Science of Gymnastics Journal vol. 9, num. 3, year 2017 Published by Department of Gymnastics, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana ISSN 1855-7171 Science of Gymnastics Journal (ScGYM®) Science of Gymnastics Journal (ScGYM®) (abrevated for citation is SCI GYMNASTICS J) is an international journal that provide a wide range of scientific information specific to gymnastics. The journal is publishing both empirical and theoretical contributions related to gymnastics from the natural, social and human sciences. It is aimed at enhancing gymnastics knowledge (theoretical and practical) based on research and scientific methodology. We welcome articles concerned with performance analysis, judges' analysis, biomechanical analysis of gymnastics elements, medical analysis in gymnastics, pedagogical analysis related to gymnastics, biographies of important gymnastics personalities and other historical analysis, social aspects of gymnastics, motor learning and motor control in gymnastics, methodology of learning gymnastics elements, etc. Manuscripts based on quality research and comprehensive research reviews will also be considered for publication. The journal welcomes papers from all types of research paradigms. Editor-in-Chief Ivan Čuk, Slovenia Responsible Editor Maja Bučar Pajek, Slovenia Science of Gymnastics Journal is indexed in Web of Science (ESCI data base, since 2015), EBSCOhost SPORTDiscus, SCOPUS, COBISS Editorial and Scientific Board Koichi Endo, Japan Marco Antonio Bortoleto, Brazil Nikolaj Georgievic Suchilin, Russia William Sands, USA Kamenka Zivcic Markovic, Croatia Ignacio Grande Rodriguez, Spain Warwick Forbes, Australia David McMinn, Scotland, UK Almir Atikovic, Bosnia and Herzegovina José Ferreirinha, Portugal Istvan Karacsony, Hungary Hardy Fink, FIG Academy, Canada Keith Russell, FIG Scientific Commission, Canada Thomas Heinen, Germany (IZUM), SIRC (Canada), ERIHPLUS, OPEN. J-GATE, GET CITED, ELECTRONIC JOURNALS SCHOLAR, PRO QUEST and INDEX COPERNICUS. ScGYM® (ISSN 1855-7171) is an international online journal published three times a year (February, June, October). ® Department of Gymnastics, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana. All rights reserved. This journal and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under Copyright and Related Rights Act of the Republic of Slovenia. INDEX, SCIRUS, NEW JOUR, GOOGLE Front page design: Sandi Radovan, Slovenia. Editorial Office Address Science of Gymnastics Journal Faculty of Sport, Department of Gymnastics Gortanova 22, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia Telephone: +386 (0)1 520 7765 Fax: +386 (0)1 520 7750 E-mail: scgym@fsp.uni-lj.si Home page: http://www.scienceofgymnastics.com Science of Gymnastics Journal Indicator 2009-2016 Value SJR * * 0.22 Cites per doc Total cites www. sc imago jr. corn Science of Gymnastics Journal is supported by Foundation for financing sport organisations in Slovenia, Slovenian Research Agency and International Gymnastics Federation. Slovenian Research Agency SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 9 Issue 3: 2017 CONTENTS Ivan Cuk EDITORIAL 223 A. Kunčič J. Mešl ALJAZ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT AT WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS 225 A. Atikovic S. Delaš Kalinski I Čuk AGE TRENDS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS ACROSS WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS AND OLYMPIC GAMES FROM 2003 TO 2016 251 L. Hennig MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION STUDENTS' EVALUATION OF GYMNASTICS SKILLS 265 R. Beyranvand R. Mirnasouri S. Mollahoseini S. Mostofi THE FUNCTIONAL STABILITY OF THE UPPER LIMBS IN HEALTHY AND ROUNDED SHOULDER GYMNASTS 279 G. Dallas A. Mavidis C. Dallas S. Papouliakos GENDER DIFFERENCES OF HIGH LEVEL GYMNASTS ON POSTURAL STABILITY: THE EFFECT OF ANKLE SPRAIN INJURIES 291 K. Ferger M. Hackbarth NEW WAY OF DETERMINING HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT IN COMPETITIVE TRAMPOLINING 303 Anton Gajdos HISTORICAL SHORT NOTES X 311 SLOVENSKI IZVLEČKI / SLOVENE ABSTRACTS 313 221 SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 9 Issue 3: 2017 222 SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 9 Issue 3: 2017 EDITORIAL Dear friends, In Montreal, the World Championships in artistic gymnastics have just ended. We saw some excellent gymnastics and, unfortunately, also some injuries of most decorated gymnasts (Uchimura, Japan, and Iordache, Romania). We are still looking forward to an upgrade in the quality of gymnastics and improvements in the health status of our athletes. Hence, dear fellow researchers, please do further research projects to improve our gymnastics! With your creative work we have published 153 original articles so far and hope that they have improved our practice. On our Editorial Board we have a new member, Thomas Heinen, Ph.D., from Germany. In the last years he has regularly collaborated with the Journal by contributing many articles, mostly related to motor learning and motor control. Welcome aboard, Thomas! The first article in the current issue is about Aljaž Pegan, a high bar specialist and a gymnastics senior. Andrej Kunčič and Jože Mešl (Aljaž Pegan's coach) prepared an analysis of variations in Pegan's long-lasting career. The article is partly a historical overview and partly an overview of the training theory. It answers the question how to stay on top despite changes in the Code of Points. The second article comes from authors from three countries: Almir Atikovic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sunčica Delaš Kalinski of Croatia and Ivan Čuk of Slovenia. We explored the age trends in artistic gymnastics from 2003 up to 2016. Dr Bruno Grandi, former FIG President, can be proud of his work as gymnasts' age is on the increase. The third article is from Linda Hennig from Germany with focus on mental representations in the evaluation of gymnastics skills in students of physical education. It brings an interesting perspective on motor learning. The fourth article is from Iranian researchers Ramin Beyranvand, Rahim Mirnasouri, Saeid Mollahoseini and Sadegh Mostofi who looked into the functional stability of rounded shoulder in gymnasts and non-gymnasts. It provides another proof that we need to plan training loads carefully. The fifth article comes from Greece; authors George Dallas Alexandras Mavidis, Costas Dallas, Sotris Papouliakos compare postural stability and effects of ankle sprain injuries between male and female gymnasts. Perhaps it would be a good idea that male gymnasts do some conditioning on the beam as well as females? The last article comes from Germany. Katja Ferger and Michel Hackbarth developed a new system to evaluate the time and place of take-off/touch-down on the trampoline. It is something new and requires knowledge of technology, acrobatics, judging and science to fulfil the competition evaluation requests. Their device could make judging much better in the sense of validity, reliability, objectivity and discrimination. Anton Gajdoš prepared a new contribution to the history of gymnastics, refreshing our memory on Juriv Titov, former FIG President. Just to remind you, if you quote the Journal: its abbreviation on the Web of Knowledge is SCI GYMN J. I wish you pleasant reading and a lot of inspiration for new research projects and articles, Ivan Čuk Editor-in-Chief 223 SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 9 Issue 3: 2017 In Bratislava (Slovakia) Slovak Olympic Committee - Slovak Olympic and Sport museum's collection prepared exhibition, opened in September 2017. Prof. Anton Gajdoš showed his collection. 224 Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 ALJAZ PEGAN GYMNASTIC RESULTS DEVELOPMENT AT WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS Andrej Kunčič1, Jože Mešl2 faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia 2Ljubljana, Slovenia _Original article Abstract In article we overview 19 years of a 33 year long sporting career of the gymnast Aljaž Pegan. His scores, ranks and exercises on the horizontal bar are presented for each World Championship. Exercises are further broken down into individual elements and descriptions of those elements. They are presented in accordance with the Code of Points published by Federation International Gymnastics, which was in force for a particular four-year period, and a theoretical comparison was made, taking into account all the changes and adjustments, with the Code of Points 2013-2016. Additionally, breakdowns of the seven Codes of Points for the horizontal bar which were in force in the period from 1989 to 2013 are also shown. Adaptation to the changing criteria of the Code of Points can be seen in the exercises through upgraded elements, which Aljaž could grasp due to his exceptional knowledge of basic motor structures such as: free hip circles, giant swings, flights and elements in double el-grip. During his career Aljaž and his coach invented two unique elements that bear his last name in the Code of Points, Pegan on the horizontal bar and on the parallel bars. His greatest success was at the World Championship in Melbourne, Australia in 2005, where he became the World Champion on the horizontal bar. Keywords: man artistic gymnastics, horizontal bar, result development, Code of Points. INTRODUCTION The sporting career of Aljaž Pegan began in 1980 in Ljubljana when he was five years old. During his career Aljaž had two coaches. The first one was Boris Pavliha with whom he trained for six years. His second coach was Jože Mešl and together they trained at Partizan Trnovo, until Aljaž's 39th birthday. Aljaž ended his active participation on his birthday 2nd June, 2013 at the Slovenian Cup in Ljubljana, where he was second (Bedenik, 2013). The influence of Jože Mešl and his alternative approach are the main reasons for Aljaž's rapid development and wide spectrum of gymnastic knowledge. The Mešl's approach deprived his gymnasts for medals in younger categories, but enabled them a faster leap to join more mature gymnasts. Meaning, gymnasts were quickly enabled to perform in a higher category, next to older and more experienced gymnasts and, where the Science of Gymnastics Journal 225 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 exercises were more difficult and complex (Bedenik, 2013). During his career, Aljaž had to perform compulsory and optional exercises on an apparatus. Compulsory exercises were cancelled in 1996, despite the fact that gymnast who had to perform both exercises obtained wider spectrum of knowledge. Through the compulsory exercises he learned new elements, strengthened his base knowledge and thus he was able to effectively adapt to all kinds of changes in the Code of Points later in his career. His engagement in gymnastics was not without injuries. Three of them were serious, among them two of them were the reason for ceasing competition in an all-around and specializing in parallel bars and a horizontal bar. He had his first injury in 1987 when he broke his leg on a vault, performing »Tsukahara«. In 1997 he suffered from the second injury when he had a terrible fall from the horizontal bar and injured his spine. The injury was one of the main reasons why he had focused only on parallel bars and the horizontal bar in the middle of his career. After this last injury in 2003 when he injured his finger on parallel bars he decided to focus only on the horizontal bar (Bedenik, 2013). One of the explanations for the oscillation of result could be found in the training conditions. He had spent most of his sporting career training in a gym Partizan / Sport club Trnovo, which is a fairly small (13m x 9m x 5m) and poorly equipped in comparison with gymnastics centers, in which other top ranking gymnasts train. The conditions where he trained are important since he was one of the most elegant and reliable gymnasts, but had problems with a dismount. An element that often took its toll on otherwise perfect exercise. Lack of space and bad training conditions are the main reasons why he could not perfect his dismount - a triple salto backwards, or learn a more reliable dismount - e.g. a double salto backwards stretched with 2/1 turn. Bad conditions that especially effect dismount training include an inadequate landing zone and a low height of the ceiling. Another reason for his unreliable dismount could be attributed to changed orientation in space. Since he trained in a small gym and competed in a much larger hall with a much higher ceiling, he had to reacquire orientation in space at each competition, which made it hard to perform the perfect dismount as was not able to fulfill all the criteria of a good dismount according to Geiblinger and Dowden (2015). If he had perfected or learned a new dismount, Aljaž could have achieved even better results than he already had. His stamp in gymnastics is seen through the two unique elements he invented with his coach and in the Code of Points bear his last name. The thought of a new element on the horizontal bar with a turn was suggested by his training partner Lojze Kolman when Aljaž was learning the Gaylord element and his position, at the point when a gymnast re-grasps the bar, was high ("Aljaz Pegan makes", 2014). As Aljaž had a good position in the air and had enough time they added a turn to Gaylord, thus making a new element on the horizontal bar named Pegan (Gaylord with / turn). First time he performed it in Budapest on 20th March, 1993 during European championship, and was also noticed in Japanese department of study in 1994 (Nakasone, 2015). The second element named after Aljaž is on parallel bars and is a step up of the Diamidov element. Aljaž had great balance in a handstand on one rail and likewise when performing pirouettes on one rail. When Aljaž put both of these two conditions together, he made a new element on parallel bars (Diamidov with 5/4 turn or more to handstand). Though, Aljaž had performed the element on parallel bars for a quite some time, he saw little motivation to include a hard element with uncertain execution in an exercise since, he had already fulfilled norms for maximum starting value of 10 points. However, the Science of Gymnastics Journal 226 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Code of Points 1997 brought some changes and thus Aljaž had to include his element in the exercise. In the end of the year 1996 Aljaž performed his element for the first time at the international competition and FIG added his element in the Code of Points 1997. Gaylorú wííli V* t. (Pegan) Diamidov with 5/41 or more to Msf (Pegan) k\ wfciW & % Figure 1. Element Pegan on the horizontal bar and on the parallel bars (FIG, 2013) Despite the fact that both Pegan elements are a step up from an already existing elements, practicing and performing them is difficult. Being able to perform the base element does not condition the knowledge and performance of an element with extra rotation (turn). During his long career Aljaž never attended the Olympic Games. He could have qualified for the Olympics Games through the team result, individual ranking in all-around and by becoming an individual apparatus world champion in the year preceding the Olympic Games. The closest he came to qualifying for the Olympic Games was at the world championship in 1995 in Sabae, Japan. He competed in all-around competition but made a mistake in compulsory exercise and at the end missed the 1996 Olympic Games for bare 0.2 points. Soon after he got injured and continued his carrier only on parallel bars and on the horizontal bar. Slovenia tried to qualify through team result for the second time at the world championship in 2003 in Anaheim, United States, but the team was not strong enough. Aljaž could have qualified for the Olympic Games on his own by becoming the world champion on the individual apparatus, but he did not qualify for the final event. Aljaž could have qualified for the Olympic Games by becoming the world champion on the individual apparatus, at the 2007 world championship in Stuttgart, Germany. Unfortunately he came second on the horizontal bar. Aljaž won his first medal at the national level after two years of training under supervision of coach Boris Pavliha. The period under Pavliha lasted for four more years, from the 1982-1986. During this time he attended and often won competitions at a national level. At the beginning of 1986 he came to Partizan Trnovo to train under Jože Mešl. During 1986 he was a perspective gymnast and attended a federal championship in Priština Yugoslavia where he was 10th. In 1987 he won at the Tournament of Brotherhood and Unity in Yugoslavia where he had competed with the best young gymnasts in Yugoslavia. The following year he became the junior champion of Yugoslavia and in 1989 he was a reserve in Yugoslavian team at the world championship in Stuttgart, Germany. At a junior four nations competition in 1990 in Belgium he almost came into all the finals and the Yugoslavian team was victorious. At the junior European championship in 1991 he was the 12th in all-around competition and the 6th on a horizontal bar. He was also a part of the Slovenian team at the Mediterranean games in France in 1993, where Slovenia was the third and Aljaž was the second on a horizontal bar. During his career in a senior category he participated in over a hundred international competitions, where he had also achieved his greatest achievements on the horizontal bar. In his long lasting career Aljaž attended fourteen World Championships in men's artistic gymnastics. His greatest success was at the World Championship in Melbourne, Australia in 2005 where he became the World Champion on the horizontal bar. In the years 2002, 2006 and 2007 he achieved the second place. Science of Gymnastics Journal 227 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 In his career he attended the World Cup competitions and won 27 times, became second 14 times and third place 9 times. In the season 2001/2002 Aljaž won at the overall World Cup final, he won the second place twice in the seasons of 1999/2000 and 2009, and in the season 2005/2006 he was the third. He was twice awarded the European Champion on the horizontal bar, in 1994 and 2004. In 2007 he was the European runner up and in 2000 and 2008 he achieved the third place. Besides numerous successes and medals Aljaž had received various prizes for which he had been selected among other candidates. The Gymnastic Union of Slovenia chose him as a sportsman of the year in the years of 1999, 2001, 2002 and 2006. Journalism Association of Slovenia chose him for sportsman of Slovenia in the year 2002. Sports Union of Ljubljana chose him for the sportsman of Ljubljana (capital city) in the year 2004. Although the research of Novak and Čuk (1985) has been written a long time ago (and gymnastics developed severely since then), some aspects and conclusions are still valid. At the beginning of an athlete's career their results are improving, later they are stable and at the end results are getting worse. According to the general rule of development competitive results can be controlled whether our training plan gives adequate results. Authors came to a conclusion that the way of coming up with a score in artistic gymnastics has 3 characteristics, which hardens to put an objective view on result development. Those characteristics are: ■ Evaluation is done subjectively. Measure instruments are judges, measure units are scores. Judges' score cannot be as objective as physical units of measurement. ■ The perfect score is limited with a maximum score of 10 points (today still for execution only). ■ The required content of the exercises varies among competitive categories, especially in difficultness. Countries all over the world have usually their own competitive systems which consequently imply different competitive categories, making it hard for comparison. The alignment of competitive categories and exercises contents are applied in junior and senior categories and are determined by the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG). An annual training plan is a tool that guides an athlete through 12 months of training and within those 12 months maximizes physiological adaptation and performance at specific time points, during the main competitions of the year. Within an annual plan some months can vary from the rest of the year to reduce physiological and psychological fatigue, and induce regeneration (Bompa & Haff, 2009). Periodization divides the annual training plan into smaller training phases, thus making it easier to plan peak performance at the main competition. Within training phases we target biomotor abilities which will allow the athlete to develop the highest levels of speed, strength, power, agility and endurance possible. The annual training is composed with three main phases: preparatory, competition and transition. The transition phase connects annual training plans together and within this phase the main objective is to remove fatigue and allow the athlete to recover, via the use of active rest. The transition phase generally lasts 2 to 4 weeks but it can last up to 6 weeks (Bompa & Haff, 2009). "Competitions can be classified into two broad categories: (1) major or official competitions and (2) preparatory or exhibition competitions. Major competitions are the athlete's most important competitions (e.g., national championships, world championships, Olympic Games). Preparatory or exhibition competitions are used to test the athlete and attain feedback regarding Science of Gymnastics Journal 228 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 specific aspects of training" (Bompa & Haff, 2009, p. 195). "A key condition for