Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Interdisciplinary Approaches Edited by: Nataša Golob & Jedert Vodopivec Tomažič Ljubljana, 2019 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 1 15.11.2019 10:17:59 WORKS OF ART ON PARCHMENT AND PAPER Interdisciplinary Approaches Edited by: Nataša Golob & Jedert Vodopivec Tomažič Reviewers: Outi Merisalo, Martin Germ, Martin Halata, Ute Henniges, Doris Hess Proofreading: Terry T. Jackson Editorial board: Nataša Golob, Jedert Vodopivec Tomažič Cover photos contributed by the Archives of the Republic of Slovenia, Ljubljana; The Ivan Potrč Library, Ptuj; Private collection of engravings, Venice; Museum of Arhitecture and Design, Ljubljana; The Historic Archive, Ljubljana; Gorenjska Museum, Kranj; National and University Library, Ljubljana; Museum of Modern Art, Ljubljana. Published by: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani (Ljubljana University Press, Faculty of Arts) and Arhiv Republike Slovenije (The Archives of the Republic of Slovenia) Issued by: Department of Art History at Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana For the publisher: Roman Kuhar, Dean of the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana and Bojan Cvelfar, Director of The Archives of the Republic of Slovenia Ljubljana, 2019 First edition Print run: 300 Design: Jure Preglau and Nataša Golob Layout: Jure Preglau Printed by: Formatisk, d. o. o. Price: 29,90 EUR To delo je ponujeno pod licenco Creative Commons Priznanje avtorstva-Deljenje pod enakimi pogoji 4.0 Mednarodna licenca. / This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. First e-edition. Publication is available free of charge on https://e-knjige.ff.uni-lj.si/ DOI: 10.4312/9789610602743 Kataložna zapisa o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani Tiskana knjiga COBISS.SI-ID=302627584 ISBN 978-961-06-0272-9 E-knjiga COBISS.SI-ID=302643712 ISBN 978-961-06-0274-3 (pdf) Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 2 15.11.2019 10:17:59 CONTENTS Roman Kuhar WELCOME SPEECH 7 Bojan Cvelfar FOREWORD 9 Nataša Golob, Jedert Vodopivec Tomažič WORKS OF ART ON PARCHMENT AND PAPER ON OUR MIND 11 I. Present Experiences: Bridging Past and Future Martin Halata THE DILEMMA OF THE FINE ADMINISTRATOR: THE ORIGINAL OR FACSIMILE 15 Patricia Engel, Matthew Collins, Sarah Fiddyment, Carla Soto, Matthew Teasdale, Jiři Vnoucek OLD CONSERVATION MATERIALS AND METHODS ON PARCHMENT DOCUMENTS 25 Vinko Skitek ARTWORKS ON PARCHMENT AND PAPER MATERIAL OF PARISH ARCHIVES IN THE DRAVOGRAD-MEŽA VALLEY DEANERIES 35 II. Interpreting Art and Intentions of Artists Barbara Navala PATTERNS OF DECORATION: QUIRE SIGNATURES AND INITIALS IN 12th CENTURY CISTERCIAN LEGENDARY (ALC. 418-422) FROM ALCOBAÇA 39 Ana Krevelj APOCALYPSE DRAWING AS A POSSIBLE SOURCE FOR A FRESCO DECORATION IN HARTBERG CHAPEL 49 Marta Luigina Mangini DRAWINGS ON PARCHMENT AND PAPER OF MEDIEVAL ITALIAN NOTARIES (12th–15th CENTURIES) 57 Ivana Prijatelj Pavičić THE SO-CALLED OHMUĆEVIĆ GENEALOGY (KRALJEVA SUTJESKA GENEALOGY) IN THE LIGHT OF THE RESULTS OF RECENT ICONOGRAPHIC, HISTORICAL, HERALDRY, AND RESTORATION RESEARCH PAPERS 65 3 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 3 15.11.2019 10:17:59 Nataša Golob THE REVERSE FACE OF THE PAINTED PAGE 73 Joris Corin Heyder PASTICHE AESTHETIC. A FORGER’S OR A RESTORER’S PRACTICE? 83 Gašper Cerkovnik SOME OBSERVATIONS ON USE OF BOOK ILLUSTRATIONS FOR POPULAR SOUTH-GERMAN PRAYER BOOKS AS MODELS IN CENTRAL EUROPEAN ART 97 Matej Klemenčič VENETIAN EARLY MODERN SINGLE-LEAF PRINTS AFTER CONTEMPORARY SCULPTURE: QUESTIONS OF FORM AND FUNCTION 103 Tina Buh, Andrej Smrekar BERTHOLD’S GUM BICHROMATES IN/AS ARTISTIC PRACTICE 113 Špela Šubic NIKO KRALJ’S PRESENTATION PANELS DEPICTING HIS DESIGNS FOR THE STOL FACTORY, EARLY 1950s 117 III. Researching the Nature of Works of Art: Preservation and Conservation Melania Zanetti FROM EAST TO WEST: STUDY, CONSERVATION AND EXHIBITION OF THE TABULA CHOROGRAPHICA ARMENICA (17th CENTURY) 125 Jedert Vodopivec Tomažič, Žiga Šmit, Radek Prokeš, Michal Ďurovič HERBERSTEIN’S GRATAE POSTERITATI (1560) IN PTUJ AND BRNO: COMPARISON OF THE COLOURING MATERIALS USED ON WOODCUTS 135 Edith Greuter THE LEIDEN CHARTER PROJECT: DEVELOPING A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH FOR THE CONSERVATION OF THOUSANDS OF CHARTERS 143 Ivana Fujdiaková, Dominika Medová, Veronika Klimszová, Klára Schmidtová, Michaela Vodrážková; project advisors: Josef Čoban, Luboš Machačko RESTORATION OF GOUACHE PAINTINGS ON PAPER 147 Edith Greuter THE VALUE OF CONSERVATION AND DIGITIZATION OF ARCHITECTURAL AND DESIGN DRAWINGS FOR HISTORICAL RESEARCH 151 Luboš Machačko PROBLEMS OF THE CONSERVATION OF ARTWORKS ON LARGE-FORMAT PAPER SUPPORTS 159 4 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 4 15.11.2019 10:17:59 Alfonso Zoleo, Cecilia Rossi, Alessia Mancuso, Renzo Bertoncello, Melania Zanetti A MULTIDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO CONSERVATION: A CASE STUDY OF IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA’S AUTOGRAPH DIARIO SPIRITUALE 165 Birutė Giedraitienė, Medeina Steponavičiūtė ANALYSIS OF WORKS ON TRACING PAPER FROM A COLLECTION OF DRAWINGS BY LITHUANIAN ARTISTS 173 Tatjana Rahovsky Šuligoj TECHNICAL DRAWINGS: CONSERVATION TREATMENTS 177 Fiona McLees FROM AUTHOR’S DRAFT TO SELECT LIBRARY HOLDING: THE METAMORPHOSIS OF FRANZ KAFKA’S MANUSCRIPTS 181 Iva Gobić Vitolović, Sanja Serhatlić CONSERVATION OF A CHINE-COLLÉ COLOUR ETCHING BY M. C. CRNČIĆ (c. 1910) 191 Jasna Malešič, Damir Globočnik, Petra Zaviršek PRESERVATION OF LOJZE DOLINAR’S SKETCHES (ca. 1950–1970) 195 Nataša Petelin, Nada Madžarac, Irena Kralj Cigić, Jedert Vodopivec Tomažič RESCUING THE WOMAN IN WHITE BY GABRIJEL STUPICA 205 Liza Lampič DILEMMAS IN THE CONSERVATION-RESTORATION TREATMENT OF CONTEMPORARY ART PIECES MADE OF PAPER 209 IV. Materials and Tools in Conservation Penelope Banou, Athena Alexopoulou, Agathi Anthoula Kaminari PHOTOGRAPHIC AND TECHNICAL EXAMINATION: A VALUABLE TOOL FOR THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WORKS OF ART ON PAPER AND PARCHMENT 217 Francesco Baudone FUNORI: NATURAL ADHESIVE FOR THE RESIZING OF PAPER MATERIALS 227 Gwen Spicer MAGNETS: SOME PHYSICS EVERY CONSERVATOR NEEDS TO KNOW 237 NAME INDEX 243 5 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 5 15.11.2019 10:17:59 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 6 15.11.2019 10:17:59 WELCOME SPEECH Dear distinguished guests, dear pro- deliberate destruction of our cultural herit- fessors, dear colleagues and stu- age and works of art by radical paramilitary dents, welcome to the Faculty of groups, such as the Islamic State, because of Arts, University of Ljubljana, and welcome political and religious reasons. to the international symposium “Works of The only way to resist these horrific art on parchment and paper”! processes and to tear down the walls be- The Roman poet Horace said that pic- tween cultures and people that the Trumps tures are like poems without words; we of today are trying to build is by knowledge can all enjoy them, but it takes a person of and by remembering the past in order to knowledge, an artistic soul, to preserve, re- understand the present and the future. It store, and interpret them. is for these reasons that I am delighted that These wordless poems, these historical the international symposium “Works of art monuments, these works of art are part of on parchment and paper” is taking place our cultural heritage. They are the basis of at the Faculty of Arts, which is the central who we are, the core of our identity, and educational institution in Slovenia for the a cultural reference that shapes our every- humanities and social sciences. The role of day lives. Without the knowledge of how to the humanities in the 21st century is not only preserve works of art – not only on parch- in preserving cultural heritage and provid- ment and paper, which is the focus of this ing the foundation for knowledge about international gathering – but art in general, the past; their role is also in discovering, un- part of our history and our humanity is lost veiling, clarifying and connecting with the forever. Just think of the desperate elderly worlds that are foreign, different, perhaps lady Cecilia Giménez from Spain – a few frightening ... We cannot live our lives to the years ago she was the joke of the summer fullest if we are not familiar with the stories on social media. She was upset at the wors- of foreign people and foreign cultures. ening state of the image of Jesus in her local This is also one of the most important church, so she took it upon herself to restore messages of the European Year of Cultur- the artwork from the 19th century to its for- al Heritage. It aims at encouraging “more mer glory, but with devastating results: The people to discover and engage with cultur- “Ecce Homo”, a depiction of Christ crowned al heritage and, to reinforce a sense of be- with thorns, now looks more like an ape longing, to enable people to become clos- than a man. She became an overnight sen- er to and more involved with their cultural sation, but for all the wrong reasons. How- heritage”, which “is not only found in litera- ever, what is even more devastating is the ture, art and objects, but also in the crafts 7 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 7 15.11.2019 10:17:59 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper we learn from our ancestors, the stories we tell our children, the food we enjoy in com- pany and the films we watch and recognize ourselves in.”1 I would like to welcome you to the Fac- ulty of Arts during this special year, in which we are celebrating our centennial – 100 years of the University of Ljubljana as well as the Faculty of Arts as one of its founding members. In fact, the history and the story of the University of Ljubljana started with the first lecture in the Slovenian language at this very faculty, the Faculty of Arts, on De- cember 3, 1919. Our program of celebrating the centen- nial is quite ambitious. We have decided to organize 100 events to celebrate our anni- versary. I know – perhaps we have gone a bit too far, but we will reach our goal, and I am pleased that this international gather- ing will be a significant contribution to this goal. I would like to express my gratitude to my colleagues for organizing this important symposium, and particularly to Professor Nataša Golob – without her striking energy, patience, and determination, this sympo- sium would not have been possible. I would also like to thank the Archives of the Repub- lic of Slovenia for their excellent collabora- tion and for co-organizing this event. I wish you all a thought-provoking conference and a pleasant visit to the Faculty of Arts in Lju- bljana. Thank you very much. Prof. Roman Kuhar, Dean Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana 1 See: The European Year of Cultural Heritage 2018, https:// europa.eu/cultural-heritage/about_en (June 1, 2019). 8 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 8 15.11.2019 10:17:59 FOREWORD The Archives of the Republic of Slove- I believe that continual interaction and nia is Slovenia’s largest and central collaboration between the academic sphere state archival institution and is, as and that of cultural heritage preservation is such, one of the most significant custodians necessary and useful. It is this endless cy- of Slovenian written cultural heritage. Al- cle of mutual encouragement and concep- though primarily a keeper of millions of dif- tual enrichment that enhances the quality ferent written documents from the previous of our cultural space. We often say that this millennium, the Archives of the Republic of space is rather small and that we basically Slovenia is also proud to hold some of the all know each other. However, people only items that fit into the broader definition of truly come to know one another when they works of art on parchment and paper. It is collaborate. The project “Works of Art on perhaps because of this that it seemed self- Parchment and Paper” is the product of an evident for the Archives to co-organize the exemplary collaboration between the Fac- international symposium “Works of Art on ulty of Arts and the Archives of the Republic Parchment and Paper”, which took place be- of Slovenia. tween June 6 and 8, 2019 at the Faculty of I wish to express my sincere thanks to Arts of the University of Ljubljana. everyone involved in the organization of The symposium was excellently organ- the symposium and especially in the com- ized and rich and diverse in content. Words, pilation of the present publication. First, I faces, and memories fade away, but a book would like to thank the Faculty of Arts and remains. If we review the titles of the pub- all its “subsystems” for their excellent coop- lished studies, we can see in the present eration and its dean, Prof. Roman Kuhar, publication a lasting reflection of a distinct- for his