize and implement dual training for students of the Faculty of History, Archeology and Ethnology, the De- partment of World History, Historiography and Source Studies, in the specializations 5B051500, 6M051500 – “Archival Studies, Documentation and Documentation Provi- sion” (bachelor’s and master’s programs) of the al-Farabi Kazakh National University full-time education. In 2019, the Department of Archival Science and Documentation was opened upon re- quest of the Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan as a training and production center for dual education, industrial and research practice for students and undergraduates. After the pandemic, this year the Archives resumed practical classes of the department for students studying in the specialization “Archival Studies, Documen- tation” of the Faculty of History, Archaeology and Ethnology of al-Farabi Kazakh Nation- al University. The classes were held under the common theme “Accessibility of records through digital technologies”. The Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakh- stan regularly organizes practical classes and workshops within the framework of the work of the department for both bachelor and master students. Classes are conducted by university teachers and practicing archivists. Close partnerships have developed between the Archive of the President of the Repub- 39THE EXPERIENCE OF DUAL TRAINING OF ARCHIVISTS IN KAZAKHSTAN Aliya Mustafina lic of Kazakhstan and the Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University. In 2019, the so- cial partnership agreement was signed with the university. University professors are members of the Scientific Council of the Archive, lecturers are regular participants in scientific conferences and round tables organized by the Archive. The Archive pays great attention to work with young people, the Council of Young Archi- vists is very active, organizing the annual state Student Subject Olympiad for students of historical faculties specializing in archiving and office work. The purpose of the Olym- piad is to reveal the creative abilities of students; involvement of students in research work; development of interest in scientific activity, increasing the prestige of the pro- fession of document specialist and archivist. In 2016, the student subject Olympiad in archiving and office work was organized in the Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan in 2016 for the first time. In the Olympiad, the students of al-Farabi Kazakh National University showed the greatest interest – a total of 109 students (16 teams) participated in it. Among the participants were also students of the Almaty Multidisciplinary College, Almaty Service College, Kar- aganda Vocational College, Kazakh National Agrarian University (KazNAU ), Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University. Since 2017, the Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, together with al-Farabi Kazakh National University and the Russian State University for the Humani- ties are holding the International Summer School for Young Archivists. Due to Covid-19 restrictions in 2021, the event was organized online. The Summer School 2022 was attended by 390 specialists from Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Uzbekistan, China, and Mongolia. Among them were 3 doctoral students and 19 students of al-Farabi Kazakh National University and Almaty Multidisciplinary College. About 40 students took part in person, arriving to Al- maty. This hybrid format of training made it possible to attract a large number of partic- ipants, many of whom noted that the Summer School is a great opportunity to discuss the burning problems in the field with their colleagues, hear the opinion of experts and learn about new directions in the development of archival affairs. CONCLUSION The Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan does a lot of work as a base for conducting archival practice for students of higher and secondary specialized educa- tional institutions. In the reading room, students conduct research on records for term papers and theses, they attend various events of the Archive, including historical exhibi- tions, round tables, meetings with famous historians. All these events of the Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan are a great education opportunity for young domestic archivists. At the same time, it should be noted that the content of the education of archivists does not meet the requirements of the time and practical conditions. Therefore, dual educa- tion is essential. Especially given the rapid change in technology. Therefore, extensive support for the direction of dual education is needed. Work should be continued on its implementation in close cooperation between educational institu- tions and employers. It is also important to review, adjust and optimize plans and learn- ing objectives, change the breadth and structure of learning, review and update learn- ing modes, as well as change the content of the curriculum system and areas of study in the direction from a quantitative aspect to a qualitative one. It is these changes that will be called upon to adapt archival education to new conditions and modern challenges. 40 THE EXPERIENCE OF DUAL TRAINING OF ARCHIVISTS IN KAZAKHSTAN Aliya Mustafina REFERENCES Dictionary of Archives Terminology // URL: https://dictionary.archivists.org/entry/virtu- al-reading-room.html Khorunzhiy V.P. Virtual reading rooms: prospects for the development of the informa- tion field in education // Actual problems of social communication: materials of the third All-Russian scientific and practical conference, Nizhny Novgorod, May 25, 2012. - Nizhny Novgorod: Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University. R. _ E . Alek- seeva , 2012. - S. 323-326. The Virtual Reading Room Regulations of the National Library of Belarus // URL: https:// www.nlb.by/en/services/virtual-services/virtual-reading-room/about-the-virtu- al-reading-room/the -virtual-reading-room-regulations-/ Launching a Virtual Reading Room of the Russian State Library // URL: https://diss.rsl. ru/?menu=toclients&lang=en Greenhall M. (2021) New Frontiers of Digital Access: The development and delivery of Virtual Reading Rooms and Virtual Teaching Spaces among collection-holding in- stitutions // URL: https://www.rluk.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/RLUK- VRR-and-VTS-report.pdf 41THE EXPERIENCE OF DUAL TRAINING OF ARCHIVISTS IN KAZAKHSTAN Aliya Mustafina Ameera Yahya Ahmed AL-Hooti1 ARCHIVES IN SHAPING COLLECTIVE MEMORY Abstract Purpose: Archives interfaces are among the critical nodes in which archival systems and negotiate as well as exercise power over the representation and constitution of archives. In this paper, the concept related with archives in shaping collective memory interfaces and critical nodes represent archives which shows constrain as well as in- terpretation for the past. The emphasis is on the role of archives in shaping collective memory. Methods: The archives in order to shape the collective memory considers physical, computer systems and technological archives that are tangible set of struc- tures along with tools that consider memory in archival documents in the context and offers neutral systems. Approach: There is growing literature based on collective or social memory for which archives have been focus on to change the preservation and production documents which changes media record and nature for documented ideas and present documenting for necessary changes on account of management practic- es as well as archives in order to determine the respective practices. In this regard, archival interfaces are connected with objective procedure and determine the major legitimate evidences associated with the past and make the social memories. Finding: There is a major role played by the computer archives have interfaces that have in- creased common user mode of interaction and manage the archive demands confront with the interpretative work nature as well as exploit the opportunities that are ev- ident in visible construct for shaping collective memory. This shows that national ar- chives have naturalized power and it is different as per the post-apartheid situations. The overall emphasis of this paper is to assess the role of archives in shaping collective memory with focus on the physical structures along with technologically mediated structures and tools in respective context. Keywords: archives, memory, archival systems, digital records, representation, techno- logical archives and interfaces 1 PhD student at ALMA MATER EUROPAEA, Records and Archives specialist at National Records & Archives Authority 42 ARCHIVES IN SHAPING COLLECTIVE MEMORY Ameera Yahya Ahmed AL-Hooti 1. INTRODUCTION Archives are the records for memory collection, which has diverse range of academic discipline, and have professional pursuit. The terms actually have