Andragoška spoznanja, 2017, 23(4), 3-18 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/as.23.4.3-18 Uvodnik UVODNIK GLOBALIZACIJA IN EVROPEIZACIJA IZOBRAŽEVANJA ODRASLIH Tokratna tematska številka Andragoških spoznanj v ospredje postavlja tematiko, ki je (bila) v mednarodnem prostoru na področju izobraževanja (odraslih) in vseživljenjskega učenja deležna precejšnje pozornosti od preloma tisočletja dalje, v slovenskem prostoru pa globalizacijski in/ali evropeizacijski vplivi na izobraževanje odraslih pravzaprav še niso bili sistematično tematizirani. Iz tega razloga se je uredništvo revije odločilo, da spodbudi širšo razpravo o vplivih in učinkih, ki jih imajo globalizacijski in/ali evropeiza­ cijski procesi na izobraževanje in učenje odraslih, vseživljenjsko izobraževanje in učenje ter visokošolsko izobraževanje odraslih, čemur je namenjena pričujoča številka. Na prvi pogled je preučevanje izobraževanja in globalizacijskih in/ali evropeizacijskih proce­ sov nenavadno, saj je iz zgodovinskega konteksta razvidno, da je bilo izobraževanje odraslih, kot tudi izobraževanje nasploh, vedno v pristojnosti nacionalnih držav. Izhajajoč iz razsvetljen­ stva, ki je idejno močno vplivalo na razvoj izobraževanja odraslih v Evropi (gl. npr. Finger, Jansen in Wildemeersch, 1998), lahko ugotovimo, da je država z izobraževanjem skrbela za razvoj posameznika, oblikovanje odgovornega državljana, njegovo udejstvovanje v javni sferi (relativno homogeni nacionalni skupnosti) in na trgu dela (Burbules in Torres, 2000; Mundy, 2007). Če ima izobraževanje odraslih torej močne nacionalne korenine, nacionalne vlade pa ohranjajo zakonodajne pristojnosti pri regulaciji sistema izobraževanja, se zastavlja vprašanje, zakaj sploh preučevati globalizacijske in/ali evropeizacijske vplive na izobraževanje odraslih. Na to vprašanje je možno dati več odgovorov, ki jih obravnavajo tudi avtorji te številke revije. Sami bomo pri iskanju odgovora izhajali iz opredelitve pojma globalizacija, čeprav ta ni enoznačno opredeljen, saj obstaja mnogo definicij globalizacije oziroma več globa­ lizacij in ta pojem tudi ni nekaj novega (več o tem v prispevku Mirjane Ule). Globaliza­ cijo lahko v grobem razumemo kot naraščajočo soodvisnost na ekonomskem, političnem, kulturnem, tehnološkem in drugih področjih do te mere, ko so vse ravni človeške organi­ ziranosti prepletene v en sistem; vključuje pretok blaga, kapitala, ljudi, informacij, idej, podob in tveganj onkraj nacionalnih meja ter pojav družbenih omrežij in političnih insti­ tucij, ki omejujejo nacionalne države v njihovem odločanju (Torres, 2013). Globalizacija tako pomeni avtentično prestrukturiranje družbene organiziranosti na širšem ekonom­ skem, političnem in kulturnem področju, kakor tudi na ožjem področju izobraževanja, ki nikakor ni ostalo imuno za globalizacijske procese. AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 3 12.12.2017 10:39:53 4 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA 4/2017 Čeprav si različni avtorji (gl. npr. Burbules in Torres, 2000; Daun, 2010; Rizvi in Lingard, 2010) niso povsem enotni glede tega, kakšni so globalizacijski učinki na izobraževanje in kaj se pod globalizacijskimi vplivi v izobraževanju spreminja, lahko zberemo nekatere skupne in medsebojno prepletajoče se značilnosti globalizacijskih procesov v izobraževa­ nju (odraslih): pojav nadnacionalnih političnih (EU) in mednarodnih organizacij (OECD, UNESCO, IMF, Svetovna banka), ki vplivajo na oblikovanje evropske oziroma globalne izobraževalne politike (gl. prispevke Paule Guimarães, Marcelle Milana, Urške Štremfel v tej številki); vpliv ekonomskih procesov na izobraževanje, ki se kaže v vse večjem po­ blagovljenju in potrženju izobraževanja (gl. prispevek Sabine Jelenc Krašovec in Boruta Mikulca v tej številki); vzpon neoliberalizma kot hegemonskega diskurza (izobraževalne) politike (gl. prispevek Tanje Potočnik Mesarić v tej številki); širitev različnih izobraže­ valnih modelov (npr. bolonjska reforma) in koncepta svetovno uporabnega znanja (npr. PIAAC) po vsem svetu (gl. prispevek Regine Egetenmeyer v tej številki); vzpon novih globalnih kulturnih form, medijev in komunikacijskih tehnologij, ki oblikujejo relacije pripadnosti, identitete in interakcije med lokalnimi kulturnimi tradicijami (gl. prispevek Mirjane Ule v tej številki). Iz povedanega tako izhaja, da danes izobraževanja odraslih ni mogoče razumeti in obravnavati zgolj v okviru posameznih nacionalnih držav in njihovih politik, saj imajo globalizacijski procesi, ki močno posegajo v celoten izobraževalni pro­ stor in napovedujejo konec »metodološkemu nacionalizmu« (Robertson in Dale, 2008), vse bolj ključno vlogo pri oblikovanju in strukturiranju regionalnih, nacionalnih in lokal­ nih politik in praks v izobraževanju odraslih. Pri preučevanju globalizacijskih vplivov na izobraževanje (odraslih) lahko prav tako poudarimo, da globalizacija ni homogen proces, katerega učinki bi enotno delovali po vsem svetu, ampak je ta povezana z različnimi oblikami regionalizacije (v Evropi, Aziji in Ameriki), ki ustvarjajo različne politike in mehanizme (Dale, 1999). Pri razlagi teh politik in mehanizmov na področju izobraževanja v Evropi so različni avtorji (npr. Alexia­ dou, 2014; Dale, 2009; Lawn in Grek, 2012) uporabili izraz evropeizacija izobraževanja. Lawn in Grek (2012) sta pri opredelitvi tega izraza v ospredje postavila kompleksnost procesov, ki vključujejo: transnacionalne tokove in omrežja ljudi, idej in praks po Evropi, v katere so vpeti evropski, nacionalni in lokalni akterji; neposredne učinke politike EU, ki se na področju izobraževanja kažejo v vzpostavitvi različnih meril uspešnosti, kazalnikov kakovosti in primerljivosti statističnih podatkov mednarodnih raziskav; ter vplive medna­ rodnih institucij. Evropeizacijo izobraževanja lahko razumemo tudi kot tridimenzionalni proces, ki poteka tako od zgoraj navzdol, to je od ravni EU na nacionalno/lokalno raven, kot od spodaj navzgor, to je od lokalne/nacionalne ravni na raven EU, pa tudi kot proces medsebojne horizontalne izmenjave med različnimi akterji in omrežji ljudi (Klatt, 2014). Zaradi globalizacijskih in/ali evropeizacijskih procesov je torej izobraževanje odraslih danes vse bolj vpeto v kompleksnost odnosov in dialoško napetost, ki se vzpostavlja med nadnaci­ onalno in nacionalno (ter lokalno) ravnijo kot izmenjava politik med omrežji ljudi, idejami in praksami v svetu, kamor so vključeni globalni, evropski, nacionalni