239Arheološki vestnik 76, 2025, 239–259; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AV.76.03; CC BY-SA 4.0
Izvleček
Arheološke raziskave, ki so se na območju Bohinja v preteklosti osredotočale predvsem na alpske doline, so se v za-
dnjih desetletjih razširile še v visokogorje. Sledile so jim tudi palinološke raziskave. Da bi pridobili nove informacije o 
lokalnem vplivu človeka na okolje in posredno gospodarski izrabi prostora, smo v okolici Srednje vasi v Bohinju izvrtali 
vrtino za palinološke analize. 
Rezultati analize kažejo človeški vpliv na vegetacijo od eneolitika naprej (ca. 4700 cal. BP). V železni dobi in rimskem 
obdobju so lokalni smrekov gozd nadomestili pašniki, kar je v skladu s prisotnostjo večjega števila arheoloških najdišč 
v bližini. V srednjem veku je opaziti upad drevesnih taksonov, kar je lahko posledica kontinuirane paše in vse večjih 
potreb po železu. V novem veku je krajina ostala odprta s kontinuiranim pojavljanjem peloda antropogenih indikatorjev, 
ki nakazujejo na pašništvo/poljedelstvo in posredno na metalurgijo. 
Ključne besede: Julijske Alpe; Srednja vas v Bohinju; holocen; palinologija; človekov vpliv; spremembe vegetacije
Abstract
In recent decades, archaeological and palynological research in the Bohinj basin has mainly focused on the highlands, 
while research in the valley is much older and often insufficient. In order to obtain new information about the local 
human impact on the environment, a palynological analysis was carried out in a marsh-like environment near Srednja 
vas v Bohinju. The main aim of the investigation was to obtain more information about the former vegetation, economy 
and use of the environment.
The palynological results show an early human impact on the environment (since the Eneolithic, ca. 4700 cal. BP). In 
the Iron Age/Roman period, the local spruce forest was replaced by pastures, which is consistent with the archaeological 
sites nearby. Throughout the Middle Ages, a decline in tree taxa can be observed, which could be due to continuous 
pastoralism and an increasing demand for iron. In the Modern Period, the landscape remained open with continuous 
grazing/arable farming and indirectly due to metallurgy.
Key words: Julian Alps; Srednja vas v Bohinju; the Holocene; palynology; human impact; vegetation change
The Julian Alps is a mountain range that stretches 
between northeastern Italy and northwestern Slo-
venia. The area consists of high alpine plateaus 
and peaks that rarely exceed 2,800 m a.s.l. and 
alpine valleys in between (e.g., the Soča valley, the 
Bohinj valley, etc.; Perko, Orožen Adamič 2001). 
The climate in the Julian Alps is alpine, with high 
annual precipitation (ca. 2000–3500 mm). The 
Srednja vas v Bohinju – Palaeoenvironmental Record
of Human Influence on the Lowlands of the Julian Alps 
Srednja vas v Bohinju – paleookoljski zapis
vpliva človeka na nižine Julijskih Alp
Nina CAF
240 Nina CAF
Modern average winter temperature is between 0 
and –3°C, and the summer temperature is between 
15 and 20°C (D. Ogrin 1996, 52).
Prevailing vegetation is Ostryo-Fagetum and 
Anemone-Fagetum tree association in the surround-
ing hills of the Bohinj basin and anthropogenic 
grasslands in the valleys (Marinček et al. 2002). 
Archaeological research (Fig. 1) in the area of 
the Julian Alps has shown early human presence 
(stone tools) in the region since the Late Paleolithic/
Mesolithic, mainly in the area of the Krn moun-
tain range (Turk et al. 2005, 41; Turk, Podobnik 
2024, 19). In the highlands of Bohinj, the oldest 
human traces were found at Jama za Skalami and 
Fig. 1: Archaeological sites around the Srednja vas v Bohinju coring location (modified after Andrič et al. 2020b; ARKAS). 
Sl. 1: Arheološka najdišča v okolici lokacije vrtanja pri Srednji vasi v Bohinju (povzeto po Andrič et al. 2020b; ARKAS).
1 – Poljanica na Zadnjem Voglu; 2 – Gracija; 3 – Govnjač; 4 – Krošnja; 5 – Snežna konta; 6 – Kal na Zadnjem Voglu; 7 
– Poljanca; 8 – Dolga Planja; 9 – Žlan; 10 – Ajdovski gradec; 11 – Sv. Janez; 12 – Stara Fužina; 13 – Podojnce; 14 – Žale; 
15 – Bohinjska Češnjica; 16 – Dunaj pri Jereki; 17 – Krstenica; 18 – Jama za skalami; 19 – Pod Kopico; 20 – Vodene 
Rupe; 21 – Mišeljski preval
Fig. 2: Srednja vas v Bohinju. Location of coring site. 
Sl. 2: Srednja vas v Bohinju. Lokacija mesta vrtanja.
241Srednja vas v Bohinju – Palaeoenvironmental Record of Human Influence on the Lowlands of the Julian Alps 
Žagarjeva glava, which were, based on charcoal 
analysis, dated to the Mesolithic (7500–6000 BC; 
Turk, Šercelj 1988, 13; Horvat 2002, 193). In the 
alpine valleys, including the Bohinj basin, archae-
ology has also provided evidence of the human 
presence, with the oldest traces belonging to the 
Bronze Age (Valič 1968–69, 148, Pl. 2: 1). Perma-
nent settlements are known from the earlier Iron 
Age onwards, when the Bohinj basin belonged to 
the Posočje/Sveta Lucija group (Gabrovec 1975; 
1987; Teržan 2022; Mlinar, Tecco Hvala 2022; last 
review by M. Ogrin 2023, 634–635). As a result 
of rich iron ore surface deposits, the Bohinj basin 
developed into an important ironworking area 
(Müllner 1909, 52; Gabrovec 1975, 168; Mušič 
1999). The remains of a Roman settlement are 
rare, they are known from Ajdovski gradec near 
Bohinjska Bistrica (Kos 1988, cat. No. 96; Mušič 
1999, 370–376; Ciglenečki 2015, 410) and Dunaj 
pri Jereki (Meterc 1992, 225). According to the coin 
finds, the two settlements existed approximately 
until the end of the 4th century (Kos 1988, cat. No. 
96, 106/1, 106/2; Kos, Šemrov 1995, cat. No. 64, 
66, 67). Next to Lake Bohinj, on the site of today‘s 
church of sv.AJanez Krstnik (St John the Baptist) and 
in its surroundings, the remains of a Roman-era 
settlement and sanctuary were discovered, which 
were also in use until the end of the 4th century 
(Josipovič, Gaspari, Miškec 2012, 389–396). From 
the Early Middle Ages, the Žale and Podojnce 
cemeteries near Srednja vas are known (Lavrenčič 
2019, with cited older literature). At Dunaj pri 
Jereki, an Avar strap end from the second half of 
the 8th century was found (Gabrovec 1955, 137; 
Ciglenečki 1992, 57, Fig. 2; Karo, Knific, Lubšina 
Tušek 2011, 132, 137, cat. No. 1).
Palaeoecological studies that would give us 
more relevant information about human impact 
on the environment have been limited to Lake 
Bohinj (Andrič et al. 2020a, 2). The palynological 
analysis of Lake Bohinj shows a broader/regional 
vegetation development due to wider catchment, 
so local impact can often be overlooked. Therefore, 
our study focused on the palynological analysis of 
the sedimentary record of Srednja vas v Bohinju, 
located at 580 m a.s.l. (ca. 4 km east of Lake Bohinj, 
in Zgornja Bohinjska dolina (the Upper Bohinj 
valley), Fig. 2). The main aim of this study was to 
find out how the vegetation changed in different 
archaeological periods depending on climate or 
anthropogenic impact and to compare this with 
other palaeoecological archives/archaeological 
analyses in the area.
STUDY AREA
The area of Srednja vas v Bohinju lies in the 
Upper Bohinj valley at the altitude of ca. 580 
m. The Upper Bohinj valley is the north-eastern 
part of the Bohinj basin that is surrounded by the 
Pokljuka Plateau to the north and Lake Bohinj to 
the west. In the past, access to the Bohinj basin 
was possible only across mountain passes. Only 
in the Modern Period, the lowland connections 
to the Bohinj basin were established (Cundrič 
2002, 73–74). 