connection with so- cial values and flashpoints that consider cultural identities and institutional sort of ac- countability (Bastian et al, 2009). The archives are the memory record, which considers the secure vaults associated with power. Archivists have actually viewed the profes- sional changes and hewers, which make the received records by the creators and have passed to the researchers. The professional archivists actually perceive them as a major object, neutral as well as impartial details. The perspectives engage with materials and are quite antithesis in terms of power (Jacobsen et al, 2013). Certainly there are writ- ing based on cultural connections that seldom touch the major impact on archives and records for collective memory and has human identity which makes emphasis on the human activity, unlike there are roles of new accorded and manage the human as well as natural historical art galleries, museums, libraries and historical monuments along with zoos. The writers consider ‘the archives’ associated with philosophical and meta- phorical sense which actually has rudimentary understanding connected with profes- sional theories and methodologies as well as practices (Folkerts, 2011). The archive makes the professional records and memory to be collective on writing with associated with archivists. The modern planner and systems designers have interfaces, which serve as an integral component for memory to record with subsystems and get efficient and rational sys- tems. The best-designed approach and interfaces are visible and also user is neutral in terms of constraint activities and inconspicuous practices are common among the interi- or and exterior of the modern design of buildings (Jimerson, 2003). However, the door- way associated with the wheelchair apparatus actually closes with obstacle interface, which converse with the interface in shaping collective memory. The design interfaces and physical structures along with virtual creations have power for the system that ac- tually has to do with the collective memory. The archivists emphasize on the power exercised consciously or unconsciously with doc- umentations and represented archives, which have the access on them for potential document usage and have focus on the documentary evidences to connect with tangi- ble set of structures that actually have provided with the tool which is of great signifi- cance in terms of the computer screen mediated ideas. 2. CONSTRUCTING AND DECONSTRUCTING ARCHIVES TO SHAPE COLLECTIVE MEMORY Archives are known as social constructs and they shape in collective memory for which their origin depends more on the social values and information needs of the govern- ments, rulers, associations, businesses along with individuals required to maintain their personal needs.. However, there are cases when no memory has possible option for framework based on the living society, which is connected to retrieve the information and shape the recollections because of archives which is among a critical social intellec- tual element to make frameworks based on to have shaped collective memory. Furthermore, there are cases when living in a society actually determines and retrieves the recollections. Archives are a major critical element in terms of social intellectual frameworks, which have past the historical research along with archival records, which do not retrieve the stored information and out together in terms of the claim that shapes the understanding and is a part of the claim in order to share respective understandings (Roediger et al, 2009). 43ARCHIVES IN SHAPING COLLECTIVE MEMORY Ameera Yahya Ahmed AL-Hooti The principles along with strategies set as per archivists to adapt the activists and make sure there are changes used which appraise and also are destroyed or connected with the character composition (Sinn, 2012). This actually engages with the resultant ‘ar- chive’ and shows serious consequence towards administrative accountability, collective memory, citizen rights and the historical knowledge is shaped and also unconsciously memory is profound with tacit ideas and also subtly there are archives associated with the archives power (Cook, 2013). However, the ‘archive’ shows major increase in the resurgence that makes the popular connotation on ground of old parchments and basements, which are in cultural studies. There are associations of central metaphorical construct because of human knowledge perspective and memory as well as power associated with the quest for the justice (Sil- va, 2013). This makes authors to reflect and determine the principles, nature, practices along with institutions and record documents that have been set across the stable situation. 3. COLLECTIVE MEMORY AND ARCHIVAL TRUTH There are efforts made to demonstrate the ‘contractedness’’ for the archive necessarily and manages issues which focus on archives neutral records as there are innocent as well as archivists objectives to implicitly confront the notions and engage with ‘archival science’ associated with views for science that majorly shows change over the recent decades (Piggot, 2014). The question is evident that supposedly neutrality along with objectivity has endeavor with the society. This makes ‘archives’ as a ‘science’ and pre- clude with social construct and memory collection as scientific which actually is in pure science nature and actually is demythologized. The conceptualization evolved with the ‘objectivity’ shows major increase in the situat- ed knowledge while partial perspective which makes scholars profession to be more focused and engage with contextual careful state, which recognizes the partial per- spective along with archivists to engage with deeper context as the exceptional num- ber, is growing rapidly (Bastian, 2014). The complexity increases in society, which makes communication along with the re- quirements of information to actually have recordkeeping practices, which consider the archives to have collective memory and change the institutions. The perceptions show the changes actually lagged behind and have major consequences for changes in order to assess the past situation as memory collections have actually focus on the set to cre- ate records. 4. THE POWER OF ARCHIVE IN SHAPING COLLECTIVE MEMORY An archive eventually focuses on the system of control, which depends more on the so- ciety’s mechanism and allows them to exist. This shows existence for the archive in so- ciety to shape collective memory influence the identity of the society. Moreover, there is use of photography as a way to archive memory since its invention in the 19th century (Hoskins, 2009). The society actually puts in terms of the mechanism for surveillance and actually gener- ates the human society level, which makes knowledge management systems, and tech- nologies which makes archives and show collective memory. The collective memory archives have many sectors and engaged with institutions and governed with societal changes and takes control on the perceived with mirror of reality that is ill mannered and images have further references. 44 ARCHIVES IN SHAPING COLLECTIVE MEMORY Ameera Yahya Ahmed AL-Hooti Archives in terms of memory collection is intersection for past, present as well as future interfaces (Decker, 2014). The designed party emphasizes on the organic procedure and reinforces professional objectivity and neutrality, which has inclination, and simple exercise power for iden- tity over memory as it makes power to be used in effective manner. These issues have actually been connected with emphasis on the authors and power exercises which em- phasize on the thematic issues and also there is power exercised which shows collective memory in respective society (Dudman, 2019). There are electronic power shows archives to shape collective memory and offer access since the record amplifies archives with traditional power and mediates access towards the given record. The descriptive system architecture and practices with selection at various levels have online access which makes the archives role in memory collection to be set with the virtual exhibitions and engage with virtual production and is well- known for the preserved. The conscious or not archivists play a huge role to technically engage and build the identity notions, which are justified by the historical documents and validate with ‘evidence’ along with identity (Caswell, 2016). The relationships ac- tually are common in terms of cultural contexts while the common concerns of pow- er over the collective memory have made crisis to be dealt with variety of subaltern groups and take decisions when emphasis is more on viable, cohesive and also identity. 