in lokalni akterji. V Evropi je tako Evropska komisija v zadnjem desetletju izobraževanju in učenju odraslih AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 4 12.12.2017 10:39:53 5Borut Mikulec: Globalizacija in evropeizacija izobraževanja odraslih namenila posebno pozornost, zaradi česar je izobraževanje odraslih resda prešlo od relativ­ no marginalnega področja v enega izmed pomembnejših področij evropske izobraževalne politike, a je na drugi strani okrepila predvsem ekonomske cilje izobraževanja odraslih ter preusmerila perspektivo iz izobraževanja v koncept vseživljenjskega učenja (Holford in Mi­ lana, 2014; Holford, Milana in Mohorčič Špolar, 2014; Milana in Nesbit, 2015; Popović, 2014). V drugih delih sveta (Azija, Afrika, Bližnji vzhod, Latinska Amerika) pa so pod vplivom mednarodnih organizacij še posebej pod pritiski države v razvoju, kjer je prek tako imenovanih politik strukturnih prilagoditev, ki jih izvajata in financirata Svetovna banka in UNESCO, reforma izobraževanja neposredno povezana s potrebami trga dela in konkurenč­ nostjo gospodarstva (Milana in Nesbit, 2015; Morrow in Torres, 2000). Izhajajoč iz povedanega, smo avtorjem v pričujoči tematski številki zastavili naslednje štiri temeljne sklope vprašanj: • Kakšen je vpliv nadnacionalnih in mednarodnih organizacij na reformo politik in praks izobraževanja odraslih, ki ga te organizacije izvajajo prek implementacije kon­ kretnih izvedbenih modelov, z uveljavljanjem svetovno uporabnega znanja, različnimi političnimi orodji, programi finančnih pomoči za reformo izobraževalnih politik in podobno v različnih delih sveta? • Kateri mehanizmi vzpostavljajo globalno in/ali evropsko politiko izobraževanja od­ raslih, kako deluje »vladanje brez vlade« v izobraževanju, kakšna javno­zasebna par­ tnerstva se vzpostavljajo pri upravljanju javne izobraževalne politike, kako deluje na podatkih temelječa izobraževalna politika? • Koliko globalizacijski in/ali evropeizacijski procesi delujejo spodbujevalno na demo­ kratizacijo civilne družbe in kdaj zaviralno, kdaj imajo hegemonske in kdaj protihe­ gemonske učinke, kdaj imajo homogenizacijske učinke na kulturo in kdaj povečujejo kulturno heterogenost? • Kakšni skupni mednarodni izobraževalni in študijski programi izobraževanja odraslih se oblikujejo na globalni in/ali evropski ravni, kako mednarodna omrežja v Evropi (EAEA, ESREA), Aziji (ASPBAE), Latinski Ameriki (CEAAL) ali globalno (ICAE) vplivajo na prepoznavnost in profesionalizacijo izobraževanja odraslih? Prispevki, vključeni v tematsko številko, odgovarjajo na zastavljena vprašanja posamez­ nega sklopa oziroma dajejo odgovore na vprašanja, zastavljena v dveh ali več sklopih. Tematsko številko tako sestavlja sedem znanstvenih člankov, en strokovni prispevek, ter­ minološka razprava o slovenjenju termina »governance« in recenzija knjige. Številko odpira članek Marcelle Milana »Problematizing Adult Basic and Secondary Education in a globalized world: from second chance to school-recovery«, v katerem avtorica problematizira vlogo, ki jo ima osnovnošolsko in srednješolsko izobraževanje odraslih (OSIO) kot odgovor na globalne izzive na globalni in evropski ravni ter v štirih izbranih državah (Argentini, Braziliji, Italiji in Združenih državah Amerike), geografsko lociranih na globalnem Severu in globalnem Jugu. V študiji avtorica pokaže, kako se je razvijala mednarodna politika v izobraževanju odraslih od konca druge svetovne vojne do leta 2016, pri čemer se osredotoča na preučevanje vloge pomembnejših medvladnih AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 5 12.12.2017 10:39:53 6 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA 4/2017 (UNESCO, OECD, EU) in nevladnih organizacij (DVV International, ICAE), ki imajo globalen ali kontinentalen domet, ter ugotavlja, da so te organizacije opravljale različne vloge pri širitvi politike izobraževanja odraslih na različnih ravneh, izmed katerih identi­ ficira kognitivno, normativno, pravno in paliativno raven. Na prehodu v 21. stoletje ome­ njene mednarodne organizacije razvijajo nove politične instrumente, financirajo dejav­ nost in zagotavljajo tehnično pomoč v izobraževanju odraslih, da bi zagotovile skladnost s svojimi skupnimi normami in standardi, kar na področju izobraževanja odraslih vodi v vzpostavitev nove oblike večnivojske vladavine. Izhajajoč iz takega razumevanja obli­ kovanja globalne politike, avtorica v primerjalnem delu študije obravnava tri dimenzije oblikovanja politike izobraževanja odraslih v izbranih državah: lestvice politične mobili­ zacije, okolja za oblikovanje politike in prenašanje pomenov. Pri tem dokazuje, da čeprav se dojemanje, vpliv in sprejemanje mednarodne politike med državami razlikujejo, se je OSIO danes v Argentini, Italiji in Združenih državah Amerike, to je v državah, v katerih pismenost dosega ali presega 95 % populacije, spremenil v priložnost vnovičnega šolanja za mlajše generacije, ki jim je spodletelo v šoli, in za ljudi, katerih izobraževalni dosežki v neki državi niso priznani, ko migrirajo v novo državo. Vpliv mednarodnih organizacij na oblikovanje politike vseživljenjskega učenja in izobra­ ževanja odraslih je v ospredju zanimanja tudi v prispevku Paule Guimarães »The useful­ ness of adult education: lifelong learning in the European Union and the Portuguese pu­ blic policy« s poudarkom na Portugalski. Z analiziranjem evropske in nacionalne politike vseživljenjskega učenja in izobraževanja odraslih avtorica pokaže, da so mednarodne or­ ganizacije že od petdesetih let 20. stoletja dalje vplivale na oblikovanje nacionalne izobra­ ževalne politike na Portugalskem; v tem obdobju je OECD pripomogel k oblikovanju na­ cionalnega načrta javnega izobraževanja, medtem ko je imel UNESCO pomembno vlogo pri oblikovanju humanistično usmerjenega koncepta vseživljenjskega izobraževanja sredi sedemdesetih let, ki je v ospredje postavil emancipatorne cilje in prizadevanja za demo­ kratizacijo družbe. Od devetdesetih let in preloma tisočletja dalje pa ima na oblikovanje politike vseživljenjskega učenja in izobraževanja odraslih na Portugalskem ključen vpliv EU, pod okriljem katere se je nacionalna politika izobraževanja odraslih usmerila pred­ vsem k uporabnosti izobraževanja za razvoj gospodarstva in upravljanje človeških virov. Analiza mehanizmov, ki vzpostavljajo evropsko politiko izobraževanja odraslih, je pred­ met razprave v prispevku »Nova oblika vladavine v Evropski uniji in njeni izrazi