Samples for palynological analysis were collected 
in the marsh-like environment (mostly reeds) 
near river Suha (Fig. 1). The surrounding area 
is dominated by agricultural areas, mainly fields 
and meadows. The village Srednja vas v Bohinju 
is located north of the coring site. 
Near the study site, there are several archaeo-
logical sites from different periods. About 500 m 
north of the core, modest traces of a prehistoric, 
probably earlier Iron Age settlement were discov-
ered at Žale (Gabrovec 1958–1959a, 321, 323). At 
the same site, an early medieval burial site with 24 
graves was excavated at the beginning of the 20th 
century (Šmid 1908; Lavrenčič 2019, with cited older 
literature). Another early medieval burial site was 
located only 600 m further west at Podojnce (Šmid 
1908; Lavrenčič 2019, with cited older literature). 
East of Srednja vas, approximately 1800 m away 
from the study site, a fortified village named Dunaj 
pri Jereki was discovered. It was inhabited during 
the Hallstatt and Roman period (see above). An 
accidental find of an Avar strap end that has also 
been found at the aforementioned site. Approxi-
mately 3.5 km from the coring site, the Roman-era 
settlement and sanctuary at St John the Baptist 
(see above) church and the prehistoric and Roman 
highland settlement of Ajdovski gradec (see above) 
were discovered.
METHODS
Coring
A dense vegetation cover (mainly reeds) made 
drilling with the Livingstone drilling equipment 
difficult. Therefore, in October 2019, in a 1×1 m 
trench we first extracted a 1-metre-long profile (Fig. 
3). The sediment samples were removed from the 
profile using metal boxes (length: 50 cm). In May 
2020, we drilled a 382-cm-long core at the same 
242 Nina CAF
2004) and the palynological reference collection 
of the Institute of Archaeology, ZRC SAZU, were 
used for the identification of different taxa. Simul-
taneously, we noted the occurrence of charcoal 
particles (divided into two categories, depend-
ing on the length, <40 and >40 μm, Clark 1982), 
stomata (Hansen 1995; MacDonald 2001, 38–39; 
Sweeney 2004; Hu et al. 2016) and non-pollen 
palynomorphs (Sporormiella and Cercophora, van 
Sample / 
Vzorec
Depth / 
Globina 
(cm)
Age / Starost14C 
(BP)
2σ cal. (BP)
Age / Starost                             
(BC / pr. n. št.; AD / n. št)
Sample type / Tip vzorca
SVB 45 45 1430 ± 30 1303–1375 575 AD – 647 AD Needles / iglice
SVB 76 76 2030 ± 30 1932–2103 153 BC – 18 AD Needles / iglice
SVB 95 95 3845 ± 35 4157–4406 2456 BC – 2207 BC Alnus, Picea charcoal / oglje
SVB 128 128 4075 ± 30 4452–4804 2854 BC – 2502 BC Fagus, Fragaria seeds / semena
Fig. 4: Radiocarbon results from Srednja vas v Bohinju. 
Sl. 4: Radiokarbonski datumi iz Srednje vasi v Bohinju.
place with the Livingstone drilling equipment. 
The sediment from the profile/core was taken in 
the field where it was cleaned and protected with 
plastic and aluminium foil to prevent contamina-
tion with modern pollen. Core samples were stored 
in a cold store at +4°C at Institute of Archaeology 
ZRC SAZU.
Radiocarbon dating
Altogether, four samples of plant macrofossils 
(Fig. 4) were measured at the Poznan Radiocarbon 
Laboratory. After obtaining dates, the age-depth 
model was comprised (Fig. 5) by using packages 
Clam (Blaauw 2010) and IntCal (Reimer et al. 
2020), which are available in the R programming 
language (R Development Core Team 2011).
Palynology
Altogether, 40 samples (1 cm3 of sediment each) 
were taken every 2 to 8 cm from the profile/ upper 
part of the core (Fig. 3) to obtain a resolution of 50 
to 100 years. Samples were collected and prepared 
following the standard method for palynological 
samples – Lycopodium spores, 7% HCl, 10% NaOH, 
40% HF, acetolysis, safranin dye, and silicone oil 
(Bennett, Willis 2002, 10–12). The standard number 
of counting a minimum of 300 pollen grains in 
each sample was followed. However, due to poor 
preservation (in a 76–93-cm section of the core), 
this could not be obtained in all samples; therefore, 
in the aforementioned samples, a minimum of 
200 pollen grains were counted using the Nikon 
Eclipse Ci light microscope.
Identification keys, atlases (Faegri, Iversen 1989, 
237–288; Moore et al. 1991; Reille 1992; 1995; Beug 
Fig. 3: Srednja vas v Bohinju. Length of the whole core 
(master core) was 3.82 m, but only the upper part of the 
core is shown (1.94 m). Radiocarbon dates (uncalibrated) 
are marked.
Sl. 3: Srednja vas v Bohinju. Dolžina celotnega jedra (master 
core) je bila 3,82 m, prikazan pa je samo zgornji del jedra 
(1,94 m). Označeni so (nekalibrirani) radiokarbonski datumi. 
243Srednja vas v Bohinju – Palaeoenvironmental Record of Human Influence on the Lowlands of the Julian Alps 
Geel 2002, 106–109; Gelorini et al. 2011). To create 
a pollen diagram, the Psimpoll 4.261 program was 
used. Samples were divided into zones that were 
determined by binary splitting by sum–of–square 
(Bennett 2005, 64). Additionally, the index of pol-
len richness was calculated using Psimpoll 4.261 
to obtain a qualitative calculation of vegetation 
changes over time (Bennett 2005, 61–62). The 
pollen richness index represents the number of 
different pollen types in a pollen assemblage and 
is standardized for all the samples included in the 
palynological analysis (for Srednja vas v Bohinju, 
a minimum count of 250 pollen grains was used; 
Birks, Line 1992, 2–3). Therefore, in some samples 
(with a low pollen concentration) the pollen rich-
ness was not calculated. 
RESULTS
Age-depth model 
A linear interpolation was used to create the 
age–depth model (Fig. 5). The time span of the 
core (in the upper part of 140 cm with preserved 
pollen) is about 4800 cal. BP (2800 BC–2019 AD). 
The sedimentation rate was also calculated (mm 
year-1; Fig. 6).
Palynological analysis
A pollen diagram was constructed using 40 
samples (Fig. 7–10). In certain parts of the profile 
(ca. 80–90 cm), the pollen concentration in the 
samples was poor (between 8500 and 10 000 pollen 
grains cm-3) and/or the local taxa (Alnus, Cyperaceae, 
Filicales) presented a high percentage of the total 
pollen sums (Fig. 9). As a result, it was not possible 
to count more than 300 pollen grains per sample 
(excluding local taxa). Due to the poor preservation, 
low concentration of pollen and slow sedimentation 
rate (Fig. 6), the sampling resolution in this part of 
the profile was greater than ca. 100 years (Fig. 5; 6). 
Below 140 cm (of the total length of the core), pollen 
was not preserved (except at the depth of 224 cm, 
which is not shown on pollen diagrams; the sample 
shows Pleistocene vegetation; Fig. 3). 
Altogether, four pollen zones were produced 
by Psimpoll (Bennett 2005), with the zone SVB–1 
spanning between 4800–2200 cal. BP, zone SVB–2 
between 2200–1200 cal. BP, zone SVB–3 between 
Fig. 5: Srednja vas v Bohinju. Age-depth model of the 
part of the core with preserved pollen. Model is based on 
radiocarbon dates (Fig. 4).
Sl. 5: Srednja vas v Bohinju. Časovni model jedra z 
ohranjenim pelodom. Model temelji na radiokarbonskih 
datacijah (sl. 4).
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0
500
1000
1500
2000
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2500
3500
4000
4500
Sedimentation rate (mm year-1) / 
Sedimentacijska hitrost (mm leto-1)
D
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th
 / 
G
lo
bi
na
 (c
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)
Ag
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/ S
ta
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st
 (c
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. B
P)
Fig. 6: Srednja vas v Bohinju. Sedimentation rate (mm year-1).