dedicated support. Sincere thanks ly interdisciplinary scientific meeting. The go to all of the authors of the contributions, book before us addresses experts, who, al- members of scientific and organizing com- though coming from many different areas mittee, peer reviewers, and colleagues at of work, still share a common interest in the Ljubljana University Press, Faculty of their concern for the well-being of cultural Arts. Finally, I wish to thank the two primary heritage and its research. Each from his own organizers of the symposium and the edi- perspective, the authors manage to success- tors of the present volume, Prof. Jedert Vo- fully shed light on the dynamic processes dopivec Tomažič from the Archives of the of the creation, preservation (conservation Republic of Slovenia and Professor Emerita and restoration), and presentation of works Nataša Golob, who was a tireless spiritus of art on parchment and paper. agens of the entire project. Let me also take 9 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 9 15.11.2019 10:17:59 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper this opportunity to congratulate the Faculty of Arts of the University of Ljubljana on its 100th anniversary. My wish is that this book finds a great number of attentive and sup- portive readers. Dr Bojan Cvelfar Director of the Archives of the Republic of Slovenia 10 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 10 15.11.2019 10:17:59 WORKS OF ART ON PARCHMENT AND PAPER ON OUR MIND When preparing the international readers and viewers through their works, symposium “Works of Art on whose imagery is always unique due to the Parchment and Paper” in the artists’ application of different shapes, col- spring of 2018, our plans coincided with ours, and materials. We are suddenly faced those of the European Year of Cultural Her- with the challenge of having to play two itage: we set out to present the research roles; on the one hand, we are viewers of work and the never-forgotten concern for these artistic items preserved from bygone artworks created on parchment and paper times and different environments, and, on – two of the historically most important and the other, we are their custodians; we also most frequently used media. Our invitation accepted the task of caring for the well-be- to participate in the symposium was accept- ing of these precious artefacts from genera- ed by many scientists, experts in this field tions past – if only we knew the names of of work, from various countries extending the persons that cared for the restoration from the Baltics to Central America. In 2019, and preservation of these works in librar- the year of the symposium and the presen- ies from Ancient Greece onwards, at least as tation of this publication, the University of well as we know the names of the authors Ljubljana is celebrating its centenary, which of these works of art! As we reach towards for us marks an extraordinary jubilee; in this them, we come to unveil and understand period, we formed the Slovenian scientific this ancient tradition more and more: in our language, sharpened our views, and con- concern for the preservation of intellectual tributed to joint scientific progress. creations and material properties of these When deciding on the range of the achievements, these works tell us stories of contents of the international symposium conditions and environments specific to a “Works of Art on Parchment and Paper”, we particular time, place, and purpose of the focused on the experiences and the ideas ex- work process. changed over the years with our colleagues The goal of our scientific meeting is to from around the world; we were also guided thematically present the latest research find- by our deep conviction that works on parch- ings in this field of work, derived from many, ment and paper are a direct creation of the often quite different, circumstances. The ba- human spirit, and as such require special sic idea connected to the essence of these care and sensitive attention to their preser- two carriers of painted and written records vation, and, of course, detailed analysis of revealed an extensive range of material their imagery. Since ancient times, artists properties, which was expected. Although have been engaged in a dialogue with their at all times retaining the characteristics of 11 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 11 15.11.2019 10:17:59 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper its animal origin, parchment as a material through circumstances and become multi- was always produced in a slightly different layered memorabilia. manner, causing it to behave unpredictably History destined them to different fates; and to age in unforeseeable ways. Paper is studies published here reveal damages done similarly anything but an unambiguous and to works of art on paper and parchment; straightforward medium; despite its wide- they discuss changes that were expected spread presence, throughout the centuries due to natural processes, as well as some paper was made from different raw mate- that were unforeseen and unpleasant sur- rials and, as such, was of various qualities. prises; the researcher’s insight sheds light Artists used whatever they needed or had on metamorphoses caused by all sorts of a chance to obtain. Thus, the aim of any interventions, which eventually put a strain researcher of aesthetic and thematic mes- on the originals, making them change visu- sages of such works of art, as well as that ally as well as content-wise. Those of us that of researchers of the material nature of a usually deal with works of art on parchment particular monument and of conservators and paper are art historians, historians, ar- alike is to identify the entire spectrum of chivists, researchers of recorded messages, materials and media used, of writing instru- conservators, physicists and chemists, as ments, colourants, etc. It is at this point that well as all others who care about the preser- experts from the humanities and the natural vation of such artefacts. Each published pa- sciences had to join forces to study the cho- per is in a way a case-study, concentrated on sen cultural monuments closely. Since the an art-work that in itself is one and unique profession of conservation-restoration and but at the same time is also an individual- its principles play an essential part in our ef- ized problem within a group of many simi- fort to preserve cultural monuments, the re- lar artistic items and monuments that share search findings and their dissemination pre- a similar history and problematic present. sented here provide much-needed support As lecturers at the symposium were only in the planning of our future interventions. able to present short and abridged informa- This, however, is only one of the goals tion about a specific topic, this publication we set out to achieve. Since each work of of scientific studies provides a platform for art is an independent and unique creation, a more detailed presentation of their sci- there were no dilemmas about which items entific and research goals, their research to discuss and assess. We expected to see methods, dilemmas, and results. Theme-ori- presentations of hitherto unknown or less- ented contributions also reflect on the so- known works of art, and that is precisely cial and historical responsibility of all those what happened. We are therefore particu- in charge of such works. However now the larly pleased that, by publishing the stud- concern and the never-ending effort for the ies, we are able to spread the word about benefit of works of art on parchment and their uniqueness and their cultural and paper are openly expressed once more; it is artistic character. Works of art on parch- a message conveyed by careful and diligent ment and paper are an eloquent and never custodians of this heritage; it is a reminder fully revealed document of our past, whose on the part of the profession and its experts. fundamental idea is to convey beauty and We are all custodians of our joint past, and knowledge. Due to their essence, monu- we wish that our voice be genuinely heard. ments created on parchment and paper This collection of scientific studies of- may define or even transcend all letter- fers the written words of individual authors, based and fine arts systems. They embody but, unfortunately, cannot capture and visualization of language when image hold their live interpretation at the sym- and record integrally shape a message, or posium. The difference also lies in the ar- they acquire an exceptional, iconic value rangement of the whole: while lectures at 12 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 12 15.11.2019 10:17:59 WORKS OF ART ON PARCHMENT AND PAPER ON OUR MIND the symposium were following the chrono- diverse information and experiences. How- logical order of the presented works of art, ever, regardless of the difficulties, the prin- the published studies are divided into the ciple of an intervention: needing to benefit four groups of issues they deal with and are the artefact is – as we have heard or read marked, as such, by intermediate titles. We over and over again – our priority. also benefited from several focused topics Precise natural science measurements presented in the form of posters. Our collec- can “see” the structure of materials, they can tive decision was that their scientific contri- analyse it, and the results of such measure- butions had to be presented and published ment can serve as a direction in our further as short papers. procedures by showing us work processes The first group discusses how to view that existed in a specific time and place. the records we have been entrusted with; This is a rich field constantly developed by how to approach presenting them to the innovative technical possibilities and ma- public, how to read documents on conser- terials: those who had the chance to test vation interventions performed by previous them shared their observations in their generations – years go by quickly, circum- discussions. stances change and with them also the use Many of our colleagues from the Faculty of different materials, many of which can of Arts and from the Archives of the Repub- nowadays no longer be obtained. The re- lic of Slovenia deserve credit for being so in- alization about the correctness of our value volved in the organization of the symposium standards means we must examine small, and in the compilation of this publication of barely known archival collections and be scientific papers. Their efforts to enable this aware that such records significantly com- meeting of old and new research colleagues plement famous collections of well-known so as to discuss topics that we have been and critical archival records. pursuing for many years most certainly de- The second group, on art history, in- serve our sincere gratitude. Thanks to these cludes analyses of the works of art on parch- friends and colleagues from the Faculty of ment and paper from the Romanesque pe- Arts and the Archives of the Republic of riod to the mid-20th century. It opens a va- Slovenia the symposium ran smoothly. No riety of questions about the multi-layered task was too hard for them, and together we lives of artworks, about some of the less managed to create a pleasant atmosphere frequent drawing and painting processes, and contribute to the successful develop- about ingenious examples of repetition ment of the symposium. They stood by our and also falsification of artistic elements, side at all times, offering sound advice and about technical ideas of painters, about un- exceptional care, and ensuring that all work foreseen mistakes caused by inappropriate was done as well as possible. Also invalu- materials, and about iconographic and sty- able was the absolute commitment of Prof. listic issues. Roman Kuhar, the Dean of the Faculty of When faced with damaged artistic crea- Arts, and of the Director and Deputy Direc- tions, conservators need to decide among tor of the Archives of the Republic of Slove- various conservation approaches; the third nia, Dr Bojan Cvelfar and Dr Andrej Nared, group of papers discusses their weighing of who were at all times willing to come to our the options. Working with large-format art, assistance. They agreed that their respective with a large number of items in a single col- institutions carry the financial burden as lection, with essential creations whose ma- well, also assisted by the Department of Art terial properties surpass our experience ac- History at the initiative of the Department’s quired thus far, with extraordinary damage – Head, Prof. Katja Mahnič. Both institutions all this requires a wide range of knowledge, also provided funds for the publishing of long-standing practices, and combining the present volume and the experienced 13 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 13 15.11.2019 10:17:59 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper team of the Ljubljana University Press, Fac- ulty of Arts helped us out with the layout of the book. Since the core of the event were works of art on parchment and paper, eminent cultural institutions in Ljubljana generously opened doors to their special collections: National and University Library, National Gallery, National Museum, Modern Gallery, Museum and Galleries of Ljubljana, with its special unit, the Plečnik House. Those were valuable and exceptional experiences. Our thanks also go to the experts on the individual presented topics, who undertook the not-so-easy tasks of peer-reviewing: Outi Merisalo, Tine Germ, Michal Ďurovič, Patri- cia Engel, Doris Hess, Ute Henniges, and special thanks to Jasna Malešič for her ex- pert advice. Nataša Golob and Jedert Vodopivec Tomažič 14 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 14 15.11.2019 10:18:00 Martin Halata THE DILEMMA OF THE FINE ADMINISTRATOR: THE ORIGINAL OR FACSIMILE Zusammenfassung dringlichen Fragen bezüglich des Schutzes „seiner“ Archivalien. Zu den Voraussetzun- Dieser Beitrag widmet sich der Ausstel- gen für den Erhalt der gewonnenen Kom- lungspraxis des Archivs der Prager Burg. petenzen des Archivgutverwalters gehören Der Schwerpunkt liegt dabei auf dem Aus- vor allem seine gute Zusammenarbeit mit stellen der wertvollsten und wichtigsten Ar- dem Konservator sowie seine aktive Fach- chivalien und zwar aus der Perspektive des tätigkeit. Allerdings wird der anspruchsvol- Archivgutverwalters. Das Archiv der Prager le Archivgutverwalter in seiner Laufbahn Burg bildet seit den 1960er Jahren eine mehrmals gefordert, die hochwertigen Ori- wertvolle Faksimilesammlung. Für Archiva- ginalarchivalien auszustellen, wenn dies im rinnen und Archivare ist dies ein wichtiger Gegensatz zu seiner fachlichen Aussage ste- Anhaltspunkt, denn im Archiv der Prager hen und zu anderen als wissenschaftlichen Burg wird das Ausstellen von Originalen und Bildungszwecken bestimmt ist. Diese als ein unangemessenes Risiko angesehen. Prozesse sind auch in der Geschichte des Im Jahre 1996 waren Archivarinnen und Archivs der Prager Burg zu belegen, das seit Archivare nach Beendung einer internatio- 1920 in einer politischen Organisations- nalen Ausstellung über Josip Plecnik auf struktur eingebettet ist. Diese Abwägungs- der Prager Burg mit einer problematischen prozesse stellen in der Praxis immer wieder Situation konfrontiert. Die Ausstellung sol- ein weiteres Dilemma für den Archivgutver- cher Archivalien birgt immer mögliche Ri- walter dar. Er muss jeweils spezielle Schutz- siken mit sich. Sie hinterlässt unerwünsch- maßnahmen für die ausgestellten Archi- te Spuren bei der Materie (z. B. dauernd, valien entwickeln und berücksichtigen. vorübergehend, zunehmend). In der Tat Fraglich ist, wer die Entscheidung darüber befindet sich der Archivgutverwalter hier anhand welcher Kriterien trifft. Basiert die in einer schwierigen Situation – hinsicht- Entscheidung letztlich auf Einzelinteressen lich des ethischen Zugangs nutzt der Autor oder wird sie in gewisser Weise mittels de- dieses Beitrags den Begriff „ zuverlässiger mokratischer Prinzipien getroffen? (Über- Archivgutverwalter“. Dieser stellt sich den setzt v. Petra Ponzerová). Keywords: exhibition, preservation, archival care, facsimiles, administrator and fine administrator 15 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 15 15.11.2019 10:18:00 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Outline has also inspired the ICOM Code of Ethics S for Museums.3 ince 1920, the Archives of Prague Cas- The binding standard for our work is the tle (hereinafter referred to as the APC), Archives Act (2004).4 Archivists also follow one of the most specialized archives the principles for exhibiting archival materi- of the public archival network in the Czech als in the National Archives of the Czech Re- Republic, have stored unique archival docu- public (2002), set as an obligatory standard ments from the 6th century AD to 2013 in its for Czech archives in 2019.5 repositories.1 It is a small workplace – four Every fine administrator of archival ma- professional archivists take care of approxi- terials of the highest category (in the APC, mately 2,000 line metres of extraordinary such materials include manuscripts on documents. Due to the exceptional wealth parchment, plans, photographs from the of the Prague Castle archival depositories, 19th century, the so-called Habsburg official its professional administration, including acts from the 18th and 19th centuries, and the exhibitions, is carried out by professional files of the Office of the President of the Re- and independent archivists. On a personal public from the first three decades of its ex- level, the archivists of the Archives of Prague istence) is pressured to exhibit them. Czech Castle are required to be ethical profession- professional literature has reflected this als whom we suggest calling fine adminis- crucial question since the 1980s. Ladislav trators. An important prerequisite of their Kolařík, who wrote textbooks on museol- work is their professional profile: if fine ad- ogy in the 1980s and 1990s, notes that origi- ministrators do not publish papers in pro- nals should not be allowed to be exhibited; fessional journals, which de facto reflect facsimiles enable the same experience as their constant interest in the documents, the original. Kolařík also defined various they should keep in touch with the relevant types of facsimiles and their use.6 In 1987, trends in their field. 2 What are the general the journal Archivní časopis published a principles fine administrators can follow in text by Denko Čumlivski, who summed up looking after invaluable archival heritage? his experience stating that archival docu- When exhibiting archival documents, or ments, originals (etc.) should be exhibited as preserving them as cultural heritage, we fol- additional, often just supplementary, quite low the Beijing Code of Ethics for Archivists marginal materials. This statement is not (1996), which states that archivists should inconsistent with Kolařík’s statement about protect the integrity of the archival material exhibiting facsimiles.7 and ensure that it will be reliable evidence Following this preventive procedure, of the past. The idea that museums that take however, fine administrators paradoxi- care of collections should preserve them in cally find themselves in many dilemmatic the interests of society and its development 3 ‘The Code of Ethics for Archivists’, in: Archivní časopis 48, 1998 /1, 1-3. For the ICOM Code of Ethics for Muse- 1 The APC manages 59 archive collections of various ums, see: https://icom.museum/en/activities/standards- ranges from the 6th century to 2013. Its depositories guidelines/code-of-ethics/, as museums can collect vari-also include the funds of the Metropolitan Chapter ous kinds of archival materials. of St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague (6th–19th centuries) 4 The Act on Archiving and Filing Service and and the so-called Habsburg funds of the Prague Cas- Amendments to Some Acts (Act no. 499/2004, Coll.) tle court offices (1526–1918). For the foundation of the APC, see: M. H 5 M. Ď alata, ‘Archivní rozluka 1919-1925: Vznik urovič, ‘Zásady vystavování archiválií ve Státním a úkoly Archivu Pražského hrad’, in: Karel Kazbunda, ústředním archivu v Praze’, in: Archivní časopis 1, kulturní dědictví a mezinárodní právo: Referáty z (2003), 37-50. Zásady vystavování archiválií veřejných vědecké konference konané ve dnech 19.-20. dubna archivů České republiky, 2019, available at: https://www. 2013 v Jičíně. 2013 (Semily-Turnov-Jičín: Pekařova mvcr.cz/zasady-vystavovani-archivalii-verejnych-archi- společnost Českého ráje v Turnově-SOA Semily, 2013), vu- ceske-republiky.aspx 264-293. 6 l. KolaříK, Restaurování písemných památek a tvorba 2 The fine administrators in the Archives of Prague Castle faksimilií (Prague: SNTL, 1991), 46-49. include graduate archivists, a historian, and an art histo- 7 D. čuMlivsKi, ‘Poznámka k archivním výstavám’, in: Ar- rian. chivní časopis, 3 (1987), 147. 16 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 16 15.11.2019 10:18:00 Martin Halata: THE DILEMMA OF THE FINE ADMINISTRATOR situations and are exposed to very stressful to implement their ideas. It is obvious or even neurotic moments. These are influ- that such a rush, based on the very na- enced by several factors: ture of political work, is completely in- 1) General (esp. economic) rules of exhi- consistent with the reasonable speed bition management: i.e., the pressure and sequence of professional fine of exhibition institutions resulting from administration. their competitive efforts to increase the 3) Crystallizing property relations to the attendance of exhibitions, the trend to most important archival collections, hire the so-called star curators, often which is a consequence of the demo- from other than „conservationist” dis- cratic development of the country after ciplines, and their lobbying to exhibit 1989. A special moment in the history of unique „treasures” (which is a matter of the APC was the deposit of ecclesiastic personal prestige). Unlike fine adminis- medieval archival materials and manu- trators, these professionals do not deal scripts of priceless historical value. with the material nature and physical Now, the interest of the deposit owner, condition of the documents, but with the church, logically follows represen- their iconography or contents.8 Another tational goals , often explained with the factor is the ever-improving production following words: seized by the APC in of exhibition funds whose producers the 1950s (i.e., during the Czechoslovak naturally have profit-seeking motives. totalitarian regime). The inadequacy 2) The conclusion of the APC into a politi- of such a statement addressed to the cal institution: this general aspect is also current fine administrators is beyond associated with specific institutional cir- dispute.10 cumstances since the APC has been part of a political organization, the Office of the President of the Republic, since its Being a fine administrator establishment in April 1920. The APC is asked by the highest administration to Fine administrators enter these relations use archival documents to accompany with the conviction that archival documents or present various political events or to are irreplaceable cultural treasures and they represent its founder whose intentions often form a close attachment to the docu- are often different from the definitions ments during their daily work in the closely of the codes of ethics.9 These intentions guarded depository, their refuge. However, are then realised by more or less ag- the above-mentioned relationships are not gressive political management and the only factor the administrator has to men- often characterized by anxious haste tally and intellectually cope with when asked to lend the document, especially when the 8 J. vnoučeK, ‘Výstavy vzácných knižních fondů z hle- facsimile is not accepted as a loaned object diska ochrany a konzervace’, in: Problematika his- for various reasons, which seem compel- torických a vzácných knižních fondů Čech, Moravy a Slezska: počátky v dějinách knihtisku (Sborník z 8. ling (summarized above under Points 1–3) odborné konference; The proceedings of the 8th pro- to the interested party. Fine administrators fessional conference), Olomouc, 20-21 October 1999 / Brno: Sdružení knihoven České republiky and SVK in are perfectly versed in the lending process, Olomouc, 1999), 97-107. and they know their weaknesses. A human 9 The first political exhibition at the Prague Castle was or technical error is, therefore, a depressing held in 1946, and the exhibition committee included ac- tive prominent politicians of the post-war period. The purpose of the exhibition was to present Prague Cas- 10 The ecclesiastical deposit has been stored in the APC tle as the centre of a new democratic country, unlike since the 1957s. In 2002–2019, the relations with its wartime when Prague Castle – the seat of Czechoslovak owner were covered in three agreements about storing presidents, Czech kings and Habsburg emperors – was the deposit in the APC. The agreements include the APC occupied by the German administration of the Protec- Principles for Exhibiting Archival Materials, based on torate of Bohemia and Moravia. the national standard of such principles. See note 4. 