na po­ dročju izobraževanja odraslih v Sloveniji« Urške Štremfel. Avtorica analizira mehanizem delovanja odprte metode koordinacije (OMK) na področju izobraževalnih politik, pri če­ mer dokazuje, da pri slednji ne gre za neko nevtralno metodo, kot to izvorno opredeljujejo dokumenti institucij EU, ampak prej posebno obliko (političnega) vladanja, ki vzpostavlja novo obliko vladavine, proces javnopolitičnega učenja in mehanizem na podatkih teme­ lječega oblikovanja politik, namenjenega krepitvi evropskega sodelovanja na področju izobraževanja (odraslih). V prispevku avtorica prav tako pokaže, kako se je evropsko so­ delovanje na področju izobraževanja odraslih od leta 2000 dalje na podlagi uporabe posa­ meznih elementov odprte metode koordinacije poglobilo in kakšne implikacije so navedeni AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 6 12.12.2017 10:39:53 7Borut Mikulec: Globalizacija in evropeizacija izobraževanja odraslih procesi imeli za vsebino in procese oblikovanja politik izobraževanja odraslih v Sloveniji, pri čemer opozarja na nekritično sprejemanje evropskih usmeritev v nacionalni kontekst ter izpostavi naslednje ugotovitve: temeljni nacionalni dokumenti o izobraževanju odraslih se neposredno sklicujejo na evropski okvir sodelovanja, evropske usmeritve pa so dosledno prevedene v nacionalni kontekst; ministrstvo, pristojno za izobraževanje, se zavezuje upo­ rabi na podatkih temelječega oblikovanja politik izobraževanja odraslih, ki jih omogoča raziskava PIAAC; in ne nazadnje, Slovenija je imenovala nacionalne predstavnike v različ­ ne (tematske) delovne skupine za izobraževanje odraslih, ki delujejo na ravni EU. Evropeizacijski vplivi na oblikovanje politike in prakse izobraževanja odraslih v Sloveniji so prav tako v ospredju preučevanja v prispevku »Vpliv evropeizacije izobraževanja na potrženje in poblagovljenje politike in prakse izobraževanja odraslih v Sloveniji« Sabine Jelenc Krašovec in Boruta Mikulca. Izhajajoč iz koncepta evropeizacije izobraževanja ter ob analizi evropske in nacionalne politike izobraževanja odraslih, avtorja pokaževa, kako je evropski ekonomistični diskurz prežel nacionalni kontekst, kakor tudi, kako so finančni mehanizmi potržili področje izobraževanja odraslih v Sloveniji, ki z javnim dobrim nima več veliko skupnega. Ob analizi resolucij (2004, 2013) in letnih programov izobraževanja odraslih v obdobju od 2005 do 2018 ugotavljava, da so od začetka ekonomske krize v letu 2008 (do leta 2016) nacionalna sredstva za izobraževanje odraslih stalno upadala, kar je posledica varčevalnih ukrepov, ki so prizadela izobraževalni sistem. Ob tem se je država izognila svoji odgovornosti in večino sredstev, ki bi jih morala zagotoviti iz nacionalnega proračuna, nadomestila s sredstvi Evropskega socialnega sklada, s čimer je posledično spodbujala in zasledovala predvsem evropske ekonomistične cilje izobraževanja in uspo­ sabljanja za potrebe trga dela ter po tihem pritrdila potrženju izobraževanja odraslih v Sloveniji. V takšnih razmerah so bile javne organizacije za izobraževanje odraslih prisi­ ljene tekmovati z zasebnimi institucijami za to, da so lahko opravljale svoje delo. S po­ drejanjem evropski »mehki zakonodaji« in njenim usmeritvam na področju izobraževanja odraslih Slovenija izgublja svojo izhodiščno vlogo, ki jo je pri razvoju področja imela po osamosvojitvi in se je izražala v zagotavljanju družbeno pravičnega in vsem dostopnega izobraževanja odraslih, ki je bilo namenjeno osebnemu in družbenemu razvoju ter opol­ nomočenju vseh odraslih. Na nevarnost potrženja in komercializacije visokošolskega izobraževanja in izobraževanja odraslih, ki se dogajata pod globalizacijskimi procesi, ki prevzemajo neoliberalne oblike internacionalizacije univerze, v svojem prispevku opozarja tudi Tanja Potočnik Mesarić. Izhajajoč iz zgodovinske analize, avtorica dokazuje, da so se motivi za internacionaliza­ cijo univerze od njenega nastanka v srednjem veku do danes temeljito spremenili, in sicer pod vplivom neoliberalno naravnane oblike internacionalizacije univerze, ki jo spodbu­ jajo globalizacijski procesi. Na primeru Sporazuma o trženju storitev (GATS) Svetovne trgovinske organizacije (WTO), h kateremu se je kot kandidatka za članstvo v EU leta 2003 zavezala tudi Slovenija, avtorica pokaže, kako ta odpira vrata neoliberalnim tržnim vplivom ter poleg vprašljive kakovosti izobraževalnih programov v nacionalni prostor vnaša tudi skrb zbujajoči akademski imperializem. AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 7 12.12.2017 10:39:53 8 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA 4/2017 Vprašanje protislovne in konfliktne narave procesov globalizacije, ki lahko udejanjajo gospodarsko in politično hegemonijo maloštevilnih nosilcev kapitala, a imajo tudi eman­ cipacijski potencial za posameznike in skupine pri uveljavljanju demokratizacije in so­ cialne pravičnosti, je v ospredju prispevka »Vloga identitetnih kapitalov v razvoju aktivne odraslosti v globaliziranih družbah« Mirjane Ule. Izhajajoč iz preučevanja učinkov globa­ lizacije na življenjske poteke, ki zaradi individualizacije in destandardizacije od ljudi terja večjo lastno odgovornost za načrtovanje življenja, dokazuje tezo, da so prehodi iz mlado­ sti v odraslost postali nejasni in fleksibilni, kar posledično spreminja tudi obdobje odra­ slosti, ki ob izgubi stabilnih struktur in vlog postaja vse bolj psihološki pojav, to je pojav, povezan z oblikovanjem identitete oziroma z identitetnim delom, ki je bil prej »rezervi­ ran« za obdobje mladosti. Glede na to, da so življenjske poti postale nelinearne, »lahko skoraj v vsakem trenutku življenja ‘začneš znova’; vrneš se v izobraževanje, znova začneš družinsko življenje ali poklicno kariero. Z drugimi besedami, tudi v odraslosti se odločaš o stvareh, o katerih se ‘normalno’ odločaš, ko si mlad.