Sl. 6: Srednja vas v Bohinju. Sedimentacijska hitrost
(mm leto-1).
244 Nina CAF
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245Srednja vas v Bohinju – Palaeoenvironmental Record of Human Influence on the Lowlands of the Julian Alps 
1200–650 cal. BP and zone SVB–4 from 650 cal. 
BP until the year of coring (AD 2019, Fig. 7–10).
In zone SVB–1, tree taxa were dominant 
(60–97%), with Picea (20–45%), Abies (5–25%), 
Fagus (5–25%), Corylus (5–18%), and Pinus (3–14%) 
being the most common. To a lesser extent, Car-
pinus betulus (2–7%) and Quercus (0.5–6%) were 
also present. The percentage of herb taxa was 
between 2–40%, among which Poaceae (0.5–20%) 
and Cichorioideae (0.5–13%) were the most com-
mon taxa. Stomata of Picea are common in this 
zone (1–11 stomata per sample). 
In zone SVB–2, the percentage of tree taxa 
dropped to 55–70%, among which Picea (15–35%), 
Corylus (5–20%), Pinus (5–10%), Abies (5–10%) 
were the prevailing taxa. The percentage of herb 
taxa increased to 30–40%, among which Cichori-
oideae (10–20%) and Poaceae (5–20%) were most 
common and to a lesser extent Asteraceae (0.5–3%), 
Chenopodiaceae (0.5–3%) and Plantago lanceolata 
(0.5–2%). Non–pollen palynomorphs Sporormiella 
and Cercophora were more common in this zone, 
while stomata of Picea no longer appeared.
In zone SVB–3, the percentage of tree taxa 
was 55–65%. The most common taxa were Picea 
(15–25%), Pinus (10–25%), Corylus (5–12%), 
and to a lesser extent Abies (1–6%) and Fagus 
(0.5–5%). Herb taxa account for between 30 and 
40% of the total pollen content. Poaceae (10–18%) 
and Cichoriaceae (8–20%) predominate, with 
Cercophora completely absent in this zone, while 
Sporormiella is uncommon.
In zone SVB–4, the percentage of tree taxa 
varied between 20 and 70%. The most common 
taxa were Pinus (7–25%), Picea (5–30%) and to 
a lesser extent Abies (2–3%), Corylus (1–7%) and 
Fagus (0.5–2%). Herb taxa accounted for between 
25 and 75%. The most common taxa were Cicho-
riaceae (10–35%), Poaceae (6–45%) and Ephedra 
(1–12%). Both Sporormiella and Cercophora oc-
curred regularly. 
DISCUSSION 
Palynological analyses show that during the 
4800 and 4200 cal. BP the percentage of tree taxa 
was more than 90% (Fig. 10), with Picea, Abies and 
Fagus prevailing (Fig. 7). The high number of Picea 
stomata (Fig. 10) indicate local presence of the 
forest. This is furthermore indicated by a relatively 
low pollen richness (Fig. 10), which is probably a 
result of a low number of taxa in the samples and 
thus a lower number of identified pollen taxa. 
Presumably, this is due to predominant coniferous 
taxa and/or the lack of disturbances in the forest, 
which allowed a more closed canopy to develop. 
Among local taxa, ferns (Filicales) were common, 
probably growing at the edges of the spruce forest.
The high percentage of pollen and stomata of 
Picea is rather surprising, as we would expect 
more deciduous taxa in the alpine lowlands (now 
Ostryo-Fagetum and Anemono trifoliae–Fagetum 
tree association, Marinček et al. 2002). A higher 
percentage of spruce roughly in the same period 
could be a consequence of the cooler climate that 
has been reconstructed in other parts of Europe. Us-
ing sedimentological, palynological and macrofossil 
records from the Swiss Plateau, Haas et al. (1998, 
304–305) reconstructed a colder period between 
5350 and 4900 cal. BP. Moreover, around 5320 cal. 
BP, a rapid rise in the lake level in Switzerland 
was reconstructed on the basis of tree ring data, 
which also indicates a wetter climate (Magny, 
Haas 2004, 425).
The spread of beech to lower altitudes was prob-
ably also limited by more frequent temperature 
inversions (colder climate), which further short-
ened its vegetation period (Leuschner, Ellenberg 
2017, 124–125). In addition, beech is much more 
sensitive to late spring frosts than spruce (Pretzsch 
et al. 2020, 963), which probably occurred much 
more frequently in the Alpine valleys during the 
period of colder climate than today.
Fig. 7: Pollen diagram from Srednja vas v Bohinju. Samples marked with a dot represent less than 0.5% of the total 
pollen percentage (excluding local taxa). 
Sl. 7: Pelodni diagram vrtine iz Srednje vasi v Bohinju. Vzorci, označeni s piko, predstavljajo manj kot 0,5 % celotne 
pelodne vsote (brez lokalnih taksonov).
Taxa / Taksoni: Pinus (pine / bor), Picea (spruce / smreka), Abies (fir / jelka), Larix (larch / macesen), Betula (birch / 
breza), Fagus (beech / bukev), Tilia (lime / lipa), Quercus (oak / hrast), Quercus ilex (evergreen oak / črničevje), Carpinus 
betulus (European hornbeam / beli gaber), Carpinus orientalis/Ostrya (oriental hopbeam/hop hornbeam / kraški/črni 
gaber), Acer (maple / javor), Castanea (chestnut / kostanj), Fraxinus excelsior (European ash / veliki jesen), Fraxinus ornus 
(flowering ash / mali jesen), Ulmus (elm / brest), Olea (olive tree / oljka), Juglans (walnut / oreh), Salix (willow / vrba), 
Corylus (hazel / leska), Juniperus (juniper / brin), Ligustrum (privet / kalina), Helianthemum (rock rose / popon), Cornus 
(dogwood / dren), Hedera (ivy / bršljan), Lonicera (honeysuckle / kosteničevje), Hippophaë (sea buckthorn / rakitovec).
246 Nina CAF
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247Srednja vas v Bohinju – Palaeoenvironmental Record of Human Influence on the Lowlands of the Julian Alps 
The first anthropogenic indicators appear around 
4700 cal. BP with sporadic occurrences of Plantago 
lanceolata, Chenopodiaceae, Poaceae, Asteraceae, 
Cichoriaceae (Fig. 8). Cercophora spores were found 
in a sample dated to approx. 4450 cal. BP (Fig. 10), 
indicating grazing. A weak human influence on 
the environment can therefore be detected in the 
area, most likely with smaller pastures. Eneolithic 
archaeological sites in the Julian Alps have so far 
only been found in the highlands (based on radio-
carbon dated charcoal at the sites Kal na Zadnjem 
Voglu, Mali Lepoč pod Bogatinom and Poljanica 
na Zadnjem Voglu; Horvat 2019, 23; 2020, 16). 
The palynological diagram coincides with the 
pollen record from Lake Bohinj (Andrič et al. 
2020a, 9–11), which also shows high percentages 
of tree taxa (especially Picea, Abies and to a lesser 
extent Fagus) and a weak human impact during 
the Eneolithic and the Early Bronze Age. 
In other parts of the Alps, numerous palaeo-
ecological analyses indicate an early use of the 
Alpine environment both in the lowlands and 
highlands (Colombaroli et al. 2013, 164; Kutschera 
et al. 2014, 164; Schwörer et al. 2015, 290; Pini 
et al. 2017, 1590), mainly with the occurrence 
of anthropogenic indicators (Plantago l., Rumex, 
Sporormiella, type Cerealia, Chenopodiaceae) and 
higher values of microcharcoal.
The percentage of Alnus (ca. 10–50% of the total 
pollen sum; Fig. 9) among the local taxa increased 
around 4300 cal. BP in Srednja vas v Bohinju, which 
could indicate the opening of the landscape. Most 
likely it was dominated by Alnus incana, which is 
today a highly successful pioneer species in the 
valley of Sava Bohinjka river, forming extensive 
riparian forests (Dakskobler, Rozman 2013, 42). 
Alnus incana requires periodically flooded soils 
to thrive (Leuschner, Ellenberg 2017, 668–670) 
and that could indicate that the researched area 
was more frequently flooded during this period.