17 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 17 15.11.2019 10:18:00 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Fig. 1: Police surveillance during the transport of the Fig. 2: Police surveillance during the transport of the so-called Dražice Codex to the North Moravian city so-called Dražice Codex to the North Moravian city of Ostrava (2018) of Ostrava – a stop at a petrol station (2018) experience for them. Problems can occur at sured for CZK 90 million15 was transported any time during the exhibition preparation, to a local museum by a specialized company, and include, for example, failure to comply two employees of the APC (and thanks to the with the terms and conditions of the loan, Office of the President of the Republic police upon the receipt of the document, or dur- officers). (Fig. 1, Fig. 2) ing its installation and uninstallation.11 Let Both the museum and the owner of the us mention the curious experience of one manuscript accepted the strict conditions of of our administrators, which she had during the loan set by the APC and based on a conser- the exhibition project Ostrava nevídaná na vator’s report (the showcase type, the expo- cestě ke své velikosti (The Exceptional City of sure length, the quantity of illumination, the Ostrava on Its Way to Greatness, 2017).12 The opening angle, especially exhibition stands). APC was asked to lend the so-called Dražický The manuscript was installed by an APC ad- rukopis (Dražice manuscript)13 that includes ministrator who had previously worked in a the oldest historical mention of Ostrava, the restoration/conservation centre. During the north Moravian metropolis. The exhibitor installation of the archival document, howev- agreed to borrow the manuscript from the er, the room was suddenly crowded with jour- owner.14 The manuscript, contractually in- nalists with cameras who wanted to capture 11 v this unique moment for the local public. Not noučeK, note 8, 97-101. 12 Press releases are available at http://www.ostrmuz.cz/ only did the administrator lose confidence in website/mainmenu/stranka-akcien/2017/750-let-ostra- his demanding exhaustive installation work, vy/ostrava-stredneveka/ but the relative humidity of the room started 13 APC, KMK, Msc. G 5, 1st mid.15th century ( PRIMA PARS CRONICÆ BOHEM) to rise rapidly due to the presence of many 14 The manuscript belongs to the church deposit of the people. The administrator managed to install APC, the fund of the Metropolitan Chapter of St. Vitus Library. 15 Ca. €3.6 million 18 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 18 15.11.2019 10:18:01 Martin Halata: THE DILEMMA OF THE FINE ADMINISTRATOR the precious manuscript only after she vehe- Eventually, the so-called mock-ups and mently protested this situation. high quality copies (after 2015), produced Fine administrators who deal with a by graphic reproduction studios, were cre- psychologically challenging exhibition ated as well. If there are high quality fac- agenda have to fulfil demanding daily similes, they are lent instead of originals, tasks, and after some time, they necessar- or a new facsimile is created. This practice ily deal with a personal intellectual dilem- is stated at the exhibitions. Making facsimi- ma. The dilemma is related to their profes- les and mock-ups, however, is financially sional self-reflection: they realize they can very demanding and, under the current lose their job if they do not give way to the legislation, also lengthy; for these reasons, coercive political model of management digital print reproduction on a scale of 1:1 and do not agree with some loans, or they and subsequent print on quality paper of risk misunderstanding or professional iso- the same colour and weight as the original lation from the colleagues if they do not is preferred, for example, for documents want to lend rare documents to them. This and iconographic materials (e.g., draw- may make them think that their work is the ings, written documents).18 This profes- vanity of vanities.16 sional approach, which we suggest calling the preservation mode, however, may be seen as a kind of conservatory fundamen- The way out: a preserving care talism by the borrower and misunderstood or underestimated, which may harm the What is the way out of these dangerous reputation of the archives and increase in- processes when we inevitably ask our- terinstitutional animosity. selves whether exhibitions of originals of invaluable documents are worth all the risk? Do exhibitions of originals meet the The preconditions: cooperation and standards of archival care, which we pro- discussion are requested pose to call preserving care? The APC has based its work on a single premise: exhi- Can fine administrators find a way out of this bitions of rare original documents rep- maze of relationships and risks? Based on resent a generally inadequate risk. The our long-term experience, we conclude that APC has in its possession many facsimi- the only solution is the close cooperation les of a hand-made character (so-called of fine administrators (archivists, archive “twins” – artistically crafted copies, tech- curators) and conservators who sharpen nologically identical with originals) since their opinions in mutual discussion. Such the 1960s. Facsimiles began to emerge in co-operation is all the more effective if it is 1966–1967, when the exhibition Památník not clear whether an original document of dějin československého lidu (The Memori- the highest category should be exhibited al of the History of the Czechoslovak Peo- considering its physical condition. Only a ple), gathering together copies of the most discussion between two professionals can important documents of the Czech and highly appreciated. Cf. M. K Slovak state, was about to be prepared. ostílKová, Rukopisy Kni- 17 hovny Metropolitní kapituly u sv. Víta. Katalog výstavy faksimilií ve Starém královském paláci-Pražský hrad 25.- 16 When working for the APC since 2000, I have seen two 30.9.1995 = Manuscripts of the Metropolitan Library of colleagues who could not bear the brunt of these rela- the St.Vitus Chapter. . tionships and decided to leave the job they had devoted Prague, 1995. a great part of their good professional career to. 18 By 2000, facsimiles were incorporated into the registra- 17 v. Malá, Moje roky v Archivu Pražského hradu, 2019, 8: tion system of the archive of the Czech Republic, the so- unpublished manuscript – KolaříK, note 6, 46. The fac- called National Archival Heritage, and treated as origi- simile collection of the Archives of Prague Castle was nals – archival documents; in 2010, they were removed exhibited as a separate art exhibition at the bibliophile from the registration system on the initiative of the APC congress in Prague (1995) when its artistic value was to serve their real purpose. 19 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 19 15.11.2019 10:18:01 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper lead to the successful conclusion that the companied by a printed version on rarest documents can be exhibited under archival quality paper (ISO 11108) and very stringent conditions and after careful continuously stored in the registry of conservation preparation, as explained by the department to be available to fu- Vnouček in his work.19 ture administrators. What are the preconditions of such a 3) An essential part of the fine administra- discussion? tion of archival funds is a functioning 1) Fine administrators should have suffi- digital photo library, which is continu- cient communication skills to be able to ously updated based on researchers’ re- act as equal partners of hired preserv- quirements and includes both the imag- ers/restorers. The APC hires an external es taken during the surveys of the physi- preserver/restorer that also works as an cal condition of archival documents and adviser of the fine administrator and the so-called study images taken usually needs to have good communication by the fund administrators.21 skills to persuade the administrator to consider their opinion. The two profes- Preconditions of a valuable discussion sionals cannot be in dispute since their between the fine administrator and restorer cooperation would not work and lead are also shaped by the institution where the to a common result. archival documents are stored: 2) An ideal precondition for the discus- 1) Its employees should intensively ex- sion is long-term cooperation of the plain the purpose of exhibiting faithful two professionals, the fine adminis- facsimiles (“originals for originals”)22 trator and preserver/restorer, during and any types of copies instead of the which they can reconcile their posi- originals.23 Education seems to be a tions and educate each other. There very effective way to reduce any adverse are many ways of cooperation. For events associated with exhibiting rare example, when the APC dealt with the originals. collections of medieval manuscripts, 2) Controlled excursions to archival de- after the physical condition of the col- partments, co-organized by archivists, lection was examined, a continuously conservators and restorers, are a very updated, structured database was cre- effective way of raising awareness of ated.20 The database can be ideally ac- the function and exhibition of original documents. We should emphasize that 19 Cf. note 7. Recently, such an approach has been used, the administration of rare documents, for example, in the exhibition in the National Museum of Ljubljana, where manuscripts and prints from the paid by public resources, does not take Maribor collections were exhibited under the conser- place in exhibition halls but in air-con- vation supervision of the Archives of the Republic of Slovenia (Arhiv Republike Slovenije). The exhibition ditioned and strictly guarded deposito- also met educational requirements with its accompany- ries where they can be kept for future ing catalogue. Cf. the accompanying print n. Golob , Na generations. The Czech archive network pergamentu in papirju: Rokopisi in tiski iz mariborskih zbirk, . an educational and popularizing institu- 20 J. vnoučeK – M. sucHý, ‘Průzkum fyzického stavu tion for the majority yet. rukopisů fondu Knihovny MK u sv. Víta: konservátor- ská databáze jako předpoklad správy rukopisné sbírky’, in: XII. seminář restaurátorů a historiků, Třeboň 2006, 21 M. Halata – M. sucHý, ‘Fototéka Archivu Pražského 240-249. – See also J. vnoučeK –M. sucHý, ‘Conservation hradu (situace v letech 2001-2008)’, in: Archivní časopis. database as a precondition for the administration of the Prague 2009, 59 (1), 55-59. manuscript library stored in the Prague Castle Archives’, in: M. J. D 22 The phrase was used according to r. s riscoll - M. raGnHeiDur (eds.), Care and Con- loviK, Originál za servation of Manuscripts 11: Proceedings of the eleventh originál. Zhotovení faksimile řezané knižní vazby, 2016, international seminar held at the University of Copen- available at:http://www.artefakt.cz/a%20sborniky%20 hagen 24th-25th April 2008 (Copenhagen: Museum z%20konference.html#2016 Tusculanum Press, 2009), 89-213. 23 sloviK, note 22. 20 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 20 15.11.2019 10:18:01 Martin Halata: THE DILEMMA OF THE FINE ADMINISTRATOR Fig.3: Excursion to the depository of the Archives of Prague Castle (autumn 2018) To explain the meaning of archival stor- the new aspect is rather cultural mar- age means to explain how economically keting that meets the needs of the user and technically challenging it is to keep archive public.24 From this perspective, the cultural heritage alive and how tricky it PR presentations of short-term exhibi- is to confuse this goal with the effect of an tions of rare documents are extreme- ephemeral exhibition (Fig. 3). ly important. An example of such a 3) An ideal solution for exhibiting origi- strategy in the Czech Republic was a nals seems to be having exhibition successful campaign of the National spaces in archives where curators Library in Prague, which exhibited work as professional experts. As an the most famous Czech book, the Co- example, I can mention the National dex Vyssegradensis of 1086, between Archives in Prague that has exhibited 31 January and 1 February 2015. The many rare archival documents under manuscript was exhibited in the Kle- strict conditions in its exhibition hall. mentinum Mirror Chapel after nearly However, since it is impossible to build fifty years. The exhibition was open an exhibition hall for the APC, the insti- for two weekend days, and it was pre- tution has recently begun to entertain ceded by a massive press campaign the idea of creating a partial special- that emphasized the momentariness of ized fund (with air conditioning and the exhibition, the free admission and showcases) to present original docu- the financial and historical value of ments, which would enable the APC to the document, described the extraordi- exhibit rare archival documents under nary security measures, and presented the supervision of experts and the lo- the facsimile of the rare Codex. While cal team for a specific purpose and for visitors queued in front of the exhibi- a short time. tion hall for the whole weekend (Fig. 4) Natalija Glažar notes that the educa- tional role of archives today does not 24 See n. Glažar, Organizacijsko komuniciranje arhivov – represent a new aspect of their work; hraniteljev arhivskega gradiva (Ljubljana, Arhiv Repub- like Slovenije, 2002), 155. 