« Kot ugotavlja avtorica, omenjene spremembe posledično pred izobraževanje odraslih postavljajo nove izzive in naloge; ne samo, da naj izobraževanje odraslih opravlja vlogo izobraževanja za delo (dokvalifikacije, prekvalifikacije) ali socialno vlogo (pridobivanje novih socialnih kompetenc za razume­ vanje družbenih dogajanj), ampak bi moralo po avtoričinem prepričanju vse bolj opra­ vljati tudi psihološko vlogo, to je spodbujati razvoj »identitetnih kapitalov«, potrebnih za suvereno odraslo življenje v hitro spreminjajočem in preoblikujočem se svetu. Zadnji znanstveni prispevek tematske številke »Internationalisation of studies in adult education: the example of COMPALL: comparative studies in adult education and life­ long learning« je pripravila Regina Egetenmeyer. Avtorica razpravlja o procesih inter­ nacionalizacije in globalizacije v izobraževanju odraslih in visokošolskem izobraževa­ nju. Pri tem pokaže, da je izobraževanje odraslih kot univerzitetni predmet in študijski program povezan s procesi internacionalizacije visokega šolstva; izobraževanje odraslih je kot področje študija del internacionalizacije na univerzah. Kot nadalje razlaga, je ta razmislek služil za izhodišče sedmim partnerskim evropskim univerzam, ki so pripravile skupni modul »Primerjalne študije v izobraževanju odraslih in vseživljenjskem učenju« (COMPALL) za magistrske in doktorske študente v izobraževanju odraslih. Modul je zasnovan tako, da spodbuja razvoj mednarodnega znanja, komparativnih raziskovalnih metod, interkulturnih kompetenc, didaktičnih strategij in izkušenj mreženja na področju izobraževanja odraslih. Poleg navedenih prednosti, ki jih za diplomante in učitelje v iz­ obraževanju odraslih prinašajo procesi internacionalizacije in globalizacije, pa avtorica prav tako navaja, da ti procesi pripomorejo k odpiranju, dostopnosti in širjenju mednaro­ dnih in primerjalnih perspektiv v izobraževanju odraslih. Tematska številka vključuje tudi strokovni prispevek Maruše Bajt in Ane Stanovnik Per­ čič »Erasmus+ s podporo mednarodnemu sodelovanju odpira vrata v svet izobraževalcem odraslih v Sloveniji«, v katerem avtorici ob 30­letnici programa Erasmus+ razpravlja­ ta o učinkih mednarodnega sodelovanja na profesionalni razvoj osebja, razvoj lokalnih skupnosti in dvig kakovosti sistema izobraževanja odraslih v Sloveniji; prispevek Urške AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 8 12.12.2017 10:39:53 9Borut Mikulec: Globalizacija in evropeizacija izobraževanja odraslih Štremfel »Kako poimenovati sodobne strukture in procese oblikovanja in izvajanja izo­ braževalnih politik in praks? Razmislek o slovenjenju termina ‘governance’«, ki odpira številna vprašanja in dileme mednarodne, sistemske, institucionalne, normativne in ana­ litične narave, s katerimi smo soočeni slovenski raziskovalci ob ustreznem slovenjenju in umeščanju termina governance na področju izobraževanja; ter recenzijo Sonje Kump, ki analizira monografijo »Global Perspectives on Adult Education and Learning Policy«, ki obravnava globalne perspektive javnih politik izobraževanja odraslih. Številko zaključuje netematski prispevek Zorana Jelenca, ki poroča o aktualnem dogaja­ nju na letošnjem 21. andragoškem kolokviju, ki je v začetku oktobra potekal v Ajdovščini. Borut Mikulec LITERATURA Alexiadou, N. (2014). Policy Learning and Europeanisation in Education: the governance of a field and the transfer of knowledge. V A. Nordin in D. Sundberg (ur.), Transnational Policy Flows in Euro- pean Education: the making and governing of knowledge in the education policy field (str. 123–140). Oxford: Symposium Books. Burbules, N. C. in Torres, C. A. (2000). Globalization and Education: An Introduction. V N. C. Burbu­ les in C. A. Torres (ur.), Globalization and Education: Critical Perspectives (str. 1–26). New York: Routledge. Dale, R. (1999). Specifying globalization effects on national policy: a focus on the mechanisms. Journal of Education Policy, 14(1), 1–17. Dale, R. (2009). Contexts, Constraints and Resources in the Development of European Education Space and European Education Policy. V R. Dale in S. Robertson (ur.), Globalisation and Europeanisation in Education (str. 23–44). Wallingford: Symposium. Daun, H. (2010). The New Mode of Governance in European Education – in the Context of Globaliza­ tion and EU­ification. Orbis Scholae, 4(2), 115–131. Finger, M., Jansen, T. in Wildemeersch, D. (1998). Reconciling the irreconcilable? Adult and continuing education between personal development, corporate concerns and public responsibility. V D. Wil­ demeersch, M. Finger in T. Jansen (ur.), Adult education and social responsibility. Reconciling the irreconcilable? (str. 1–26). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Holford, J. in Milana, M. (ur.) (2014). Adult Education Policy and the European Union: Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Holford, J., Milana, M. in Mohorčič Špolar, V. (2014). Introduction. Adult and lifelong education: the European Union, its member states and the world. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 33(3), 267–274. Klatt, M. (2014). Understanding the European Union and its Political Power. V M. Milana in J. Holford (ur.), Adult Education Policy and the European Union. Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives (str. 53–72). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Lawn, M. in Grek, S. (2012). Europeanizing Education: Governing a new policy space. Oxford: Sym­ posium Books. Milana, M. in Nesbit, T. (ur.) (2015). Global Perspectives on Adult Education and Learning Policy. AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 9 12.12.2017 10:39:53 10 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA 4/2017 Basingstoke, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Morrow, R. A. in Torres, C. A. (2000). The State, Globalization, and Educational Policy. V N. C. Bur­ bules in C. A. Torres (ur.), Globalization and Education: Critical Perspectives (str. 27–56). New York: Routledge. Mundy, K. (2007). Global governance, educational change. Comparative Education, 43(3), 339–357. Popović, K. (2014). Globalna i evropska politika obrazovanja odraslih – koncepti, paradigme i pristupi. Beograd: Institut za pedagogiju i andragogiju Filozofskog fakulteta Univerziteta u Beogradu, Dru­ štvo za obrazovanje odraslih. Rizvi, F. in Lingard, B. (2010). Globalizing education policy. London, New York: Routledge. Robertson, S. L. in Dale, I. R. (2008). Researching education in a globalising era: beyond methodolo­ gical nationalism, methodological statism, methodological educationism and spatial fetishism. V J. Resnik (ur.), The Production of Educational Knowledge in the Global Era (str. 19–32). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Torres, C. A. (2013). Political Sociology of Adult Education. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 10 12.12.2017 10:39:53 Editorial EDITORIAL GLOBALISATION AND EUROPEANISATION OF ADULT EDUCATION This thematic issue of Andragogic Perspectives brings to the fore a topic which has, since the turn of the century, enjoyed considerable international attention in the field of (adult) education and lifelong learning. In Slovenia, however, the influence of globalisation and/ or Europeanisation on adult education has not in fact been systematically addressed. The editorial board made the decision to encourage a wide­ranging discussion about the in­ fluence and impact of globalisation and/or Europeanisation processes on adult education and learning, lifelong learning and higher education, hence the current thematic issue. At first glance, the study of education in the context of globalisation and/or Europeanisa­ tion processes is most unusual, as a historical overview reveals that adult education, and education in general, has always been the responsibility of nation­states. Starting with the Age of Enlightenment, whose ideas inspired the development of adult education in Europe (cf. e.g., Finger, Jansen and Wildemeersch, 1998), the state can be shown to have used ed­ ucation as a means of promoting individual development and responsible citizenship, giv­ ing rise to citizens who participate in the public sphere (a relatively homogenous national community) and the job market (Burbules and Torres, 2000; Mund, 2007). Given that adult education is firmly rooted in the national, this begs the question why the influence of globalisation and/or Europeanisation on adult education should be investigated at all. There are several possible answers to this question and the contributors to the thematic issue approach the matter from different perspectives. Here the search for the answer will take as its basis the definition of globalisation, even though this concept can be am­ biguous in itself as there are many definitions of globalisation or globalisations and the phenomenon is not entirely new (Mirjana Ule’s paper expounds on this point). Broadly speaking, globalisation can be understood as increasing interdependence in the economic, political, cultural, technological and other areas to the extent where all levels of human organisation are interwoven into one system; it includes the flows of goods, capital, peo­ ple, information, ideas, image, and risks across national boundaries and the emergence of social networks and political institutions that restrict the nation­states (Torres, 2013). Glo­ balisation thus represents an authentic restructuring of social organisation in the broader economic, political and cultural spheres, as well as specifically in education, a field which has certainly not remained immune to the processes of globalisation. AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 11 12.12.2017 10:39:53 12 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA 4/2017 Despite differences between authors (cf. e.g., Burbules and Torres, 2000; Daun, 2010; Rizvi and Lingard, 2010) regarding the impact of globalisation on education and what changes the influence of globalisation is producing in education, some common and in­ terrelated characteristics of the processes of globalisation in (adult) education can be underscored: the existence of supranational political organisations (EU) and international organisations (OECD, UNESCO, IMF, World Bank) which have had a hand in shaping the European and global education policy (cf. Paula Guimarães’s, Marcella Milana’s and Urška Štremfel’s papers in this issue); the impact that economic processes have on edu­ cation, reflected in the ever greater commodification and marketisation of education (cf. the contribution by Sabina Jelenc Krašovec and Borut Mikulec in this issue); the rise of neoliberalism as the hegemonic discourse of (education) policy (cf. Tanja Potočnik Mesarić’s paper in this issue); the spreading of various models of education (e.g., the Bologna reform) and of the concept of globally applicable knowledge (e.g., PIAAC; cf. Regina Egetenmeyer’s article in this issue); the rise of new global cultural forms, media and communication technologies framing the relations between belonging, identity, and interaction among local cultural traditions (cf. Mirjana Ule’s article in this issue). Con­ sequently, adult education today cannot be understood and treated only in the framework of individual nation­states and their policies, since the processes of globalisation, greatly affecting the whole education space and spelling out the writing on the wall for “meth­ odological nationalism” (Robertson and Dale, 2008), are playing an increasingly crucial role in the shaping and structuring of regional, national and local policies and practices in adult education. When investigating the influence globalisation has on (adult) education, it should also be pointed out that globalisation is not a homogenous process with the exact same impact throughout the world but is associated with various forms of regionalisation (in Europe, Asia, and America), which generate different policies and mechanisms (Dale, 1999). These policies and mechanisms in the field of education in Europe have been notionally referred to by various authors (e.g., Alexiadou, 2014; Dale, 2009; Lawn and Grek, 2012) as the Europeanisation of education. In their definition of the phenomenon, Lawn and Grek (2012) emphasise the complexity of the processes which include the following: transnational flows and networks of people, ideas, and practices all over Europe involving European, national and local actors; direct effects of EU policy seen in the education field as the establishment of various indicators, benchmarks and standards for the comparabil­ ity of statistical data in international surveys; as well as the effects of international insti­ tutions. The Europeanisation of education can also be understood as a three­dimensional phenomenon involving both “top­down” processes (i.e., from the EU level to the national/ local level) and “bottom­up” processes (i.e., from the local/national level to the EU level), as well as a process of horizontal exchange among various actors and networks of people (Klatt, 2014). Owing to the processes of globalisation and Europeanisation, adult education is today increasingly integrated into complex relationships and dialogical tensions between the AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 12 12.12.2017 10:39:53 13Borut Mikulec: Globalisation and europeanisation of adult education supranational and national (as well as local) levels as an exchange of policies among net­ works of people, ideas