Around 4200 cal. BP (Fig. 10), the percentage 
of tree taxa decreased (to 60%). The percentage of 
herb taxa increased (40%), namely the percentage 
of Poaceae and Cichoriaceae. During this period, 
the stomata of Picea were absent (Fig. 10); however, 
the percentage of Pinus pollen increased (up to 
14%). This probably indicates a short-lived hu-
man impact on the environment. However, it is 
important to point out that no Early Bronze Age 
archaeological sites have been found in the area 
of Srednja vas v Bohinju as well as in the high-
altitude areas of the Julian Alps.
Major changes in the local hydrology are 
indicated by the lower sedimentation rate (the 
sedimentation rate dropped from 0.1 mm per year 
to less than 0.01 mm per year; Fig. 6), while at 
the depth of 76–93 cm, the record for the period 
of ca. 4000–2000 cal. BP is ‘stored’. This could 
mean that some of the sediment was washed away, 
suggesting water erosion. At the same time, the 
preservation of the pollen is very poor, as in some 
samples no more than 200 pollen grains could 
be counted. Additionally, the expansion of Alnus 
incana could also be due to the human impact on 
the environment, where it developed as a second-
ary (pioneer) species and replaced natural spruce 
forests (Leuschner, Ellenberg 2017; Fig. 9).
Palaeoecological research in other parts of the 
Alps also indicates increased human activity at the 
beginning of the Bronze Age. Thus, in the area of 
the Swiss Alps (Lake Sulsseewli, 1921 m a.s.l.) pol-
len grains of anthropogenic indicators (Cerealia, 
Alnus, Plantago l.) and sedDNA from sheep (Ovis 
sp.) were noted since the Early Bronze Age (4200 
cal. BP), which would indicate a combined arable 
and pastoral economy (Garcés-Pastor et al. 2022, 
Fig. 8: Pollen diagram from Srednja vas v Bohinju. Samples marked with a dot represent less than 0.5% of the total 
pollen percentage (excluding local taxa Alnus, Cyperaceae, and Filicales). 
Sl. 8: Pelodni diagram vrtine iz Srednje vasi v Bohinju. Vzorci, označeni s piko, predstavljajo manj kot 0,5 % celotne 
pelodne vsote (brez lokalnih taksonov Alnus, Cyperaceae in Filicales).
Taxa / Taksoni: Poaceae (grasses / trave), Cerealia (cereals / žita), Secale (rye / rž), Fagopyrum (buckwheat / ajda), Li-
num (flax / lan), Centaurea (centaury / glavinec), Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain / ozkolistni trpotec), Plantago 
media/major (broadleaf/hoary plaintain / veliki/srednji trpotec), Rumex (sorrel / kislica), Chenopodiaceae (goosefoots / 
metlikovke), Artemisia (mugwort / pelin), Ranunculus (buttercup / zlatica), Helleborus (hellebores / teloh), Leguminosae 
(legumes / metuljnice), Urtica (nettle / kopriva), Vitis (grapevine / vinska trta), Gentiana (gentian / svišč), Cichoria-
ceae (Cichoriaceae / radičevke), Papaver (poppy / mak), Asteraceae (daisy family / nebinovke), Labiatae (mint family 
/ ustnatice), Umbelliferae (umbellifers / kobulnice), Brassicaceae (cabbage family / križnice), Rosaceae (rose family / 
rožnice), Filipendula (meadowsweet / oslad), Rubiaceae (bedstraw family / broščevke), Caryophyllaceae (pink family / 
klinčnice), Saxifraga stellaris (starry saxifrage / zvezdasti kamnokreč), Valeriana (valerian / špajka), Calluna (common 
heather / vresa), Iris (iris / perunika), Rhododendron (rhododendron / sleč), Trilete spores (trilete fern spores / triletne 
spore praproti), Pteridium (bracken / orlova praprot).
248 Nina CAF
0
10
20
30
40
50
0
10
20
30
40
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60
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10
20
30
La
te
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10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10
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249Srednja vas v Bohinju – Palaeoenvironmental Record of Human Influence on the Lowlands of the Julian Alps 
7). In the Silvretta Alps, Kothieringer et al. (2015, 
191) found increased values of pastoral indicators 
and charcoal particles around 4200 cal. BP. In the 
French-Italian Alps (Petit Saint-Bernard Pass) 
coprophilous fungi spores and erosion increased, 
indicating first human occupation (Bajard et al. 
2017, 230) around 4300 cal. BP and in the French 
Alps (Anterne Lake), the occurrence of Plantago 
sp. and DNA of Ovis sp. indicate pastoral activity 
since 3850 cal. BP (Giguet-Covex et al. 2023, 7). 
The percentage of herbaceous taxa from the 
Srednja vas v Bohinju pollen diagram increased 
around 3500 cal. BP (Fig. 8), especially Poaceae 
and Cichoriaceae, indicating heightened anthro-
pogenic activity. Plantago lanceolata and spores 
of Sporormiella and Cercophora begin to appear, 
which, together with the high percentages of Alnus 
and Filicales (Fig. 8–10), indicates the presence of 
nearby wet pastures where livestock grazed. This 
coincides with the study by Andrič et al. (2020a, 
11) from Lake Bohinj, where human impact be-
came more prominent around 3500 cal. BP with 
cereals, ruderal taxa and pasture indicators being 
more frequent. Furthermore, palaeoecological 
analyses in highlands (Lake ‘jezero na Planini 
pri jezeru’, Lake ‘jezero v Ledvicah’) indicate a 
gradual opening of the landscape and an increase 
in pastoral indicators (Caf et al. 2023, 117, Caf 
et al. 2025). 
There are no known settlements from the 
Early and Middle Bronze Age in the low-attitude 
area, the only find that indicates modest human 
presence is a stray find of a bronze spearhead in 
Brod near Bohinjska Bistrica (Valič, 1968–1969). 
However, a number of settlement sites from the 
Middle and Late Bronze Age (e.g. Mišeljski preval, 
Pod Zelenim vrhom, Pod Kopico) confirm human 
presence in the high-altitude areas (Horvat 2020, 
16). At Planina Lipanca, a bronze dagger dated to 
the Late Bronze Age was found, which probably 
also indicates a weak human presence (Šribar 1955, 
328–329; Gabrovec 1974, 303). In the Iron Age, the 
pollen diagram from Srednja vas v Bohinju shows 
a continuous decrease in tree taxa. Around 2500 
cal. BP (Fig. 10), Picea stomata disappeared indi-
cating that the spruce forest has locally retreated 
and has been replaced by herbaceous vegetation 
possibly indicating intensification of human activ-
ity in the area. 
This coincides with Hallstatt and La Tène pot-
tery fragments, charcoal and bones that have been 
found in the area of Srednja vas near Žale (Fig. 1; 
2). However, archaeological research has not yet 
provided any further information about the local 
settlement complex (Gabrovec 1958–1959a, 323). 
In the area of Dunaj pri Jereki (Fig. 2), which lies 
east of Srednja vas v Bohinju, archaeological re-
mains indicate a settlement that was active in the 
Iron Age, the Roman Period and the Early Middle 
Ages. Furthermore, large quantities of slag indi-
cate a strong centre of iron production (Gabrovec 
1958–1959b, 323). The high-altitude areas around 
Bohinj continued to be used (Dolga Planja, Vodene 
Rupe; Horvat 2019; M. Ogrin 2020).
Around 2600 cal. BP, the pollen diagram from 
Lake Bohinj (Andrič et al. 2020a, 11) shows inten-
sive deforestation and opening of the landscape, 
which led to severe erosion. Presumably, people 
needed wood for metallurgical activities, especially 
charcoal for iron smelting. The increased percent-
age of pasture and arable taxa from Lake Bohinj 
indicates fairly well-organised economic activities. 
For the Iron Age, palaeoecological studies from 
the wider Alpine area indicate an increased human 
impact in some parts (e.g., the Swiss/Italian Alps, 
Tinner et al. 2003, 1452–1454; the Italian Alps, Pini 
et al. 2017, 1589, 1591) and a decreased influence 
in other parts (e.g., the Ötzal Alps, Kutschera 
et al. 2014, 943). Archaeological analyses in the 
area of the French Alps show that there are fewer 
archaeological sites than in the Bronze Age in the 
highlands (Walsh et al. 2007, 19–20; 2014, 65); 
however, in the Swiss Alps and the French Alps, 
archaeological finds indicate that lowlands were 
heavily populated (Walsh et al. 2007, 19–20; Rey 
et al. 2022, 389).