gaining planned results over many years of preparation is to figure out a "tree of goals", setting specific tasks subordinate to the main strategic objective of successful performance at the major competitions with appropriate results. The main ones are as follows: • Creating optimal surplus (technical, tactical, physical, functional and psychological); • Outstripping possession of new super-complex exercises and on time mastery of the integrated model of the current stage of preparation; • Ensuring reliable and highly-productive activity in conditions that are more difficult than competition, according to the basic parameters" (Arkaev & Suchilin, 2004, p. 75). Aljaž had an injury in 1997 which prevented him from competing in all-around competition so he focused only on parallel bars and the horizontal bar. In 2003 after his third injury he focused his career only on the horizontal bar. These are some facts how his annual training plan looked like and how he was able to prepare for major competitions. He trained from Monday to Saturday twice a day. The only exception was Wednesday when he had trained solely in the afternoon. Sometimes he also trained on Sunday mornings. Morning practice was from 10 to 12 am and afternoon practice was from 4 to 7 pm. Throughout the years duration of practices decreased and more attention was given to spatial orientation. During the transition phase he had a program of exercises and with it he maintained his physical condition. His transition phases usually lasted from the middle of December to 10th of January and from the middle of June to the end of July. The transition phase varied depending on schedule of major competitions. After each transition phase it took him from 9 to 11 weeks to get into a form. During this time he had problems with his general condition and that was shown in elements reliability and especially in reliability of a dismount. After he got into form he usually needed three competitions to get into a stable competition performance which he could maintain for about a month and during this time his competition performance reached its peak. Before each competition his weekly training plan was different and for the whole week he trained in leotard, stirrup pants and socks. His weekly training was basically a simulation of an actual competition. He warmed up as he would have before a real competition and then performed one full exercise and after that one more. The first exercise was meant as preliminary competition and the second as finals. After that he practiced only critical sections of an exercise to gain reliability and stability. Through years of competitions element Pegan had a huge impact on Aljažs' Pegan career. Pegan on horizontal bar became a trademark of Aljaž Pegan and that also gave him a slight advantage over other gymnasts in the eyes of the judges. Vlasios Maras was the only gymnast who was successfully executing element Pegan on horizontal bar and also upgraded it to pike Pegan The purpose of this analyse is to write a historical record about one of the most successful gymnast on the horizontal bar, Aljaž Pegan. Display competitive results and rankings on the horizontal bar at World Championships and to show changes of rules for the horizontal bar, which occurred in the Code of Points. Code of Points The Code of Points for MAG in 1989, 1993, 1997 and 2001, when the perfect score was 10 points, are presented with minimal standards by which exercise achieved a maximum start value of 10 points. Minimal standards were defined with an appropriate number of elements of various difficulty value parts. Science of Gymnastics Journal 229 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 The following element groups in the Code of Points 2001, 2004, 2006, 2009 and 2013 were (FIG, 2013, p. 123): I. Long hang swings with and without turns. II. Flight elements. III. Elements near the bar (in bar elements). IV. El-grip and dorsal hang elements and elements performed rearways to the bar. V. Dismounts. Element group requirements fall under special requirements in the Code of Points (FIG, 2001), and fulfilling each group requirement provided 0.2 points to a total of 1 point which can be achieved in this section. To fulfill an element group requirement, a gymnast had to perform an element at least B value part and C value part for the dismount. In the Code of Points coming after the one in 2001 element group requirements had a similar role, however they do not fall under special requirements but as an addition to the difficulty base value. Maximum points a gymnast can acquire in element group requirements is 2.5 points, to receive 0.5 points a gymnast has to perform at least one element from each element group. However there was a requirement that the dismount had to be of value part D to receive 0.5 points. In case the dismount is not of correct value part the following rule applies (FIG, 2013, p. 24): • A or B value dismount +0.00 p. (not fulfill requirement) • C value dismount +0,30 p. (partial requirement value) • D or higher value +0,50 p. (full requirement value) In the period when the Codes of Points 1989, 1993 and 1997 were in force, a gymnast may have performed every element twice in his exercise, however only if those elements and connections were not eligible for bonus points. In case that any element was performed more than two times there was a deduction rule which changed over the years. Repetition rule changed in the Code of Points (FIG, 2001, p. 22) in perspective to previous ones: • No element (same Code Identification Number) may be repeated for difficulty credit or for Bonus Points. This applies also to elements repeated in connections. • No element (same Code Identification Number) is permitted to contribute to the Start Value. • No element (same Code Identification Number) may be performed three times in direct succession. The Ajury will deduct 0.20 points or each appearance of three such elements in direct succession. In the Code of Points 2006, 2009 and 2013 an element may be repeated, however a gymnast will not receive any value for it (FIG, 2006, 2009 and 2013). »No element (same Code Identification Number) may be repeated for difficulty credit or for Connection Points. This applies also to elements repeated in connections« (FIG, 2013, p. 25). The score of 10 points was structured with the next four sections: • Exercise base value • Exercise execution • Special requirements • Bonus points A specific number of points may be achieved in each section, however number of points varies a lot through the Code of Points. A gymnast had the most impact on bonus points, which he could collect by connecting elements of specific value and thus making his exercise worth 10 points. Bonus points are a scoring factor with which a better comparison is made between exercises. Different possibilities for achieving bonus points will be presented for each Code of Points separately in the following tables. Special requirements are one of the four sections of the score structure. A gymnast may obtain a specific number of Science of Gymnastics Journal 230 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 points for this section, however, the number of points varies a lot through the Code of Points. Each apparatus has its own special requirements and they are an essential part to achieve a maximum start value of an exercise. These essential parts cannot be replaced with another element from a different element group and a gymnast cannot fulfill two special requirements with just one element. The following special requirements for horizontal bar applied in the Code of Points 1989, 1993 and 1997 (FIG, 1997, p. 123): • An element with both hands in el-grip or in hang rearways through the lower vertical (minimum B). • An element with grip release and a definite visible flight phase before re-grasping the bar (flight element)(minimum B). • An »in-bar« element (minimum B). If all the requirements were fulfilled in the Code of Points 1989 an exercise was worth 9.40 points. However, a gymnast could obtain the remaining 0.6 points by satisfying a scoring category called ROV which stands for risk, originality and virtuosity and could bring up to 0.2 points for each category thus making an exercise worth 10.0 points. Each category had to be evaluated separately, but in practice they were shown with the complexity of an exercise and together they formed a whole. For one part of an exercise it was possible to give two of three ROV factors (FIG, 1989). Bonus points were a part of the score structure until the Code of Points 2001 came into force and gymnasts had to fulfill certain requirements to obtain points which could be awarded in this scoring category. With the new Code of Points in 2006 bonus points can be obtained only through connection of two elements of an appropriate value. Connection occurs when two flight elements or one flight and one on bar element are connected. Additional criteria that increased element value or combined the two of them into one value part. There are several criteria in each Code of Points, however, only the selected ones had an impact on Aljaž's exercises: • For the direct connection of flight elements, the succeeding flight element increases in value by 1 category. Example: Tkatchov (C part) followed by free flight Giant (B part) becomes C+C part or Kovacs (D part) followed by Deltchev (C part) becomes D+D part or Tkatchov (C part) 2x followed by Deltchev (C part) becomes C+D+D part (FIG, 1989, p. 218). • For the direct connection of flight elements, the succeeding flight element increases in value by 1 category. Example: Tkatchov (C part) followed by free flight Giant (B part) becomes C+C part or Kovacs (E part) followed by Deltchev (C part) becomes E+D part or Tkatchov (C part) 2x followed by Deltchev (C part) becomes C+D+D part (FIG, 1993, p. 157). Additional information about value parts (FIG, 2001, p. 114): • The direct connection of two flight elements creates one single value part, as follows: C+C=D, C+D or D+C=E, C+E or E+C= super E. • The direct connection of D+D, E+D, D+E, E+E or similar flight elements retain their independent values for the benefit of the gymnast. During the time Aljaž competed in the senior category FIG changed the Code of Points seven times. The Code of Points changes every four years and sets new standards, which competitors have to match by learning new or upgrading existing elements and constructing new exercises. Aljaž started competing in a senior category when the Code of Points 19891992 was in force. Up until the year 1996 a gymnast had to perform compulsory and optional exercises, thus performing two exercises for each apparatus. The sum of both exercises gave the final ranking of a gymnast. Compulsory exercises were the same for all gymnasts and they contained various elements, for which gymnasts Science of Gymnastics Journal 231 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 spent a lot of time learning them. This paid off with a broad spectrum of knowledge which helped gymnasts to learn more difficult elements. After 1996 the compulsory exercises were cancelled. Up until 2004 a gymnast exercise was evaluated from a starting value of 10 points downwards, provided an exercise fulfilled requirements set by the score structure. The score structure was divided into four sections. In each section a gymnast may have achieved a determined number of points, however, the points varied a lot through the Code of Points. By fulfilling requirements set by the score structure, a gymnast could achieve a maximum starting value. Great emphasis was placed on elegance of movement and reliability of performed elements. Gymnasts strived to perform their exercises in a flawless, elegant manner and with ease, because already the slightest mistake could mean a deduction, thus making a gymnast less competitive. In 2006, the Code of Points and the entire gymnastics scoring system were completely overhauled. The change stemmed from the judging controversy at 2004 Olympics in Athens, Greece, which brought the reliability and objectivity of the scoring system into question, and arguments that execution had been sacrificed for difficulty in artistic gymnastics (Code of Points, 2014). It started at 2004 Olympics in Athens when an American gymnast Paul Hamm won the gold medal in Men's all-around competition. However, his gold medal was put into doubt, by International Gymnastics Federation (FIG), when South Korean bronze medalist Yange Tae Young filed an official report, stating his start value was inaccurate in the all-around final event on parallel bars. Judges set Yange's start value to 9.9 instead of 10.0. This was enough to put Yange into the third place, since the difference between the first and the third place was only 0.049 points. If FIG would have ruled into Yanges' favor he would have won the gold and Hamm would have been second. FIG responded with suspension of three judges for the error and with the decision that the results will remain unchanged (Olympic Games scandals and controversies, 2014). The Code of Points which was in force from 2000-2004 stayed active for another year, although the controversy about judging happened at the 2004 Olympics. The next Code of Points which was in force only three years from 20062008 no longer had a maximum starting value of 10 points, however, the final score was consisted out of two separate scores, the execution score and the difficulty score. The score for execution is evaluated by deduction from 10 points downwards. Judges deduct points for general, technical, artistic, executional and exercise composition errors. A difficulty score is consisted out of ten elements, including dismount. Summarized value of the ten elements, which values are shown in the value table, gives the difficulty score of an exercise. The sum of both scores gives the final score a gymnast will receive for his exercise (Code of Points, 2014). The Codes of Points 2008 and 2012 that followed the new Code of Points which came into force in 2006 did not change a lot. Actually the only difference was in the value table and some new elements were added, which are given the name by a gymnast who first executed them. METHODS Searching, reviewing, analyzing and verifying the results and video material for each World Championship and Code of Points for individual era. Exercises for each World Championship are broken down into individual elements and descriptions of elements. They are presented in accordance with the Code of Points which was in force for a particular four-year period, and in theoretical comparison, Science of Gymnastics Journal 232 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 taking into account all changes and adjustments, with the 2013 Code of Points. Input, processing and data design, such as the date of the competition, achieved rank, exercise content (EGR, CIN, D, V, CP), exercise value were made in Microsoft Excel 2010. Legend of abbreviations: EGR-element group requirements, CIN-code identification number, D-difficulty, V-value, CP-connection points The breakdown of exercises Aljaž performed at the World Championships Despite best efforts, it was not possible to obtain all the exercises for each of the individual World Championships. Therefore, the analysis of certain exercises is made on the basis of other competitions that were close to the time of the World Championship, for which it was not possible to obtain any video material. Based on a discussion and joint work with, it was concluded that such an exercise was probably the same as the one performed at the World Championship. Analysis of the following world championship exercises was not possible, because there was not an adequate video material: ■ Exercise for the 1991 World Championship in Indianapolis, was analysed based on the exercise Aljaž performed at the National Championship in 1991 in Ljubljana, Slovenia. ■ Exercise for the 1995 World Championship in Sabae, was analysed based on the exercise Aljaž performed at World Cup in 1994 in Zürich, Switzerland. ■ Exercise for the 1999 World Championship in Tijanjin, was analysed based on the exercise Aljaž performed at World Cup in 2000 in Ljubljana, Slovenia. Exercise for the 2001 World Championship in Ghent, was analysed based on the exercise Aljaž performed at World Cup in 2001 in Glasgow, United Kingdom. Table 1 Bonus points through Codes of Points 1993-2013. Code of Points CP max Total max points 1993 1997 2001 2006 2009 2013 Each D = 0,1, each E = 0,2; CP (C,D,E); CD, DC, CE, EC, DD = 0,1; DE, EE, ED = 0,2 Each D = 0,1, each E = 0,2, each SE = 0,3; CP (C,D,E); CD, DC, CE, EC, DD = 0,1; DE, EE, ED = 0,2; CP for two C flight elements; CC = 0,1 Each D = 0,1, each E = 0,2, each SE = 0,3; CP (C,D,E); CD, DC, CE, EC, DD = 0,1; DE, EE, ED = 0,2 On bar Flight D or E or F + D or E or F = 0,2 or vice versa Flight Flight D or E or F + C = 0,1 D or E or F + D or E or F = 0,2 or vice versa On bar Flight D or E or F + D or E or F = 0,2 or vice versa Flight Flight D or E or F + C = 0,1 D or E or F + D or E or F = 0,2 or vice versa On bar Flight D or E or F + D or E or F = 0,2 or vice versa Flight Flight C or D or E or F + C = 0,1 D or E or F + D or E or F = 0,2 or vice versa 0,2 1,4 1,2 Depending on how many connections a gymnast will make Depending on how many connections a gymnast will make Depending on how many connections a gymnast will make { 1 { { { { { Science of Gymnastics Journal 233 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Table 2 Score structure and value parts through Codes of Points 1989-2013. Code of Points 1989 1993 1997 2GG1 2GG6 2GG9 & 2G13 Max score 1G.GGG 1G.GGG 1G.GGG 1G.GGG Note Note Exercise base value 4,G 2,4 2,4 2,8 1G elements 1G elements Exercise execution 4,4 5,4 5,G 5,G 1G.GGG 1G.GGG Special requirements (Exercise composition) 1,G 1,2 1,2 1,G 2,5 2,5 Connection / bonus points (ROV) G,6 1,G 1,4 1,2 * * Value parts A G,1 G,1 G,1 G,1 G,1 G,1 B G,2 G,2 G,2 G,3 G,2 G,2 C G,4 G,4 G,3 G,5 G,3 G,3 D G,6 G,6 G,4 G,6 G,4 G,4 E G,8 G,6 G,7 G,5 G,5 F (SE) G,7 G,8 G,6 G,6 G G,7 N of elements 9 1G 1G 1G 1G 1G * depending on the connection of elements 10 9 8 7 6 5 ♦ Exercise base value Exercise execution 4 * A Special requirements 3 (Exercise composition) 2 Connection / bonus points 1 -----(ROV) 1989 1993 1997 2001 2006 2009 & 2013 Figure 2. Score structure through Code of Points 1989-2013. Science of Gymnastics Journal 234 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Table 3 Aljaž Pegan exercise content and results at World Championship. Performed exercise at 1991 World Championship in Indianapolis and sections of score structure (Mešl Jože personal archive)_ 1991 Indianapolis, United States 9.400/10.000 Code of Points 1989 Code of Points 2013 63-70. place EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V From overgrip free hip circle through handstand III/1 A 0,2 III/7 A 0,1 Stalder strad. IV/38 B 0,4 III/38 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. V/25 A I/31 A 0,1 Tkatchev strad. VI/11 C 0,6 II/15 C n 1 0,3 Gienger VI/67 D 0,8 II/69 C 0,1 0,3 At front swing 1/2 turn around left hand in mixt grip At front swing regrip to undergrip Endo strad. IV/22 B 0,4 III/26 B 0,2 Giant swing fwd. V/l A I/13 A Stoop circle rearward fwd. atleast 45° IV/2 B 0,4 IV/2 B 0,2 El-grip giant swing V/18 B 0,4 IV/14 B 0,2 El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. V/22 B 0,4 IV/20 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. V/25 A I/31 A Giant swing bwd. V/25 A I/31 A Triple salto bwd. t. VII/52 D 0,8 V/47 E 0,5 Exercise base value (max 4,4) 4,4 EGRF I-V (2,5 max) 2,5 Exercise execution (max 4) 4 Exercise execution 10 Exercise composition (max 1) 1 CP 0,1 Bonus ROV (max 0,6) 0,6 Start value 10 14,9 Performed exercise at 1992 World Championship in Paris and sections of score structure (Mešl Jože personal archive)_ 1992 Paris, France - Code of Points 1989 Code of Points 2013 9.400/10.000 21. place EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V From overgrip free hip circle through handstand III/1 A III/7 A 0,1 Stalder strad. IV/38 B 0,4 III/38 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. V/25 A I/31 A Tkatchev strad. VI/11 C 0,6 II/15 C 0,3 Tkatchev strad. VI/11 D 0,8 II/15 C 0,1 Gienger VI/67 D 0,8 II/69 C 0,3 At front swing 1/2 turn around left hand in mixt grip At front swing regrip to undergrip Endo strad. IV/22 B 0,4 III/26 B 0,2 Giant swing fwd. V/1 A I/13 A Stoop circle rearward fwd. atleast 45° IV/2 B 0,4 IV/2 B 0,2 El-grip giant swing V/18 B 0,4 IV/14 B 0,2 El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. V/22 B 0,4 IV/20 B 0,2 One arm giant swing bwd. (360°) V/30 B 0,4 I/32 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. V/25 A I/31 A Giant swing bwd. V/25 A I/31 A Triple salto bwd. t. VII/52 D 0,8 V/47 E 0,5 Exercise base value (max 4,4) 4,4 EGRF I-V (2,5 max) 2,5 Exercise execution (max 4) 4 Exercise execution 10 Exercise composition (max 1) 1 CP 0,1 Bonus ROV (max 0,6) 0,6 Start value 10 15 Science of Gymnastics Journal 235 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Performed exercise at 1993 World Championship in Birmingham and sections of score structure (Gymn, 2004) 1993 Birmingham, United Kingdom - Code of Points l993 Code of Points 20l3 9.150/ 10.000 12. place EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V From overgrip free hip circle through handstand III/l A III/7 A 0,l Endo strad. with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. IV/28 C 0,4 III/32 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn V/57 B 0,2 I/37 A Giant swing fwd. V/l A I/l3 A Giant swing fwd. V/l A I/l3 A Pegan VI/65 E 0,8 II/53 E 0,5 Giant swing bwd. V/3l A I/3l A Tkatchev strad. VI/l3 C 0,4 II/l5 C 0,3 Tkatchev strad. Gienger VI/l3 VI/83 D D 