and practices across the globe, which involves global, European, national and local actors. In Europe, the European Commission has in the last decade devoted special attention to adult education and learning, which has, on the one hand, changed the status of adult education from a relatively marginal field to one of the most important areas of European education policy, but has also, on the other hand, primarily strengthened the economic objectives of adult education and shifted the perspective from education to the broader concept of lifelong learning (Holford and Milana, 2014; Holford, Milana and Mohorčič Špolar, 2014; Milana and Nesbit, 2015; Popović, 2014). In other parts of the world (Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Latin America) and under the influence of international organisations, these developments have particularly affected developing countries, where education reform is implemented and funded by the World Bank and UNESCO through so­called “structural adjustment policies” and directly related to the needs of the market and the competitiveness of the economy (Milana and Nesbit, 2015; Morrow and Torres, 2000). Following from this, the present thematic issue poses four basic sets of questions: • What is the influence of supranational and international organisations on the reform of adult education policies and practices exerted by means of implementing concrete performance models, introducing globally applicable knowledge, different policy in­ struments, and various programmes enabling reform activities in the field of educa­ tion in various parts of the world? • Which mechanisms establish global and/or European adult education policy, how is ‘governance without government’ being established in education, what public­private partnerships are being established in the management of public education policy, how does evidence­based educational policy work? • To what extent can globalisation and/or Europeanisation processes facilitate or inhib­ it democratisation processes in the civil society, when do they have hegemonic and counter­hegemonic effects, when do they have homogenisation effects on culture and when do they increase cultural heterogeneity? • What common international education and study programmes of adult education are being developed on a global and/or European level, how do international networks in Europe (EAEA, ESREA), Asia (ASPBAE), Latin America (CEAAL), or globally (ICAE) affect the visibility and professionalisation of adult education? The contributions included in this thematic issue address a particular set or several sets of questions. The issue brings seven research papers, a report, a terminological discussion on the translation of the term ‘governance’ into Slovenian, and a book review. In her paper ‘Problematising Adult Basic and Secondary Education in a globalised world: from second chance to school recovery’, Marcella Milana calls into question the role of Adult Basic and Secondary Education (ABSE) as a response to the global challenges at the global and European levels as well as in four selected countries (Argentina, Brazil, Italy, and the USA) notable for their geographical location in either the global North or AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 13 12.12.2017 10:39:53 14 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA 4/2017 the global South. The study follows the development of international policy in the field of adult education from the end of the Second World War all the way to 2016. The author fo­ cuses on analysing the role of important intergovernmental (UNESCO, OECD, EU) and non­governmental (DVV International, ICAE) organisations with a global or continental reach, and finds that these organisations have had different roles to play in expanding adult education policy at various levels, identifying cognitive, normative, legal and palli­ ative governance. At the turn of the century, these international organisations are devel­ oping new political instruments, funding activities and providing technical assistance in the field of adult education in order to ensure compliance with their common norms and benchmarks, which gives rise to the establishment of a new form of multi­scalar govern­ ance in adult education. This conceptual framework of how global policy is shaped leads the author to analyse and compare three dimensions of policy making in adult education in the chosen countries: the scales of political mobilisation, the environments for policy making, and the meanings conveyed. The findings show that, despite the differences in the perceptions, influence, and reception of international policy across countries, ABSE in Argentina, Italy and the USA (i.e., countries with literacy rates of 95% and above) has today become a school­recovery opportunity for younger generations with a history of school failure and people whose educational attainment is not recognised upon immigrat­ ing to a new country. The analysis of the influence international organisations have in terms of shaping lifelong learning and adult education policy is also the focus of Paula Guimarães’s article ‘The usefulness of adult education: lifelong learning in the European Union and the Portuguese public policy’, but with a special emphasis on Portugal. By analysing European and na­ tional policies in lifelong learning and adult education, the author details the impact that international organisations have had in the creation of national education policy in Por­ tugal going as far back as the 1950s. In that period, the OECD helped shape the National Plan of Popular Education, while UNESCO had a key role in the mid­1970s influencing the creation of the humanistic concept of lifelong learning, which brought to the fore emancipatory and democratisation aims. Ever since the 1990s and the turn of the century, policy making in the field of lifelong learning and adult education in Portugal has been under the profound influence of the EU, which has led the national adult education policy to focus primarily on the usefulness of education in terms of economic development and human resource management. Urška Štremfel analyses the mechanisms behind the new European adult education policy in ‘A new mode of European Union governance and its implications for adult education policy in Slovenia’. The author analyses the mechanism of the open method of coordina­ tion (OMC) in the area of education policies