Fig. 9: Pollen diagram from Srednja vas v Bohinju. Samples marked with a dot represent less than 0.5% of the total 
pollen percentage (excluding local taxa Alnus, Cyperaceae and Filicales). Microcharcoal samples were calculated as 
influx (cm-2 year-1).
Sl. 9: Pelodni diagram vrtine iz Srednje vasi v Bohinju. Vzorci, označeni s piko, predstavljajo manj kot 0,5 % celotne pelodne 
vsote (brez lokalnih taksonov Alnus, Cyperaceae in Filicales). Vzorci mikrooglja so navedeni kot influks (cm-2 leto-1).
Taxa / Taksoni: Thelypteris palustris (marsh fern / močvirska krpača), Botrychium (moonwort / mladomesečina), Selagi-
nella (spikemoss / drežica), Polypodium (common polypody / sladka koreninica), Alisma (water-plantain / porečnik), 
Sparganium (bur-reed / ježek), Typha latifolia (cattail / širokolistni rogoz), Alnus (alder / jelša), Cyperaceae (sedges / 
ostričevke), Filicales (monolete fern spores / monoletne spore praproti).
250 Nina CAF
Sp
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251Srednja vas v Bohinju – Palaeoenvironmental Record of Human Influence on the Lowlands of the Julian Alps 
During the Roman Period (Fig. 8; 10), the pol-
len diagram of Srednja vas v Bohinju shows open 
landscape with increased percentages of e.g., Cen-
taurea, Asteraceae, Poaceae indicating developed 
pastures. Percentages of Juglans also increased, 
which most likely spread within the region with 
the help of the Romans (Mercuri et al. 2013, 39). 
During this period, microcharcoal concentrations 
started to increase, which is rather surprising since 
both palynological and archaeological research 
indicate metallurgical activity was present already 
in the Iron Age for which wood was needed. This 
could indicate that there was no metallurgical 
activity near the study site in the Iron Age. How-
ever, caution should be taken since no continuous 
sampling has been done and therefore individual 
fire events could not be detected. 
The archaeological record supports the paly-
nological analysis, mainly by numerous Roman 
archaeological sites that have been recognized both 
in lowlands and highlands (M. Ogrin 2010; 2020, 
65; Horvat 2020, 18, 21–23). In the lowlands, in 
the vicinity of Srednja vas v Bohinju, the Roman 
settlement Dunaj pri Jereki (based on Roman coins 
and grave goods; Gabrovec 1958–1959b, 323; Fig. 
2) was found. Moreover, at the sv. Janez Krstnik 
(St John the Baptist) church on the shore of Lake 
Bohinj, there was probably a settlement with a cult 
place between 1st to 4th century AD (1900–1600 
cal. BP, Josipovič, Gaspari, Miškec 2012, 391–394). 
The number of archaeological sites in the high 
altitudes of the Julian Alps increased significantly 
during the Roman period/Late Antiquity (M. Ogrin 
2010; Horvat 2019, 7, 9; 2020, 21–23), indicating 
major shifts in economy.
The palynological analysis from Lake Bohinj 
shows forest increase during the transition from 
Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages presum-
ably due to lower population in the wider area 
(Andrič et al. 2020a). That is not supported by 
the pollen diagram from Srednja vas v Bohinju, 
probably due to Lake Bohinj presenting a more 
regional pollen record. 
In Late Antiquity, cereal pollen grains (type 
Cerealia, Secale, Fig. 10) occurred more frequently 
in Srednja vas v Bohinju, which indicates an in-
tensification of arable farming in the vicinity of 
the study area. Cereal pollen grains already appear 
sporadically from the Bronze Age onward in pol-
len diagrams from both Srednja vas v Bohinju as 
well as Lake Bohinj (Andrič et al. 2020a, 8), but 
caution is advised, as sporadic occurrence tends to 
indicate the regional presence of the taxa (Ammann 
et al. 2014, 259–262). Therefore, arable farming 
was probably locally present in Late Antiquity/the 
Early Middle Ages.
In the vicinity of the marsh in Srednja vas, more 
precisely in Žale and Podojnce, the graves were dated 
to the Early Middle Ages (based on the grave goods, 
8th–10th century AD, Lavrenčič 2019, 95). However, 
the early medieval settlement to which the graves 
belonged has not yet been found. This corresponds 
with the palynological results that indicate an open 
landscape during this period due to human presence 
(approx. 70% of the tree taxa, Fig. 10).
Around 1200 cal. BP (ca. AD 750), the percent-
age of Cyperaceae increased (see Fig. 9), which 
means that the environment in the immediate 
vicinity became more marsh-like. The presence 
of spores of Sporormiella and, to a lesser extent, 
Cercophora (absent 1100–700 cal. BP) indicates 
continuous grazing.
Around 1200–1100 cal. BP (i.e. ca. AD 750–850), 
pollen of Fagopyrum was present in the pollen 
diagram (Fig. 8), which is rather surprising as the 
first mention of buckwheat in Slovenia is found 
in the Urbarium from 1426 (Gornjegrajski urbar, 
Blaznik et al. 1970, 255). The oldest macrofossil 
remains of buckwheat were found at the archaeo-
logical site Grofovsko 2 near Murska Sobota, where 
it occurred in layers from the Early Middle Ages 
(Kaligarič, Paušič 2011, 52–53).
It is important to note that the appearance of 
Fagopyrum pollen grains is no guarantee of the 
local presence. However, it definitely indicates 
that it was present in the region much earlier than 
previously thought. Researchers still disagree on 
exactly when buckwheat spread to Europe, as there 
are still many contradictory findings. De Klerk et 
al. (2015, 15) argued that buckwheat could have 
already spread to Europe around 4000 cal. BP 
(based on pollen), when the trade route between 
Asia and Europe was already sufficiently established, 
and appeared as a weed among other crops until 
the Middle Ages. Ohnishi (1993, 314) postulated 
that buckwheat spread to Europe only later. He 
Fig. 10: Pollen diagram from Srednja vas v Bohinju. Charcoal samples were calculated as influx (cm-2 year-1). Stomata 
(Picea) and spore samples (Sporormiella, Cercophora) were calculated as concentration (no. cm-3).
Sl. 10: Pelodni diagram vrtine iz Srednje vasi v Bohinju. Vzorci mikrooglja so navedeni kot influks (cm-2 leto-1). Vzorci 
listnih rež (Picea) in spor (Sporormiella, Cercophora) so prikazani kot koncentracija (št. cm-3). 
252 Nina CAF
pointed out that buckwheat was found as a grave 
accessory in the Ukraine in the 1st century AD, but 
was not an important crop until the Late Middle 
Ages. Gunda (1983, 164) argued that buckwheat 
was probably cultivated at different times and in 
different places. One of the possible routes to the 
Alps in the Middle Ages was the trade route from 
the Black Sea to Northern Italy and from there to 
the Alps, where it was cultivated as a crop in the 
higher mountain regions. Kreft (1980, 69) surmised 
that buckwheat, as a relatively new crop, was often 
neglected in feudal books because it was intended 
for the diet of the poor and was therefore often 
overlooked.
Between 1100 and ca. 600 cal. BP (ca. AD 
850–1350), the overall percentage of tree taxa did 
not change significantly. The percentage of Fagus, 
Abies and Picea decreased and the percentage 
of Pinus increased, which could be the result of 
logging for metallurgical purposes. Spruce and 
especially beech were the taxa that were widely 
used to produce charcoal for the furnaces in which 
ore was smelted (Cundrič 2002). As a result, Pinus 
was able to spread in the cleared areas. The first 
metallurgical plants appeared in the 11th century 
(ca. 850 cal. BP) in the area of Nomenj, in the 12th 
century (ca. 750 cal. BP) in the area of Bohinjska 
Češnjica and in the 14th century (ca. 550 cal. BP;) 
in the area of Stara Fužina (Cundrič 2002, 32). 