0,6 0,l 0,6 II/l5 II/69 C 0,l C 0,3 At front swing regrip to undergrip Kip or drop kip to hdst. regrip to undergrip I/6 A III/l A Giant swing fwd. V/l A I/l3 A Stoop circle rearward fwd. atleast 45° IV/2 B 0,2 IV/2 B 0,2 El-grip giant swing V/22 B 0,2 IV/l4 B 0,2 El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. V/27 B IV/20 B 0,2 Giant swing fwd. V/l A I/l3 A Zou Li Min V/l9 D 0,6 I/27 C 0,3 Endo strad. with 1/2 turn V/27 B III/32 B Giant swing bwd. V/3l A I/3l A Giant swing bwd. V/3l A I/3l A Triple salto bwd. t. VII/64 D 0,6 V/47 E 0,5 Exercise base value (max 2,4) 2,4 EGRF I-V (2,5 max) 2,5 Exercise execution (max 5,4) 5,4 Exercise execution l0 Special requirements (max 1,2) l,2 CP 0,l Bonus points (max 1) l Start value l0 l5,4 Performed exercise at 1994 World Championship in Brisbane and sections of score structure (Gymnastics Results, 1994)_ 1994 Brisbane, Australia 9.275/ l0.000 Code of Points 1993 Code of Points 2013 6. place EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V From overgrip free hip circle through handstand III/l A III/7 A 0,l Endo piked with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. IV/24 D 0,6 III/32 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn V/57 B 0,2 I/37 A 0,l Giant swing fwd. V/l A I/l3 A Giant swing fwd. V/l A I/l3 A Pegan VI/65 E 0,8 II/53 E 0,5 Giant swing bwd. V/3l A I/3l A Tkatchev strad. VI/l3 C 0,4 II/l5 C 0,3 Tkatchev strad. Gienger VI/l3 VI/83 D D 0,l 0,6 0,6 II/15 II/69 C C 0,l 0,3 Endo strad. with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. IV/28 C 0,4 III/32 B Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn V/57 B I/37 A Zou Li Min V/l9 D 0,l 0,6 I/27 C 0,3 Endo strad. regrip to el-grip IV/34 D 0,6 III/26 B 0,2 El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. V/27 B IV/20 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. V/3l A I/3l A Giant swing bwd. V/3l A I/3l A Triple salto bwd. t. VII/64 D 0,6 V/47 E 0,5 Exercise base value (max 2,4) 2,4 EGRF I-V (2,5 max) 2,5 Exercise execution (max 5,4) 5,4 Exercise execution l0 Special requirements (max 1,2) l,2 CP 0,l Bonus points (max 1) l Start value l0 l5,3 Science of Gymnastics Journal 236 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Performed exercise at 1995 World Championship in Sabae and sections of score structure (Gymnastics Results, 1995)_ 1995 Sabae, Japan_ 9.700/10.000 Code of Points 1993 Code of Points 2013 90. place EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V From overgrip free hip circle through handstand III/1 A III/7 A 0,1 Endo piked with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. IV/24 D 0,6 III/32 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn V/57 B 0,2 I/37 A 0,1 Giant swing fwd. V/1 A I/13 A Giant swing fwd. V/1 A I/13 A Pegan VI/65 E 0,8 II/53 E 0,5 Giant swing bwd. V/31 A I/31 A Tkatchev strad. VI/13 C 0,4 II/15 C 0,3 Tkatchev strad. VI/13 D 0,1 0,6 II/15 C 0,1 Gienger VI/83 D 0,6 II/69 C 0,3 Endo strad. with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. IV/28 C 0,4 III/32 B Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn V/57 B I/37 A Zou Li Min V/19 D 0,1 0,6 I/27 C 0,3 Endo strad. regrip to el-grip IV/34 D 0,6 III/26 B 0,2 El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. V/27 B IV/20 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. V/31 A I/31 A Giant swing bwd. V/31 A I/31 A Triple salto bwd. t. VII/64 D 0,6 V/47 E 0,5 Exercise base value (max 2,4) Exercise execution (max 5,4) Special requirements (max 1,2) Bonus points (max 1)_ 2,4 5,4 1,2 1 EGRF I-V (2,5 max) Exercise execution CP 2,5 10 0,1 Start value 10 15,3 Performed exercise at 1996 World Championship in San Juan and sections of score structure (Gymnastics Results, 1996)_ 1996 San Juan, Portorico 9.750/10.000 Code of Points 1993 Code of Points 2013 4. place EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V From overgrip free hip circle through handstand III/1 A III/7 A 0,1 Endo piked with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. IV/24 D 0,6 III/32 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn V/57 B 0,2 I/37 A 0,1 Giant swing fwd. V/1 A I/13 A Giant swing fwd. V/1 A I/13 A Pegan VI/65 E 0,8 II/53 E 0,5 Giant swing bwd. V/31 A I/31 A Tkatchev strad. VI/13 C 0,4 II/15 C 0,3 Tkatchev strad. VI/13 D 0,6 II/15 C 0,1 0,1 Gienger VI/83 D 0,6 II/69 C 0,3 Endo strad. with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. IV/28 C 0,4 III/32 B Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn V/57 B I/37 A Giant swing fwd. with one arm in ungr. (360°) V/2 B I/26 B 0,2 Zou Li Min V/19 D n 1 0,6 I/27 C 0,3 Endo strad. regrip to el-grip IV/34 D 0,1 0,6 III/26 B El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. V/27 B IV/20 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. V/31 A I/31 A Giant swing bwd. V/31 A I/31 A Triple salto bwd. t. VII/64 D 0,6 V/47 E 0,5 Exercise base value (max 2,4) 2,4 EGRF I-V (2,5 max) 2,5 Exercise execution (max 5,4) 5,4 Exercise execution 10 Special requirements (max 1,2) 1,2 CP 0,1 Bonus points (max 1) 1 Start value 10 15,3 Science of Gymnastics Journal 237 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Performed exercise at 1999 World Championship in Tianjin and sections of score structure (Gymnastics Results, 1999)_ 1999 Tianjin, China 9.587/l0.000 Code of Points 1997 Code of Points 2013 13. place EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V From overgrip free hip circle through handstand III/l A III/7 A 0,l Endo piked with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. III/64 D 0,l 0,l 0,4 III/32 B 0,2 Stalder with hop 1/1 t. through hdst. III/29 D 0,4 III/39 C 0,3 Stalder with hop 1/1 t. through hdst. III/29 D 0,4 III/39 C Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn IV/22 B I/37 A Giant swing fwd. IV/l A I/l3 A Giant swing fwd. IV/l A I/l3 A Pegan VI/45 E 0,6 II/53 E 0,5 Giant swing bwd. IV/2l A I/3l A Tkatchev strad. Gienger VI/l3 VI/63 C C 0,l 0,3 0,3 II/l5 II/69 C C 0,l 0,3 0,3 Endo strad. with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. III/53 C 0,3 III/32 B Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn IV/22 B I/37 A Zou Li Min V/l9 D 0,2 0,4 I/27 C 0,3 Endo strad. with 1/1 t. thr. hdst. in el-grip III/65 E 0,6 III/34 D 0,4 El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. V/7 B IV/20 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. IV/2l A I/3l A Giant swing bwd. IV/2l A I/3l A Triple salto bwd. t. VII/54 D 0,4 V/47 E 0,5 Exercise base value (max 2,4) 2,4 EGRF I-V (2,5 max) 2,5 Exercise execution (max 5) 5 Exercise execution l0 Special requirements (max 1,2) l,2 CP 0,l Bonus points (max 1,4) l,4 Start value l0 l5,7 Performed exercise at 2001 World Championship in Ghent and sections of score structure (Gymnastics Results, 2001)_ 2001 Ghent, Belgium --- Code of Points 2000 Code of Points 2013 8.350/10.000 70. place EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V From overgrip free hip circle through handstand III/6 A 0,l III/7 A 0,l Endo strad. with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. III/26 B 0,3 III/32 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn I/3l A 0,l I/37 A 0,l Giant swing fwd. I/ll A I/l3 A Giant swing fwd. I/ll A I/l3 A Pegan II/45 E 0,7 II/53 E 0,5 Giant swing bwd. I/26 A I/3l A Tkatchev piked II/l4 D E 0,7 II/l5 C 0,3 Tkatchev strad. II/l3 C II/l5 C n 1 Gienger II/58 C D 0,6 II/69 C 0, l 0,3 Endo strad. with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. III/26 B III/32 B Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn I/3l A I/37 A Zou Li Min I/28 C 0,5 I/27 C 0,3 Endo strad. with 1/1 t. thr. hdst. in el-grip III/40 E 0,7 III/34 D 0,4 El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. IV/l7 B 0,3 IV/20 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. I/26 A I/3l A Giant swing bwd. I/26 A I/3l A Triple salto bwd. t. V/40 E 0,7 V/47 E 0,5 Exercise base value (max 2,8) 2,8 EGRF I-V (2,5 max) 2,5 Exercise execution (max 5) 5 Exercise execution l0 Special requirements (max 1) l CP 0,l Bonus points (max 1,2) l,2 Start value l0 l5,4 Science of Gymnastics Journal 238 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Performed exercise at 2002 World Championship in Debrecen and sections of score structure (Gymnastics Results, 2002)_ 2002 Debrecen, Hungary -—- Code of Points 2000 Code of Points 2013 9.700/10.000 2. place EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V From overgrip free hip circle through handstand III/6 A 0,1 III/7 A 0,1 Endo strad. with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. III/26 B 0,3 III/32 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn I/31 A I/37 A 0,1 Giant swing fwd. I/11 A I/13 A Giant swing fwd. I/11 A I/13 A Pegan II/45 E 0,7 II/53 E 0,5 Giant swing bwd. I/26 A I/31 A Tkatchev piked II/14 D E 0,7 II/15 C 0,3 Tkatchev strad. II/13 C II/15 C n i 0,3 Gienger II/58 C D 0,6 II/69 C 0,1 Endo piked with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. III/26 B III/32 B Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn I/31 A I/37 A Endo with 1/1 t. thr. hdst. in el-grip III/40 E 0,7 III/34 D 0,4 El-grip back uprise and hop to undr. IV/17 B 0,3 IV/20 B 0,2 Giant swing fwd. with 1/1 turn in double elgrip I/23 C 0,5 I/15 C 0,3 El-grip back uprise and hop to undr. IV/17 B IV/20 B Giant swing fwd. I/11 A I/13 A Giant swing fwd. with 1/1 turn in mixt grip I/12 B 0,3 I/14 B Back uprise to handstand with 1/2 turn I/6 A I/7 A Giant swing bwd. I/26 A I/31 A Giant swing bwd. I/26 A I/31 A Triple salto bwd. t. V/40 E 0,7 V/47 E 0,5 Exercise base value (max 2,8) 2,8 EGRF I-V (2,5 max) 2,5 Exercise execution (max 5) 5 Exercise execution 10 Special requirements (max 1) 1 CP 0,1 Bonus points (max 1,2) 1,2 Start value 10 15,4 Science of Gymnastics Journal 239 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Performed exercise at 2003 World Championship in Anaheim and sections of score structure (Gymnastics Results, 2003)_ 2003 Anaheim, United States 9.500/10.000 Code of Points 2000 Code of Points 2013 24. place EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V From overgrip free hip circle through handstand III/6 A 0,1 III/7 A 0,1 Endo strad. with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. III/26 B 0,3 III/32 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn I/31 A I/37 A 0,1 Giant swing fwd. I/11 A I/13 A Giant swing fwd. I/11 A I/13 A Pegan II/45 E 0,7 II/53 E 0,5 Giant swing bwd. I/26 A I/31 A Tkatchev piked II/14 D E 0,7 II/15 C 0,3 Tkatchev strad. II/13 C II/15 C n i Gienger II/58 C D 0,6 II/69 C 0,1 0,3 Endo piked with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. III/26 B III/32 B Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn I/31 A I/37 A Endo piked with 1/1 t. thr. hdst. in el-grip III/40 E 0,7 III/34 D 0,4 El-grip back uprise and hop to undr. IV/17 B 0,3 IV/20 B 0,2 Giant swing fwd. with 1/1 turn in double elgrip I/23 C 0,5 I/15 C 0,3 El-grip back uprise and hop to undr. IV/17 B IV/20 B Giant swing fwd. I/11 A I/13 A Giant swing fwd. with 1/1 turn in mixt grip I/12 B 0,3 I/14 B Back uprise to handstand with 1/2 turn I/6 A I/7 A Giant swing bwd. I/26 A I/31 A Giant swing bwd. I/26 A I/31 A Triple salto bwd. t. V/40 E 0,7 V/47 E 0,5 Exercise base value (max 2,8) Exercise execution (max 5) Special requirements (max 1) Bonus points (max 1,2) 2,8 5 1 1,2 EGRF I-V (2,5 max) Exercise execution CP 2,5 10 0,1 Start value 10 15,4 Science of Gymnastics Journal 240 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Performed exercise at 2005 World Championship in Melbourne and sections of score structure 2005 Melbourne, Australia 9.662/10.000 - Code of Points 2000 Code of Points 2013 1. place EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V From overgrip free hip circle through handstand III/6 A III/7 A 0,1 Endo piked with 1/1 t. thr. hdst. in mixt grip III/27 C 0,5 III/33 C 0,3 Back uprise to handstand with 1/2 turn I/6 A I/7 A Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn I/31 A I/37 A Giant swing fwd. I/11 A I/13 A Giant swing fwd. I/11 A I/13 A Pegan II/45 E 0,7 II/53 E 0,5 Giant swing bwd. I/26 A I/31 A Tkatchev piked Tkatchev strad. II/14 II/13 D C E 0,7 II/15 II/15 C C 0,1 C 0,3 Gienger II/58 C D 0,6 II/69 0,3 Endo strad. with 1/1 t. thr. hdst. in el-grip III/28 C 0,5 III/34 D 0,4 El-grip back uprise and hop to undr. IV/17 B 0,3 IV/20 B 0,2 Giant swing bwd. I/26 A I/31 A Zou Li Min I/28 C 0,5 I/27 C 0,3 Giant swing fwd. I/11 A I/13 A Endo piked with 1/1 t. thr. hdst. in el-grip III/40 E 0,7 III/34 D El-grip back uprise and hop to undr. IV/17 B IV/20 B Giant swing fwd. with 1/1 turn in double elgrip I/12 B 0,3 I/15 C 0,3 El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. IV/17 B IV/20 B Giant swing bwd. I/26 A I/31 A Giant swing bwd. I/26 A I/31 A Triple salto bwd. t. V/40 E 0,7 V/47 E 0,5 Exercise base value (max 2,8) 2,8 EGRF I-V (2,5 max) 2,5 Exercise execution (max 5) 5 Exercise execution 10 Special requirements (max 1) 1 CP 0,1 Bonus points (max 1,2) 1,2 Start value 10 15,8 Science of Gymnastics Journal 241 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Performed exercise at 2006 World Championship in Aarhus and sections of score structure (Gymnastics Results, 2006)_ 2006 Aarhus, Denmark 15.900/16.500_ 2. place From mixt grip free hip circle through handstand Endo strad. with 1/1 t. thr. hdst. in mixt grip Back uprise to handstand with 1/2 turn Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn Giant swing fwd. Giant swing fwd. Pegan Rybalko with 3/2 t. to double el-grip El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. Stalder strad. with hop 3/2 turn through hdst. in el-grip Back uprise to handstand with 1/2 turn Giant swing fwd. Stalder strad. with hop 3/2 turn through hdst. in el-grip El-grip back uprise and hop to undr. Giant swing fwd. Zou Li Min Endo strad. with 1/1 t. thr. hdst. in el-grip El-grip back uprise and hop to undr. Giant swing fwd. with 1/1 turn in double elgrip El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. Giant swing bwd. Giant swing bwd. Triple salto bwd. t. EGRF I-V (2,5 max) Exercise execution CP Code of Points 2006 Code of Points 2013 EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V III/7 A III/7 A III/33 C 0,3 III/33 C 0,3 I/7 A I/7 A I/37 A I/37 A I/13 A I/13 A I/13 A I/13 A II/53 I/64 E 0,2 D 0,5 0,4 II/53 I/64 E 0,1 D 0,5 0,4 IV/20 B 0,2 IV/20 B 0,2 III/41 D 0,4 III/41 D 0,4 I/7 A I/7 A I/13 A I/13 A III/41 E 0,5 III/41 E 0,5 IV/20 B IV/20 B I/13 A I/13 A I/27 C 0,3 I/27 C 0,3 III/34 D 0,4 III/34 D 0,4 IV/20 B IV/20 B I/15 C 0,3 I/15 C 0,3 IV/20 B IV/20 B I/31 A I/31 A I/31 A I/31 A V/47 E 0,5 V/47 E 0,5 2,5 2,5 10 10 0,2 0,1 Start value 16,5 16,4 Science of Gymnastics Journal 242 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Performed exercise at 2007 World Championship in Stuttgart and sections of score structure (Gymnastics Results, 2007)_ 2007 Stuttgart, Germany l5.825/l6.800 Code of Points 2006 Code of Points 2013 2. place EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V From mixt grip free hip circle through handstand III/7 A III/7 A Endo strad. with 1/1 t. thr. hdst. in el-grip III/34 D 0,4 III/34 D 0,4 El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. IV/20 B IV/20 B Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn I/37 A I/37 A Giant swing fwd. I/l3 A I/l3 A Giant swing fwd. I/l3 A I/l3 A Pegan Rybalko with 3/2 t. to double el-grip II/53 I/64 E D 0,2 0,5 0,4 II/53 I/64 E D 0,l 0,5 0,4 El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. IV/20 B IV/20 B Stalder strad. with hop 3/2 turn through hdst. in el-grip III/4l E 0,5 III/41 E 0,5 El-grip back uprise and hop to undr. IV/20 B IV/20 B Giant swing fwd. I/l3 A I/l3 A Stoop in shoot and 1/2 t. thr. hdst. in ovgr. IV/4 D 0,4 IV/4 D 0,4 Giant swing bwd. I/3l A I/3l A Stalder with hop 1/1 t. thr. hdst. in el-grip (change de rotation direction) III/40 D 0,4 III/40 D 0,4 El-grip back uprise and hop to undr. IV/20 B IV/20 B Giant swing fwd. I/l3 A I/l3 A Zou Li Min I/27 C 0,3 I/27 C 0,3 Weiler with 1/1 turn to double el-grip III/4 D 0,4 III/4 D 0,4 El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. IV/20 B IV/20 B Quast with 1/1 turn I/45 C 0,3 I/45 C 0,3 Giant swing bwd. I/3l A I/3l A Giant swing bwd. I/3l A I/3l A Triple salto bwd. t. V/47 E 0,5 V/47 E 0,5 EGRF I-V (2,5 max) 2,5 2,5 Exercise execution l0 l0 CP 0,2 0,l Start value l6,8 l6,7 Science of Gymnastics Journal 243 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Performed exercise at 2009 World Championship in London and sections of score structure (Gymnastics Results, 2009)_ 2009 London, United Kingdom 15.500/17.000 Code of Points 2006 Code of Points 2013 5. place EGR/CIN D CP V EGR/CIN D CP V From mixt grip free hip circle through handstand III/7 A III/7 A Endo strad. with 1/1 t. thr. hdst. in el-grip III/34 D 0,4 III/34 D 0,4 El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. IV/20 B IV/20 B Giant swing bwd. with 1/2 turn I/37 A I/37 A Giant swing fwd. I/13 A I/13 A Giant swing fwd. I/13 A I/13 A Pegan Rybalko with 3/2 t. to double el-grip II/53 I/64 E D 0,2 0,5 0,4 II/53 I/64 E D 0,1 0,5 0,4 El-grip back uprise and hop / t. to ovgr. IV/20 B IV/20 B Giant swing bwd. I/31 A I/31 A Stalder strad. with hop 3/2 turn through hdst. in el-grip III/41 E 0,5 III/41 E 0,5 Back uprise to handstand and hop to undr. I/l A I/l A Giant swing fwd. I/13 A I/13 A Stoop in shoot and 1/2 t. thr. hdst. in ovgr. Moznik strad. to mixt grip IV/4 II/17 D D 0,2 0,4 0,4 IV/4 II/17 D D 0,1 0,4 0,4 Back uprise to handstand and hop to undr. I/l A I/l A Giant swing fwd. with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. I/19 A I/19 A Stalder with hop 1/1 t. thr. hdst. in el-grip (change de rotation direction) III/40 D 0,4 III/40 D 0,4 El-grip back uprise and hop to undr. IV/20 B IV/20 B Giant swing fwd. I/13 A I/13 A Zou Li Min I/27 C 0,3 I/27 C 0,3 Giant swing fwd. with 1/2 t. thr. hdst. I/19 A I/19 A Quast with 1/1 turn I/45 C 0,3 I/45 C 0,3 Giant swing bwd. I/31 A I/31 A Giant swing bwd. I/31 A I/31 A Triple salto bwd. t. V/47 E 0,5 V/47 E 0,5 EGRF I-V (2,5 max) 2,5 2,5 Exercise execution 10 10 CP 0,4 0,2 Start value 17 16,8 DISCUSSION Every Code of Points that came into force had set new criteria to which gymnasts had to adapt. Aljaž managed to do that because of his wide spectrum of base knowledge. The base was built through years of training and a great number of repetitions of various elements he had to execute in compulsory exercises. Consequently, he could upgrade elements he had already known with an extra rotation or with a mixed or el-grip grips, thus executing elements and entire exercises with higher value. It can be seen through exercises how he upgraded his elements e.g. Endo was first executed with turn and later with 1/1 turn, a similar connection is seen with Stalder. With this kind of changes and his elegant execution, Aljaž managed to remain one of the top competitors in the world men's artistic gymnastics. When comparing exercises with difficulty values, with the Code of Points in 2013, they suffer since it became forbidden to count the same element (same Code Identification Number) in the exercise more than once. Therefore, some elements were excluded when making a theoretical comparison. Code identification number is an important factor in this rule Science of Gymnastics Journal 244 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 because many forms of the same element e.g. Endo stradled and piked, became combined under the same code identification number. Further examples are elements that end in mixt or over - grip. All in all, when making a theoretical comparison to the Code of Points 2013, an exercise loses some points. Another aspect that changed in Aljaz's exercises was their length which was primarily due to giant swings forward and backwards. Those giant swings were designed as a preparation for an element of high value. In spite of the length of an exercise only ten elements were taken into account when calculating the value of an exercise. When composing an exercise a gymnast must consider which elements and in what order the elements will be connected. In the Codes of Points 19892001 a starting value of an exercise was limited to 10 points. Each exercise was composed from four sections. One of them - base value dictated how many points a gymnast may achieve as a combined value of ten elements. If the value of elements exceeded an upper limit of points dedicated to the section a gymnast achieved a maximum number of points and the expedience of points was not relevant. According to the Code of Points 2006 a gymnast exercise is no longer limited with an upper limit, but is rather open and solely a consequence of the sum of the elements in the exercise and the connections between them. exercise base Men'se special bonus polrts value ( illi.tir i :|ui n Figure 3. Score structure through Code of Points 1989-2001. Figure 3 shows four sections of the score structure and how points dedicated for each section varied between these sections through the Code of Points 19892001. Each element described in the Code of Points has a predetermined value. A set of discrete values that the element can obtain is characteristic of each individual Code of Points and thus the values vary through the years. After the 2006 values were stabilized, however before that, values sway in both directions, sometimes unreasonably so. Figure 4. Value of value parts through Code of Points 1993-2006. Figure 4 shows values of value parts through the period of the Code of Points 1993 to 2006-2012. The curve of the Code of Points 2006-2012 is overlapping with the curve of the Code of Points 1997 at value parts C and D, and curve of the Code of Points 1993 overlaps both pervious Codes of Points at value part B. In all Codes of Points the value part A has the value of 0.1 point. On the basis of an exercise start value and the score achieved, a percentage was calculated. The percentage shows to what extent Aljaž had achieved an exercise start value. Aljaž was one of the most elegant gymnasts on the horizontal bar so there is little surprise that the percentages are high (above 84%). Furthermore, the chart also shows that he executed exercises with great reliability. Science of Gymnastics Journal 245 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 17AT0 1/JID - 13Ï1 1592 Sïi 19W 19ft 1396 1999 ¿UU1 ZUUi ffltU 3JÄ HW 3X3 -Start mí œ -KattewrniMtofsörtrtlK Figure 5. Starting values and percentage of achieved score for World Championships 1991-2009 Figure 5 shows exercise start values and percentage which was calculated on the basis of exercise start value and achieved score. The following graph shows a received score and an achieved place at each World Championship. Achieved places and received scores are also displayed in the charts for each World Championship. Figure 6. Achieved scores at World Championships 1991-2009 and ranks Figure 6 shows final scores Aljaž received at each World Championship. The curve jumps after the year of 2005 because after that the new Code of Points was in force. The next graph shows how small the differences are in gymnastics. The comparison of a winner and Aljaž shows how little difference is between them. It is safe to assume that reliability and elegance of execution was one of the key factors for winning medals until the Code of Points 2006. After which a gymnast who could execute harder exercises had an enormous advantage compared to other gymnasts. An additional important factor in the new Code of Points is the starting value of an exercise and a difference between the starting value and final score shows which gymnast had executed his exercise with a minimum number of errors. However, this factor is not presented in the graph. 