and shows that this is not a neutral method as originally declared in EU institutional documents, but rather a special form of (political) government establishing a new form of governance, a process of public policy learning and an evidence­based policymaking mechanism intended to strengthen cooperation in the common European (adult) education space. The paper also details how European AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 14 12.12.2017 10:39:54 15Borut Mikulec: Globalisation and europeanisation of adult education cooperation in adult education has intensified since 2000 fostered by the use of some elements of the OMC, and what the implications of these processes were for the content of and processes of shaping adult education policies in Slovenia. In doing so, the author calls attention to the less than critical reception of European guidelines in the Slovenian national context and the following findings: the fundamental national documents on adult education refer directly to the European framework of cooperation and European guide­ lines are consistently translated into the national context; the ministry in charge of educa­ tion has committed to using evidence­based adult education policymaking enabled by the PIAAC survey; and, last but not least, Slovenia has appointed its national representatives to various (thematic) adult education working groups at the level of the EU. The investigation of Europeanisation influences on the policy and practice of adult ed­ ucation in Slovenia is also the focus of the paper ‘The influence of the Europeanisation of education on the marketisation and commodification of adult education policies and practices in Slovenia’ by Sabina Jelenc Krašovec and Borut Mikulec. Taking as a starting point the concept of the Europeanisation of education and analysing the European and national adult education policies, the authors show how the national context has become suffused with European economistic discourse, as well as how financial mechanisms have marketised the area of adult education in Slovenia that now has little left in common with the public good. The analysis of the Resolutions (2004, 2013) and annual programmes of adult education between the years 2005 and 2018 leads the authors to conclude that since the beginning of the economic crisis in 2008 (and up until 2016), national fund­ ing for adult education constantly decreased, which was the result of austerity measures affecting the education system. At the same time the state shirked its responsibilities and transferred most of the funding that was supposed to come from the state budget to the European Social Fund, which as a consequence mainly fostered and followed the European economistic objectives of education and training for labour market purposes and quietly acquiesced to the marketisation of adult education in Slovenia. Under these circumstances, public adult education organisations were forced into competition with private institutions to be able to do their job. By yielding to European ‘soft law’ and its directives in the field of adult education, Slovenia is losing the role it had at the time of becoming independent and which pertained to ensuring a system of adult education that was marked by social justice and equal access for all with the aim of individual and social development and the empowerment of all adult people. In her paper, ‘The impact of globalisation on neoliberal forms of university international­ isation’, Tanja Potočnik Mesarić warns against the danger of marketisation and commer­ cialisation in higher and adult education in the context of globalisation processes taking over neoliberal forms of university internationalisation. Based on a historical analysis, the author demonstrates that since the creation of universities in the Middle Ages until the present day the motives for university internationalisation have changed fundamentally under the influence of a particular form of university internationalisation which has a neoliberal orientation and is propelled by the processes of globalisation. The case study AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 15 12.12.2017 10:39:54 16 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA 4/2017 of the World Trade Organisation’s agreement GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Ser­ vices), to which Slovenia committed in 2003 as a candidate country for EU membership, shows how this method opens the door for neoliberal market influence and, in addition to the questionable quality of educational programmes, also brings about a worrying ac­ ademic imperialism. The question of the contradictory and conflictual nature of globalisation processes which can, on the one hand, embody the economic and political hegemony of a small number of capital owners, but which can, on the other hand, also have an emancipatory potential for individuals and groups advocating democracy and social justice, is at the forefront of Mirjana Ule’s article ‘The role of identity capital in the development of active adulthood in globalised societies’. Investigating the effects globalisation has on life cycles, forcing people to assume greater responsibility for the planning of their lives, the author shows that the transitions from youth to adulthood have become ambiguous and flexible, which in turn brings changes to the period of adulthood. Having lost its stable structures and roles, adulthood is increasingly becoming a psychological phenomenon, i.e., a phenom­ enon related to the formation of identity or so­called identity work, which used to be bound to the period of youth. Since life cycles have become non­linear, one ‘can at almost any time in their life “start over”; go back into education, re­start their family life or pro­ fessional career. In other words, even in adulthood, one can decide about things which are “normally” decided when young.” The author finds that these changes consequently mean that adult education is faced with new challenges and tasks; it is not enough for adult education to fulfil its role of education for work (additional training, retraining) or its social role (acquisition of new social competences to understand social developments), but according to the author, it should also do more to fulfil its psychological function, i.e., encourage the development of “identity capital” necessary for an independent adult life in a world marked by rapid change