21 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 21 15.11.2019 10:18:01 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Fig. 4: A queue of visitors waiting to see the Codex Fig. 5: The Codex Vyssegradensis in a showcase Vyssegradensis (2015) (2015) 4, Fig. 5), another exhibition present- an important international exhibition of ing great exhibits, including many Jože Plečnik26 at Prague Castle, when it was original manuscripts, had a very poor discovered that the previously restored PR campaign.25 tracing paper under 19 pieces of plans and drawings was subsequently damaged. Rusty spots, caused by the unpredictable Conclusion: the potential threat contents of the microscopic iron and cop- per particles in the paper pulp, appeared The dilemma of “the original or facsimile” on the material.27 Due to such unpredict- has been the main thread of the work of able consequences of exposing rare docu- fine administrators, and it can leave a per- ments, we can agree with the claim of de manent mark in their mind. Each institu- Witte and de Passer that “in almost every tion has to decide what the position of case […] this is a situation where the object their fine administrators is supposed to be loses its integrity, historical and financial and what support they will be provided, value, and thus becomes a loss for our cul- and how it will maintain and develop its tural heritage”.28 Similarly, Vnouček (exem- exhibition strategy. The APC, for example, plifying the exhibition of books) states that works on the assumption that any exhibi- “it is really advisable to see any exhibition tion of rare original documents presents as a potential threat”.29 an inadequate risk. It can harm the docu- However, professional issues and dilem- ment during the exhibition process, and mas associated with exhibitions do not re- the damage may be small, reversible or lieve the fine administrator of pressures to irreversible, accumulative or non-accumu- 26 Exhibition Josip Plečnik – architektura pro novou lative. The archives of Prague Castle faced demokracii, Pražský hrad 1996 such a situation in 1996, after the end of 27 H. Paulusová, b. bacílKová, r. straKa, ‘Informace o průzkumu poškození plánů Josipa Plečnika’, in: X. seminář restaurátorů a historiků: Referáty. Litomyšl 25 Press release of the National Library of 28 January 24.–27. září 1997 (Praha: Pobočka ČIS při Státním 2015: Událost roku – Národní knihovna ČR vystaví ústředním archivu v Praze, 1999), 95-97. nejcennější knihu. Available at: https://www.nkp.cz/ soubory/ostatni/tz_kodexvysehradsky.pdf. (date: 31st 28 Verbatim by G. De Wille, ‘De Zilveren Passer. Exhibition July, 2019). – A very good and inspiring example of conservation: Luxury or necessity. A case study: manu- how to exhibit a rare monument, including its explora- script exhibition conservation in Bruges’, in: G. FelloWs- tion and PR, is given by Melania Zanetti in this anthol- Jensen – P. sPrinGborG (eds.), Care and conservation of ogy. Cf. also M. Z manuscripts 9: Proceedings of the ninth international anetti, ‘From East to West: Study, con- servation and exhibition of the Tabula Chorographica seminar held at the University of Copenhagen 14th-15th Armenica (17th c.)’, in: Works of Art on Parchment April 2005 (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, and Paper (Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske 2006), 211. fakultete – Arhiv Republike Slovenije, 2019), 125-133. 29 vnoučeK, note 8, p. 98. 22 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 22 15.11.2019 10:18:01 Martin Halata: THE DILEMMA OF THE FINE ADMINISTRATOR exhibit priceless archival documents also for other than educational or scientific pur- poses. Paradoxically, this pressure can open a professional discussion between the fine administrator and the preserver and help them find a synergic or de facto defensive po- sition, which may ultimately lead to a shift in the professions and stabilize the exhibition strategy. There is no doubt that such pres- sures represent a deficit of democracy and limit the expertise of every one of us, the participants of the Ljubljana conference.30 Martin HALATA Prague Castle Archives/Office of the President, Nový palác čp.1, CZ-118 09 Praha 1- Hrad, Czech Republic MHalata@seznam.cz 30 The photographs are property of the National Library in Prague (Figs. 4, 5) and Lenka Kluková (Figs.1, 2) and Michal Šula (Fig. 3).I sincerely thank Ivan Kopáčik (the head of the studio of Restoration and Conservation of Paper, Bookbinding and Documents at the Faculty of Restoration, University of Pardubice) for consultations; to Lenka Kluková (archivist of the Archives of Prague Castle/Records and Archives Department of the Office of the President of the Republic) for sharing her expe- rience; to Irena Maňáková (the spokeswoman of the National Library in Prague) that she kindly lent me the photographs of the Codex Vyssegradensis ; and all fine administrators and conservators/restorers I have coo- perated with in my professional life for an inspiring de- bate. I wish to express my sincere thanks to Petra Ponze- rová, who translated the abstract. 23 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 23 15.11.2019 10:18:02 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 24 15.11.2019 10:18:02 Patricia Engel, Matthew Collins, Sarah Fiddyment, Carla Soto, Matthew Teasdale, Jiři Vnoucek OLD CONSERVATION MATERIALS AND METHODS ON PARCHMENT DOCUMENTS Zusammenfassung wie die im Material enthaltenen Informa- tionen durch Restaurierungen verunklärt Materialinhärente Information wird immer oder sogar unlesbar gemacht werden. Der stärker durch Philologen genutzt. Restau- Beitrag nimmt diese Frage an Hand von rierungsmittel- und –methoden verändern Pergamentuntersuchungen mittels Res- das Material von Handschriften etc., in der taurierungsverfahren von O. Wächter und Absicht es zu stabilisieren und das Fort- modernsten MALDI TOF Untersuchungen bestehen der Originale zu sichern. Hoch im Zuge einer interdisziplinären Forschung an der Zeit ist eine Untersuchung, ob und in Angriff. Keywords: old conservation methods, parchment conservation, information kept in the material Introduction theoretical approaches of the profession3 T and does not attempt a survey of the cul- he impact of conservation methods tural heritage item in its entirety,4 because on cultural heritage items is a topic Zervos only focuses on paper as a carrier of that has recently been understood as text. The author will present a new survey important and, therefore, was suggested as a taking the conservator’s perspective at the new research area at the American Institute MATCONS 8–12 Oct. 2019.5 of Conservation (AIC) meeting1 in Houston Another shortcoming of the research in 2018. For the particular field of paper con- thus far is that the obviously outdated servation, a survey of what was considered the most relevant literature of the past years 3 An overview is provided in: H. rieDl, P. enGel, ‘Systems, patterns and fractals – Both decay and conservation in has been published by Zervos.2 the Sisyphusposition’, in: ERC Newsletter, 2/2015, pp. 18- However, the publication only covers 25, most important u. scHäDler saub, D. JaKobs, ICOMOS Hefte Deutschland X. a part of its intended field. It avoids any 4 P. enGel, ‘Books Convey not only Knowledge, but also mention of changes in philosophical and Beauty’, http://www.icininfo.net/index.php?option=com_ content&view=article&id=55&Itemid=59 1 https://www.culturalheritage.org/events/annual- 5 P. enGel: ‘Comprehensive criticism of conservation meeting (June 2018) methods – their capacity to alter the material the docu- 2 s. Zervos, i. alexoPoulou, I. (2015), ’Paper conservation ments, drawings and books are made of at MATCONS methods: a literature review’, in: Cellulose, 22 (5), 2019’; https://www.muzeulolteniei.ro/en/api/article/ 2859-2897. view/id/cultural-agenda-c256 25 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 25 15.11.2019 10:18:02 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper methods on conservation only rarely be- Wächter’s “Restaurierung und Erhaltung come a topic of research. The application von Büchern, Archivalien und Graphiken”, of old methods, in contrast, has been alter- from 1982. The choice of the book was ing the information conveyed by the very determined by two considerations: first, material of manuscripts over many decades; it was highly influential in its time, as said therefore, scholars, such as philologists who above; second, it is difficult to interpret if increasingly include the information carried you were not a pupil of Wächter, and Engel by the material itself into their research, get was his pupil. misleading information.6 Wächter provides the recipes in a sum- Finally, literature in languages other than mary style, which makes it necessary to English is hardly recognized at all in recent recall practical work with Wächter in the research in this field, although these instruc- 1970s and 1980s in order to remember what tions about how to preserve documents have was actually meant with the texts. In many influenced conservation activity over many cases, no concentrations are given for solu- decades and continue to do so.7 tions and no description of how to apply a The team of the European Research substance nor how long to let a substance Centre for Book and Paper Conservation- react with, for example, a stain on the parch- Restoration, therefore, strives to intensify ment is given. the research into the topic of “fingerprints” As a first step, all the materials had to be of old and outdated conservation meth- brought together or had to be prepared. ods and the history of book and document There are several materials that are not conservation. available anymore, of which natural sperm This contribution aims to be one piece oil is the most significant for our research. in the whole mosaic and clarify the pos- Hunting sperm whales is now prohibited sible impact of old conservation methods and, therefore, fresh natural sperm oil can on leather and parchment conservation no longer be procured. results, using recipes brought together In some cases, the application could be by Otto Wächter,8 one of the pioneers in simulated without recreating the damage graphic art and book conservation, whose that should be treated with the individual ideas have been taken up Europe-wide. A substance and method; in other cases, the better study of his ideas, suggestions, and re-creation of the problem had to be the first methods would clearly benefit the under- step, and the application of the conserva- standing of conservation-related findings tion method was the second step. The deci- in a large number of collections through- sion as to whether or not the damage had to out Europe.9 be recreated was based upon the question whether or not a research question, such as, “Did the conservation method and material Method alter the parchment in its internal informa- tion?”, could be answered without the re- To demonstrate the above, the team of au- creation or only by re-creating the damage. thors started out with the analysis of Otto The latter was the case, for example, when the period of the reaction of the substance 6 Projects by Prof. H. Miklas University Vienna would be examples https://cima.or.at/heinz-miklas/ (19th July 2019) with the parchment was dictated by the suc- 7 O. Wächter, Schweidler, W. Wächter, Trobas would be cess of the result. important sources in the German language. Both the conservation material and 8 o. WäcHter, Restaurierung und Erhaltung von Büchern, method and the re-creation of damage have Archivalien und Graphiken, (Graz: Böhlau, 1982). been documented.10 9 The contribution became possible due to the fact that En- gel was invited to cooperate with Prof. Matthew Collins and his team, who recently won an ERC advanced grant https://sites.google.com/palaeome.org/ercb2c/home 10 Please see Table 1 for details. 26 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 26 15.11.2019 10:18:02 P. Engel, M. Collins, S. Fiddyment, C. Soto, M. Teasdale, J. Vnoucek: OLD CONSERVATION. . Table 1: Table of recipes Running Sample preparation Recipe as it was executed on The purpose Observa- Hypothesis Number the samples tions 1 An iron gall ink made after Sodium hydrogen carbonate Preventing Water might the recipe by Boltz von solution (10% in water) was ink lower the Ruffach* was applied to the applied onto the ink line corrosion. shrinkage parchment on both sides with a glass pipette. Barium temperature. with a stick at around 18 hydroxide was not used as I °C room temperature and was not able to obtain it at a then the ink dried naturally. reasonable price. 2 Parchment A was rubbed Dry Factis crumbs with eraser powder a cleaning. will stay in the Factis mix (still old material parchment from the 1980s, “Archival structure by Aids Draft Clean Powder electrostatic DCP32lb” by Ademco forces and age Limited) in a gentle way slowly, giving the on both sides and then the parchment an powder was brushed off as overall yellowish we did in those days. hue. 3 Water/70% ethanol 1:1 Vol Wet The shrinkage % was mixed at room tem- cleaning. temperature will perature. The parchment was be lowered. immersed and massaged for 2 minutes with a brush. Then parchment A was taken out and placed on oil paper,** and weights were placed along the margins of the piece. 