5. THE VALUE OFARCHIVE MEMORY RE-COLLECTION The decisions associated with the archiving are worthy to be the major initial step when it comes to assessment of the first value-driven practice that focuses on accessioning, surveying, assignment of metadata, arrangement, cataloging along with preservation before the materials are readily available to the users (Thelin, 2011). The examples below finely illustrate such kinds of relationships: The situation that considers Kven and Sámi peoples in northern Norway were actually relegated with anonymity in the Norwegian National Archive. There were hundreds of records that actually are not cataloged or labelled due to Norwegian languages. The collections stayed unprocessed unless the projects such as National Minorities in Public Records processed certain documents listed in Sámi as well as Kven languages in order to restore the visibility and process the Norwegian national history (Sabiescu, 2020). As indicated by the South African government when continued with transition by opacity towards transparency in terms of State Archive Service (SAS) and continue to engage with the historical nationalist and set records (Cifor, 2016). There are con- trolled aspects for citizens that have actually set the classification which makes em- ployment along with surveillance and association with property. There are permeat- ed for aspects that have facilitated knowledge and also SAS archivists show impartial records. This makes knowledge facilitation to be permeated with the many aspects of knowledge facilitation. This is associated with the SAS archivists to engage with impartial record keeping and know about the complex model evolution for South Af- rican profession in archival modes. After re-examination and acquisition for the policy is required. One of the major report- ed conflicts by The University of Michigan there are religion connected with the white Protestant regarding denominations. Once the re-examination of the Collection engag- es with churches with the Detroit area and gathers the church records. The successful library engages with acquisition policy made with resultant collection to be reflective and diverse religious communities with the actual population (Feng, 2017). The FWP 45ARCHIVES IN SHAPING COLLECTIVE MEMORY Ameera Yahya Ahmed AL-Hooti Collection engages with former slaves that actually engage with oral history which has critical reexamination for the online presence: a broad emphasis is on the cultural along with material knowledge in terms of narratives and finally thinks the marginalized designation for eye witness has lived the accountability with folk history as it connects with American slavery. 6. MOTIVATIONS BEHIND ARCHIVES IN SHAPING COLLECTIVE MEMORY The motivations among the Collection are actually multi-layered and problematic. This makes American slavery to theoretically be for more than 71 years. The climate is evi- denced to have racism and de facto segregation is common among the permeated fa- mous culture as well as the academy (Neiger et al, 2011). There are cases when slave narratives have observed with prominent reaction in South- ern defense slavery and also make sure latter-day slave narrative engaged with stim- ulated dominant attitude and engage with slave regime as the prevailed first quarter for 20th century. This reality is added with population and manages the survival slavery rapidly for around 1930s. There are documented life histories for the former enslaved individuals that show no originated value with the FWP. This makes huge number of oral archives as evident since 1928 when Ophelia Settle Egypt when working with the Charles S. Johnson which makes the research continuation with the employment goal and offers relief for graduate students engage with the happenings. Lomax formed detailed questionnaire which has interviewer’s instructions. There are black and white social dynamic for respective era. The interview text indicates gross discrepancies evident within language. This comprises of the interviewers and attempt with re-write individual responses for the Negro dialect version to compete re-writing for text and interpret for what is said. This makes majority of the interviewers to focus on southern whites that train the oral histories (Brown, 2013). However, oral histories archives with black interviewers were called for challenges to FWP when being unpro- fessional. The polite responses are interpreted and resonate with master dynamics/for- mer slave along with historians to label it as incongruous as it speaks with deep psycho- logical scars and manage the on-going slave system victimization. According to Hirst et al (2012), The Office of Negro Affairs actually engaged with watch- dog performance on the project to hire the Negro writers as headed on account of Ster- ling Brown, poet and English Professor at Howard University. There is a major concern when examining the provenance project with FWP’s delegation and administer branch- es in the states. The oral history archives consider edited state level when federal office to include the final project. The assessment is quite compromised with the original texts. 7. CONCLUSION Memory is known as history and is deeply rooted in the archives while without archives, the memory falters and the accomplishment knowledge fades when pride is common for shared past dissipates. Archives actually counter the losses. Archives have evidenc- es, which have been the need of what is gone before specifically germane in the pres- ent world. This engages with the story telling is not possible which allows archives as a foundation of historical understanding. Archives validate the perceptions, experiences, stories or narratives. Archives in terms of memories to be gone for the archives remain the remarkable with unknown and users archives (historians and others) along with ar- chives shapers (records creators, archivists and records managers) and added meaning layers that is naturalized, unquestioned and internalized. 46 ARCHIVES IN SHAPING COLLECTIVE MEMORY Ameera Yahya Ahmed AL-Hooti There is lack of questioning when the dangerous implicit support shows archival myth for neutrality and objectivity while the sanctions shows strong predilection of archives while archivists document the primary mainstream culture with powerful record crea- tors. The privileges consider official narratives for the state over the private individual sto- ries. There are ambient ways to see and know when original order is sought or quite well imposed for the different orders and disorders which flourishes among the archives. In conclusion, the archives for shaping collective memory actually accommodate the highly contingent value for the archival practice. Lastly, the archives when shaping collective memory have the interpretive aspects of presentation, appraisal as well as mediation, which make archivists to expose the inter- pretive acts and manage the structure information at professional level. The focus of the archivists is to be quite power conscious and monitor future generations. The emphasis of users is to evaluate the reliability, authenticity and weight which is by documenta- ry evidence and archivists can actually help the future needs which helps to assess the possible reason behind the survival of certain archives. Thus, archives consider certain concepts to build and the interface, which makes interpretive nature of archives that are building that, engages with the user interpretation evidences to study the way archives role is active to shape the collective memory with data of the users. REFERENCES Barrett, C. (2011). Better off Forgetting? Essays on Archives, Public Policy, and Collective Memory. Canadian Journal of Information and Library Science, 35(4), 452-453. Bastian, J. A. (2014). Records, memory and space: Locating archives in the landscape. Public History Review, 21, 45-59. Bastian, J. A., & Alexander, B. (Eds.). (2009). Community archives: the shaping of memory. Facet Publishing. Blanco-Rivera, J. A. (2009). Truth commissions and the construction of collective memo- ry: the Chile experience. Community archives: the shaping of memory, 133-147. Brown, C. (2013). Memory, identity and the archival paradigm: introduction to the spe- cial issue. Archival Science, 13(2), 85-93. Caswell, M. 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Building collective memory archives [An earlier version of this arti- cle was presented at the Archives and Collective Memory: Challenges and Issues in a Pluralised Archival Role seminar (2004: Melbourne).]. Archives and manuscripts, 33(1), 62-83. Punzalan, R. L., & Caswell, M. (2016). Critical directions for archival approaches to social justice. The Library Quarterly, 86(1), 25-42. 48 ARCHIVES IN SHAPING COLLECTIVE MEMORY Ameera Yahya Ahmed AL-Hooti Reed, B. (2005). Beyond perceived boundaries: imagining the potential of pluralised re- cordkeeping.[An earlier version of this article was presented at the Archives and Collective Memory: Challenges and Issues in a Pluralised Archival Role seminar (2004: Melbourne).]. Archives and Manuscripts, 33(1), 176-198. Rigney, A. (2015). 