Agriculture (both arable and pastoral) continued 
to play an important role, as Cerealia and Secale 
grains as well as Plantago lanceolata were found, 
while Sporormiella and especially Cercophora were 
not present at the time. This could mean that the 
grazing areas were not in the immediate vicinity of 
the core, so that the spores were not washed to the 
coring location. The decline of Abies could be related 
to the continuous grazing of the forests rather than 
the deforestation for charcoal production (Tinner et 
al. 1999, 287). The palynological record from Lake 
Bohinj shows similar vegetation development, with 
relatively open landscape and decreasing values of 
tree taxa (especially Abies; Andrič et al. 2020a, 8,12). 
Palaeoecological research in the wider Alpine area 
shows the intensive use of the environment, mainly 
through grazing and also crop production during 
the Middle Ages (Walsh et al. 2007, 20; Bajard et 
al. 2016, 361), even in the more remote areas with 
less fertile soil (Rey et al. 2017, 583). 
From ca. 600 cal. BP to 0 BP (AD 1350–1950), 
there is a noticeable decline in tree taxa, probably a 
consequence of the increase in grazing areas (larger 
percentage of Poaceae, Cichoriaceae, Plantago lan-
ceolata and the continuous occurrence of spores of 
Sporormiella, Cercophora) and the production of 
charcoal for iron smelting. This is also reflected in 
other palaeoecological analyses in the Julian Alps 
area, where a decrease in the percentage of Abies, 
Picea and Fagus is observed (Andrič et al. 2020a, 
8, 12–13; Caf et al. 2023, 113, 118). 
In the last 70 years (AD 1950–2019), a reforestation 
of the area can be observed, where the percentage 
of Pinus and Picea increased, while the taxa of Abies 
and Fagus did not recover. One of the reasons for 
the slow establishment of beech and fir could be 
that both species grow more slowly (compared to 
spruce and pine) and flower relatively late (around 
the age of 50 to 70 years; Brus 2005, 138), which 
means that there is less pollen from these taxa. At 
the same time, artificial afforestation with spruce 
has been an important part of forest management 
in recent decades (Horvat–Marolt 1984, 7).
As a result of afforestation, the percentage of 
agricultural land decreased, which led to a decrease 
in the percentages of Poaceae and Cichoriaceae. The 
reforestation of the area is the result of the abandon-
ment of agricultural activities and the establishment 
of the Triglav National Park, which limited excessive 
interventions in nature (Petek 2005, 113–132).
CONCLUSIONS
The human influence in the area of Srednja vas 
v Bohinju has been noticeable since the Eneolithic 
(most probably smaller pastures were established 
in the vicinity). During the Eneolithic and the 
Bronze Age, the high percentages of Picea indicate 
that spruce was a natural vegetation in the valleys 
of the Julian Alps. In the Iron Age, the spruce for-
est in the immediate vicinity of the drilling site 
declined and was most likely replaced by pastures, 
which is consistent with the Iron Age sites found 
in the vicinity.
From the Roman period to the Early Middle 
Ages, the anthropogenic indicators including 
cereals become more continuous, indicating an 
intensification of agriculture. The appearance 
of buckwheat pollen in the Early Middle Ages is 
noteworthy, indicating an earlier presence in the 
wider region than previously thought.
In the Middle Ages and the Modern Period, we 
can observe a decrease in tree taxa (Picea, Abies 
and Fagus), which could be due to continuous 
grazing (e.g. Abies) and an increase in metallurgi-
cal activities (e.g. Fagus and Picea).
253Srednja vas v Bohinju – Palaeoenvironmental Record of Human Influence on the Lowlands of the Julian Alps 
In summary, the palaeoecological record in the 
area of Srednja vas v Bohinju shows how the local 
vegetation changed and what influence humans 
have had on these changes, which corresponds 
very well with the archaeological sites. This of 
course sheds further light on the importance of 
palynological research, which provides a lot of 
information about past environment, especially in 
areas that are archaeologically poorly researched 
as is the case in the lowlands of Bohinj.
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank D. Valoh and M. Belak for their 
help with figure preparation, D. Valoh, T. Podobnik, and 
R. Humerca for their help with coring, and T. Tolar for the 
archaeobotanical analysis of organic material. I would like 
to give special thanks to M. Andrič for critically evaluating 
the manuscript. I would also like to thank the owners of 
the agricultural land for allowing us to conduct research 
in the area. 
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bile omejene na večja jezera (npr. Bohinjsko jeze-
ro; Andrič et al. 2020a, 2), ki pa kažejo na bolj 
regionalne spremembe vegetacije, kar pomeni, 
da je lokalni vpliv človeka pogosto spregledan. 
Zato sem na močvirju na območju Srednje vasi 
v Bohinju (Sl. 1, 2), ki leži v zgornji Bohinjski 
dolini, opravila palinološko analizo (nadmorska 
višina 580 m). Glavni namen raziskave je bil 
ugotoviti, kako se je v holocenu lokalno spre-
minjala vegetacija, kakšen vpliv je imel človek na 
okolje in (če je možno) kakšna je bila ekonomija 
v določenih obdobjih. 
METODE
Vrtanje je bilo zaradi poraščenosti močvirja s 
trstičjem zelo oteženo, zato smo sprva (oktobra 
2019) vzeli vzorec sedimenta iz profila (dolžina 
1 m), pozneje pa opravili tudi vrtanje z vrtalno 
opremo Livingstone (maja 2020). Sedimentni 
vzorci so bili na terenu zaščiteni s plastično in 
aluminijasto folijo, da smo preprečili kontami-
nacijo z modernim pelodom. Profil in vrtina so 
bili shranjeni na +4 °C v hladilnici na Inštitutu 
za arheologijo ZRC SAZU. Za določitev časovnega 
obsega profila in vrtine sem na določeni globini 
(Tab. 1) za radiokarbonsko analizo vzela ostanke 
rastlinskih makrofosilov (Sl. 3) ter izrisala časovni 
model (Sl. 4) v programskem jeziku R (R Develop-
ment Core Team 2011) z uporabo paketov “clam” 
(Blaauw 2010) in “IntCal20” (Reimer et al. 2020). 
Opravljene so bile naslednje metode: analiza 
peloda, nepelodnih palinomorfov (prepoznana tipa 
Cercophora in Sporormiella; van Geel 2002, 106–109; 
Gelorini et al. 2011), listnih rež rastlin (Hansen 1995; 
MacDonald 2001, 38–39; Sweeney 2004; Hu et al. 2016) 
ter mikrooglja (< 40 in > 40 μm; Clark 1982). Pripra-
va pelodnih vzorcev je potekala po standardnem 
laboratorijskem postopku (Bennett, Willis 2002, 
10–12), in sicer z dodajanjem 7-odstotne raztopine 
klorovodikove kisline (HCl), 10-odstotne raztopi-
ne natrijevega hidroksida (NaOH), 40-odstotne 
fluorovodikove kisline (HF), acetolizne mešanice, 
safranina in silikonskega olja. Pri štetju peloda 
sem prav tako sledila standardni metodi štetja, tj. 
najmanj 300 pelodnih zrn v posameznem vzorcu.
Za določitev pelodnih zrn sem uporabila iden-
tifikacijske ključe (Faegri, Iversen 1989, 237–288; 
Moore et al. 1991; Reille 1992; 1995; Beug 2004) 
in palinološko referenčno zbirko ZRC SAZU, 
Inštituta za arheologijo. Pelodni diagram sem 
izrisala v programu Psimpoll 4.261, ki prikazuje 
spreminjanje vegetacije skozi določeno časovno 
obdobje. V omenjenem programu sem določila 
pelodna območja z metodo binarne cepitve z vsoto 
kvadratov (binary splitting by sum–of–square; 
Bennett 2005, 64). Hkrati sem za posamezni vzorec 
izračunala indeks pelodne pestrosti, ki predstavlja 
Srednja vas v Bohinju – paleookoljski zapis
človekovega vpliva na nižine Julijskih Alp
Povzetek 
257Srednja vas v Bohinju – paleookoljski zapis človekovega vpliva na nižine Julijskih Alp
število pelodnih tipov v pelodni združbi. Omenjen 
indeks je uporaben le, če je število pelodnih zrn v 
vzorcu standardizirano (Birks, Line 1992, 2–3). V 
vzorcih iz Srednje vasi v Bohinju sem se omejila 
na 250 pelodnih zrn na vzorec, kar pomeni, da so 
bili vzorci z manj kot 250 pelodnimi zrni izločeni 
iz analize. 