1391 Wi ISäJ m-j m> 1399 Mtl MU ¿MJJ axb m> m; ÎÛOi -Ajalfcçn tJJtll ™ M.AÏI f/M] 1NÎ/ 1/ÍM »MM Ott? 1S.9ÍD ivsai -WltïCT 9.787 1862 9.450 1687 9.812 1800 1752 3.737 9.725 1775 9.652 15.12516250 16.150 Figure 7. Comparison of Aljažs' score and the winners at World Championships 1991-2009 Figure 7 shows final scores of Aljaž Pegan and the winner at each world championship. The curve jumps after the year of 2005 because after that the new Code of Points was in force. The next graph shows how Aljažs' difficulty value of his exercises changed through the years. Difficulty values of exercises are taken from exercises theoretical comparison to the Code of Points 2013. Figure 8. Development of an exercises D value compared to the Code of Points 2013. Science of Gymnastics Journal 246 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Figure 8 shows how his difficulty value is consistent when the closed Code of Points was in force and with the new open Code of Points after 2006 his difficulty value increases in a shape of parabola, which is a typical curve of progress. The following chart shows the percentage of Aljaž final ranking in the 144 international competitions (FIG, UEG) between 1991 - 2013. The percentages up to the 8th place are shown separately, since this is the limit for gymnasts to compete in the final on each apparatus. For a better overview places between 9 and 95 are put together. Figure 9. Percentage of achieved ranks at official FIG and UEG international competitions CONCLUSION The purpose of this case report was the presentation of exercises Aljaž Pegan had performed at the fourteen World Championships he had attended in his career. This case report also includes the breakdowns of seven Codes of Points for the horizontal bar through 1989-2013. Through breakdowns of each exercise the development of exercises in relation to the changes in the Codes of Points can be seen. At the beginning exercises had more flight elements which made the exercise more attractive. With the development of the Code of Points and its focus on high value elements Aljaž had to upgrade his exercises with extra turns and el-grips or atypical grips. Due to these changes he managed to stay in the world summit through his entire career. An overall review of Aljaz's 33 year long career shows that he competed in a senior category for more than 22 years. He performed at over a hundred international competitions, most of them were World Cups, and in many he ranked among the top three. Though he took part in various competitions including World Championships, World Cups, European Championships, Mediterranean Games, he never got an opportunity to perform at the Olympic Games. His greatest success is becoming the world champion in 2005, in Melbourne, Australia. When collecting data from several years ago there was a problem collecting accurate data and the main reason is that no one is keeping reference. Our opinion and recommendation is that clubs and coaches make documentation for each individual gymnast, such as exercises, videos of exercises, mark important dates for gymnast career or execution of an element for the first time. Also save any periodization plan and training plans. Mark any exchange cooperation with foreign coaches and training under different conditions. Such documentation is necessary to show gymnast results were planned and to make a collection of data which is necessary for writing case reports like this one. Authors of similar research should pay attention of collecting accurate data and make an effort of talking with anyone who might shed a light on a subject they are researching. REFERENCES Aljaz Pegan makes first Olympic appearance at age 40. (17.8.2014). Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique. 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Ljubljana: Gimnastična zveza Slovenije. FIG (1997). Pravilnik za ocenjevanje MŠG. Ljubljana: Gimnastična zveza Slovenije. FIG (2001). Pravilnik za ocenjevanje MŠG. Ljubljana: Gimnastična zveza Slovenije. FIG (2006). Code of Points MAG. Lausanne: Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique. FIG (2009). Code of Points MAG. Lausanne: Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique. FIG (2013). Code of Points MAG. Lausanne: Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique. Geiblinger, H., Dowden, T. (2015). Considerations for controlled competition landings in gymnastics: aggregated opinions of experts. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 7(3), 47-58. Gymn (11. 2. 2004). 1993 World Championships. Retrieved from http://www.gymn- forum.net/Results/Worlds/Men/1993 preli ms.htm Gymnastics Results (24. 4. 1994). 30th World Championships. Retrieved from http://www.gymnasticsresults.com/90/w19 94m.html#pb Gymnastics Results (6. 10. 1995). 31st World Championships. 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Retrieved from http://www.gymnasticsresults.com/2006/w 2006m.html#hb Gymnastics Results (9. 9. 2007). 40th World Championships. Retrieved from http://www.gymnasticsresults.com/2007/w orldm.html#hb Gymnastics Results (18. 10. 2008). 41st World Championships. Retrieved from http://www.gymnasticsresults.com/worlds/ 2009/magef2.html Nakasone, M. (2015). Elements development on horizontal bar in Men's artistic gymnastics in Japan literature. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 7(3), 95106. Novak, D. in Čuk, I. (1985). Razvoj tekmovalnega rezultata v športni gimnastiki (Raziskovalno poročilo). Science of Gymnastics Journal 248 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Ljubljana: Inštitut za telesno kulturo, Fakultete za telesno kulturo. Olympic Games scandals and controversies (2014). Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Gam es scandals and controversies#2004 Sum mer_Olympics Corresponding author: Andrej Kunčič Faculty of Sport University of Ljubljana Gortanova 22 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia e-mail: akuncic@gmail.com Science of Gymnastics Journal 249 Science of Gymnastics Journal Kunčič A., Mešl J.: ALJAŽ PEGAN GYMNASTICS RESULTS DEVELOPMENT .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 225 - 249 Science of Gymnastics Journal 250 Science of Gymnastics Journal Atikovic A., Delas Kalinski S., Cuk I.: AGE TRENDS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS ... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 251 - 263 AGE TRENDS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTIC ACROSS WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS AND THE OLYMPIC GAMES FROM 2003 TO 2016 Almir Atikovic1, Suncica Delas Kalinski2, Ivan Cuk3 faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina 2Faculty of kinesiology, University of Split, Croatia 3Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia _Original article Abstract The aim of research was to analysis development and age structure of male and female participants at the Olympic Games (OG) and World Championships (WC) from 2003 until 2016. The total number of analyzed WC participants in men's artistic gymnastics (MAG) was 2678 and the women's artistic gymnastics (WAG) was 1981; while at the OG in MAG 391 and in WAG 389. In the last 15 years, there has been identified linear and second-order polynomial-regression increase in the age structure of participants in MAG and WAG in the largest world competitions. In analyzed period of time, MAG and WAG age of gymnasts increased. The male gymnasts from 2003 to 2016 are on average older for 2.3 years and female gymnasts for 3.3 years. In the upcoming period, we do expect (with apparatus specialization) that age will rise. Keywords: artistic gymnastics, Code of Points, development, men, women. INTRODUCTION Chronological age refers to the number of years and days elapsed since birth. Success in gymnastics is the result of many years of extensive planning and preparation by coaches, clubs, parents and other supporting partners. Long term development applies to all levels of participants and in all gymnastics disciplines. Scientific research (Drabik, 1996; Rost & Schon, 1997, Hofmann, 1999; Bompa, 1999, Arkaev & Suchilin, 2004; Balyi et al., 2005; Malina, 2010; Fink & Hofmann, 2015; Fink, Hofmann, & Ortiz Lopez, 2015) has concluded that it takes a minimum of ten years, 10,000 hours of deliberate training for a talented athlete to reach elite levels. This translates into an average of more than 3 hours of training daily for 10 years. There are no shortcuts; athlete development is a long term process. Artistic Gymnastics in the 1950s and 1960s, the senior competition was dominated by athletes in their mid-to-late twenties. At the time, the "Code of Points" aimed more on artistry and was largely inspired by ballet. As a result, more seasoned gymnasts found success in the sport by bringing elegance to their routines. Up until 1981 the minimum age Science of Gymnastics Journal 251 Science of Gymnastics Journal Atikovic A., Delas Kalinski S., Cuk I.: AGE TRENDS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS ... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 251 - 263 for participating in senior competitions was 14 years of age. In 1981, gymnasts were required to turn at least 15 years of age in the calendar year to compete in senior-level events. Since 1997, the Fédération Internatio-nale de Gymnastique, the gymnasts had to be at least 16 years old or to be turning 16 within the calendar year in order to take part in the competition as seniors. The age limit for participation at a world championship has been moved up. Today, the limit sits at 18 for MAG and 16 for the WAG (Sands et al., 2012; Grossfeld, 2014; FIG Technical Regulations 2017, Art. 5.2. Pg. 37). However, the age limitations were introduced to gymnastics for: physiological reasons, protecting children from harmful exposure, time training, early growth, growth of body segments, pubertal growth and maturation, sex characteristics, menarche, nutritional status, weight-for-height, gymnastics training environment, familial factors. There is also the concern that imposed training limits could lead to more injuries (Anderson, 1997; Paul, 2010, Sands et al., 2012). Research on age in timeline from 1964 until 1980 were conducted by Rozin & Ceburaev (1981) and showed age of top male gymnasts at the Olympic Games [OG1964, (M=25.6, SD=2.9); OG1968, (m=24.2, SD 3.4); OG1972, (M=24.6, SD=2.8); OG1976 (M=23.3, SD=4.0); 0G1980, (M=23.2, SD=3.1)]. Minimum age for MAG participants was 13.0 years at the WC1987 and rose to 16.0 years at the 1997 WC. The age of men have since increased: 16.5 (WC1987), 17.4 (WC1997), 18.0 (0G2000), and 18.8 (0G2008) years (Malina et al., 2013). The demands of the Olympic gymnastics have continued to escalate, and currently, a light, powerful, and usually, petite athlete is optimal (Arkaev & Suchilin, 2004). Authors (Sands et al., 2012) state in the conclusion, that the US Women Olympic gymnasts were getting approximately smaller through the 1980s and early 1990s. Since then, the size of these gymnasts has increased. The minimum age rule modifications may have played a role in the athlete size changes along with a shift from the near dominance of the former communist Eastern Bloc (Sands et al., 2012). In this research (Andreev, 2015) try to analyze different age aspects of 143 elite male gymnasts, Olympic medal holders for the time period 1960 - 2012. The average starting age to practice artistic male gymnastics is dropping more than 50% 14 to 6.2 from the beginning to the end of the researching time period 1960-2012. The average retirement age also has a trend of decreasing from the age of 36 to 26.4 or nearly 10 years. The average Olympic medal age is rejuvenating from 27 in Rome'60 to the age of 23.3 in London'12 and the "golden" age to earn the Olympic medal in male artistic gymnastics is 24. The rings are the "oldest" apparatus with an average age of 25.1 for medallists and the floor exercise is the "youngest"- 23. Atikovic, Delaš Kalinski and Smajlovic (2017) in this study it was investigate the historical analysis of the chronological age trend of all participants of men's artistic gymnastics who have won medals in the period between 1896 and 2016 has been made. The oldest gymnasts are on the Rings with an average age on (OG: M = 26.48, SD = 3.85) and (WC: M = 40.23, SD = 3.50) years old, and the youngest in the same are contestants (OG: Floor = 23.09, SD = 3.88) and (WC: M = 7.86 SD = 4.02). The results of independent t test were significant difference between OG and WC on Pommel horse (PH), Rings (RI), Paralell bars (PB), All-around individual (AAI) first place and Paralell bars (PB) first place. Since artistic gymnastics becomes each Olympic cycle over more demanding in terms of complexity and difficulty value of the elements, it is expected fact that gymnasts and coaches need more time to acquire stability, experience and safety Science of Gymnastics Journal 252 Science of Gymnastics Journal Atikovic A., Delas Kalinski S., Cuk I.: AGE TRENDS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS ... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 251 - 263 when performing such complex exercises. According to the first FIG CoP 1964 to the present, the MAG and WAG has already gone through 14 versions or cycles CoP. Atikovic (2014) emphasizes that the changes in the regulation of men's and women's artistic gymnastics occur from one cycle to another by changes in evaluation of difficulty value (DV) from cycle to cycle: 1956-1976: A-C; 1979: A-Cr; 1985-1989: A-D; 1992: A-E, 1996-7: A-E, 2001: A-super E; 2006: male: A- F, female: A-G; 2009: A-G, 2013 male: A-G, female: A-H. Every element was awarded a specific difficulty rating, ranging from A (easiest) to I (hardest) in the table of elements. Gymnast earned bonus points by performing difficult skills alone or in combination (FIG, 2017a,b). The increased complexity of CoP, in terms of difficulty value and increased number of deductions, require gymnast's longer competitive internship, in order to be successful in the gymnastics community. Some gymnasts and gymnasts such as Oksana Chusovitina and Yordan Yovchev, succeeded the age of 40 to be ranked high in major competitions. Oksana Chusovitina competed at her seventh Olympics in year 2016, another record, at the age of 41. Bulgaria's Yordan Yovchev (39 years old) became the first male gymnast to ever compete in six OG. The aim of this research is to analyze different age aspects of male and female participants at the Olympic Games and World Championships from 2003 until 2016, and to determine the differences in the age structures between particular competitions and disciplines in male and female artistic gymnastics. The studies concerning different age aspects among elite athletes sports longevity in seniors gymnastics. METHODS All the participants in MAG are presented in the following competitions: WC2003, N=318; WC2005, N=177; WC2006, N=278; WC2007, N=253; WC2009, N=243; WC2010, N=299; WC2011, N=262; WC2013, N=261; WC2014, N=311; WC2015, N=276; and in WAG: WC2003, N=224; WC2005, N=95; WC2006, N=223; WC2007, N=214; WC2009, N=146; WC2010, N=218; WC2011, N=216; WC2013, N=134; WC2014, N=250; WC2015, N=261. The sample of the examinees also included all the participants in MAG in the following competitions: 0G2004, N=98; 0G2008, N=98; 0G2012, N=98; 0G2016, N=97; and in WAG: 0G2004, N=98; OG 2008, N=97; 0G2012, N=96; 0G2016, N=98. The total number of analyzed WC participants in MAG amounted to N=2678 and the WAG was N=1981; while at the OG with MAG N=391 and the WAG N=389. We have made historical analysis of the chronological age trend from the official book results of the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) of all male and female participants in men's artistic gymnastics and women's artistic gymnastics for the period of 2003 to 2016. The intent was to collect current data of female and male gymnasts from recent years. All data for this study was obtained from the Longines ranking website and official websites of the OG results Longines Official Results Books 2003 -2016 http://www.longinestiming.com/#!/gymnas tics/ (Accessed 1 Sep 2016) & Official Website of the Olympic Games Results 2004-2016 https://www.olympic.org/olympic-results (Accessed 1 Sep 2016). These two web pages record all gymnastics results according to events, such as WC and OG. We started collecting data from the WC2003 and ended with the OG2016, because previous data was not available for analysis or it was not complete. The following variables were included: date of birth, qualification date of the OG, qualification date of the WC. Science of Gymnastics Journal 253 Science of Gymnastics Journal Atikovic A., Delas Kalinski S., Cuk I.: AGE TRENDS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS ... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 251 - 263 Data processing in this research and the application of the statistically mathematical procedures were conducted in the program package of Microsoft Office Excel 2013 and SPSS 23.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). For calculating the chronological age the following formulas from the Microsoft Office Excel 2013 package were used. For the total number of days of one's age since the date of birth until the first day of the competition qualifications: Calculation formula = DATEDIF (A1; B1; "d") (1) For the total number of years of one's age since the date of birth until the first day of the competition qualifications: Calculation formula = DATEDIF (days x 0.0027397260273973 years) (2) For the total number of years, months and days since the date of birth until the first day of the competition qualifications: Calculation formula = DATEDIF (A1; B1; "Y") & "years", &DATEDIF (A1; B1; "YM")&" months, "&DATEDIF (A1; B1; "MD") &" days" (3) Descriptive statistics for all variables were used. Linear regression methods and second-order polynomial equations were used to determine the best fit for the time series. Several time-series analysis methods were calculated and fitted to the historical data, along with the resulting regression equations and R2 values using Microsoft Excel 2013. The best model fit for the historical data was determined by the highest R2 value. An independent sample t test was calculated to determinate if whether there is a difference between the chronological age of the all participants of the Olympic Games 2004-2016 and World Championships 2003-2015. Differences in the mean values are treated as statistically significant when the calculated p value was lower than 0.05. RESULTS Table 1-2 shows the descriptive information about WC and OG, number of athletes, the year when the competition was held, median value, standard deviations, individually for each of the disciplines. The results in Table 4 of independent t test were significant; t test (592) = 4.17, p = .00, indicates that there are significant differences between MAG WC03 (22.94±3.42, n = 318) and the scores at the MAG WC15 (24.25±4.17, n = 276). The results in Table 4 of independent t test were significant; t test (483) = 7.92, p = .00, indicating that there are significant differences between WAG WC03 (17.49±2.32, n = 224) and the scores at the WAG WC15 (19.59±3.33, n = 261). The results in Table 4 of independent t test were significant, t test (194) = 3.91, p = .00, indicating that there are significant differences between WAG OG04 (18.73±2.85, n = 98) and the scores at the WAG OG16 (20.79±4.36, n = 98). The results in Table 4 of independent t test were significant, t test (130) = -2.68, p = .00, indicating that there are significant differences between WAG TEAM04 (18.33±2.50, n = 72) and the scores from WAG TEAM016 (19.70±3.34, n = 60). Science of Gymnastics Journal 254 Science of Gymnastics Journal Atikovic A., Delas Kalinski S., Cuk I.: AGE TRENDS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS Vol. 9 Issue 3: 251 - 263 Table 1 Age (years) of the competitors (Mean ± SD) at the World Championships from 2003 to 2015. Men Year 2003 2005 2006 2007 2009 2010 2011 2013 2014 2015 Events N 318 177 278 253 243 299 262 261 311 276 FX 22.68±3.35 22.61±3.46 22.81±3.80 23.26±4.00 22.63±3.13 23.12±4.06 23.73±3.91 22.93±3.57 22.90±3.35 23.89±3.93 PH 22.97±3.44 24.51±3.20 23.14±3.84 23.51±4.07 22.78±3.24 23.33±4.09 23.75±3.85 23.18±3.87 23.16±3.63 24.13±4.18 RI 22.93±3.43 23.62±3.85 23.07±3.96 23.63±3.99 22.93±3.63 23.44±4.17 23.89±4.05 22.79±3.69 23.05±3.42 23.86±4.03 VT 22.84±3.44 22.80±3.55 22.91±3.86 23.23±4.01 22.77±3.45 23.27±3.92 23.89±4.02 22.63±3.48 22.06±3.55 23.99±4.07 PB 22.92±3.42 23.56±3.78 22.95±3.92 23.69±4.16 22.84±3.47 23.37±4.23 23.81±4.02 23.06±3.97 23.04±3.57 24.03±4.13 HB 22.88±3.42 23.34±3.77 22.94±3.88 23.55±4.11 23.19±3.70 23.34±4.16 23.90±3.94 23.17±3.75 23.10±3.59 24.04±4.11 ALL MAG 22.94±3.42 23.63±3.69 22.99±3.94 23.51±4.16 23.30±3.67 23.54±4.19 23.95±3.99 23.82±3.89 23.23±3.67 24.25±4.17 N 224 95 223 214 146 218 216 134 250 261 VT 17.55±2.34 18.76±2.51 18.48±2.56 18.00±2.80 18.37±2.23 18.42±2.62 19.12±3.03 19.41±3.43 19.36±3.15 19.58±3.22 UB 17.57±2.37 18.67±2.61 18.50±2.53 17.90±2.73 18.57±2.42 18.38±2.37 18.96±2.78 19.23±2.93 19.29±3.07 19.66±3.35 BB 17.60±2.39 18.82±2.66 18.40±2.51 18.00±2.82 18.54±2.37 18.49±2.59 19.03±2.90 19.16±2.87 19.31±3.14 19.62±3.35 FX 17.52±2.35 18.78±2.30 18.40±2.52 17.93±2.88 18.44±2.28 18.23±2.29 19.03±2.90 19.09±2.80 19.08±2.96 19.54±3.31 ALL WAG 17.49±2.32 18.72±2.66 18.37±2.45 17.88±2.78 18.59±2.38 18.47±2.60 19.01±2.97 19.44±3.39 19.23±3.07 19.59±3.33 Women Abbreviations: N, Number of participants; M, Mean; SD, Standard deviation; FX, Floor; PH, Pommel horse; RI, Rings; VT, Vault; PB, Parallel bars; HB, High bar; UB, Uneven bars; BB, Balance beam; ALL MAG, All men competitors; ALL WAG, All female competitors. Science of Gymnastics Journal 255 Science of Gymnastics Journal Atikovic A., Delas Kalinski S., Cuk I.: AGE TRENDS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS ... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 251 - 263 Table 2 Age (years) of the competitors (Mean ± SD) at the Olympic Games from 2004 to 2016. Men Women Years 2004 2008 2012 2016 Events N 98 98 98 97 FX 24.13±3.17 24.39±3.1 24.32±3.70 24.58±3.62 PH 24.51±3.20 24.63±3.18 24.60±3.58 24.49±3.50 RI 24.59±3.21 24.57±3.36 24.56±4.00 24.51±3.44 VT 24.21±3.12 24.55±3.27 24.23±3.89 24.69±3.61 PB 24.44±3.22 25.05±3.50 24.70±3.83 24.51±3.42 HB 24.36±3.04 24.74±3.25 24.64±3.69 24.76±3.88 ALL MAG 24.61±3.25 25.06±3.49 24.97±4.09 25.24±3.87 N TEAM 72 72 60 60 TEAM 24.35±3.26 24.95±3.19 24.06±3.70 25.11±3.46 N 98 97 96 98 VT 18.61±2.80 18.98±3.05 20.41±3.75 20.41±4.12 UB 18.72±2.65 18.88±2.94 20.22±3.43 20.32±3.37 BB 18.59±2.54 18.89±3.25 20.31±3.59 20.92±4.46 FX 18.50±2.52 18.98±3.09 20.29±3.36 20.49±3.78 ALL WAG 18.73±2.85 19.01±3.03 20.43±3.65 20.79±4.36 N TEAM 72 72 60 60 TEAM 18.33±2.50 18.92±3.24 19.69±3.85 19.70±3.34 Abbreviations: N, Number of participants; N TEAM, Number of team participants; M, Mean; SD, Standard deviation; FX, Floor; PH, Pommel horse; RI, Rings; VT, Vault; PB, Parallel bars; HB, High bar; UB, Uneven bars; BB, Balance beam; ALL MAG, All men competitors; ALL WAG, All female competitors. Table 3 Linear and Second-Order Polynomial-Regression Equations for Individual Athlete Data on Each Variable With the World Championships and Olympic Games Year. Variable Age (yrs) Linear equation r2 Second-order polynomial equation r2 MAG 2003-2016 y=0.071x+23.402 0.146 y=0.0058x2-0.016x+23.634 0.158 WAG 2003-2016 y=0.1696x+17.715 0.628 y=0.0083x2-0.0449x+18.048 0.647 MAG OG 2004-2016 y=0.1386x+24.277 0.129 y=-0.1151x2-0.4371x+24.853 0.200 WAG OG 2004-2016 y=0.4872x+17.946 0.903 y=-0.1448x2-1.2114x+17.222 0.967 Abbreviations: MAG 2003-2016, Men's artistic gymnastics results; WAG 2003-2016, Women's artistic gymnastics results; MAG OG 2004-2016, Men's artistic gymnastics results Olympic Games; WAG OG 20042016, Women's artistic gymnastics results Olympic Games. Table 4 Independent t-test for Equality of Means. Event N Mean±SD N Mean±SD t df p MAG WC03-WC15 318 22.94±3.42 276 24.25±4.17 4.17 592 0.000* MAG 0G04-0G16 98 24.61±3.25 97 25.24±3.87 -1.23 193 0.218 WAG WC03-WC15 224 17.49±2.32 261 19.59±3.33 7.92 483 0.000* WAG 0G04-0G16 98 18.73±2.85 98 20.79±4.36 3.91 194 0.000* MAG TEAM04-16 72 24.35±3.26 60 25.11±3.46 -1.29 130 0.197 WAG TEAM04-16 72 18.33±2.50 60 19.70±3.34 -2.68 130 0.008* Abbreviations: N, Number of Participants; M, Mean; SD, Standard deviation; t = t test value, df = Degrees of Freedom, *p, indicates a statistically significant difference at p<0.05; MAG, men's artistic gymnastic; WAG, women's artistic gymnastics; WC, World Championship; OG, Olympic Games. Science of Gymnastics Journal 256 Science of Gymnastics Journal Atikovic A., Delas Kalinski S., Cuk I.: AGE TRENDS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS ... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 251 - 263 Figures 1 through 3 show the age of the competitors and teams (Mean ± SD) at the WC and OG 2003-2016. Figures 1 through 3 also show the linear fit curves. 25,50 ^24,00 a> 22,50 FX —PH RI VT PB HB ALL — -Linear (ALL) 402 R2 = 0,146 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 20 14 2015 2016 Years Abbreviations: p, statistically significant difference at p<0.05; FX, Floor; PH, Pommel horse; RI, Rings; VT, Vault; PB, Parallel bars; HB, High bar; ALL, All men competitors; ALL Linear, Linear regression. Figure 1. Trending ages of men's artistic gymnastics gymnasts from 2003 to 2016. 21,00 20,50 20,00 19,50 S 19,00 M 18,50 < 18,00 17,50 17,00 VT — UB - BB FX —ALL --Linear (ALL) p < 0.00 y = 0,1696x + 17,715 R2 = 0,62 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Years Abbreviations: p, statistically significant difference at p<0.05; VT, Vault; UB, Uneven bars; BB, Balance beam; FX, Floor; ALL, All women competitors; ALL Linear, Linear regression. Figure 2. Trending ages of women's artistic gymnastics gymnasts from 2003 to 2016. Science of Gymnastics Journal 257 Science of Gymnastics Journal Atikovic A., Delas Kalinski S., Cuk I.: AGE TRENDS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS ... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 251 - 263 26 25 24 ^23 es n aj -— 0.05). The independent t-test was also used to compare participants in terms of their rounded-shoulder abnormality (Table 1). Table 2 presents the results of the YBT-UQ for both the dominant and nondominant limbs by group. According to the results, the highest reach was achieved in both groups in the medial, lower-side and upper-side directions and these values were slightly higher in the non-dominant compared to the dominant limbs. The paired t-test was used to compare participants' dominant and non-dominant arms and the results showed no significant differences between the dominant and nondominant arms in either group (P>0.05); however, the independent t-test showed a significant difference between the two groups in the YBT-UQ results (P<0.05). The results are presented in Tables 3 and 4. Science of Gymnastics Journal 283 Science of Gymnastics Journal Beyranvand R., Mirnasouri R., Mollahoseini S., Mostofi S-: THE FUNCTIONAL STABILITY .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 279 - 290 Table 1 Participants' demographic details (mean ± SD). Variable Healthy group Rounded-shoulder group P Value Age (year) Height (cm) Weight (kg) BMI (kg/m2) Round-shoulder (degree) 10/47±1/12 137/60± 6/76 41/53± 4/20 21/90± 0/87 75/33± 2/16 10/27±0/96 141/66± 9/15 43/86± 6/05 21/76± 1/01 57/93± 1/79 0/605 0/178 0/231 0/700 0/001* Table 2 The YBT-UQ results for upper limb length in percentage (mean ± SD). Healthy group Rounded-shoulder group Direction dominant arms non-dominant arms dominant arms nondominant arms Medial lower-side upper-side Combined 94/73±2/40 85/07± 2/52 71/60± 3/29 83/80± 2/52 95/27±2/57 85/73± 3/73 72/13± 3/11 84/37± 2/49 92/13±3/42 82/80± 3/36 68/53± 4/05 81/15± 3/54 92/67±2/49 83/13± 3/09 69/07± 3/63 81/62± 2/32 Table 3 A comparison of the balance scores obtained for the dominant and non-dominant arms using the paired t-test (mean ± SD). sp o 50 Sy 13 (U E -a T3 c o a o 50 i-H T3 3 o Direction t df P Value Medial -1/331 14 0/205 lower-side -0/665 14 0/517 upper-side -0/816 14 0/428 Combined -1/136 14 0/275 Medial -0/900 14 0/383 lower-side -0/365 14 0/721 upper-side -0/913 14 0/377 Combined -0/847 14 0/411 Science of Gymnastics Journal 284 Science of Gymnastics Journal Beyranvand R., Mirnasouri R., Mollahoseini S., Mostofi S-: THE FUNCTIONAL STABILITY .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 279 - 290 Table 4 Comparison of the balance scores obtained for the healthy and rounded-shoulder groups using the independent t-test (mean ± SD. Direction t df P Value Medial 2/409 28 0/023* Ö cö C M £ lower-side 2/089 28 0/046* S o CÖ upper-side 2/276 28 0/031* 'O Combined 2/354 28 0/026* c cö Medial 2/806 28 0/009* C S M S lower-side 2/078 28 0/047* "V cö upper-side 2/482 28 0/019* Ö o c Combined 3/129 28 0/004* DISCUSSION The present study was conducted to assess and compare the functional stability of the upper limbs between a healthy and a rounded-shoulder group of gymnasts using the YBT-UQ. The results showed that the highest reach scores obtained were in the medial direction in both groups, followed by the lower-side and the upper-side directions. These results are somewhat consistent with the results of previous studies; for instance, Westrick et al. (2012) reported the highest reach scores in the YBT-UQ in the medial, lower-side and upper-side directions (Westrick et al., 2012). In another study on the functional stability of the upper limbs in healthy volleyball players and those with anterior instability of the shoulder joint, Zandi et al. (2015) also reported the highest reach score in the medial direction in both groups, followed by the lower-side and upper-side directions (Zandi et al., 2016). Gorman et al. (2012) and Amasay et al. (2016) obtained similar findings (Amasay et al., 2016; Gorman et al., 2012). These findings can potentially be attributed to the positioning of the free hand in relation to the directions of reach when performing the test, since getting the highest reach score in the medial direction seems obvious, considering the position of the free hand in relation to the three directions and also given the lower-side and upper-side directions being in front of the free hand (Zandi et al., 2016). When reaching in the lower-side direction, the participants are somewhat able to boost their reach scores by rotating their body; in the upper-side direction, however, where the free hand is at a greater distance of the reach direction, the participant is unable to compensate for this distance using his body rotation and therefore gets lower reach scores in the upper-side direction compared to other directions (Zandi et al., 2016). The findings also revealed higher reach scores for the non-dominant limbs compared to the dominant limbs in all three directions; however, Table 3 shows no significant differences between the reach scores obtained for the dominant and non-dominant limbs in the healthy and rounded-shoulder groups (P>0.05). These results are consistent with the majority of previous findings on the functional stability of the dominant and non-dominant upper limbs (Butler et al., 2014; Gorman et al., 2012; Lite et al., 2013; Westrick et al., 2012). For instance, Westrick et al. (2012) Science of Gymnastics Journal 285 Science of Gymnastics Journal Beyranvand R., Mirnasouri R., Mollahoseini S., Mostofi S-: THE FUNCTIONAL STABILITY .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 279 - 290 reported no significant differences between participants' YBT-UQ scores in the dominant and non-dominant limbs (Westrick et al., 2012). Gorman et al. (2012) also obtained similar results(Gorman et al., 2012). Nonetheless, some studies have reported disparate findings; for instance, Wilson et al. (2013) compared YBT-UQ results in water polo players and reported a significant difference between the reach scores obtained in the upper-side direction for the dominant and non-dominant limbs and attributed this difference to the stabilizing function of the non-dominant limbs in water polo players and argued that, since the supporting hand has a very similar role in the upper-side direction to the role of the non-dominant hand in stabilizing the body when passing and shooting in water polo, participants' are significantly more competent when performing the YBT-UQ using their non-dominant hand compared to the dominant hand in the upper-side direction, hence the significant difference between the reach scores of the limbs in the noted direction(Wilson et al., 2013). This stabilizing role is not observed in gymnastics movements and the dominant and non-dominant hands appear to be equally involved in gymnastics movements, which could be one of the reasons for the lack of a significant difference between the scores obtained for the different limbs in the present study. In another study, Zandi et al. (2015) also found a significant difference in the YBT-UQ scores between the dominant and nondominant limbs (Zandi et al., 2016). The difference in the results between this and the present study can be explained by noting the difference in participants' characteristics; in Zandi's study, the participants had anterior instability of the shoulder joint in one of their limbs and it is only normal that this asymmetry in the characteristics of the limbs should cause a difference in the functional stability of the shoulders and thereby a difference between the reach scores obtained in the YBT-UQ (Zandi et al., 2016). In the present study, however, participants' dominant and nondominant limbs were symmetrical. An inefficient sensory-motor system and the proprioception of the pectoral girdle are also likely to occur as a result of shoulder instability and can be considered another reason for the functional instability observed in the shoulders and the reduced reach scores obtained in the YBT-UQ in Zandi's study (Lephart et al., 1994; Myers et al., 2006). Overall, in line with the results of most studies discussed (Butler et al., 2014; Gorman et al., 2012; Lite et al., 2013; Westrick et al., 2012), the present findings also suggest that, despite the little evidence on the greater tendency to use the non-dominant limbs for creating functional stability, the difference observed is negligible and cannot cause a significant difference in the results of the YBT-UQ, in which the reach mainly takes place in the mid-range of the shoulder movement. As for the effect of rounded shoulders on upper limb movement in closed kinetic chains, the present study showed that this abnormality can significantly affect the YBT-UQ results and reduce the extension of the reach in all three directions. Studies have reported that rounded shoulders associated with static scapular position in the horizontal plane can restrict normal upward rotation, posterior sliding and the outward rotation of the scapula by changing the length and tension of the muscles surrounding the shoulder joint when moving the arms (Borstad, 2006) and ultimately expose the individual to injuries in this part of the body by reducing the functional stability of the upper limbs. As discussed earlier, this issue is significantly more important in gymnasts, because, unlike other fields of sports, the upper limbs are used extensively for weight-bearing and closed chain movements in gymnastics, making this part of the body the second most-exposed to injuries(Webb and Rettig, 2008). Since no studies have yet examined the effect of musculoskeletal abnormalities on YBT-UQ results and Science of Gymnastics Journal 286 Science of Gymnastics Journal Beyranvand R., Mirnasouri R., Mollahoseini S., Mostofi S-: THE FUNCTIONAL STABILITY .... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 279 - 290 given the present findings, these factors appear to also adversely affect the functional stability of the upper limbs and reduce the extension of the reach in the YBT-UQ just like in other physical injuries of the pectoral girdle. These results are somewhat consistent with previous reports; for instance, Hazar et al. (2014) reported that the reach scores obtained in the YBT-UQ are significantly higher in healthy people compared to those with shoulder impingement syndrome (Hazar et al., 2014). Zandi et al. studied the functional stability of the upper limbs in healthy volleyball players and those with anterior instability of the shoulder joint and reported significant differences in the reach scores obtained in all three directions between the two groups and also in their combined YBT-UQ scores (Zandi et al., 2016); the researchers argued that the anterior instability of the shoulder joint can reduce the integrity and increase the length of the joint capsule tissues and the rotator cuff muscle tendons and also cause dysfunction in the joint stabilizing elements and ultimately lead to mechanical instability in the shoulder joint by causing dysfunction in the arm rotation and tear in the rotator cuff muscle tendons (Myers et al., 2004). They also reported that, due to shoulder joint instability, the impairments caused in the function of the mechanical receptors of the joint inhibit the stabilizing neuromuscular reactions of the joint and lead to frequent injuries and progressive deterioration of the joint by disrupting the proprioception system (Lephart et al., 1994; Myers et al., 2004; Myers et al., 2006). Given the present findings, musculoskeletal abnormalities of the shoulder joint appear to be associated with a reduced proprioceptive accuracy and changes in the direction of the transfer of force(Ha et al., 2011). These problems can adversely affect motor performance and efficacy and expose the individual to physical injuries by changing their motor strategies. Studies have reported that any change in the alignment of the scapular bone can lead to disruption in the feedback from the muscle spindle receptors and also change the motor patterns that should act according to precise feedback from the proprioceptive receptors by causing dysfunction in the joint afferents. In these conditions, the muscle patterns are unable to harmoniously control muscle contractions and the joint thus develops functional instability (Ha et al., 2011). Given the changes that can occur in the pectoral girdle due to rounded shoulders, this deformity should be further emphasized, especially among gymnasts. Upper limb abnormalities, especially rounded shoulders, should be studied among gymnasts in order to prevent future injuries, and sports planners and trainers should seek to give corrective exercises to gymnasts for improving the abnormalities identified in this part of the body. CONCLUSION Rounded shoulders can significantly affect gymnasts' YBT-UQ scores and expose them to future injuries by reducing the functional stability of their upper limbs in closed kinetic chains. Considering that rounded shoulders are known as one of the most common musculoskeletal abnormalities that affect normal posture in the upper limbs (Peterson et al., 1997), and since the upper limbs are used extensively in gymnastics for performing closed chain movements, this condition should be more addressed in gymnasts and efforts should be made to correct it in order to help reduce upper limb injuries in this group. REFERENCES Aali, S., Daneshmandi, H., Norasteh, A. & Rezazadeh, F. (2013) Comparison of head and shoulder posture in blind, deaf and ordinary pupiles. Journal of Gorgan University of Medical Sciences 15, 72-78. Amasay, T., Hall, G., Shapiro, S. & Ludwig, K. 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Vol. 9 Issue 3: 279 - 290 Corresponding author: Ramin Beyranvand Pajohesh Square, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran e-mail: ramin_beyranvand@yahoo.com; ramin.beyranvand.68@gmail.com Science of Gymnastics Journal 290 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Mavidis S., Dallas C., Papouliakos S.: GENDER DIFFERENCES OF HIGH LEVEL.... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 291 - 301 GENDER DIFFERENCES OF HIGH LEVEL GYMNASTS ON POSTURAL STABILITY: THE EFFECT OF ANKLE SPRAIN INJURIES George Dallas1, Alexandros Mavidis2, Costas Dallas1, Sotris Papouliakos1 School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece 2Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thrace, Komotini Greece _Original article Abstract Artistic gymnastics is the sport with the highest number of injuries for the athletes involved. Several studies supported that the ankle and knee joints are the most commonly injured body parts of gymnasts. Ankle instability in particular is often caused by damage to passive structures leading to neuromuscular impairment. The purpose of this study was to assess gender differences on postural stability of high level gymnasts, with the effect of lateral ankle sprains injuries partially out. Ten high level female and 10 high level male gymnasts who experienced lateral ankle sprains injuries volunteered to participate in the study. Participants were assessed for postural stability on the NeuroCom EquiTest Computerized Dynamic Posturography system. Three tests were used to evaluate the: a) Unilateral Stance, b) Motor Control Test, and c) Adaptation Test. The scores for Unilateral Stance, Motor Control, and Adaptation tests were recorded. Significant gender differences were found on Unilateral Stance-Right Foot Eyes closed in slow velocity, on Motor Control Test for Amplitude Scaling on Left and Right Foot in Backward direction, and on Adaptation Test Toes down balance. Conclusively, female athletes exhibited better balance scores compared to males, when controlling for the number of lateral ankle sprains injuries they experienced during the last two years. These findings are discussed with respect to the severity of previous lateral ankle sprains injuries, and the experience from training and competing in different events, for males and females respectively. Keywords: balance, ankle joints, gymnastics. INTRODUCTION Artistic gymnastics (AG) is a sport that requires a great sense of body awareness (Robertson & Elliott, 1996). During training and competition, even small distribution in postural stability may adversely affect performance (Vuillerme et al., 2001). According to Hootman et al. (2007) AG is the sport with the highest Science of Gymnastics Journal 291 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Mavidis S., Dallas C., Papouliakos S.: GENDER DIFFERENCES OF HIGH LEVEL.... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 291 - 301 number of injuries for the athletes involved. Several studies supported that the ankle and knee joints are the most commonly injured body parts of gymnasts (Tenvergert et al., 1992). When the passive structures are damaged (capsular structure and ligaments), they usually result in either objective (anterior drawer, talar tilt) and/ or subjective (giving-way) instability (Hootman et al., 2007). Neuromuscular impairments, in turn, incorporate decrements in dynamic balance (Sawkins et al., 2007) and postural control respectively (Liaw et al., 2008; Hrysommalis, 2007; Uchiyama & Demura, 2009). According to Hutchison and Ireland (1995), the ankle sprains experienced often lead to chronic pain, swelling, and an increase in the postural sway (Jaussen, 2012). As previous studies have showed, ankle sprains associated with reoccurrence of injury (Holmes & Delahunt, 2009), that may result in damage to proprioceptors (Hertel et al., 2006; Sawkins et al., 2007), often result in instability of the joint and decrements in performance (Holder-Powell & Rutherford, 1999; 2000). According to Peterka (2002), in order to maintain an upright stance, the destabilizing torque due to gravity must be countered by a corrective torque exerted by the feet against the support surface. This correction is achieved by feedback mechanisms that generate an appropriate corrective torque based on body-sway motion detected by the visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensory systems. However, the primary source of information is provided by the visual system (Uchiyama & Demura, 2009; Winter et al., 1990). Gender differences in postural stability, were recorded in the past for participants who were tested with their eyes either opened or closed. The limited research findings were conflicting, leaving this area open for future research (Blaszczyk et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2012; Lamoth et al., 2009). Concerning the reported number of injuries, Kobayashi and Gamada (2014) and Hootman et al (2007) found that gymnasts had higher injury rates compared to athletes in baseball, softball, e.t.c. The findings of Hootman et al (2007) are promising, since they summarize data collected from a national survey for a long period of 16 years, from 15 different sports in the USA. Overall, previous studies have shown that a decrement in balance can result from musculoskeletal injuries (Malliou et al., 2004), while the effect of vision is not confirmed (Blaszczyk et al, 2014; Kim et al., 2012; Lamoth et al, 2009). With respect to gymnasts, gender differences are conflicting, since one study reported higher balance scores for females (Milosis & Siatras, 2012), while the other study reported no gender differences (Davlin, 2004). With regard to the musculoskeletal injuries causing balance deficits, previous findings are evident in both the dynamic (Jibi & Nagarajan, 2014) and the static (Majlesi & Azadian, 2014) form, when the injured lower limbs of athletes from different sports were compared to the uninjured. In a recent study (Dallas & Dallas, 2016) investigated the effect of ankle sprain injuries on postural stability measuring the Limits of Stability (LOS) variables and found that females gymnasts recorded significantly lower values in Reaction Time and higher values in Movement Velocity during LOS test. However, it has not been reported whether: a) the number of these lateral ankle sprains injuries (LASI) influenced the gymnast's postural stability and b) gender differences would still be evident, regardless the number of LASI experienced by the athletes. The Computerized Dynamic Posturography provides researchers with an objective mean to evaluate the postural components of balance, by assessing the postural sway velocity of either leg, with or without vision (eyes open and closed). The purpose of the present study therefore was to examine gender differences in dynamic and static postural stability of high level artistic gymnasts, who have Science of Gymnastics Journal 292 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Mavidis S., Dallas C., Papouliakos S.: GENDER DIFFERENCES OF HIGH LEVEL.... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 291 - 301 suffered LASI in the past. The number of injuries served as a covariate. It is hypothesized that LASI affect gymnast's postural control and the number of these injuries may have an additional influence on postural control. However, if there is no gender differences it is speculated that other factor such as the training may have a positive effect on this ability. Based on previous research findings (Milosis & Siatras, 2012), it was hypothesized that female gymnasts would be more stable than their male counterparts, when the lower limb number of injuries was controlled. Further, following Winter et al (1990), it was anticipated that females would exhibit higher balance scores, compared to males, when vision was eliminated during balance testing. METHODS Ten female (age = 16.66 ± 3.20 years, mass = 47.30 ± 8.00 kg, height = 158.00 ± 5.7503 cm) and ten male gymnasts (age = 22.30 ± 1.77 years, mass = 62.00 ± 3.33 kg, height = 168.50 ± 3.03 cm) volunteered to participate in this single visit study. They had at least 10 to 15 years of training experience, training 6 days per week (25 -30 hours per week), 3 to 5 hours daily. The primary researcher interviewed the coaches and participants who reported a) the total number of LASI (M = 2.00 ± 1.03, Females = 1.50 ± 0.34, Males = 2.50 ± 0.71), b) time before (months) the last LASI (M = 11.20 ± 2.65, Females =11.40 ± 2.80, Males = 11.00 ± 2.62), c) absence from training due to ankle injury and d) previous injuries in the lower limbs. The research took place during gymnasts' competitive period for national championships. Gymnasts were measured approximately 18 hours after the last training in order to exclude the influence of fatigue (Lin et al, 2009). The athletes reported that they a) spent less than 5 days without training due to past LASI and b) had no experience from previous injuries in the lower limbs. One hour prior to the experimental protocol, a familiarization session and anthropometric measurements were performed. Three different tests for a total duration of 2 - 5 minutes approximately, including brief resting sessions (US: 6 trials * 10 sec = 60 sec = 1 min; MCT: 6 trial * 1 sec = 6 sec; ADT: 10 trials * 3 sec = 30 sec) were performed by each participant. All testing sessions were conducted at the same time of day (13:00 to 16:00). The study was conducted in accordance to the ethical principles regarding human experiments set by the Declaration of Helsinki. Postural Stability was examined using the EquiTest Computerized Dynamic Posturography system. The Computerized Dynamic Posturography (CDP) protocol includes the following tests: a) Unilateral Stance (US), b) Motor Control Test (MCT), and c) Adaptation Test (ADT). The US quantifies postural sway velocity (deg/sec) with gymnasts standing on either the right or left leg, with eyes open and with eyes closed. Gymnasts were trying to react as the supporting surface moved in three different velocities; slow, medium, fast. The test was assessed by the mean CoG Sway Velocity that displays CoG stability while the gymnast stood independently on each leg. The MCT assesses the ability of the automatic motor system to quickly recover following an unexpected external disturbance. This consisted of sequences of small, medium or large platform translations which were scaled to the subject's height, in forward and backward directions to elicit automatic postural responses. The transportation of the supporting surface occurred regularly, in the same order, to the participants. MCT records latency responses, which is a measure of how long it takes to restore normal balance following an unexpected perturbation. The measured parameters are the a) Weight Symmetry (a scale around 100 indicates that both legs are rearing equal weight, more than 100 means the subject bears more weight on Science of Gymnastics Journal 293 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Mavidis S., Dallas C., Papouliakos S.: GENDER DIFFERENCES OF HIGH LEVEL.... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 291 - 301 their right leg and less than 100 means more weight on the left leg), b) Latency that quantifies the time between stimulus onset and initiation of the subject's active response and c) Amplitude Scaling that quantifies the strength of motor responses for both legs and for the three translations sizes. The ADT assesses the gymnast's ability to minimize sway when exposed to surface irregularities and unexpected changes in support surface inclination (toes-up or toes-down). For each platform rotation trial, a sway energy score (SES) quantifies the magnitude of the force response required to overcome induced postural instability. A smaller SES represented the ability of the gymnasts to react more efficiently. A MANCOVA was used to examine gender differences (independent variable) in the postural stability tests, while number of LASI served as a covariate. Univariate analyses were used for post hoc comparisons. The Unilateral Stance Right Foot with Eyes Closed (US RF EC), Motor Control Test for Amplitude Scaling on Left Foot in Backward direction (MCT AS LF B) and Motor Control Test for Amplitude Scaling on Right Foot in Backward direction (MCT AS RF B) were the dependent variables. Further, a 2 X 5 MANCOVA examined the interaction effect between gender and time (5 trials), with respect to the Adaptation Test Toes down (ADTTd) scores. The independent variables were gender and time (5 trials), and the dependent variable was the ADTTd scores. Univariate analyses and the t-parameter estimates were used to evaluate the interaction effect. The intraclass coefficient assessed the reliability of the ADTTd scores. RESULTS Female gymnasts exhibited significantly lower number of LASI than male gymnasts on the right ankle joint (p = .042), the left ankle joint (p = .048), and the sum of both legs (p = .025) (table 1). The formula of Grimm (1993) was used to estimate the appropriate sample size. The calculated effect size was based in the study of Torres et al (2014) with the ML scores of 20 active men (M = 0.95 ± 0.25) and 20 women (M = 0.77 ± 0.22). The power analysis revealed that for an effect size of 0.766, power of 0.80 and a 0.05 alpha level, a total sample of 14 participants would be required to detect significant differences between groups. The MANCOVA for Unilateral Stance Right Foot with Eyes Closed (US RF EC) was significant (Wilks A = .545, F = 4.166, p = .025, n2 = 455). The univariate post hoc analysis was significant for US RF EC in slow velocity (F = 5.639, p = .030, n2 = 249). Examination of the adjusted balance mean score in US RF EC revealed that the group of female gymnasts scored lower from their male counterparts. The above findings with respect to the US RF EC scores and adjusted scores, for both female and male gymnasts may be found in table 1. The MANCOVA on Motor Control Test for Amplitude Scaling on Left Foot in Backward direction (MCT AS LF B) was significant (Wilks A = .515, F = 4.708, p = .016, n2 = 485). The univariate post hoc analysis was significant for MCT AS LF B in slow translation (F = 12.884, p = .002, n2 = .431), in medium translation (F= 13.597, p= .002, n 2= 444) and in large translation (F = 7.531, p = .014, n2 = .307). Examination of the adjusted balance means score MCT AS LF B revealed that the group of female gymnasts scored lower from their male counterparts. The above findings, with respect to the MCT AS LF B scores and adjusted scores, for both female and male gymnasts, may be found in table 2. The MANCOVA on Motor Control Test for Amplitude Scaling on Right Foot in Backward direction (MCT AS RF B) was significant (Wilks A = .230, F = 16.716, p = .001, n2 =.770). The univariate post hoc analysis was significant for MCT AS RF B in slow translation (F = 37.199, p Science of Gymnastics Journal 294 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Mavidis S., Dallas C., Papouliakos S.: GENDER DIFFERENCES OF HIGH LEVEL.... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 291 - 301 = .001, n2 = 686), in medium translation (F = 41.558, p = .001, n2 = .710) and in large translation (F = 16.320, p = .001, n2 = .490). Examination of the adjusted balance mean score in MCT AS RF B revealed that the group of female gymnasts scored lower from their male counterparts. The above findings with respect to the MCT AS RF B scores and adjusted scores, for both female and male gymnasts, may be found in table 3. Table 1 Means and adjusted means in Postural Stability (Unilateral Stance Right Foot with Eyes Closed - US RF EC) for female and male gymnasts (deg/sec). Female Male p Number of injuries * 1.55 ± 0.34 2.50 ± 0.71 .025 Postural Stability (US RF EC) (deg/sec) Slow Velocity* 1.55 ± 0.29 2.16 ± 1.01 .030 Medium Velocity 1.48 ± 0.51 1.92 ± 1.02 N.S Fast Velocity 1.66 ± 0.50 1.84 ± 0.82 N.S Adjusted Slow Velocity* 1.41 ± 0.24 2.29 ± 0.24 .030 Adjusted Medium Velocity 1.37 ± 0.27 2.02 ± 0.27 N.S Adjusted Fast Velocity 1.56 ± 0.23 1.94 ± 0.23 N.S * Significant gender differences (p < 0 .05) Table 2 Means and adjusted means score in Motor Control Test for Amplitude Scaling on Left Foot in Backward direction (MCT AS LFB) for female and male gymnasts. Motor Control Test Left Foot Backward direction (MCT AS LF B) Female Male p Number of injuries 1.55 ± 0.34 2.50 ± 0.71 .025 Postural Stability (MCT AS LFB) Slow translation * 1.80 ± 0.79 3.80 ± 1.31 .002 Medium translation * 3.00 ± 1.41 6.80 ± 2.15 .002 Large translation * 4.00 ± 1.49 8.00 ± 3.09 .014 Adjusted Slow translation * 1.77 ± 0.38 3.83 ± 0.38 .002 Adjusted Medium translation * 3.13 ± 0.63 6.67 ± 0.63 .002 Adjusted Large translation * 4.27 ± 0.84 7.73 ± 0.84 .014 * Significant gender differences (p < 0 .05) Science of Gymnastics Journal 295 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Mavidis S., Dallas C., Papouliakos S.: GENDER DIFFERENCES OF HIGH LEVEL.... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 291 - 301 Table 3 Means and adjusted means score in Motor Control Test for Amplitude Scaling on Right Foot in Backward direction (MCT AS RF B) for female and male gymnasts. Female Male p Number of injuries 1.55 ± 0.34 2.50 ± 0.71 .025 Postural Stability (MCT AS RF B) Slow translation * 1.70 ± 0.82 4.40 ± 0.97 .001 Medium translation * 2.60 ± 0.97 7.70 ± 1.83 .001 Large translation * 3.50 ± 1.35 9.50 ± 3.41 .001 Adjusted Slow translation * 1.61 ± 0.31 4.48 ± 0.31 .001 Adjusted Medium translation * 2.65 ± 0.51 7.65 ± 0.51 .001 Adjusted High translation * 3.77 ± 0.89 9.23 ± 0.89 .001 * Significant gender differences (p < 0 .05) Table 4 Means and adjusted means in Adaptation Test toes down (ADTTd) for female and male gymnasts. Female Male _Sway energy score ADTTdi (F = .387, p = .542, n2 = .022) 60 30 ± 12.22 63 80 ± 19.74 Adjusted balance 59 35 ± 5.74 64 75 ± 5.74 ADTTd2 (F = .004, p = .949, n2 = .000) 57 20 ± 12.91 56 50 ± 21.13 Adjusted balance 56 55 ± 6.14 57 15 ± 6.14 ADTTds (F = .765, p = .394, n2 = .043) 54 40 ± 8.03 49 20± 11.48 Adjusted balance 54 10 ± 3.48 49 50 ± 3.48 ADTTd4 (F = 3.658, p = = .073, n2 = .177) 51 80 + 8.52 65 60 + 24.40 Adjusted balance 49 63 ± 6.27 67 76 ± 6.27 ADTTds (F = 2.242, p = = .153, n2 = .117) 51 40 ± 5.05 59 30 ± 17.52 Adjusted balance 50 28 ± 4.47 60 42 ± 4.47 The Intraclass Correlation Coefficient, for the Adaptation Test Toes down (ADTTd), was .924 for the whole sample, and .845 and .956 for females and males respectively. The 2 X 5 MANCOVA revealed a significant interaction effect (Wilks A = .358, F = 6.286, p = .004, n2 = .642). No significant main effect was found for time (F = 1.498, p = .256, n2 = .300) and gender (F = .674, p = .423, n2 = .038). Post hoc univariate analysis revealed that the interaction was significant in the 4th trial (F = 14.401, p = .001, n2 = .459). Examination of the t-parameter estimates revealed that the females exhibited higher ADTTd scores in the 3rd trial (t = .875, p = .394, n2 = 043) (Mean Females = 54.40 + 8.03) compared to males (Mean Males = 49.20 ± 11.49), while the differences were reversed in the 4th trial (t = -1.913, p = .073, n2 = 177) since females (Mean Females = 51.80 ± 8.52) scored lower than their male counterparts (Mean Males = 65.60 ± 24.40). The balance (ADTTd) scores and adjusted balance scores, for both female and male gymnasts across the 5 trials may be found in table 4. Science of Gymnastics Journal 296 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Mavidis S., Dallas C., Papouliakos S.: GENDER DIFFERENCES OF HIGH LEVEL.... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 291 - 301 DISCUSSION This was the first study examining gender differences on static and dynamic postural stability of high level artistic gymnasts, when controlling for the number of previous LASI. Female gymnasts showed better postural stability in a) Unilateral Stance for Right Foot with Eyes Closed (US RF EC) in slow velocity, b) Motor Control Test for Amplitude Scaling on both feet in backward direction (MCT AS B) and c) ADTTd in 4th trial. The results of the present study verify data of Ekdalh et al (1989), who found that females demonstrated better balance postures than males. According to Winter et al (1990), when the equilibrium perturbation is small and the support surface is firm, female gymnasts use more effectively postural adjustments controlled by ankle muscles and overall restoration of the Center of Mass (CoM) to a central position, compared to males (Winter et al., 1990). Further, the ability to maintain balance is dependent on visual cues, vestibular function, and somatosensory feedback from structures in the lower limb (Nashner, 1993). When visual sensory information is absent (Accornero et al., 1997), the sensorimotor control of upright balance is based on information from ankle proprioceptors, in combination with plantar mechanoreceptors. Previous injuries damage the somatosensory information transmitted from the ankle proprioceptors leading to decrements in postural stability. Even though, in the present study the number of previous LASI was controlled, males exhibited lower balance scores compared to females, leading to the speculation that it was the severity of these past injuries that may have caused higher somatosensory damage in males, reduced proprioception and overall decrements in postural stability compared to females. The severity or chronic musculoskeletal injuries may also explain the gender differences in the Motor Control Test for Amplitude Scaling, in backward direction. Chronic musculoskeletal conditions impair postural control (McKeon & Hertel, 2008) and have been reported in the unstable ankle (Ryan, 1994). The musculo-tendinous changes around the ankle are leading to a reduction of proprioceptive information and may contribute to the deficient postural control mechanisms after injury. This argument is supported by previous studies which showed that ankle symptoms may remain one year after lateral ligament injury (Moller-Larsen et al., 1988). It appears that the joint tissue of male gymnasts in the present study may have exhibited chronic musculo-tendinous changes around the ankle which, in turn, may have led to loss of proprioceptive information and overall deficient postural control, compared to females. Although no significant differences were found on MCT Weight Symmetry, examination on Amplitude Scaling on Left and Right Foot in Backward direction (MCT AS LF B) revealed that females achieved better use of their automatic motor system and recovered quicker from an unexpected external disturbance. Simply stated, the surrounding joint tissue of male gymnasts may not have been as sufficient for an effective function compared to females. Possibly, the previous severity of musculoskeletal injuries in the ankle joint along with the contribution of foot mechanoreceptors and cutaneous sensation may have influenced balance control (Meyer et al., 2004). However, our findings opposed those of Peterka and Loughlin (2004) who reported that healthy adults reacted more effectively on unstable supporting surfaces. The differences with Peterka and Loughlin may be attributed to the: a) sample of healthy adults examined and b) in the case of unstable base of support, the fact that male gymnasts examined in the present study may not use as effectively as their female counterparts Science of Gymnastics Journal 297 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Mavidis S., Dallas C., Papouliakos S.: GENDER DIFFERENCES OF HIGH LEVEL.... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 291 - 301 their visual inputs (Peterka & Loughlin, 2004). This argument partially supports the results of Vuillerme and colleagues who found that elite male gymnast are more able to use the remaining sensory modalities to compensate for the lack of vision in unstable postures compared to non-expert counterparts (Vuillerme et al., 2001). In addition, our results reinforce findings of Kochanowicz et al. (2017) who found that gymnastic training had influence in postural control of young and adult gymnasts and those of Gautier et al. (2008) who stated that experts in sports requiring fine perceptive-motor control develop a shorter sensory-motor delay. Further, the fact that females scored better than male's maybe attributed to the specificity of training. Female gymnasts, for example, who practice gymnastic exercises on the balance beam, perform much better in balance than others who do not force the "balance system" as much (Wilke, 2000). Based on this logic, female gymnasts maybe considered as experts compared to males that have no similar experiences. In contrast, male athletes compete in two events actively using their lower limbs (vaulting horse and floor exercises), compared to females who compete in three events respectively (vaulting horse, balance beam, and floor exercises). In other words, females are spending more training time using their lower limbs, especially on the balance beam which is an exclusive apparatus for females requiring extensive balance training and skill. The above speculation is explained by Hubbard who claimed that the muscle spindle itself has been recognized as one of the afferent nerves that are potentially modifiable through training (Hubbard, 2005). In this sense, the ability to stabilize body position is mandatory for the performance of motor skills and is dependent upon the grade of experience (Wilke, 2000). Analysis of the present data support the hypothesis that female gymnasts would be more stable than their male counterparts, when the lower limb number of injuries was controlled and that females would exhibit higher balance scores, compared to males, when vision was eliminated during balance testing. The present study showed that artistic gymnasts were dependent on vision in their postural stability tests and that differences were found in dynamic postural stability, especially when unstable supporting surfaces were used. These findings seem to suggest that female artistic gymnasts were more stable than their male counterpart, possibly due that practicing on the balance beam which allows them to practice and specialize in anterior-posterior direction of postural control. This finding verifies the results of Vuillerme et al (2001) who supported that postural skill may be influenced by the sport itself. Certain limitations, do not allow generalization of the present findings without caution. First, previous knee injuries were not recorded in the present study. Second, the external focus of attention may be another factor that differentiates female and male gymnasts (McNevin & Wulf, 2002). Researchers have reported that boys are less attentive and more agitated during the postural stability tests (Steindl et al., 2006). Attention however was not recorded in the present study. Third, certain anthropometric variables affecting postural balance, such as vision (Alonso et al., 2012) were not examined. Fourth, balance related gender differences may be due to other factors, based on body somatotype, independently of body size; for example the fact that boys have larger body mass and moments of inertia (Lee & Lin, 2007). Finally, other intrinsic factors such as age, gender, phase of menstrual cycle, type and severity of previous injuries, inadequate rehabilitation of previous injuries, aerobic fitness, fatigue, limb girth, anatomic alignment, gait, and foot morphology may play a role in the number of injuries experienced and overall balance scores (Murphy et al., 2003). The above Science of Gymnastics Journal 298 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Mavidis S., Dallas C., Papouliakos S.: GENDER DIFFERENCES OF HIGH LEVEL.... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 291 - 301 limitations are useful for researchers to consider and re-examine in the future. Certain recommendations may stem from the present findings. Coaches, physicians, physiotherapists and other experts in the field may need to monitor the rehabilitation process following ankle sprains. Even when athletes return to practice, the damage to the joint tissue may not have fully recovered. Assessing certain variables, such as strength in the muscles surrounding the ankle joint, range of motion, etc may be a useful indicator for coaches to consider for their injured athletes. Since limitations in balance have a negative impact upon performance, coaches may also consider adding balance sessions within their practice routines. If (male) athletes perform better in balance, they may also improve their overall performance (e.g. during the landing phase). Finally, coaches may need to constantly monitor the injuries experienced in the lower limbs, record them in detail and allow gymnasts to enter full practice and competition only when they have experienced full recovery. CONCLUSIONS The present findings showed that female gymnasts exhibited better postural stability scores compared to males, when controlling for the number of previous LASI. Taking into account that these injuries were recorded from 7 to 17 months prior to data collection, it appears that they may affect postural control long after acute injury resolution. Besides the rehabilitation treatment that these athletes were exposed, the training requirements for both male and female athletes may also have had an impact upon postural stability. No funding was provided for the designing and implementation of the present study. There was no conflict of interest, with an individual or organization, for the designing and implementation of the present study. REFERENCES Accornero, N., Capozza, M., Rinalduzzi, S., Manfredi, G.M. (1997). Clinical multi segmental posturography: age-related changes in stance control. 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Corresponding author: George Dallas School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University phone: 0030 210 66 43 704 fax: 0030 693 65 92 665 e-mail: gdallas@phed.uoa.gr Science of Gymnastics Journal 301 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Mavidis S., Dallas C., Papouliakos S.: GENDER DIFFERENCES OF HIGH LEVEL.... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 291 - 301 Science of Gymnastics Journal 302 Science of Gymnastics Journal Ferger K., Hackbarth M.: NEW WAY OF DETERMINING HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 303 - 310 NEW WAY OF DETERMINING HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT IN COMPETITIVE TRAMPOLINING Katja Ferger, Michel Hackbarth Institute of Sport Science, University Gießen, Germany _Original article Abstract The assessment criteria for competitive trampolining, which is primarily both a technical and a compositional form of sport, have been extended by the addition of some objectively measurable parameters in recent years. In addition to the degree of difficulty and the movement execution score, which is often perceived as subjective, the actual "time of flight" for the athlete was introduced as an objective (performance) criterion. Beyond this, it is proposed that, in the future, the athlete's position should be recorded during the routines in the form of a series of positional profiles and that this information should be introduced as a further scoring criterion for "horizontal displacement" in the next Olympic cycle. Using a self-developed measuring system for determining both parameters (time of flight and positioning), the resulting possibilities for controlling training and performance, as well as the options for further development of the competition system or the sport of trampolining itself are described here. Keywords: trampolining, position determination, force sensors, measurement system. INTRODUCTION International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) develop judging within Code of Points within each Olympic Cycle. Changes in judging are prepared by Technical Committies of each sport discipline with aim to make judging more precise and fair. New technologies, which can upgrade judging, should have high degree of reliability and validity. In trampoling judges evaluate difficulty, performance and time of flight (ToF). Following the introduction of Tof as a new scoring criterion during the last Olympic cycle, various studies have demonstrated the problems inherent in obtaining accurate time measurements using the Time Measurement Device system (TMD; Acrosport Co. Ltd., 2010). A comparison of the performance of the TMD with that of a laser-based light curtain to measure the heights of jumps and ToF conducted by Eisele and colleagues (Eisele, et al., 2015) confirmed the results in terms of lack of accuracy of the measuring system used previously for determining the ToF (Ferger, et al., 2013). The alternative Science of Gymnastics Journal 303 Science of Gymnastics Journal Ferger K., Hackbarth M.: NEW WAY OF DETERMINING HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 303 - 310 measuring device used by Eisele and colleagues, manufactured by Sick AG, to determine ToF is indeed both reactionless and contactless, and broaches the possibilities for position determination on the trampoline bed. This measuring device cannot, however, provide important and immediate feedback for training and competitive situations, because of its time-consuming calibration and evaluation procedures. There are a few key requirements for a measurement and information system, which should be able to operate in competition and training. In view of the new regulations for points scoring assessments (Code of Points/COP) for the next Olympic cycle (2017 - 2020), position determination is increasingly gaining in importance (FIG, 2016). This results in various requirements of a measuring and information system for determining ToF and positioning for both individual and synchronized trampolining competitions. In order to be able to focus on other sports- and scientific-related questions beyond ToF and position determination, a measurement and information system for competitive trampolining was developed in a joint co-operative project between Eurotramp Trampoline Kurt Hack GmbH and Wassing Messtechnik GmbH. As a first step, a list of requirements for the measurement and information system planned was drawn up, taking into account the areas of training data documentation, safety, incentive function, equipment documentation and the further development of the competition system: • precise and accurate location determination on the equipment; • precise and accurate ToF determination; • simplicity of the system and software; • uninterrupted, reactionless and contactless measurements; • high temporal resolution; • availability of the results in real time and for training data documentation purposes; • sport-specific interpretation and/or visualisation of the measurements; and • integration into the Fédération internationale de Gymnastique's (FIG) completion and scoring system The deduction for horizontal displacement (HD) in individual and synchronized trampolining is calculated from the landing positions on the bed. The subdivision of the bed into different zones, which are each associated with corresponding deductions, is the foundation for the scoring of horizontal displacement (Figure 1). 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 ci ■ 0.0 1 tH d 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 Figure 1. Deductions based on zones . Judges need to determine the HD score visually in FIG competitions when there is no measurement system (FIG, 2016). Whether there is a difference in the deduction between a judge and the HD measurement system and whether the real landing position on the bed and, therefore, the right deduction is displayed with the HD measurement system need to be verified. A high-speed camera filming the trampoline at a vertical angle from the ceiling is a simple yet effective tool for determining the real zone in which the athlete lands. A recording with a high temporal resolution provides the ability to evaluate the deductions calculated by the HD measurement system. The aim of this study is to examine a possible application of the measurement system mentioned for horizontal displacement in competitive trampolining. Science of Gymnastics Journal 304 Science of Gymnastics Journal Ferger K., Hackbarth M.: NEW WAY OF DETERMINING HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 303 - 310 METHODS The development of the measurement and information system, with technical details and system functionalities, is described in the following. The force sensors (Figure 2) (developed and constructed by Wassing Messtechnik GmbH) represent the technical core of the entire system. They use optoelectronic sensors and measure normal forces in a one-dimensional plane. The loads on the force platforms, which are positioned under the feet of the trampoline, produce a deformation of the metal plate or of the sensor and, thus, also a change in light intensity. Consequently, two voltages are measured, which are looped through the force plates via 8P8C modular connectors. The signal, containing 8 voltages, is broadcasted again through an 8P8C cable to the analogue to digital converter. After conversion, the digitalized signal is fed with a micro USB-to-USB cable into a windows-based laptop or computer (Figure 2). The overall cable length from force plate to laptop and, therefore, the distance between the trampoline and the judges, is tested up to 40 m. After taring the force plates under the feet of the trampoline, a custom C++ -based software visualises the single vertical forces applied on each force plate and the force summarized. The scanning is carried out effectively at 2 kHz (internally 50 kHz, mean average formation over 25 values). This means that current measurement values are available every 0.5 ms. The size of each of the force plates means that a resolution of better than 0.5 N is achieved at an accuracy of 1 The basic principle is to measure the reaction forces on the trampoline at the setup points (action = reaction), obtain the information desired by means of an appropriate evaluation and display this information. In addition to the development of a suitable sensor system for recording the static and dynamic forces occurring, the development of an evaluation device was promoted based on a systems theory analysis. The challenge was to analyse the raw data measured by the force sensors and to be able to separate the internal dynamics of the measuring apparatus from those of the athletes themselves. The resulting times of flight and positional data calculated can be simultaneously displayed in real time on the computer (Figure 3). Figure 2. Force platforms under the trampoline connected to processing and output hardware. Fi B8888 n 88886 H 88888 1- SSS80 Figure 3. Screenshot - Sample display of results (Time of flights: ToF[s], positional profile based on the x and y co-ordinates measured; x/y [cm] with the corresponding deductions: Ded. [pts] and force curves). It is both possible and essential to have a multiplicity of ways of displaying the results because of the many requirements of the system formulated in advance in both training and competition settings, and because of the differentiated reporting of the data to the various users (athletes, referees, competition judges, trainers and spectators). The measured values (ToF, position and force path profiles) are currently displayed in a tabular format, as force path curves and Science of Gymnastics Journal 305 Science of Gymnastics Journal Ferger K., Hackbarth M.: NEW WAY OF DETERMINING HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 303 - 310 positional profiles. At the same time, these data are also recorded on a storage device (USB stick or SD card). The relevant data on jumps are animated in real time and the athlete can also be superimposed on this data stream by using an optional camera. The first AERE World Cup in Brescia, Italy, (June17 - 19, 2016) was used as a test event for the system. The AERE World Cup was an official FIG competition and the measurement system was cleared for testing by the FIG Technical Committee. An international competition judge determined the deduction for horizontal displacement visually according to the landing of the athletes to evaluate the location determination. The competition judge was located in the upper area of the stands while the data were being obtained. From there, the cloth of both trampolines, including the zones, were completely visible. The deductions from 441 jumps from 25 male athletes were documented for a comparison between the judge and the system. All subjects were over 18 years of age. The jumps are, in both systems, divided into four categories: neutral zone, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 points deduction. If the deduction from the force plates and the visual deduction determined by the judge were the same, the jump was marked as a "match". In case of a different deduction between the system and the judge, the jump was marked as a "no match". With an expected error in the deduction due to the division of the cloth into zones, we set the maximal tolerable difference at 5 %. Even though the competition judge is experienced and highly trained, a more precise and reliable measurement is necessary for a scientific view. Consequently, a comparison between the force plate system and a camera system took place in a Deutsche Olympische Sportbund training centre. A Basler acA1600-100 high-speed camera (Basler AG, Ahrensburg, Germany) with 100 Hz temporal resolution and 1600 x 1200 pixel video resolution was placed on the ceiling over a trampoline to record the exact landing position of the athlete. The camera was positioned at a ceiling height of 7.5 m aligned at a 90 ° angle to the bed, with the focus over the cross in the middle of the bed (Figure 1). Two male (17 and 20 years old) and two junior female athletes (10 years old each) performed ten routines each with a total number of 384 jumps. In addition to the permission of their coach and parents, all four participants were previously informed and gave their consent. The sample displays both ends of the weight range of usual participants in trampolining competitions: 32 kg for the female junior competitors and 67 and 68 kg for the male competitors. Using the position of the feet at the first contact with the bed in relation to the zones from highspeed video and the centre of pressure from the force plate system in relation to the zones, a comparison between the methods was made. The jumps are, in both systems, divided into four categories: neutral zone, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 points deduction. The results from both systems were compared for each jump and divided into the two groups ("match" and "no match"). Taking studies on artistic gymnastics into account (Čuk , 2015; Leskošek, et al., 2012; Pajek, et al., 2013) and with an expected error in the deduction due to the division of the cloth into zones, we set the maximal tolerable difference at 5 %. Chi-square provides a testing of proportion between expected and practical frequencies. RESULTS The 25 male athletes each performed two routines in the qualifying round at the AERE World Cup in Brescia. One routine consisted of 10 Jumps. Out of 500 possible Jumps, the athletes were able to perform 441. The missing jumps were due to forced stops, ranging from dangerous deductions to entirely missing the bed and injuries. The deduction estimated between the judge Science of Gymnastics Journal 306 Science of Gymnastics Journal Ferger K., Hackbarth M.: NEW WAY OF DETERMINING HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 303 - 310 and the HD measurement system matched are represented in Table 1. Table 1 Proportion of agreement between judges Technology % from yes Total Judges yes 425 96.4 Judges no 16 3.6 Total 441 100 The deduction in points of the two methods for the comparison with a highspeed camera was the same in 368 out of 384 jumps (95.83 %), and did not match in 16 jumps (4.17 %). Table 2 Proportion of the comparison results over the sample. (S1 and S2 male, S3 and S4 female juniors)._ Subject Match No Match Sum S1 93 3 96 S2 92 3 95 S3 95 2 97 S4 88 8 96 Sum 368 16 384 Table 2 shows the proportion of the comparison between the participants. The proportion of jumps in the categories "match" and "no match" do not differ significantly within the sample (x2 (3) = 5.75, p < 0.05). The proportions of the deduction categories were nearly the same (X2 (3) = 0.84,p < 0.05) for camera and the force plate system. DISCUSSION The benefits and possibilities for competitive trampolining with this system on hand are tremendous. Using the positions measured by the device together with the athletes' times of flight, it is possible, among other things and depending on the actual jump sequences, to create positional profiles and statements about spatial and temporal synchronicity. Time of flight and position determination allow a systematic surveillance of individual jumps, jump sequences, and compulsory and voluntary routines during the training process. The recording and control of the interactions between the performance-related factors (ToF, bed contact time, distance travelled on the bed during the routine and/or during the individual jump sequences, force applied and the height of the jumps) additionally provide an opportunity to identify the athletes' deficiencies and reserve assets, and give valuable indications for (athletics) training which are appropriate for