6Cultural memory studies: mediation, narrative, and the aesthetic. In Routledge international handbook of memory studies (pp. 87-98). Routledge. Roediger, H. L., Zaromb, F. M., & Butler, A. C. (2009). The role of repeated retrieval in shaping collective memory. Memory in mind and culture, 29-58. Sabiescu, A. G. (2020). Living archives and the social transmission of memory. Curator: The Museum Journal, 63(4), 497-510. Sanya, B. N., & Lutomia, A. N. (2015). Archive and Collective Memories: Searching for Af- rican Women in the Pan-African Imaginary. “ Feminist Africa Issue 20”. Sassoon, J., & Burrows, T. (2009). Minority reports: indigenous and community voices in archives. Papers from the 4th International Conference on the History of Records and Archives (ICHORA4), Perth, Western Australia, August 2008. Archival Science, 9(1), 1-5. Silva, F. G., Queiroz, M. I. P. S. D. C., Rollo, M. F. F. G., & Filipa Abreu de Castaño, I. (2018). Memory from the Avenues. Memoriamedia, (3), 1-11. Sinn, D. H. (2012). Archival memory on the web: web 2.0 technologies for collective memory. Journal of the Korean BIBLIA Society for library and Information Science, 23(2), 45-68. Straker, G. (2011). Shaping subjectivities: Private memories, public archives. Psychoana- lytic Dialogues, 21(6), 643-657. Thelin, K. (2011). Documenting Collective Memory: an Analysis of the New Swedish Pro- cess Oriented Archive Description System. Wertsch, J. V. (2011). Beyond the archival model of memory and the affordances and constraints of narratives. Culture & Psychology, 17(1), 21-29. 49ARCHIVES IN SHAPING COLLECTIVE MEMORY Ameera Yahya Ahmed AL-Hooti Karen J. Trivette1 ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS ABSTRACT Purpose: There has been some discussion, perhaps even debate, as to whether archival science is a true science. This writer was intrigued by the notion that her thoughtfully se- lected advanced degrees, and by extension her chosen profession and area of research, would be considered anything other than a true science. This writer decided to pose the question to colleagues and to embark on discovering answers that will satisfy not only her own curiosity but also perhaps that of others, as well. Methods / Approach: This writer performed qualitative research by surveying the schol- arly literature and by interviewing professional colleagues and asking their positions on the matter of whether archival science is a true science. Results: The results of her investigation proved definitive and she is more convinced than ever that her chosen profession, that of archival science, is indeed a true and valid science. It was heartening for her to learn how many others agree. Conclusions / Findings: Archival science is correctly entitled as such. It follows the norms of scientific pedagogical training and practice, has confirmed adjacency to sibling sciences -- both applied and social -- and it draws informed conclusions framed by the scientific method of discovery. Keywords: Archival science; applied science; social science; scientific method; discov- ery; knowledge 1 Karen J. TRIVETTE, 3rd-Year Doctoral Student, Archival Sciences, Alma Mater Europaea-ECM; Professor, Fashion Institute of Technology-State University of New York (USA); Head, Gladys Marcus Library Special Collections and College Archives (SPARC); 1 West Street, Apartment 2802, New York, NY USA, karen.triv- ette@almamater.si About the Author: Professor Karen Trivette is Head of (Library) Special Collections and College Archives at the Fashion Institute of Technology-State University of New York (FIT). At FIT, she oversees the care and provision of over 6000 linear feet of special collections and archives materials (1560-present day). She holds a BA in Art History (University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill) and an MLS in Library/Archival Science (University at Albany-State University of New York). Currently, she is pursuing her PhD in Archival Science (Alma Mater Europaea-ECM; expected 2023). She presents at local, national, and international archives conferences and has written and/or edited many publications on topics ranging from fashion forecast- ing history to archives facility renovation. 50 ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS Karen J. Trivette 1 INTRODUCTION In the course of her doctoral academic work, the author became privy to some discus- sion, and even debate, as to whether Archival Science is a true science. She was intrigued, nearly insulted, by the notion that her selected advanced degrees, and by extension her chosen profession, would be considered anything other than a true science. She decided to pose the question to colleagues and to embark on discovering answers in the schol- arly literature that would satisfy her own curiosity and perhaps that of others as well. While the original inquiry for this writer was, “Is archival science a true science?” as she conducted her research, she realized that the better question was, “What kind of science is, or kinds of sciences are, archival science? Even still, one can precisely pinpoint exactly when the discipline was first publicized as a science in the United States thanks to the recordkeeping of and the reporting on the first meeting of the Society of American Archivists (SAA) in 1937. The Washington Evening Star highlighted it as such: Figure 1: Evening Star, June 20, 1937 As a result of her investigation, she is more convinced than ever that her chosen profes- sion, that of archival science, is indeed a true and valid science. 2 METHODS This writer performed qualitative research by surveying the scholarly literature for rel- evant content and by asking respected and veteran professional colleagues their po- sitions on the matter of whether archival science is a true science. The latter of these approaches is covered in sections 2.2 and 4.3 below. 51ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS Karen J. Trivette 2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW In 2010, Ketelaar actually posed a similar research question to this writer’s as the title of Chapter 5 in Jennie Hill’s The Future of Archives and Recordkeeping: A Reader (2010); he asked whether archivistics2 were a science or an art? First, he addresses the position some have in that archival science is a creative endeavor and quickly points out that as early as the 19th-century, Spanish archives management manuals referred to the “arte de archiveros.”3 However, Ketelaar quickly notes that the practices of science and art are not, nor do they have to be, mutually exclusive. He recalls that both the science and art of archival science are actually connected, and perhaps inseparable by what Gilli- land-Swetland has called the archival paradigm. She explains that the paradigm is “a set of assumptions, principles, and practices that are common to the archival community and are a model for its activities and outlook” (2000). Still others, such as Winnie Allen, clung to the notion that archivists were creative prac- titioners. Hardesty introduced readers to Allen, who was the former archivist of the Uni- versity of Texas at Austin and an early member of SAA from its founding in 1936. Her concept of archival work “predated the systemization and professionalization that T.R. Schellenberg worked so hard to foster” (2007). Hardesty quotes Allen as she told a jour- nalist what in her opinion was the difference between a librarian and an archivist; she said, “A librarian is categorical; an archivist is creative” (2007). Ilerbaig circles back, intentionally or not, to Ketelaar, stating that science had not been traditionally considered a bureaucratic or administrative en- terprise in which records and recordkeeping play an important role. On the contrary, the scientific enterprise is viewed predominantly in very different terms: as an activ- ity characterized by its creativity and theoretical ideas, rather than its organizational processes (2010). Ilerbaig continues to remark that it was not “until the 1960s and 1970s that scholars started to focus on science as a social enterprise” (2010) with structures of authority in scientific communities. More recently, the issue of science as a practice has come to the fore. “Since the 1980s, literature in science studies has focused increasingly on the analysis of the process of scientific practice, as opposed to its end results. With the emer- gence of these new approaches, a view of science as more akin to a record-making and recordkeeping bureaucratic enterprise has developed” (Ilerbaig, 2010). Valderhaug argued that “The emergence of archivistics, or archival science, as a separate discipline can be understood” by way of expressing the needs of society “to control the information in records and archives.” Similarly, he suggested we may understand the “theoretical and methodological development of archival science since the 19th-centu- ry against the background of changes in societal functions and uses of archives, as well as the technological conditions for archiving and communication.” He continued, “I will suggest that archival science …has evolved from an auxiliary science of history to be- come an independent scientific discipline” (2009). Valderhaug concluded that this evolution and other shifts “have profoundly influenced archival thinking and led to the emergence of new and differing professional discourses and tendencies” in archival science and other disciplines as well. He declared such an evolution is one of the characteristics of a scientific discipline (2009). 