4 Parchment A was artificially Humidification chamber: cold Softening. The shrinkage aged for 60 days at a fluctu- water mist was produced temperature will ating temperature between by natural evaporation of be lowered. 18 and 35 °C and a fluctuat- water from a basin for 2 ing humidity between 55 hours, aged parchment was and 10 % rel Hum. Altering placed over the bowl with every 12 hours. cold tap water for 2 hours. Thereafter, light pressing. 5 Parchment treated like I applied glycerine with my Softening. The shrinkage recipe 4. hands. temperature will be lowered. 6 Old parchment glue with The glue was sent as a Softening. Alteration of vinegar. liquid, and parchment glue information was applied to parchment concerning A by brushing with a brush. animal. 7 Preparation of parchment Parchment glue was applied Softening. Alteration of glue: leftovers of parchment to parchment A with a information (animal not specified) are brush. concerning cut into small pieces, cold animal. water is added 3-4 times, and they are left to swell at least overnight (10 hours). Then cooked in water bath for 24 hours. Put cardboard strips between the 2 pots; the solution should not become hotter than 70°C; ideal temperature is 50°C. the water that evaporates must be substituted by new water constantly, sift through a cloth, add vinegar of 7% 1/3 of the amount of the glue, add 1/3 of the amount alcohol, shake. * Valentin Boltz „Von Dinten“, Illuminierbuch. Wie man allerlei Farben bereiten, mischen und auftragen soll. Allen jungen angehenden Malern und Illuministen nützlich und förderlich, 1549. Reprint with introduction and indices ed. by J. Benziger (Nendeln: Sändig, 1976). ** Oil paper was kindly given by the archives of the Technical University Vienna. 27 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 27 15.11.2019 10:18:02 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Running Sample preparation Recipe as it was executed on The purpose Observa- Hypothesis Number the samples tions 8a/b Parchment A was touched The stain closer to the mark Removing Residues of the with vegetable cooking-oil was treated with magnesia grease powders that on two spots, one closer oxide and the farther one stain. might alter the to the “A” mark and one with sepiolite. information further. Benzine was mixed with of the original MgO and sepiolite each treatment of separately and applied the parchment onto the stain from the top. with inorganic The poultice was left to powder (calcium dry at room temperature. carbonate, etc.) Then the poultice was Information om removed with a dry brush. the source of the The measure was repeated powder might be twice, then the stain was irritated or made gone. impossible. 9a/b Parchment A was touched For the ether application, Removing As 8/ab. with vegetable cooking oil the areas of the 2 stains grease to create two stains. were put onto sepiolite and stain. MgO, and the ether was dripped onto the stain from the top. 10a/b Parchment A was touched For the chloroform Removing The As 8a/b. with vegetable cooking oil application, areas with grease chloroform to create two stains. the 2 stains were put onto stain. did not sepiolite and MgO and the stay in the chloroform was dripped area where onto the stain from the top. I applied it, but ran all over the parchment sample 10a/b. 11 My blood was applied Half of the stain was made Removing Lowering onto a parchment B to wet with tap water from blood stain. shrinkage both sides and dried for one side and put upside temperature. 7 days. down over the open bottle of 30% H O for one hour at 2 2 around 18 °C. 12 Ballpoint pen lines were Dimethylformamide was Removing put onto parchment. dripped onto the area and ballpoint the lines were rubbed off pen ink with a cloth. stain. 13 Parchment aged. Aged parchment A was Softening. Lowering immersed into milk shrinkage (supermarket 3.5% fat) for 2 temperature, minutes massaged a bit and slight fat – then air dried. tanning. 14 Parchment aged. Aged parchment A was Softening The parch- Lowering immersed into urea 10% ment be- shrinkage for 2 minutes and then came really temperature. massaged a bit and then stiff and air-dried. not at all soft. 15 Parchment was aged. Aged parchment A was Softening. Slight oil-tanning. immersed into cedar oil for 2 minutes and then massaged a bit and then air-dried. 16 Parchment A was dipped Removing into dimethyl sulfoxide.*** stain. 17 Parchment A was dipped Removing into ammonia. stain. *** The authors thank Ralf Witting for helping with some of the solvents needed. 28 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 28 15.11.2019 10:18:02 P. Engel, M. Collins, S. Fiddyment, C. Soto, M. Teasdale, J. Vnoucek: OLD CONSERVATION. . Running Sample preparation Recipe as it was executed on The purpose Observa- Hypothesis Number the samples tions 18 Parchment A was dipped Nylon was into a solution of soluble used as nylon (from the 1980s) in protection toluene (supersaturated of colours. solution). 19 Parchment A was placed Removing over the opening of a bottle stain. holding 5 ml 30% H O and 2 2 3 drops of ammonia for 30 minutes. 20 Wheat starch paste was Paste was brushed onto Mending Lowering prepared of 1 vol part parchment A flesh side. tears. shrinkage wheat starch and 4 vol temperature. parts tap water, boiled for 2 minutes and cooled to room temperature. 21 As in 20, but after the Paste with Nipagin was Mending Lowering paste was cool, Nipagin was brushed onto parchment A tears. shrinkage added to the paste before flesh side. temperature. it was applied. 22 Parchment A was dipped Removing The Shrinking. into 5% oxal acid for one rust stains. parchment minute, taken out and curled dried at room temperature up while without rubbing. drying. 23 Parchment A was immersed Removing into 3% HCl for one minute, rust stains. taken out and dried at room temperature without rubbing. 24 Parchment A was immersed Removing into Titriplex 10% in water rust stains. for one minute, taken out and dried at room temperature without rubbing. 25 Parchment A was immersed Removing into a mixture of H O : fly 2 2 ether 1:1 Vol parts for one excrement. minute, taken out and dried at room temperature without rubbing. 26 Parchment A was immersed Removing When the into warm 10% Borax milk stains. parchment solution for 5 minutes, was dry taken out and dried at the crystals room temperature without were like rubbing. shiny snow in winter light on the surface of the parchment. 27 Nitroverdünnung (nitro- Removing thinner is a mix of organic synthetic solvents such as ketones, adhesives. esters and alcohols) was dropped over parchment A 3 times on both sides and then the parchment dried at room temperature. 29 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 29 15.11.2019 10:18:02 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Running Sample preparation Recipe as it was executed on The purpose Observa- Hypothesis Number the samples tions 28 Parchment A was immersed Removing into acetone for one minute, synthetic taken out and dried at adhesives. room temperature without rubbing. 29 Hot water and turpentine Cleaning Lowering of soap, parchment A was off ink shrinkage massaged for one minute stains. temperature. with turpentine soap foam made with a brush first dipped into hot tap water and then moved over the turpentine soap. After the treatment, the soap was washed off the parchment with warm water and the sample left to air dry at room temperature. 30 Fish bladder was soaked in A small brush was dipped All sorts of Change of cold water overnight and into the isinglass, and the gluing, like information warmed in a water bath glue was brushed onto the mending about animal the next day over several parchment A, after this the tears, etc. and lowering hours. The fish bladder sample was left to dry at shrinkage was from an old source in room temperature. temperature. the USSR. 31 Parchment leftovers A small brush was dipped All sorts of Change of were soaked in cold tap into the glue, and the gluing, like information water for 2 days and then glue was brushed onto mending about animal warmed in a water bath parchment A, then the tears, etc. and lowering the next day over several sample was left drying at shrinkage hours. room temperature. temperature. 32 As in 31, but as a final step As in 31. All sorts of Change of of the preparation of the gluing, like information glue, vinegar was added mending about animal to the glue: 1/3 vol and tears, etc. and lowering ethanol 1/3 vol. shrinkage temperature. 33 A spoonful of parchment The “salad dressing” The mix is Change of glue (Nr. 32) was mixed was brushed onto the meant to information with a brush full of quite parchment A sample consolidate about animal stiff Hydroxypropyl cellulose and left to dry at room flaking and lowering (20% in water), 1:20 temperature. paint shrinkage and stirred until it was layers. temperature. disseminated, then a very small amount of PVA was added (1:40) and stirred in, the solution became whitish and finally 6 droplets of toluene were added and the solution split. 34 Methylcellulose from the The mixture was applied To glue Lowering 1980s was soaked in water onto the surface of the elements shrinkage and, after swelling, mixed parchment A. Then the together. temperature. with PVA (2 parts MC and 1 parchment was allowed to part PVA). dry at room temperature. 35 Recipe 20 The mixture was applied To glue Lowering Recipe 32 onto the surface of elements shrinkage Paste of wheat starch and parchment A. Then the together. temperature. parchment glue was mixed parchment was allowed to 1:1 vol % and then a bit of dry at room temperature. Nipagin was added. 30 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 30 15.11.2019 10:18:02 P. Engel, M. Collins, S. Fiddyment, C. Soto, M. Teasdale, J. Vnoucek: OLD CONSERVATION. . All treatments were performed in the three main groups, i.e., cleaning or stain manner as close as possible to the manner removal, softening of hard parchment and and circumstances back in Wächter’s days: all bringing elements together, like mending treatments were performed at around 18 °C tears or reattaching off-flaking elements of and a relative humidity of around 50%. colour, which means adhesion in the wid- The parchment was made in the Bucha- er sense. There are a few other treatments, rest Leather Institute.11 The data frame of the such as mitigating ink corrosion. procedure of parchment making is given in Table 2. In any case, one skin was used to make all samples, and only in one case was Hypothesis another parchment used. In general, the hypothesis can be summa- Table 2: Data frame of the procedure of parchment rized as follows: Wächter’s recipes suggest making that we are in danger of altering the infor- Soaking I: 600% water at 20oC mation we can extract from the material Allowed to stay for 4 hours with today’s’ means and measurements, as Drain the approach to conservation treatments Fleshing: manual has changed over time. Washing: 400% water at 20oC, drain Specifically, we presume that all water Soaking II: 600% water at 20oC, drain containing applications (as in the recipes 600% water at 20oC 4% salt listed here) would lower the shrinkage tem- 0.2–0.4% detergent perature of the parchment, meaning the 3–4 h stirring overnight shrinkage temperature of the collagen fi- Drain Liming 400% water at 25oC bres, a feature that equates to damaging or 4% lime lowering the quality of the parchment (be- 4% salt ing, in a way, a starting point of damage) 0.3% detergent pH 11.5-12 and is to be avoided in the course of a con- Post liming 600% float at 25°C servation treatment.12 2% lime An alteration of the information about Allowed to stay for 48 h Deliming 500% water at 30°C the animal can be expected of all recipes 1% ammonium sulphate that contain DNA themselves (6, 7, 30, 31, 32, Stirring for 40 min; allowed to stay 3313) and, therefore, add this to the parch- overnight Washing: 400–600% water at 20–25°C ment. Where the use of DNA-containing Stirring for 60 minutes, allowed to stay materials is unavoidable, it makes sense to overnight use a form that is as distant as possible from Rinsing and stretching the conservation target. Thus, it is sensible to avoid mammalian glues to repair cultural heritage objects made from mammalian tis- Aged samples were used in the case the sues such as parchment; isinglass (fish colla- treatment was meant for softening. Ageing gen) is much less likely to obscure a genetic was done for 60 days with a fluctuating tem- signal from a calfskin parchment than sheep perature between 10 and 35 °C and a fluctu- or (worst of all) cattle gelatine. Conversely, ating relative humidity between 55 and 15% changing every 12 hours, accordingly. 