this specific type of sport (Lenk, et al., 2016; Lenk, et al., 2017). With an increased focus on position determination, together with the time recording for the ToF and/or bed contact times, it is possible to provide stimuli for jumping which are oriented around the body's centre of gravity and, thus, also improve the athletes' safety. In addition, the graphic representation of the data in real time offers the option of providing an "exciting" representation of the competition for the spectators. These data can also be used retrospectively to obtain additional pointers for making improvements in equipment. The determination, for instance, of the state of the equipment (e.g. loss of elasticity) and the setting up of the equipment can be optimised on different types of surfaces (concrete, wooden and point elastic floors, competition stages and many more). The observed percentage of disagreement between judge and system are neither an error of technology nor an error of judges. It is rather a problem of the different translation of the Code of Points. The judges are instructed to look for the athletes' feet during the bed contact. In the case if one foot is out of the neutral zone the judge indicate a deduction. In the same case the system detect the centre of mass Science of Gymnastics Journal 307 Science of Gymnastics Journal Ferger K., Hackbarth M.: NEW WAY OF DETERMINING HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 303 - 310 inside the neutral zone and no deduction. These are the cases in which no agreement could be reached. Obviously, further development of the competition system can be carried out. Only the ToF measurement of the TMD is currently used in both individual and synchronized competitions for determining measurements for the performance criterion ToF and for making the various deductions in the synchronized acrobatic moves. Different options are available for use in either the individual or the synchronized competitions. For individual competitions, in addition to the determination of a movement profile over the distance covered, the subdivision of the bed into different zones, each associated with corresponding deductions (Figure 3), together with the total number of deviations from the midpoint, (Figure 4) represent other options for establishing a positional or an accuracy criterion. There is an issue in determining jumps on the lines which separate the different zones, especially considering the results of the comparison between the judge and the system. As a further development, the landing positions of the system should be evaluated with a more valid method, for example, using a kinematic camera system with markers on the athlete's feet. Figure 4. Deviations from the midpoint. The determination of position in synchronized routines appears even more complex. Up to now, it has been possible to integrate an assessment of synchronicity into the score based solely on the time differences in landing. The new system broaches the possibility of being able to actually see and evaluate the synchronicity in a new way. The following aspects of synchronicity can now be observed in a more differentiated way: The synchronicity of the execution, which is reflected in the E-score, the time synchronicity in relation to the athletes landing on the equipment at the same time (ToF) and spatial synchronicity based on the athletes assuming the same landing positions. In summary, performance-relevant factors which can be displayed in real time, such as ToF, contact with the bed, position on the bed, synchronicity and the forces and progressions which are produced, offer the possibility of providing competition judges with objective criteria for evaluating athletes' performances, and the athletes and their trainers with information for a more targeted management of their training and performance control, as well as making the competition more transparent and easier to follow for spectators and, thus, more enjoyable. In addition in the future, the setting up of the equipment can be optimised on different types of surfaces (concrete, wooden and point elastic floors, competition stages and many more), as can the determination of the state of the equipment (e.g. loss of elasticity). There is also a great potential for the system in the field of training data documentation: individual positional profiles, flight times and time spent on the bed, as well as force progressions. It also offers the possibility of becoming the basis of a scientifically based and systematic method of controlling training and performance times. Furthermore, the subdivision of the definition of synchronicity into time, spatial and execution synchronicity shows that synchronicity cannot merely be assessed with reference to time differences in landing and, therefore, by the ToF. The solution currently being considered of Science of Gymnastics Journal 308 Science of Gymnastics Journal Ferger K., Hackbarth M.: NEW WAY OF DETERMINING HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 303 - 310 making deductions in the various zones to form an HD score within the overall score, both in individual as well as in synchronized competitions, must certainly be discussed critically. This is because the problem in potentially uncertain cases where the line in a landing is clearly visible between the feet and the measuring system detects the body's centre of gravity on the line could be solved by the possibility described in terms of the deviation from the midpoint (c.f. Figure 4). In the end, the implementation of this system into the official competition system in a way which is acceptable to all parties remains a challenge. CONCLUSION New force plate system to measure gymnast's horizontal plane displacement in competitive trampolining showed high agreement with judges and with camera system. All evaluations were in agreement within error of less than 5 %. We could define new force plate system as valid and reliably. New force plate system can be at this stage used at competitions to evaluate not only ToF, but also gymnast's horizontal plane displacement. When trampoline is fixed in gym hall it can be used also in training process. With whole data (ToF, HD), time of landing, time of take off, with added information about kind of jump, it can, therefore, be viewed as the first step in a long-term project of in-process training and competition research into competitive trampolining. REFERENCES Acrosport Co. Ltd. (2010). Time Measurement Device (TMD1). Datasheet and Instructions. St. Petersburg. Čuk, I. (2015). Can Audience Replace Execution Judges in Male Gymnastics? Science of Gymnastics Journal, 7(1), 6168. Eisele, A., Wyttenbach,I., Kredel, R. & Riehle, H. Vergleich zweier Flugzeitmessgeräte für den Trampolinsport. [Comparison of two time measurement devices for trampoline sport] In Arampatzis (Hg.) 2015. Active Health: Bewegung ist gesund (p. 109). Fédération internationale de Gymnastique. Time measurement device for trampoline competition - TMD. Retrieved July 22, 2016, from http://www.fig- gymnastics.com/publicdir/rules/files/app-norms/Apparatus_Norms_I-III_2016-e.pdf. Ferger, K. Zhang, H., Kölzer, S., Tiefenbacher, K. & Müller, H. (2013). Time of Flight - ein objektives Bewertungskriterium im Trampolinturnen? [Time of flight - an objective evaluation criterion in trampolining?] In M. Pott-Klindworth & T. Pilz (Eds.), Turnen - eine Bewegungskultur im Wandel. Jahrestagung der dvs-Kommission Gerätturnen. Hamburg: Feldhaus Edition Czwalina. FIG Executive Committee (2016). 2017-2017-2020 CODE OF POINTS. Retrieved July 22, 2016, from http://www.fig- gymnastics.com/publicdir/rules/files/tra/T RA-CoP_2017-2020-e.pdf. Kredel, R., Eisele, A., Schweizer, L., Kuhn & Riehle, H. (2014). Einfluss des Trampolinsprungtuchs auf Sprunghöhe und Kontaktzeit. [Influence of trampoline bed to jump height and contact time] In L. K. Maurer (Eds.), Trainingsbedingte Veränderungen - Messung, Modellierung und Evidenzsicherung. 10. Gemeinsames Symposium der dvs-Sektionen Biomechanik, Sportmotorik und Trainingswissenschaft. Hamburg: Feldhaus Edition Czwalina. Lenk, C., Hackbarth, M., Mylo, M., Wiegand, J., & Ferger, K. (2016). Evaluation of a measurement system for determining flight times in trampoline sports. In J. Wiemeyer, & A. Seyfarth (Eds.), Human Movement and Technology. 11th joint Conference on Motor Control & Science of Gymnastics Journal 309 Science of Gymnastics Journal Ferger K., Hackbarth M.: NEW WAY OF DETERMINING HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT... Vol. 9 Issue 3: 303 - 310 Learning, Biomechanics & Training. Hamburg: Feldhaus Edition Czwalina. Lenk, C., Hackbarth, M., Mylo, M., & Weigand, J. & Ferger, K. (2017). Entwicklung eines Mess- und Informationssystems zur simultanen Erfassung, Verarbeitung und Aufbereitung von Wettkampfdaten im Trampolinturnen. [Development of measurement and information systems for simultaneous acquisition, processing and preparation of event data in trampolining] In I. Fichtner (Ed.), Technologien im Leistungssport 2. Tagungsband zur 18. Frühjahrsschule am 13./14.4.2016 in Leipzig. Aachen: Meyer & Meyer. Leskošek, B., Čuk, I., Pajek, J., Forbes, W., & Bučar-Pajek, M. (2012). Bias of Judging in Men's Artistic Gymnastics at the European Championship 2011. Biology of Sport, 29(2), 107-113. Pajek, M. B., Cuk, I., Pajek, J., Kovac, M., & Leskosek, B. (2013). Is the quality of judging in women artistic gymnastics equivalent at major competitions of different levels? Journal of human kinetics, 37, 173-181. Corresponding author: Dr. Katja Ferger Institute of Sport Science University Gießen Germany Tel.: +49 (0)641 9925232 Fax: +49 (o)641 9925239 E-mail: katja.ferger@sport.uni-giessen.de Science of Gymnastics Journal 310 Science of Gymnastics Journal GAJDOŠ A. SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES X Vol. 9 Issue 3: 311-313 SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES X Anton Gajdoš, Bratislava, Slovakia Ph.D. Anton Gajdoš born on 1.6.1940 in Dubriniči (today Ukraine) lives most of his life in Bratislava (ex TCH, nowadays SVK). He comes from gymnastics family (his brother Pavel have world championship medals) and he devoted his life to gymnastics. His last achievement is establishment of Narodna encyklopedia športu Slovenska (www.sportency.sk). Among his passion is collecting photos and signatures of gymnasts. As we tend to forget old champions and important gymnasts, judges and coaches, we decided to publish part of his archive under title Short historical notes. All information on these pages is from Anton's archives and collected through years. Jurij Jevlampijevic Titov (27. November 1935, Omsk, Russia) Jurij Titov started his international career at Olympic Games in Melbourne in 1956. With team he won gold medal, in all around bronze medal, on horizontal bar bar silver and in vault bronze medal. Later he was attending also Olympic Games in Rome 1960 and Tokyo 1964. He ended his international career as gymnast after World Championship in Dortmund in 1966. During his 10 years long career he won 9 olympic medals (one gold with team 1956), 10 medals at World Championships (4 times World champion: with team, all around, vault and rings) and 14 medals at Europena Championships (8 times European champion: all around, 2 times on vault and rings, pommel horse, parallel bars, horizontal bar). After gymnastics career he started career as judge and gymnastics official. At the FIG congress he was elected as FIG president and his presidency was from 1976 up to 1996. During his presidency China started to compete at international competitions and rhythmic gymnastics became part of Olympic Games program. Later he was president and vice president of Russian Gymnastics federation. His medals at international competitions: Olympic Games 1956 Melbourne: Gold: team; Silver: horizontal bar; Bronze: all around, vault 1960 Rome: Silver: team, floor exercise, Bronze: all around 1964 Tokyo: Silver: team, horizontal bar Science of Gymnastics Journal 311 Science of Gymnastics Journal GAJDOŠ A. SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES X Vol. 9 Issue 3: 311-313 Figure left: from left Jurij Titov, Takashi Ono and Masao Takemoto - OG 1956 high bar. Jurij's the first international competition. Figure bellow: from left J. Titov, V. Karasev, M. Voronin, B. Šahlin, S. Diomidov, V. Kerdemelidi, coach S. Litvinov. Jurij's the last international competition. World Championship 1958 Moskva: Gold: team, vault, Bronze: all around, floor exercise, rings 1962 Praque: Gold: all around, rings, Silver: team 1966 Dortmund: Silver: team Jurij Titov exercise on horizontal bar at OG 1964, (draw from Tadamiki Mori in Akitomo Kaneko (1970). Gymnastics Coaching Book II Horizontal Bar (Taisokyogi-Kyohon Tetsubo), FUMAIDO(Fumaido Shoten)) as it is in Anton's book of autographs. Science of Gymnastics Journal 312 Science of Gymnastics Journal GAJDOŠ A. SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES X Vol. 9 Issue 3: 311-313 European Championship 1957 Paris: Gold: vault, Silver: all around, rings, Bronze: horizontal bar 1959 Kopenhagen: Gold: all around, pommel horse, vault, rings parallel bars, Silver: horizontal bar, Bronze: floor exercise 1961 Luxemburg: Gold: rings, horizontal bar, Silver all around. Passionate gymnasts during World Championship 2011. From left: Takashi Ono, Vera Časlavska, Abie Grossfeld and Jurij Titov (photo archive Abie Grossfeld) Jurij Titov was for his work decorated with Olympic order by IOC in 1992, and important orders in Soviet union like Order of the Red Bannaer of Labour (twice, 1960 and 1980), Order of Friendship of Peoples (1976) and Order of the Badge of Honor (1957). On the left telegraph from V. Putin, Russia president, wishen all the best for Jurij Titov 80th birthday. Bellow Juri Titov signature. Science of Gymnastics Journal 313 Science of Gymnastics Journal SLOVENSKI IZVLEČKI / SLOVENE ABSTRACTS Vol. 9 Issue 3: 314 - 316 Slovenski izvlečki / Slovene Abstracts Andrej Kunčič, Jože Mešl RAZVOJ TEKMOVALNIH REZULTATOV ALJAŽA PEGANA NA SVETOVNIH PRVENSTVIH V članku je razčlenjenih 19 let - od 33 letne - tekmovalne kariere telovadca Aljaža Pegana. Njegove ocene, uvrstitve in sestave na drogu so predstavljene za vsako svetovno prvenstvo. Sestave so dodatno razčlenjene na posamezne prvine in njih opise. Predstavljene so v skladu s Pravilnikom za ocenjevanje Mednarodne telovadne zveze, ki so veljala za določeno štiriletno obdobje, in narejena je bila teoretična primerjava ob upoštevanju vseh sprememb in prilagoditev s Pravilnikom za ocenjevanje 2013 -2016. Poleg tega so prikazane razčlenitve sedmih Pravilnikov za ocenjevanje, ki so veljali v obdobju od 1989 do 2013. Prilagoditev spreminjajočim se kriterijem Pravilnika za ocenjevanje je mogoče videti v sestavah s prvinami, ki jih je Aljaž dodajal zaradi izjemnega znanja osnovnih gibanj na drogu, kot so vse vrste točev, letov in prvin v obrnjenem podprijemu. Med svojo kariero sta Aljaž in njegov trener izumila dve prvini, ki nosita njegov priimek v Pravilniku za ocenjevanje, Pegan na drogu in Pegan na bradlji. Njegov največji uspeh je bil na svetovnem prvenstvu leta 2005 v Melbournu v Avstraliji, kjer je postal svetovni prvak na drogu. Ključne besede: moška tekmovalna orodna telovadba, drog, razvoj rezultatov, Pravilnik za ocenjevanje. Almir Atikovic, Sunčica Delaš Kalinski, Ivan Čuk SPREMINJANJE STAROSTI UDELEŽENCEV PRI TEKMOVALNI ORODNI TELOVADBI OD LETA 2003 DO 2016 NA SVETOVNIH PRVENSTVIH IN OLIMPIJSKIH IGRAH Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti spremembo starostne strukture telovadcev in telovadk na olimpijskih igrah in svetovnih prvenstvih od leta 2003 do leta 2016. Skupno število udeležencev v moški tekmovalni orodni telovadbi je bilo 2678 in pri ženskah 1981; medtem ko je bilo na olimpijskih igrah 391 telovadcev in 389 telovadk. V zadnjih 15 letih je bila ugotovljena linearna in polinomska regresija druge stopnje v starostni strukturi udeležencev na največjih svetovnih tekmovanjih. V razčlenjenem obdobju se je povečala starost telovadcev in telovadk. Telovadci so od leta 2003 do leta 2016 v povprečju starejši za 2,3 leta, telovadke pa za 3,3 leta. V prihajajočem obdobju pričakujemo (tudi zaradi dodatnih tekmovanj na posameznih orodjih), da se bo ta starost povečala. Ključne besede: tekmovalna orodna telovadba, razvoj, moški, ženske. Science of Gymnastics Journal 314 Science of Gymnastics Journal SLOVENSKI IZVLEČKI / SLOVENE ABSTRACTS Vol. 9 Issue 3: 314 - 316 Linda Hennig POMEN VIDNE PREDSTAVE PRI OCENJEVANJU TELOVADNIH ZNANJ ŠTUDENTOV TELESNE VZGOJE Raziskave dokazujejo, da duševne predstave nadzorujejo človekova dejanja. Ugotovljena je tudi povezava med duševnimi predstavami in dejavniki, ki vplivajo na oceno uspešnost. Vrednotenje gibalnih znanj je pomembno pri telesni vzgoji, saj je to osrednja naloga učiteljev, za zagotavljanje povratnih informacij in ocenjevanje. Namen te študije je bil torej preučiti razmerje med predstavami in ocenjevanjem telovadnega znanja učencev pri študentih telesne vzgoje.. Duševne predstavitve in ocene so bile ocenjene pri N = 30 PE študentov s pomočjo strukturne dimenzionalne analize - gibalnega in video testa. Mentalne predstavitve udeležencev in ocene uspešnosti so primerjali z referencami strokovnjakov. Rezultati so pokazali pomembne razlike v primerjavi ocen uspešnosti za skupino udeležencev z bolj strukturirano in skupino z manj strukturiranimi mentalnimi predstavitvami, kar kaže, da so bolj strukturirane miselne predstavitve povezane z bolj natančno oceno uspešnosti. Raziskava kaže, da obstaja razmerje med duševnimi predstavami študentov in njihovim vrednotenjem telovadnega znanja. Zato se predlaga, da se za usposabljanje bodočih pedagogov telesne vzgoje, izvaja obvezno telesno in duševno usposabljanje pri telovadbi. Ključne besede: vrednotenje uspešnosti, SDA-M, roll naprej, kolovoz. Ramin Beyranvand, Rahim Mirnasouri, Saeid Mollahoseini, Sadegh Mostofi TRDNOST ZGORNJE OKONČINE PRI ZDRAVIH IN GRBASTIH TELOVADCIH Cilj je bil oceniti in primerjati trdnost zgornjih okončin pri zdravih in grbastih telovadcih. V skladu z merili za vključitev in izključitev iz študije je bilo izbranih 30 telovadcev, starih od 9 do 12 let, in so bili razdeljeni v zdravo in grbasto skupino. Četrtni Y preiskus ravnotežja je bil uporabljen za oceno trdnosti zgornjih okončin na prevladujoči in ne prevladujoči strani. Parni-test je bil uporabljen za primerjavo prevladujočih in ne prevladujočih rok ter neodvisnega t-testa za primerjavo rezultatov med obema skupinama. Dobljeni rezultati niso pokazali pomembnih razlik v trdnost zgornjih okončin med prevladujočo in ne prevladujočo stranjo. Nadalje je bilo ugotovljeno, da je trdnost zgornjih okončin bistveno višja v zdravi skupini v primerjavi s skupino z grbo. Lahko sklepamo, da lahko grba znatno vpliva na dosežene rezultate in povečajo tveganje za prihodnje poškodbe z zmanjšanjem trdnosti zgornjih okončin v zaprtih kinetičnih verigah. Grbo je zato treba nadalje obravnavati in si je treba prizadevati, da se ta problem odpravi pri telovadcih, da se zmanjša tveganje za nastanek poškodb zgornjih okončin. Ključne besede: trdnost, zgornja okončina, grba, telovadci. Science of Gymnastics Journal 315 Science of Gymnastics Journal SLOVENSKI IZVLEČKI / SLOVENE ABSTRACTS Vol. 9 Issue 3: 314 - 316 George Dallas Alexandras Mavidis, Costas Dallas, Sotris Papouliakos RAZLIKE MED TELOVADCI IN TELOVADKAMI NA DRŽO TELESA: VPLIV ZVINA GLEŽNJA Tekmovalna orodna telovadba je šport z največjim številom poškodb glede na število športnikov. Številni študiji so potrdile, da sta gleženj in koleno najpogosteje poškodovana pri telovadbi. Nestabilnost gležnja je pogosto povzročena z nedejavnostjo živčno mišičnih struktur. Namen študije je bil oceniti razlike med spoloma na držo telesa visoko uspešnih telovadcev in telovadk z poškodbo zvina gležnja. Deset telovadcev in deset telovadk, ki so doživeli zvin gležnja, so se prostovoljno udeležili študije. Udeležencem smo ocenili držo telesa s napravo NeuroCom EquiTest Computerized Dynamic Posturography. Uporabljeni so bili trije testi: a) stoja na eni nogi, b) test nadzora gibanja in c) test prilagoditve. Razlike med spoloma so bile ugotovljene pri stoji na eni nogi - na desni nogi z zaprtimi očmi, pri nadzoru gibanja pri počasni hitrosti na levi in desni nogi v smeri nazaj, in na testu prilagoditve pri vzponu. Telovadke so pokazale boljše rezultate v primerjavi z moškimi, glede na število poškodb, ki so jih imeli v zadnjih dveh letih. Ob ugotovitvah je potrebno upoštevati resnost poškodbe zvina gležnja in različnost vadbe in tekmovanj za moške in ženske. Ključne besede: ravnotežje, zvin, gleženj, gimnastika. Katja Ferger and Michel Hackbarth NOVI NAČIN UGOTAVLJANJA PREMIKANJA V VODORAVNI RAVNINI PRI TEKMOVANJIH NA VELIKI PROŽNI PONJAVI Merila za ocenjevanje na veliki prožni ponjavi, sočasno upoštevajo težavnost in izvedbo, z novimi tehničnimi dosežki in nekaterimi objektivno merljivimi parametri pa so še izboljšali ocenjevanje v zadnjih letih. Poleg stopnje težavnosti in izvedbe gibanja, ki se pogosto dojemajo kot subjektivni, je bil dejanski čas leta za akrobate uveden kot objektivni (izvedbeni) kriterij. Poleg tega se predlaga, da bi se v prihodnosti položaj akrobata na ponjavi zabeležil med sestavami v obliki serije natančnih položajev in le-te podatke uvesti kot dodaten merilni rezultat za premikanje v vodoravni ravnini v naslednjem olimpijskem obdobju. Opisan je novo razviti merilni sistem za določitev obeh spremenljivk (čas letenja in sledenje položaja na ponjavi), ki bi se poleg ocenjevanja na tekmovanju, lahko uporabljal tudi za nadzor akrobata pri vadbi. Ključne besede: velika prožna ponjava, določanje položaja, senzorji sile, merilni sistem. Science of Gymnastics Journal 316 Science of Gymnastics Journal