2 Archivistics is synonymous with archival science. 3 Translated as “the archivists’ art.” 52 ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS Karen J. Trivette In a most direct fashion, Henttonen, remarks that Archival science is the science of contextual transfer and that contextual transfer takes place when information is transferred from one place and point in time (con- text) to other places and points in time. Archival science examines this transfer: what makes information usable across contexts; what information should be transferred; how the information should be organized, managed, and preserved; what the trans- ferred information is used for and what are the impacts that the information has for individuals and the society. This view to archival science connects it explicitly with other information sciences and opens possibilities for both the records profession and its research (2019). 2.2 PROFESSIONAL COLLEAGUE INTERVIEWS On 19 September 2022, this writer interviewed Dr. Robert P. Griffin, Jr., Dean, College of Emergency Preparedness, Homeland Security, and Cybersecurity (CEHC) and Prof. Dr. Carol Anne Carr Germain, Chair of the CEHC Department of Information Science and Tech- nology (IST); CEHC is part of the State University of New York-University at Albany (NY). Together and separately, Griffin and Germain drove home the point that the College and Department were not only science-driven but also a melding of policy, information, and technology, which together are formed from each of their own scientific elements. Dean Griffin, echoing Valderhaug, declared archival science as “an ever-evolving sci- ence” but with solid roots. Prof. Dr. Germain noted how one of the fastest growing sec- tors within IST is in the field of Informatics especially as it relates to health information management and with tethers to the UAlbany health sciences departments of biology, public health, and nursing. Of special concern are data analytics and policy components surrounding and influencing the gathering, storage, and use of personal data within an information system both in terms of the system’s design and its use. Regarding matters of policy, Germain pointed to the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (US) and the General Data Protection Regulation (EU GDPR) as examples. Dean Griffin spoke at length about the matter of security – be it cyber, medical, legal, or otherwise – and that the security of information (and that which is affected by it) is dependent on secure data management. He pointed out that digital preservation is be- coming more and more a mission critical component of archival science practice. Basi- cally, if the data are not preserved properly, then the security of the information and by extension, the associated enterprise (person, organization, government, etc.) is at greater risk to untold compromises. Other matters discussed were the digital aspects of scholarly communications, predic- tive analytics, and emergency preparedness. All three of these aspects are supported by a systematic (i.e. scientific) approach to data management and preservation. Dean Griffin summed up his thoughts by declaring if [archival science] is not a science, then it has to be[come] a science and one based solidly on the element of trust. This of course harkens back to Derrida’s opening paragraph in Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression: Let us not begin at the beginning, nor even at the archive. But rather at the word “archive”- and with the archive of so familiar a word. Arkh we recall, names at once the commencement and the commandment. This name apparently coordinates two principles in one: the principle according to nature or history, there where things commence - physical, historical, or ontological principle - but also the principle ac- cording to the law, there where men and gods command, there where authority, social order are exercised, in this place from which order is given...(1995). One can then extrapolate that archival scientists are the stewards of truth. 53ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS Karen J. Trivette 3 RESULTS The results of this writer’s investigation proved definitive, and she is convinced more than ever that her chosen profession, that of archival science, is indeed a true and valid science. It was heartening for her to have learned how many others agree, within and beyond the immediate profession. The DISCUSSION segment below explains why. 4 DISCUSSION 4.1 (ARCHIVAL) SCIENCE METHOD IN CONTEXT To help make her case, the author put archival science to the test by exploring how the classical scientific method related to archival theory and practice. The scientific method proposes six steps; they are 1. Make an observation; 2. Ask one or more questions; 3. Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation; 4. Make a prediction based on the hypothesis; 5. Test the prediction; and 6. Iterate. The author will address each of these separately. When one makes an observation in a scientific capacity, one observes, examines, or sur- veys specimens -- in archival science’s case, specimens are records -- to declare a record unit as archival, historical, or otherwise worth preserving permanently. Conversely, ar- chival scientists determine which records are not represented in our respective reposi- tories and procure them. In short, we employ appraisal tactics. In the course of asking one or more questions, archival description mandates that we question what informational elements need to be recorded to reveal just enough for researchers to qualify a record unit as relevant to their research. In the case of stating hypotheses or testable explanations, a potential hypothesis might be, “This records unit will serve x, y, and/or z researchers well and lead to an enlarged corpus of scholarly understanding.” A more pointed hypothesis statement would be, “If we expend valuable resources to preserve and make accessible x records, then we fur- ther satisfy our repository’s mission.” Based on this hypothetical, we can then make a prediction: “Given that other record units in our possession that are analogous to the ones in question moved the repository’s mis- sion forward, then it is quite probable that it will be a sound decision to acquire and commit resources towards the new accrual’s permanent care and provision.” To test the prediction, once records are acquired, personnel will devise a plan to promote and advocate for their use. This can be achieved with an extended outreach program to targeted researcher audiences. It would also be necessary to evaluate and/or assess researcher satisfaction. Ultimately, archival scientists would respond iteratively and use the results of their eval- uation to create new hypotheses and/or predictions. Indeed, each deliberative scenario should lead to a more refined collection and provide for evermore targeted audience engagements. Current and future archival questions that are explored and methodical- ly answered have the potential to inform the next intellectual challenge and/or scien- tific inquiry. In the most basic of terms, archival science makes routine use of the scientific method as practitioners carry out the field’s core functions and beyond. 4.2 NOT ONE SCIENCE, BUT MANY Speaking of iteration, let us revisit the question, “What kind of science is, or kinds of sciences are, archival science? 