12 K. MüHlen axelsson, D. soMMer, r. larsen, ‘Dimensional studies of specific microscopic fibre structures in de- The conservation recommendations teriorated parchment before and during shrinkage’, in: by Wächter concerning parchment fall into Journal of Cultural Heritage 13(2) · April 2012’ https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/251664963_Dimen- 11 INCDTP - Sucursala Institutul de Cercetari Pielarie sional_studies_of_specific_microscopic_fibre_struc- Incaltaminte (ICPI); INCDTP - Division Leather and tures_in_deteriorated_parchment_before_and_during_ Footwear Research Institute (ICPI), 93, Ion Minulescu shrinkage (June 2019). St., Sector 3, 031215, Bucharest, Romania. 13 Please see Table 1. 31 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 31 15.11.2019 10:18:02 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper in order to conserve fish leather, it would be (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry (MS) to es- more sensible to use cattle or rabbit gelatine tablish the species of animals used to make than isinglass. both the parchment and glue and to assess The inorganic material to chalk the the level of damage (deamidation) present parchment in the course of its production in the sample due to the manufacturing can be potentially traced geochemically. process. The use of earth alkali metals in the conser- To carry out the sampling, a previously vation treatment can interfere with the in- developed method of the group was used, formation of the original material (8, 9, 10).14 non-invasive sampling technique (eZooMS), Furthermore, the presence of Borax based on triboelectric extraction involving might be irritating (26). the use of PVC erasers that allows us to inter- A sort of fat tanning can be presumed in rogate parchment manuscripts without hav- recipes 13 and 15. ing to use more destructive samples.16 The application of nylon is described in Initially, the use of MALDI-TOF mass recipe 18 and the application of eraser pow- spectrometry was chosen as it is fast, inex- der15 in recipe 2. pensive and a useful basic identification Furthermore, we should take into con- tool or screening method. PMF is based on sideration that such finds would also influ- the analysis of one protein (in this case col- ence our recent conservation decision-mak- lagen) cut into smaller fragments (peptides) ing and choice of conservation material and using an enzyme (in this case trypsin). techniques. If water is a material which en- The mass of these peptides measured us- dangers parchment so severely, we should ing MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry creates either avoid it or find alternative application a profile or “fingerprint” of the protein, techniques. which can then be compared to a reference database. With this method, it was possible to determine the species used to make the First results parchment and also any additional species used to make the glue that might have been This hypothesis was considered under a applied to the surface. philosophical-ethical viewpoint and under Our preliminary results are as follows: a scientific viewpoint. This publication fo- All samples were identified as coming from cuses on the latter. goats. With this method, it is also possible to The instrumental analysis should verify determine a general value of deamidation, a whether or not the information carried by the particular type of damage that occurs in the parchment was obscured and, if so, in what collagen molecule when the skin is exposed way. This would allow for a sort of retransla- to hydrolytic chemical reagents (notably tion of the information gained now into the lime) during its production process, which information which was there originally. In an is defined as the Parchment Quality Index extreme case, the entire story of the survey of (PQI). This is expressed as a percentage; a manuscripts by means of instrumental analy- value of 100% corresponds to no deamida- sis might need to be rewritten. tion, and therefore low or no exposure to Peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF) lime, and a low value points to a more dam- was performed using Matrix-Assisted La- aged molecule. ser Desorption/Ionization - Time of Flight In this instance, in which samples were treated with glue, it was found that both the 14 Research into using dust as a source of information for dating and locating a work of art has recently been con- 16 s. FiDDyMent, b. HolsinGer, c. ruZZier, a. Devine, a. binois, u. ducted by the author P. Engel and Th. Prohaska and his albarella, r. FiscHer et al. 2015. ‘Animal Origin of 13th-Cen- team at Montanuniversität Leoben. tury Uterine Vellum Revealed Using Noninvasive Peptide 15 Product name: Archival Aids Draft Clean Powder DCP3 Fingerprinting’, in: Proceedings of the National Academy of 2 lb can. Sciences of the United States of America, 112 (49), 15066–71. 32 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 32 15.11.2019 10:18:02 P. Engel, M. Collins, S. Fiddyment, C. Soto, M. Teasdale, J. Vnoucek: OLD CONSERVATION. . parchment and glue are made of the same Patricia ENGEL animal, and thus, it is much harder to de- University of Continuing Education, Dr. Karl termine where the damage is occurring Dorrek Str. 30, A – 3500 Krems, Austria (whether on the parchment as part of its patricia.engel@donau-uni.ac.at production or from the glue) and will re- quire further data analysis. It is hoped the Matthew COLLINS information that was provided through our University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom analysis will assist conservators in their de- cision-making and give us a greater under- matthew@palaeome.org standing of the processes that affect parch- Sarah FIDDYMENT ment stability and deterioration. University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, Another suggestion in the conserva- United Kingdom sarah.fiddyment@york.ac.uk tors’ hypothesis had been that the applica- tion of some of the products should lower Carlo SOTO the shrinkage temperature of the collagen. University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, For that, the shrinkage temperature must United Kingdom be measured. This method is also acces- csoto@palaeome.org sible for conservators and is currently performed. Matthew TEASDALE In the meantime, all samples were cut University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, in half and artificially aged in one part; tests United Kingdom will also be run with these to simulate natu- matthew.teasdale@york.ac.uk ral ageing. Jiři VNOUCEK To conclude: there is much work to be University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, done to understand the way in which the United Kingdom 20th-century conservation methods might jiv@kb.dk have altered the information kept in the ma- terial of our cultural heritage, of which only one material and one series of instructions has been discussed here. 33 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 33 15.11.2019 10:18:02 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 34 15.11.2019 10:18:02 Vinko Skitek ARTWORKS ON PARCHMENT AND PAPER MATERIAL OF PARISH ARCHIVES IN THE DRAVOGRAD-MEŽA VALLEY DEANERIES Zusammenfassung bzw. Postkarten der Kirchenobjekte, er- haltene Bildillustrationen, Andachtsbilder Der Autor behandelt in seinem Beitrag und kanonische Tafeln auf, sowie auf Bild- die Arten des Archivmaterials der Pfarren nisse, unter welche er auch die einzige er- im Mießtal, welche unter die bildenden haltene Karikatur einordnet. Dabei stellt Kunstwerke auf Papier und Pergament ein- er die Archivalien, die aus jeder einzelnen gestuft werden können. Das dort erhaltene Gruppe am repräsentativsten sind, etwas Bildarchiv teilt er auf Bauplänen, Bildern genauer vor. Keywords: Meža valley, Carinthia, archive material, ecclesiastical history Introduction Development of Church administration Systematic recording of archives of par- In the early Middle Ages, the Meža valley was ishes on the territory of the deanery part of the Aquileian patriarchate, which es- of the Dravograd-Meža Valley has re- tablished an archidiaconate for the Carin- vealed a great deal of archival material paint- thian region south of the Drava River, as a ed on paper and some on parchment. Most kind of intermediate stage between the arch of this kind of archival material was discov- parishes and the patriarchate. The territory ered in the parish archives in Prevalje, which of the Meža valley covered two more arch is also the largest in scope, as it contains as parishes: Šmihel near Pliberk/St. Michael many as 105 archive boxes. Individual frag- ob Bleiburg, which covered the areas of the ments of this kind of material are found in parishes of Črna, Mežica, Šentanel and Stroj- the parish archives in Kotlje, Ravne, Črneče na, and the Šmartno near Slovenj Gradec, and St. Daniel near Prevalje. Two examples which included the parishes Kotlje, Guštanj of this kind of material are painted on parch- (Prevalje and Ravne), Libeliče and Črneče. ment and leather, while the rest are painted Until 1751, the parishes Prevalje, Libeliče, on paper. The purpose of this article is to and Kotlje belonged to the Aquileian patri- present these archival materials to the gen- archate. From this year onwards, until 1787, eral professional public. they were part of the newly established Gorizia Archbishopric. Unlike the afore- mentioned parishes, the parishes of Črna, 35 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 35 15.11.2019 10:18:02 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper plans were partially preserved in parish archives in Črneče, Prevalje, Ravne, and Šentanel. They include the plans of the rec- tories, commercial buildings, churches, and also plans for their reconstructions and ren- ovations. Amongst them, the site plan of the parish buildings in Prevalje stands out (Fig. 1). It was drawn by the Völkermarkt’s district architect Bruck on the 1st of January 1861, for the planned renovations of the rectory. Its distinct feature is that it depicts a Roman- esque ossuary, which was demolished a few years later. From the artistic and historical point of view, the layout of the old parish church in Prevalje is equally significant, be- cause the old church, with the exception of the bell tower, was demolished in 1890 when the construction of a new church began. From the said plan we find that the original Romanesque church in Prevalje was among the churches with an eastern bell tower above the presbytery, and its nave Fig. 1: Site plan of parish buildings in Prevalje, author: was divided by two columns into two parts. Bruck, 4. 1. 1861 On the sides, two chapels were attached, whereby its layout in the Baroque period Mežica, and Šentanel belonged from 1461 was shaped like a cross.2 to 1787 to the Ljubljana diocese. That same The second set consists of artistic de- year (1751), due to the regulation of the bor- pictions of churches, for example, post- ders between the dioceses, all parishes in cards and colour drawings on the A5 format the area of the Meža valley were annexed and date back to the second half of the 19th to the Lavantine diocese. Between 1859 and century. This set is quite dispersed: such 1964, they were part of the Gurk diocese. Af- material can be found in parish archives ter 1964, they were again integrated into the in Šentanel, Kotlje, Ravne, Črneče, and Lavantine or Maribor diocese.1 Prevalje. One of the most striking pieces is the black-and-white drawing of the church of St. Barbara (in Zagrad, near Prevalje), Examples of archival material drawn by F. Klemen in 1850. The special feature of the depiction is that the origi- The first set consists of colour plans from nal Gothic bell tower is still present, which the 19th century, which were used in par- had risen above the presbytery and which ishes for the renovation of buildings. Such was pulled down in 1908 and replaced by a neo-Gothic bell tower, which was added 1 v. sKiteK, ‘Oznanilne knjige župnij v 19. stoletju na območju jugovzhodne Koroške’, in: Obdobja 37, Starejši to the western wall of the nave. The second mediji slovenske književnosti: rokopisi in tiski (Ljubljana: particular piece of art is a colour postcard Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete, 2018), 55-64. v. s of the Church of the Holy Cross near Dra- KiteK, K. oDer, Prevalje skozi čas, in: Žive vezi – Rastoča knjiga Koroške (Ravne na Koroškem: Koroški pokrajinski vograd from the second half of the 19th muzej, 2015), 106; K. oDer, Občina Ravne na Koroškem (Ljubljana: Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete, 1992) 2 s. JavorniK, Likovna dediščina cerkva Mežiške doline 24-26. On the development of mediaeval Ecclesiastical (Ravne na Koroškem: Koroški muzej,2002), 46-49; Arhiv history in Carinthia, see also : J. HöFler, O prvih cerkvah župnije Prevalje (AŽP), Načrti župnijskih objektov, na Slovenskem (Ljubljana: Viharnik, 20172). škatla 94. 