REZULTATI
Z radiokarbonskimi datacijami sem izrisala 
časovni model. Ta je pokazal, da zgornjih 140 cm 
vrtine, kjer se je pelod ohranil, obsega obdobje 
med 4800 cal. BP in sedanjostjo (leto 2019, sl. 3, 
sl. 4). Hkrati sem izrisala sedimentacijsko hitrost 
(mm leto-1, sl. 5). V pelodni diagram sem vključila 
40 vzorcev (sl. 6–9). V določenih delih vrtine je 
bila pelodna koncentracija zelo nizka (od 8500 
do 10.000 pelodnih zrn na cm3) ali pa so lokalni 
taksoni (Alnus, Cyperaceae, Filicales) predstavljali 
visok odstotek skupnega deleža preštetega peloda 
(sl. 8). Tako v določenih vzorcih ni bilo mogoče 
prešteti minimalno 300 pelodnih zrn (če odštejemo 
lokalne taksone), kar pomeni, da v določenih delih 
vrtine ni bilo mogoče dobiti resolucije vzorčenja 
na ca. 100 let. 
Program Psimpoll (Bennett 2005) je prepoznal 
4 pelodne cone (Sl. 6–9), ki obsegajo obdobja 
4800–2200 cal. BP (cona SVB–1), 2200–1200 
cal. BP (cona SVB–2), 1200–650 cal. BP (cona 
SVB–3) ter od 650 cal. BP do leta vrtanja (2019, 
cona SVB–4). V coni SVB–1 je opazen visok delež 
drevesnih taksonov (60–97 %), med katerimi pre-
vladujejo Picea (20–45 %), Abies (5–25 %), Fagus 
(5–25 %), Corylus (5–18 %) in Pinus (3–14 %). 
Delež zeliščnih taksonov je nihal med 2 in 40 %, 
med temi sta najpogostejša Poaceae (0,5–20 %) in 
Cichorioideae (0,5–13 %). V tej coni se pojavljajo 
listne reže Picea. V coni SVB–2 je delež dreves-
nih taksonov upadel na 55–70 %, najpogostejši 
taksoni so Picea (15–30 %), Corylus (5–20 %), 
Pinus (5–10 %) in Abies (5–10 %). Delež zelišč-
nih taksonov se je dvignil, in sicer na 30–40 %, z 
najpogostejšimi taksoni Cichorioideae (10–20 %) in 
Poaceae (5–20 %). V tej pelodni coni se pogosto 
pojavljata nepelodna palinomorfa Cercophora 
in Sporormiella. V pelodni coni SVB–3 je delež 
drevesnih taksonov podoben kot v coni SVB–2, 
in sicer niha med 55–65 %. Najpogostejši drevesni 
taksoni so Picea (15–25 %), Pinus (10–25 %) in 
Corylus (5–12 %). Delež zeliščnih taksonov je prav 
tako precej podoben kot v coni SVB–2, obsegal je 
30–40 %. V pelodni coni SVB–4 je delež dreves-
nih taksonov precej nihal, in sicer je razpon med 
20 in 70 %. Najpogostejša drevesna taksona sta 
bila Pinus (7–25 %) in Picea (5–30 %). Zeliščni 
taksoni so prav tako nihali med 25 in 75 %. Naj-
pogostejši taksoni so bili Cichoriaceae (10–35 %), 
Poaceae (6–45 %) in Ephedra (1–12 %). Redno 
sta se pojavljali spori Sporormiella in Cercophora.
DISKUSIJA
Pelodni diagram iz Srednje vasi v Bohinju kaže 
na lokalno prisotnost (najverjetneje smrekovega) 
gozda v obdobju 4800–4200 cal. BP z deležem 
drevesnih taksonov > 90 % in visokim deležem 
listnih rež Picea. Na to kaže tudi razmeroma nizka 
pelodna pestrost, ki je verjetno posledica majhnega 
števila taksonov v vzorcih (in s tem tudi manjšega 
števila identificiranih taksonov peloda) zaradi 
prevladujočega iglastega gozda in/ali pomanjkanja 
motenj v gozdu. Med lokalnimi taksoni so bile 
pogoste praproti (Filicales), ki so verjetno rasle 
ob robovih smrekovega gozda.
Velik delež peloda in listnih rež Picea je precej 
presenetljiv, saj bi pričakovali več taksonov li-
stavcev v alpskih nižinah (dandanes prevladujejo 
drevesne združbe Ostryo-Fagetum in Anemono 
trifoliae–Fagetum; Marinček et al. 2002). Večji 
delež smreke v tem obdobju bi lahko bil posledica 
hladnejšega podnebja. 
Širjenje bukve v nižje lege so verjetno omejile 
tudi pogostejše temperaturne inverzije (hladnejše 
podnebje),  kar je dodatno skrajšalo njeno 
vegetacijsko dobo (Leuschner et al. 2006). Poleg 
tega je bukev veliko bolj občutljiva za pozno 
spomladansko pozebo kot smreka (Pretzsch et 
al. 2020, 963), ki se je v alpskih dolinah verjetno 
veliko pogosteje pojavljala v obdobju hladnejšega 
podnebja kot danes.
Prvi antropogeni indikatorji se v pelodnem 
diagramu pojavijo okoli 4700 cal. BP, in sicer 
sporadično se pojavljajo Plantago lanceolata, Che-
nopodiaceae, Poaceae, Asteraceae Cichoriaceae. 
Okoli 4450 cal. BP se pojavi tudi spora Cercophora, 
ki nakazuje pojavljanje pašništva. To nakazuje 
šibek vpliv človeka na okolje, najverjetneje so se v 
tem obdobju pojavljale manjše pašniške površine. 
Arheoloških najdišč iz tega obdobja je malo in so 
po večini omejena na visokogorje okoli Bohinja 
(Kal na Zadnjem Voglu, Mali Lepoč pod Bogatinom 
in Poljanica na Zadnjem Voglu, Horvat 2019, 23; 
Horvat 2020, 16). 
258 Nina CAF
Okoli 4200 cal. BP je delež dreves upadel (na ca. 
60 %) in posledično se je dvignil delež zeliščnih 
taksonov (ca. 40 %, predvsem delež Poaceae in 
Cichoriaceae). Povečal se je delež Pinus (do 14 %), 
kar bi lahko nakazovalo na kratkotrajen človekov 
vpliv na okolje. Pomembno pa je poudariti, da na 
območju Srednje vasi v Bohinju za zdaj ni bilo 
najdenih bronastodobnih arheoloških najdišč.
Na pelodnem diagramu iz Srednje vasi v Bohinju 
se je delež zeliščnih taksonov povečal okoli 2600 cal. 
BP (sl. 7), zlasti delež Poaceae in Cichoriaceae, kar 
kaže na povečano antropogeno aktivnost. Pojavljati 
se začnejo Plantago lanceolata in spore taksonov 
Sporormiella in Cercophora, kar skupaj z visokim 
deležem lokalnih taksonov Alnus in Filicales (sl. 
7–9) kaže na prisotnost vlažnih pašnikov, na katerih 
se je pasla živina.
Paleoekološke analize iz Bohinjskega jezera 
kažejo, da je okoli 2600 cal. BP intenzivno krčenje 
gozdov in odpiranje pokrajine povzročilo močno 
erozijo (Andrič et al. 2020a, 9–11). Domnevno so 
ljudje potrebovali les za metalurške dejavnosti, 
predvsem oglje za taljenje železa. Povečan delež 
pašnih in poljskih taksonov iz Bohinjskega jezera 
kaže na dobro organizirano kmetijsko gospodar-
sko dejavnost.
Na ledini Žale v Srednji vasi v Bohinju so bili 
najdeni odlomki železnodobne keramike (Gabrovec 
1958–1959a, 323). Višinska utrjena naselbina 
je bila na Dunaju pri Jereki (sl. 2), ki leži pribl. 