54 ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS Karen J. Trivette If you believe that “proximity is power” (Robbins, 2022), then let us immediately consid- er the most certain adjacency that archival science has to other sciences; they are Library Science; Information Science; Media Studies; and Computer Science. Before diving deeply into such alignments, let us explore the definition of science. According to the Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science, science in the mod- ern sense is both a discovery as well as an invention (OCHMS, 2003). Further, the Merri- am-Webster Online Dictionary describes science as not only knowledge per se, but also as a “system of knowledge in which truths or laws are discovered and challenged through the process of the scientific method” (M-WOD, 2011). Therefore, if we accept, or at least consider that archival science is an amalgamation of sciences, then what are those fields of scientific study? This writer’s initial instinct was to align the practice of archival science with the branch of applied sciences. According to Wikipedia, applied science “applies existing scientific knowledge to devel- op more practical applications, including inventions and other technological advance- ments” (Wikipedia, 2022). Again, science is the enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge about the universe. In archival science’s case, the universe could be a single record, an entire fonds, or the full concept of archives and records management. The following applied sciences, and perhaps others, too, can be together an amalgama- tion that collectively serve as conceptual scaffolding to support and otherwise define archival science as a true science. Applied engineering is the field concerned with “the application of management, de- sign, and technical skills for the design and integration of systems, the execution of new product designs, the improvement of manufacturing processes, and the management and direction of physical and/or technical functions of a firm or organization” (Wikipe- dia, 2003). These defining points relate clearly to archival records processing. Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that “identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related problems” (Wikipedia, 2022). Consider the convey- ance of a message via various media and then consider the reasoning behind and crea- tion of finding aids and metadata catalog records. Education is “any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, and values” (Wikipe- dia, 2022) from one to another. Archival theory and practice, by design, is an educational enterprise. Forensic science is the application of a “broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to a legal system” (Wikipedia, 2022). Consider the need for physical and dig- ital preservation vis-a-vis the demands of a legal system that requires absolute meas- ures of authenticity, validity, credibility, integrity etc.; in other words, legal systems re- quire records that hold legitimate and verifiable evidentiary value. Perhaps the most direct applied science to align with archival science is management. At its most simple, management is “getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively” (Wikipedia, 2022). The operation of a repository, the processing of an archival fonds, and/or establishing a digital preservation workflow all require solid management skills and experience. But the adjacency exercise does not end with the scientific branch of applied science. Indeed, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill’s (UNC-Ch) Prof. Dr. Helen Tibbo stated, “I regard archival science to be a social science that underlies professional prac- tice. Academics and practitioners not only manage all phases of the information/data 55ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS Karen J. Trivette lifecycle, they also conduct research that supports their practice and the profession as a whole. Archivists investigate/conduct research on all components of the information lifecycle” (Tibbo, 2022). Social sciences then is another of the branches of science to be considered adjacent; this branch is devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. Of the many social sciences, the following have the most rele- vant adjacency to archival science: anthropology; communication studies; history; law; and psychology. For a breakdown of how these select social sciences relates to archival science, please consider the following: Anthropology: The totality of human existence and experience; this is what archives strive to convey; Communication studies: The sharing of symbols to create meaning; this matter of surro- gacy is reflected in finding aids and creating digital images; History: The interpreting the record of human beings and their societies and institutions; Law: An established system of rules that are capable of enforcement through institu- tions; consider archival science’s best practices, security measures, etc.; and Psychology: This is concerning behavioral and mental processes; for example, archi- val description must be concerned with the user experience rather than an archivist’s indulgence. Also worth mentioning is the undeniable kinship archival science has to certain natural sciences including but not limited to biology (archival arrangement and description can mimic the organic, structural, hierarchical frame of the taxonomic rank)4 and chemistry (preservation and conservation tactics and materials). 4.3 ARCHIVAL SCIENCE PLACEMENT IN UNIVERSITY CURRICULA Earlier, this writer mentioned the science of education and its relation to archival sci- ence broadly. However, she was curious to investigate another clue or measure of confi- dence that archival science is a true science, that being the placement of archival science advanced degree programs into a broader curricular context. Her investigation covered three universities, each of which she has attended and/or graduated from: the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH); the State Uni- versity of New York-University at Albany (SUNY-UAlbany); and Alma Mater Europaea-Eu- ropean Center Maribor, Slovenia (AME-ECM). The following is an examination of each of these institutions and in that order. UNC-Ch hosts the School of Information and Library Science (SILS) and confers the Master of Science degree as well as the Doctor of Philosophy. SILS is a distinct school within the larger university curriculum and offers an archives and records management con- centration. For context, UNC-Ch first offered courses in library science during the sum- mer of 1904. Students were charged a five dollar fee and received a certificate upon completion of their courses. An official UNC-Ch School of Library Science opened in 1931 and welcomed thirty-seven students into the fall term with instruction from five fac- ulty. Then, in 1987, “recognizing the growing importance of the study of information use and management” (UNC-Ch, 2022), the curriculum incorporated a broader scope and thereby instigated another name change, that to the School of Information and Library 4 The ranking is: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Compare this to fonds, subfonds, series, subseries, file, item. 56 ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS Karen J. Trivette Science. Please refer to a brief response from UNC-Ch’s Prof. Dr. Helen Tibbo, Alumni Dis- tinguished Professor, UNC School of Information and Library Science with expertise in archives and records management, beginning on page 11. An educational institution’s mission statement can also offer clues to whether archival science is a true science. For example, the SILS mission statement states that the school educates innovative and responsible thinkers who will lead the information profes- sions; discovers principles and impacts of information; creates systems, techniques, and policies to advance information processes and services; and advances informa- tion creation, access, use, management, and stewardship to improve the quality of life for diverse local, national, and global communities (UNC-CH, 2022). SUNY-UAlbany positions its archives and records management concentration within the Information Science (IS) Master program. IS is a department within the university’s broader CEHC (College of Emergency Preparedness, Homeland Security and Cybersecu- rity). IS is also a pedagogical part of the university’s STEM (science, technology, engi- neering and mathematics) series of academic programs. Let us expand the lens and consider an international institution, that being Alma Mater Europaea-European Center Maribor (Slovenia) or AME-ECM. A consortium of university programs administered by the European Academy of Sci- ence and Arts, Alma Mater Europaea strives to cultivate international leadership in a variety of fields including education, culture, and law, among others. Alma Mater Europaea is an international university based in the Austrian city of Salzburg, with campuses in several European cities…The founding board stated that Alma Mater Eu- ropaea would be based on three principles: Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft, Wirken. In Eng- lish, this means: Science, Economy, Effect. AME-ECM offers two Bologna levels of higher education leading respectively to the Ar- chiving and Documentation Master degree and the Archival Science Doctoral degree. Its programs are accredited by the National Agency of the Republic of Slovenia for Quality in Higher Education’s Slovenian Quality Assurance Agency (discussed below on pages 17-18). While merely three universities do not make a pattern, this writer can appreciate each example highlighted here as informed and strategic institutions regarding their peda- gogical structure, academic programming, and degree conference. 