and transformation. The last research paper, ‘Internationalisation of studies in adult education: the example of COMPALL: comparative studies in adult education and lifelong learning’ by Regina Egetenmeyer discusses the processes of internationalisation and globalisation in adult education and higher education. They serve to show that, as a university subject and study programme, adult education has a strong link to the processes of internationalisation in higher education; as an area of study, adult education is a part of university international­ isation. The author details how this consideration led partners from seven European uni­ versities to develop the joint module ‘Comparative Studies in Adult Education and Life­ long Learning’ meant for master’s and doctoral students in adult education. The module is conceptualised so as to foster the development of international knowledge, comparative research methods, intercultural competences, teaching strategies, and networking experi­ ence in the field of adult education. Besides introducing these advantages for graduates and teachers in the field of adult education, the author also finds the processes of interna­ tionalisation and globalisation help promote the opening, accessibility and expansion of international and comparative perspectives in adult education. AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 16 12.12.2017 10:39:54 17Borut Mikulec: Globalisation and europeanisation of adult education Finally, the thematic issue also includes the report Erasmus+, opening up opportunities for Slovenian adult educators’ by Maruša Bajt and Ana Stanovnik Perčić, which takes the 30th anniversary of the Erasmus+ programme as a starting point to discuss the impact of international cooperation on the professional development of staff, the development of local communities, and the improved quality of the adult education system in Slovenia; Urša Štremfel’s contribution ‘What to call the modern structures and processes of form­ ing and implementing education policies and practices? Some thoughts on translating the term “governance” into Slovenian’, which addresses a number of open questions and dilemmas – of an international, systemic, institutional, normative, and analytical nature – that Slovenian researchers are faced with when translating and contextualising the term governance in the field of education; and Sonja Kump’s review analysing the monograph ‘Global perspectives on adult education and learning policy’, which looks at the global perspectives of public adult education policies. In the closing (non­thematic) contribution in this issue, Zoran Jelenc reports on the cur­ rent events at this year’s 21st Andragoški Kolokvij conference, which took place in Oc­ tober in Ajdovščina. Borut Mikulec REFERENCES Alexiadou, N. (2014). Policy Learning and Europeanisation in Education: the governance of a field and the transfer of knowledge. In A. Nordin and D. Sundberg (eds.), Transnational Policy Flows in Euro- pean Education: the making and governing of knowledge in the education policy field (pp. 123–140). Oxford: Symposium Books. Burbules, N. C. and Torres, C. A. (2000). Globalization and Education: An Introduction. In N. C. Burbules and C. A. Torres (eds.), Globalization and Education: Critical Perspectives (pp. 1–26). New York: Routledge. Dale, R. (1999). Specifying globalization effects on national policy: a focus on the mechanisms. Journal of Education Policy, 14(1), 1–17. Dale, R. (2009). Contexts, Constraints and Resources in the Development of European Education Space and European Education Policy. In R. Dale and S. Robertson (eds.), Globalisation and Europeani- sation in Education (pp. 23–44). Wallingford: Symposium. Daun, H. (2010). The New Mode of Governance in European Education – in the Context of Globaliza­ tion and EU­ification. Orbis Scholae, 4(2), 115–131. Finger, M., Jansen, T. and Wildemeersch, D. (1998). Reconciling the irreconcilable? Adult and contin­ uing education between personal development, corporate concerns and public responsibility. In D. Wildemeersch, M. Finger and T. Jansen (eds.), Adult education and social responsibility. Reconcil- ing the irreconcilable? (pp. 1–26). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Holford, J. and Milana, M. (eds.) (2014). Adult Education Policy and the European Union: Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Holford, J., Milana, M. and Mohorčič Špolar, V. (2014). Introduction. Adult and lifelong education: the European Union, its member states and the world. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 33(3), 267–274. AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 17 12.12.2017 10:39:54 18 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA 4/2017 Klatt, M. (2014). Understanding the European Union and its Political Power. In M. Milana and J. Holford (eds.), Adult Education Policy and the European Union. Theoretical and Methodological Perspec- tives (pp. 53–72). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Lawn, M. and Grek, S. (2012). Europeanizing Education: Governing a new policy space. Oxford: Sym­ posium Books Ltd. Milana, M. and Nesbit, T. (eds.) (2015). Global Perspectives on Adult Education and Learning Policy. Basingstoke, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Morrow, R. A. and Torres, C. A. (2000). The State, Globalization, and Educational Policy. In N. C. Burbules and C. A. Torres (eds.), Globalization and Education: Critical Perspectives (pp. 27–56). New York: Routledge. Mundy, K. (2007). Global governance, educational change. Comparative Education, 43(3), 339–357. Popović, K. (2014). Globalna i evropska politika obrazovanja odraslih – koncepti, paradigme i pristupi. Beograd: Institut za pedagogiju i andragogiju Filozofskog fakulteta Univerziteta u Beogradu, Društ­ vo za obrazovanje odraslih. Rizvi, F. and Lingard, B. (2010). Globalizing education policy. London, New York: Routledge. Robertson, S. L. and Dale, I. R. (2008). Researching education in a globalising era: beyond methodolog­ ical nationalism, methodological statism, methodological educationism and spatial fetishism. In J. Resnik (ed.), The Production of Educational Knowledge in the Global Era (pp. 19–32). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Torres, C. A. (2013). Political Sociology of Adult Education. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. AS_2017_4 _FINAL.indd 18 12.12.2017 10:39:54