1800 m vzhodno od Srednje vasi. Velike količine 
žlindre, najdene na Dunaju pri Jereki, kažejo na 
močno središče proizvodnje železa (Gabrovec 
1958–1959b, 323).
V rimskem obdobju pelodni diagram Srednje vasi 
v Bohinju prikazuje odprto pokrajino s povečanim 
deležem npr. Centaurea, Asteraceae, Poaceae, kar 
nakazuje na pašniško dejavnost. Povečal se je delež 
Juglans, ki so ga v regiji najverjetneje širili Rimljani 
(Mercuri et al. 2013, 39). Najbližji poznani naselbini 
iz rimskega obdobja sta bili na Dunaju pri Jereki 
(Gabrovec 1958–1959b, 323) in pri cerkvi sv. Janeza 
Krstnika na obrežju Bohinjskega jezera (naselje s 
svetim mestom, ki je bilo aktivno med 1. in 4. st. 
n. št., Josipovič, Gaspari, Miškec 2012, 391–394). 
V zgodnjem srednjem veku pelodna analiza vrtine 
iz Srednje vasi v Bohinju kaže na odprto krajino 
(< 70-% delež peloda dreves). V neposredni bližini 
močvirja so bili na območju Žal v halštatske in 
latenske plasti vkopani zgodnjesrednjeveški grobovi 
(8.–10. st. n. št., Lavrenčič 2019, 95). 
Okoli 1200–1100 cal. BP se v pelodnem diagramu 
iz Srednje vasi pojavi pelod ajde (Fagopyrum), kar 
je precej presenetljivo. Uporaba ajde se namreč 
prvič omenja v urbarju iz leta 1426 (gornjegrajski 
urbar; Blaznik et al. 1970, 255), kjer jo imenujejo 
“paganka”. Prisotnost posameznih pelodnih zrn ajde 
nujno ne nakazuje na lokalno prisotnost, ampak 
kaže na to, da je morala biti prisotna v širši regiji 
že v zgodnjem srednjem veku. 
Med 1100 in 600 cal. BP (850–1350 n. št.) se 
delež drevesnih taksonov ni bistveno spremenil. 
Upadel je predvsem delež Fagus, Abies in Picea, 
medtem ko je delež Pinus narastel. Zmanjšanje 
predvsem deleža bukve in smreke bi lahko bilo 
posledica metalurških dejavnosti. Metalurške 
delavnice so bile v okolici Nomenja vzpostavljene 
v 11. stoletju in pozneje v 12. stoletju v Bohinjski 
Češnjici ter v 14. stoletju v okolici Stare Fužine 
(Cundrič 2002, 32). 
Kmetijstvo (tako poljedelstvo kot pašništvo) sta 
še vedno imela pomembno vlogo, saj se v pelod-
nem diagramu kontinuirano pojavljajo pelodna 
zrna tipa Cerealia, Secale ter Plantago lanceolata, 
medtem ko spore Sporormiella in zlasti Cercophora 
v tem času niso bile prisotne. To bi lahko pome-
nilo, da pašne površine niso bile v neposredni 
bližini vrtine. Upad taksona Abies je najverjetneje 
povezan z neprekinjeno pašo v gozdovih, in ne s 
krčenjem gozdov za proizvodnjo oglja (Tinner et 
al. 1999, 287). 
Med ca. 600 cal. BP in 0 BP (med letoma 1350 
in 1950) je opazen upad drevesnih taksonov, ver-
jetno kot posledica povečanja pašnih površin (večji 
delež Poaceae, Cichoriaceae, Plantago lanceolata 
in stalno pojavljanje spor Sporormiella, Cercopho-
ra) in proizvodnje oglja za taljenje železa. To se 
odraža tudi v drugih paleoekoloških analizah na 
območju Julijskih Alp, kjer je opaziti zmanjšanje 
deleža Abies, Picea in Fagus (Andrič et al. 2020a, 
8, 12–13; Caf et al. 2023, 113, 118). 
V zadnjih 70 letih (1950–2019) je mogoče opaziti 
zaraščanje območja, saj se je povečal delež Pinus 
in Picea, medtem ko se delež taksonov Abies in 
Fagus ni spremenil. Eden od razlogov za počasno 
uveljavitev bukve in jelke bi lahko bil, da obe vrsti 
počasneje rasteta (v primerjavi s smreko in borom) 
in razmeroma pozno prvič cvetita (v starosti 50 
do 70 let; Brus 2005, 138), kar pomeni, da je manj 
peloda omenjenih taksonov. Hkrati je umetno pogoz-
dovanje s smreko v zadnjih desetletjih pomemben 
del gospodarjenja z gozdovi (Horvat-Marolt 1984, 
7). Zaraščanje območja je posledica opuščanja 
kmetijskih dejavnosti in ustanovitve Triglavskega 
narodnega parka, ki je omejil pretirane posege v 
naravo (Petek 2005, 113–132).
259Srednja vas v Bohinju – paleookoljski zapis človekovega vpliva na nižine Julijskih Alp
ZAKLJUČKI 
Vpliv človeka na območju Srednje vasi v Bohinju 
je opazen že od eneolitika (najverjetneje so bili v 
bližini manjši pašniki). Velik delež taksona Picea 
ter najdene listne reže v eneolitiku in bronasti dobi 
kažejo, da je bila smreka naravno rastje v nižinah 
Julijskih Alp. Arheoloških najdišč v Bohinjski kotlini 
iz tega časa trenutno ne poznamo. V železni dobi 
se je smrekov gozd v neposredni bližini vrtine 
umaknil pašnikom, kar se sklada s prisotnostjo 
železnodobnih najdišč v bližini.
Od rimskega obdobja do zgodnjega srednjega 
veka se antropogeni indikatorji, vključno z žiti, 
pojavljajo bolj kontinuirano, kar nakazuje na 
intenzifikacijo kmetijstva. V srednjem in novem 
veku lahko opazimo zmanjšanje števila drevesnih 
taksonov (Picea, Abies in Fagus), kar je lahko 
posledica kontinuirane paše (Abies) in povečanja 
metalurških dejavnosti (Fagus in Picea).
Če povzamemo, paleoekološki zapis na območju 
Srednje vasi v Bohinju kaže, kako se je vegetacija 
spreminjala in kakšen vpliv je na te spremembe 
imel človek. To seveda še dodatno osvetli pomen 
palinoloških raziskav, ki dajejo veliko informacij 
o okolju v preteklosti, zlasti na arheološko slabše 
raziskanih območjih, kot je okolica Bohinja.
Nina Caf
ZRC SAZU
Inštitut za arheologijo
Novi trg 2
SI-1000 Ljubljana
nina.caf@zrc-sazu.si
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7923-7718
Illustrations: Fig. 2 (photo: Maja Andrič, ZRC SAZU).
Slikovno gradivo: Sl. 2 (foto: Maja Andrič, ZRC SAZU).
This research was funded by the Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency, programme P6–0064 (Archaeological 
research), project J7–1817 (5000 years of grazing and mining activities in the Julian Alps (Slovenia): climate–human 
interactions as reflected in lake sediments, man–modified landscape and archaeological findings) and funding a PhD 
project to Nina Caf.
Raziskavo je financirala Agencija za znanstvenoraziskovalno in inovacijsko dejavnost RS, program P6–0064 (Arheološke 
raziskave), projekt J7–1817 (5000 let paše in rudarjenja v Julijskih Alpah: proučevanje jezerskih sedimentov, antropogeno 
preoblikovane krajine in arheoloških najdb ter rekonstrukcija vpliva klime in človeka na okolje) in financiranju mesta 
mlade raziskovalke Nini Caf.
Zahvala
Zahvaljujem se Dragotinu Valohu in Mateji Belak za 
pomoč pri izdelavi slikovnega gradiva, Dragotinu Valohu, 
Tilnu Podobniku in Roku Humerci za pomoč pri vrtan-
ju ter Tjaši Tolar za arheobotanične analize rastlinskih 
makrofosilov. Posebna zahvala gre mentorici Maji Andrič 
za pomoč pri pisanju članka. Zahvaljujem se tudi lastnikom 
kmetijskega zemljišča, ki so nam omogočili raziskave na 
tem območju.