4.4 ACCREDITATION, CERTIFICATION, AND PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCIES CONSIDERATIONS Accreditation, certification, and identified competencies and standards also lend to the definition and/or identification of a science-related program. In the case of archival sci- ence, this writer will introduce accrediting and certifying bodies and note the various relevant points as they relate to practice in the United States and to that of Slovenia/ Europe. She also will review specific points through the lenses of the three universities already mentioned. Broadly speaking, accreditation in higher education is defined as “a process of external quality review created and used by higher education to scrutinize institutions and pro- grams for quality assurance and quality improvement” (Eaton, 2009). The American Library Association (ALA) is the entity that accredits master’s programs in library and information studies across the United States. The accreditation workflow begins with a review process, which is conducted by an external panel of authorities that verifies a program meets the “Standards for Accreditation of Master’s Programs in Library and Information Studies” (ALA, 2022). The goal of accreditation is “to ensure edu- 57ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS Karen J. Trivette cational quality, judged in terms of demonstrated results in supporting the educational development of students” (ALA, 2022). Graduating from an ALA-accredited program not only provides flexibility regarding the types of jobs graduates can apply for but also enhances their career mobility. In fact, “many employers require an ALA-accredited master’s degree for professional level po- sitions” (ALA, 2022). All graduate programs that include archival science and/or archives and records man- agement concentrations at UNC-Ch and SUNY-UAlbany are accredited by the ALA. 4.4.1 UNC-CH While specific exit competencies and learning objectives were not available at the time of this publication, as ALA-accredited programs, UNC-Ch graduates from MSLS or MSIS degree programs will be prepared to • Employ the ethics, values, and foundational principles of the library profession. • Promote democratic principles and intellectual freedom (including freedom of ex- pression, thought, and conscience). • Consider the history of libraries and librarianship and their role within the context of society. • Recognize the history, preservation, and dissemination of information in all its forms, and its impact on libraries. • Identify current types of libraries (school, public, academic, special, etc.) and closely related information agencies, such as museums, archives, and galleries. • Identify social, public, information, economic, and cultural policies and trends of sig- nificance to the library and information profession on the local, regional, national, and international levels. • Understand the legal framework in which libraries operate, including laws relating to copyright and fair use, privacy, freedom of expression, equal rights (e.g., the Amer- icans with Disabilities Act), open access, and intellectual property. • Effectively advocate for libraries, librarians, other library workers, patrons, and ser- vices, especially in terms of marketing, fundraising, and outreach. • Use techniques to identify, codify, and analyze complex problems and create appro- priate and collaborative solutions within library environments. • Demonstrate effective verbal and written communication techniques, including electronically via video, live chat, and email. • Hold current certification, degree, and/or licensure requirements of specialized areas of the library profession (ALA, 2022). The UNC-Ch School of Information and Library Science (SILS)’s Master of Science in Li- brary Science (MSLS) and Master of Science in Information Science (MSIS) degree pro- grams were granted continued accreditation from the ALA Committee on Accreditation through 2029. 4.4.2 SUNY-UAlbany There are many learning objectives that SUNY-UAlbany students are expected to attain through their course of study within their archival science academic program and to earn the Master of Science graduate degree. After successful program completion, stu- dents will • Demonstrate a sense of professional identity by applying the concepts and principles 58 ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS Karen J. Trivette of library and information sciences and related disciplines. • Know the history of the information professions and understand the changing roles of information professionals in a global environment. • Create, select, acquire, organize, describe, manage, preserve, retrieve and dissemi- nate information using relevant theories and practices. • Assess information needs of diverse and underserved populations and provide re- sources and instruction to meet those needs. • Recognize the crucial role of users in the development and delivery of user-centered information systems and services. • Formulate, interpret and implement information policy including issues of privacy, equity, intellectual property, and intellectual freedom. • Promote and demonstrate the use of ethical standards in the creation, management and use of information. • Conduct and apply research to develop, maintain and evaluate information content and assess information services. • Understand, implement and use appropriate technologies in the delivery of informa- tion content and services. • Apply management principles to the creation, administration and promotion of infor- mation organizations and systems. • Understand the information environment and build collaborative relationships to strengthen library and information services and literacy (SUNY-UAlbany, 2022). The SUNY-UAlbany programs are currently ALA-accredited through 2027. 4.4.3 AME-ECM Doctoral study of Archival Science (AS) enables candidates to have access to the most demanding skills and research needs in the field of archival theory and practice that are based on national and international foundations and standards. As mentioned previously, the AS program is accredited by the National Agency of the Re- public of Slovenia for Quality in Higher Education’s Slovenian Quality Assurance Agency (SQAA). SQAA was founded in 2010 and was established to: • Professionalize evaluation procedures by including the stakeholders in decision-mak- ing process; • Work transparently and according to principle of impartiality; • Be responsible to the public; and • Monitor procedures and correct the deficiencies according to predefined criteria. SQAA is included in the European Register of Agencies and is a full member of the European Consortium for Accreditation, the Central and Eastern European Quality Assurance Agencies, and the International Association of Quality Assurance Agencies. Since 2015, SQAA has been a full member of the European Quality Assurance Association for Higher Education. While not an accrediting organization, SAA (Society of American Archivists) offers stren- uous guidelines for the development and sustainability of graduate level curricula in ar- chival science programs. “The importance and complexity of archival work require that individuals entering the profession receive a strong graduate-level archival education based on core archival knowledge complemented by knowledge drawn from other dis- ciplines such as anthropology, economics, education, history, law, library and informa- tion science, management, museum studies, and sociology” (SAA, 2016). 59ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS Karen J. Trivette SAA guidelines dictate that a fully developed graduate program in archival science must establish a curriculum that: • Provides students with a solid foundation in the theory, methodology, and practice of archival science, and in archival history and scholarship; • Strengthens this foundation by giving students the opportunity to acquire knowl- edge from allied and complementary disciplines; • Assists students to develop critical thinking and decision-making skills related to all forms of records in the context of business, government, public needs, scientific re- search, or the protection of cultural heritage; • Prepares students to manage and preserve authentic and trustworthy records as well as relevant materials regardless of format; • Prepares students to conduct and communicate scholarly research; • Prepares students to teach classes and workshops in archival literacy and the uses of archival resources; and • Communicates to students the ethical and legal dimensions of their work and im- presses upon them a sense of their professional and social responsibilities for the public good and serving diverse groups (SAA, 2016). Institutional settings vary greatly. The increasingly digital and hybrid nature of records demands a broader range of skills and knowledge. These, combined with “a compre- hensive understanding of archival theory and its practical application” will more cer- tainly lend to graduates being able to manage and preserve past, present, and future archival content (SAA, 2016). Upon successful certification, Academy of Certified Archivists’ members demonstrate continuing professional commitment reaching beyond education and experience. Cer- tified archivists possess and further develop expertise in and knowledge of all aspects of archival management. “By demonstrating mastery of a defined body of knowledge and skills for successful archival practice, Academy members share a high level of pro- fessional attainment that has been verified by certification” (ACA, 2022).5 4.5 IMAGE AS SCIENTIST Life is a constant duel between perception and reality. -- Sonny Long Readers, please consider Long’s quote above; this writer would challenge one to ask why not call the duel a tie and bring perception and reality into alignment with each other? Only when archival scientists understand the role of scientists broadly can they determine if they accept or define themselves as scientists. According to the Science Council, a scientist is “someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, to make hypotheses and test them, to gain and share un- derstanding and knowledge” (2022). A scientist can be further defined by how they ex- ecute these steps (i.e. by use of statistics or data); what they’re curious about and trying to understand; and where they apply (and how they use) their scientific knowledge. The business or industry of archival scientists is a matter of questioning and research and is a confidence-building enterprise. All scientists, whatever their industry, are united by their relentless curiosity and systematic approach to satisfying it. 5 The Academy of Certified Archivists has developed a useful list of domains of archival knowledge. See the “Role Delineation” section of the Handbook for Archival Certification (found within the “Exam Hand- book”) online at http://www.certifiedarchivists.org. 60 ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS Karen J. Trivette Leonard also grapples with perception but analyzes the concept further as he riffs off the original quote, which discusses possession: “Perception is nine-tenths of the law” means: in the absence of clear and compelling tes- timony or documentation to the contrary, the person in actual, custodial possession of the belief or perception is presumed to be the rightful owner; it is his reality. -- Jay Leonard 4.6 ADVOCACY WITHIN AND BEYOND As noted above, ALA declares that successful archivist scientists must and will advocate for the profession, its peer practitioners, and the services they provide. Therefore, ar- chival scientists must perceive themselves as scientists before they can successfully sell the concept and advocate for themselves as scientists. Questions remain; if “archivist as scientist” is not a self-perception, then why not? If not, then how do we persuade others of our expertise to relevant audiences including ourselves? Furthermore, since archival scientists are so concerned with context, then why not contextualize their discipline ap- propriately? This writer is convinced that that is a charge for all archival scientists. She also believes that there is much more to discover along this particular path of inquiry. 5 CONCLUSION This research effort has been a collective pursuit of Discovery (facilitate); Knowledge (fashion): giving the discovered shape and form; Understanding (formulate): knowingly formulate conclusions; and Wisdom (further): accepting conclusions into cannon of behavior Whatever its particular flavor, science is always pointed toward the concept of discov- ery. In fact, it is my position that the measure of an archival scientist’s success is gauged in large measure by the extent to which s/he helps to make information discoverable, possibly knowable, and perhaps even understandable, all by design. Even after all of those responsibilities are satisfied, an archival scientist’s mission does not end there. Indeed, s/he is charged to go another step beyond: that being to share discoveries — and that which is known and understood about them — as far as resources allow and as widely as possible. This is the ultimate goal of our science: as archival scientists, we es- tablish and secure not only our collective memory but also that of its evolutionary path ultimately to a shared collective wisdom. 6 REFERENCES Academy of Certified Archivists. (2022). “Certification.” Retrieved from https://www. certifiedarchivists.org/certification ____. (2022). “About.” Retrieved from https://www.certifiedarchivists.org/About American Library Association. (2022). Retrieved from https://www.ala.org/education- careers/accreditedprograms/home. ____. (2022). Retrieved from https://www.ala.org/educationcareers/sites/ala.org. educationcareers/files/content/standards/Standards_2015_with_space_for_ notes_rev_01-28-2019.xlsx. ____. (2022). Retrieved from https://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/standardslibraries. Derrida, J., & Prenowitz, E. (1995). Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression. Diacritics, 25(2), 9–63. https://doi.org/10.2307/465144. 61ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS Karen J. Trivette Eaton, J. (2009). “Accreditation in the United States.” New Directions for Higher Education, 145, 79-86. Evening Star. (Washington, D.C.), 20 June 1937. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Lib. of Congress. Retrieved from https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/ lccn/sn83045462/1937-06-20/ed-1/seq-17/. Gilliland A. J. (2000). Enduring paradigm new opportunities : the value of the archival per- spective in the digital environment. Council on Library and Information Resources. Hardesty, W. W. (2007). “A Proper Function of Library Schools” in T. R. Schellenberg’s Ar- chives Institute at the University of Texas, 1960. Libraries & the Cultural Record, 42(2), 129–150. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25549401. Henttonen, P. (2019). “Archival science as an information science.” Atlanti+, (2), 8–13. Ilerbaig, J. (2010). Specimens as Records: Scientific Practice and Recordkeeping in Natu- ral History Research. The American Archivist, 73(2), 463–482. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/23290755. Ketelaar, E. (2011). Archivistics: Science or art? In J. Hill (Ed.), The Future of Archives and Recordkeeping: A Reader (pp. 93-104). Facet. doi:10.29085/9781856048675.006. Leonard, J. (2022). Retrieved from https://www.business2community.com/custom- er-experience/perception-nine-tenths-law-0792172. Long, S. (2022). Retrieved from https://www.searchquotes.com/quotes/author/Son- ny_Long/ Nakvis. (2022). Retrieved from https://www.nakvis.si/about-sqaa/history/?lang=en. Robbins, A. (2022). Retrieved from https://www.azquotes.com/quote/1351868 . Science Council. (2022). Retrieved from https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/ our-definition-of-a-scientist/. Society of American Archivists. (2022). Retrieved from https://www2.archivists.org/ prof-education/graduate/gpas. ____. (2022). Retrieved from https://www2.archivists.org/prof-education/graduate/ gpas/mission Tibbo, H. (2022). Email sent to the author on 14 September 2022. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. School of Information and Library Science. (2022). Retrieved from https://sils.unc.edu/innovation-discovery/history. Valderhaug, G. (2005). Memory, Archives and Justice. Retrieved from at https://depot- drengen.wordpress.com/memory-archives-and-justice-article/. ____. (2009). Between practice and theory – some reflections on archival science, the archival professions and archival education. Retrieved 2022 from https://depot- drengen.wordpress.com/between-practice-and-theory-%e2%80%93-some-re- flections-on-archival-science-the-archival-professions-and-archival-education/. Wikipedia. (2022). Retrieved from https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_ap- plied_science ____. (2022). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science. 62 ARCHIVAL SCIENCE? EXISTENTIAL QUESTIONS AND PROPOSED ANSWERS Karen J. Trivette 65 NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS The Editors of © Atlanti + / International Scientific Review for Contemporary Archival Theory and Practice welcome initial approaches from prospective authors. Acceptance of articles is subject to an anonymous refereeing process. 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This enables us to ensure full copyright protection and to disseminate the article, and of course the Journal, to the widest possible readership in print and electronic formats and appropriate. Au- thors retain many rights under the Institutes policies. Authors themselves are responsible for obtaining permission to reproduce copyright material from other sources. NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS "Archivistica amor noster, semper et in aeternum" IIAS since 1985