36 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 36 15.11.2019 10:18:05 Vinko Skitek: ARTWORKS ON PARCHMENT AND PAPER MATERIAL OF PARISH ARCHIVES... Fig. 2: Book (chronicle) of fraternity Fig. 3: Book (chronicle) of the fraternity “Jesus, Marija, Jožef”, Prevalje, 1688, “St. Daniel”, Šentanel near Prevalje, 1763, photo: Aleksander Ocepek, 2019 photo: Aleksander Ocepek, 2019 century. The unique feature of the postcard and the name of the brotherhood. This is is that it depicts the church, which was con- followed by four further parchment sheets secrated in 1851, and the Makočnik farm. decorated with a large green bay leaf wreath The farm was donated to the newly-built bound with two red bows. On these sheets, church by the farms’ previous owners. The all the members of the brotherhood, who farm buildings were later demolished, and were members of the noble families or there is no trace of them today.3 priests, are recorded (Fig. 2). The third set is represented by two fra- The other fraternal book is from ternity books. The first book, from the par- Šentanel and has a brown leather cover ish archive in Prevalje, is of the Brotherhood with a lavish colour image of the prophet of Jesus, Mary and Joseph, which was found- Daniel in the lions’ den; on the other side ed in 1688. On the paper pages, there is data of the cover, the name of the brotherhood on the establishment of the brotherhood, its is written in golden-brown letters as is the members from the serf and bourgeois class- year of its foundation: 1763 (Fig. 3). The in- es. This is followed by a parchment sheet terior of the book, which consists of bound decorated with coloured painted images of paper sheets, is for the census of members the Holy Family, or Jesus, Mary, and Joseph of the brotherhood and their contributions. as the chief patrons of this brotherhood Both fraternal books were created due to the needs of both brotherhoods for keeping 3 JavorniK, note 2, 33; AŽP (note 2), Risba cerkve sv. the list of members and recording revenue Barbare, škatla 94; Arhiv župnije Črneče, Dopisnice and expenditure. Their rich decorations, črneškemu župniku, škatla 8. 37 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 37 15.11.2019 10:18:07 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper however, are external signs of their impor- the fundamental need for art, out of which tance in domestic environments.4 humanity prospers. In such an invaluable The fourth set represents the religious way, in addition to data-based knowledge, images of saints and prayers. Two docu- graphic materials give us a visual image of ments are presented in detail in this section. people and objects that shaped our history The first is a prayer plaque with the title Sa- decades and centuries ago. cerdos cum lavat manus dicat originating most probably from the end of the 17th cen- tury and was used in the reading of Masses. Vinko SKITEK It is rectangular and has a black base with a The Regional Archives Maribor, Unit Ravne na white border. On the black background, the Koroškem, Historical Society for the Slovene image of the Baroque altar frame is depict- Carinthia region, Čečovje 12 a, SI – 2390 Ravne na Koroškem, Slovenia ed in which the text of the prayer is printed vinko.skitek@pokarh.mb.si on a white background. The second is the image of St. Therese of the Child Jesus, most likely created at the beginning of the 20th century, and is the size of A6 paper. A holy card with a photo of the young nun St. The- resa is different in form because the central place on a rectangular image occupies the photograph of the saint, and her name, writ- ten in French. Its origin is linked to purely religious motives, or with the desire to ex- pand the knowledge and the prayer to this young saint.5 In the end, the drawings of the Kotlje’s parish priest Ludvik Lajnšček are added to the presented documents. On 28 January 1941, a caricature was drawn with a pencil by the famous Slovenian cartoonist Ladislav Kondor in Murska Sobota.6 Conclusion Archival material, through its research, opens its eyes to the past. Graphic ma- terials were often a supplement to writ- ten documents and therefore were not maintained to such an extent. It emerged from the need for building, by express- ing the importance of institutions to the world, following religious devotion and 4 AŽP, Knjiga bratovščine Jezus, Marija, Jožef, škatla 11; Arhiv župnije sv. Danijel, Knjiga bratovščine sv. Danijela (urbar), 1763, škatla 11. 5 Arhiv župnije Ravne, Podobica/kanonska tabla »Sacer- dos«, škatla 5; AŽP, Podobice, škatla 97. 6 Arhiv župnije Kotlje, Karikatura Ludvika Lajnščka, Ladislav Kondor, 28.1.1941, škatla 16. 38 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 38 15.11.2019 10:18:07 Barbara Navala PATTERNS OF DECORATION: QUIRE SIGNATURES AND INITIALS IN 12TH CENTURY CISTERCIAN LEGENDARY (ALC. 418-422) FROM ALCOBAÇA Résumé qui du point de vue stylistique reprend toutes les tendances esthétiques essentielles Le monastère portugais de Santa Maria de de la fin du XIIe siècle présentes à ce mo- Alcobaça a été fondé en 1153 en tant que 53e ment dans ce scriptorium. Le quatrième vol- affiliation à l’Abbaye cistercienne de Clairva- ume du Légendier contient les signatures ux. Il est partie prenante de l’activité intense uniques du corpus de manuscrits du XIIe de création artistique qui anime le Portugal siècle, signatures dont les ornements sont du Moyen-ge et constitue à cet époque un dans une relation stylistique et formelle centre culturel important. Le monastère re- étroite avec le reste de l’ornementation des celait une riche bibliothèque de manuscrits manuscrits et qui constituent un témoign- et nous pouvons dater du XIIe siècle pas age important sur le travail méthodologique moins de 24 manuscrits préservés. Un des et la coopération dans le cadre du scripto- manuscrits les plus intéressants de ce fonds rium d’Alcobaça. est Le Légendier d’Alcobaça, Alc. 418-422, Keywords: Illuminated Romanesque manuscripts, Cistercian Monastery Alcobaça, Legendary Alc. 418-422, initials, ornamented quire signatures A few historical notes was that led to the foundation of this Portu- guese monastery, but several different hy- The Portuguese Cistercian monastery Santa potheses identify the involvement of Saint Maria de Alcobaça was founded in 1153 as Bernard, and diplomatic mediation at the the 53rd affiliation to the Clairvaux Abbey. It papal court has led many scholars to the was founded at the outermost edge of the presumption that the foundation of Alco- Christian territory that had only recently baça was part of a more ambitious ecclesi- been reconquered from the Arabs, which astical and political plan.1 helped create a new Portuguese political At the time of its foundation, Alcobaça state. The foundation, therefore, had a sig- was a part of a vibrant artistic environment nificant ecclesiastical and political impact, that spread from the north of Portugal to its as well as revitalising the economic and cultural life of the country. It is still not pre- 1 b. navala, Knjižno slikarstvo 12. stoletja v cistercijan- cisely clear what the political background skem samostanu Alcobaça (unpublished doctoral the- sis, University of Ljubljana, 2011), 22-27. 39 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 39 15.11.2019 10:18:07 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper south. At almost the same time, cathedrals that time, but there are nevertheless some in Braga, Oporto, and Coimbra were be- exceptions: there is a relatively large number ing built, mixing foreign artistic influences, of preserved liturgical manuscripts; there is mainly from France, with the local Iberic Ro- a clear preference for Latin (and not Greek) manesque tradition. church fathers; the library contained the natural history work De Avibus by Hugo de Folieto and a canon law collection by Bur- Alcobaça’s library during the 12th Century chard of Worms, which indicate the impor- tance that Alcobaça will have in the coming Alcobaça’s monastic library is nowadays years in the area of ecclesiastic and civil law. considered one of the most splendid Cis- There are six different liturgical manu- tercian libraries. Copying of manuscripts scripts that can be dated to the 12th century, started in the second half of the 12th cen- which in comparison with other Cistercian tury and lasted until the 16th century, when libraries is a relatively large number, consid- a printing workshop was established in the ering that these kinds of manuscripts were monastery. Book production in Alcobaça in constant use during the liturgy or quickly was therefore continuous right up until the replaced by new texts when new formal abolishment of the order in 1834. The first regulations changed the content of liturgi- preserved catalogue of Alcobaça’s library cal books. dates from 1775,2 which is why we can now The group of liturgical manuscripts in only reconstruct the original state of the Alcobaça 12th century is thus formed by medieval library by analysing the remain- two Lectionaries, one Psalter, one Collec- ing manuscripts. Its later development and tar, one Martyrology and the Legendary 4 history can also only be outlined on the ba- in five volumes with current shelf number sis of different notations and historical doc- Alc. 418-422. uments that have been preserved. Of the Legendary is one of the few of Alco- 453 manuscripts that are today kept in the baça’s manuscripts that contain an ex-libris National Library of Portugal, we can date (Fig. 1). At the end of the last volume, the 24 manuscripts to the 12th century. Due to scribe wrote: “Liber S. Marie de Alcubacia” the lack of written documents and written and decorated the capital letters with fili- sources, the dating is based on stylistic and gree ornament. This is a very valuable piece formal analysis of the artistic decoration, of information that precisely determines analysis of material aspects of the manu- the provenience or ownership of the manu- scripts, palaeographical analysis, and on a script and that it belongs to the original li- few ex-libris and marginal notes. brary of the 12th century. Manuscript production in Alcobaça As was common amongst the affiliated started shortly after the establishment of the monasteries, the Alcobaça Legendary was monastery in 1153 and reached its creative copied from the Clairvaux “old” Legendary,5 peak at the time of the Abbot Martinus, who which was lent before it was replaced in led the monastery between 1176 and 1191. 1170 by the new one. In this way, the manu- In the colophon of the manuscript, Alc. 365 script arrived in Alcobaça in the last decades can be found a note that says that the manu- of the 12th century. script was copied at the time of his abbacy.3 Although the similarities between both, The content of Alcobaça’s medieval library especially regarding the wording and the is very similar to other Cistercian libraries of content, are more than obvious, there are also some significant differences. In the 2 F. De sa, Index Codicum Bibliothecae Alcobatie (Lisboa: Typographia Regia, 1775). 4 Lisbon, BN, Alc. 418-422. 3 ‘ Et ego martinus eiusdem loci abbas dico et confirmo 5 F. Dolbeau, ’Le Légendrier d’Alcobaça. Histoire et Ana- (…)’. Lisboa, Biblioteca Nacional, Alc. 365, fol. 117r. lise’, in: Analecta Bollandiana, 102 (1984), 263-296. 40 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 40 15.11.2019 10:18:07 Barbara Navala: PATTERNS OF DECORATION the fourth volume of the Legendary) pos- sess their original bindings. According to the systematization of medieval Portuguese bindings, this is of the complete loop type (type B), which is the prevailing type of Al- cobaça’s medieval bindings, because (due to the routing of the straps) the manuscript is very solidly and very flexibly bound to- gether. Because this technique is quite chal- lenging and time-consuming, it was very soon replaced by another technique that was less firm, so the fragility of the manu- Fig. 1: Lisbon, Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal, script was increased. In the scientific litera- Legendary, 5th volume, Alc. 422, fol. 251r6 ture it is considered that the binding of the type complete loop is a slightly older bind- ing technique and that its origins must be table of contents in the first volume of the local, that is Iberic, and that other later tech- Legendary, we can read that the text also niques appear in Alcobaça mainly as a for- includes the legend Vita S. Mauri abbatis, eign, French influence.10 but the notation is crossed and then on fo- lio 232r can be read “Quere in libro de ui- tis sanctorum partum”. This means that the Initials and decorated quire signatures Legendary was conceived as an individual work, but at the same time also as a part of The Legendary from Alcobaça is stylistically an already existing monastic library, where a mixture of different textual and stylistic the legend of the above-mentioned saint solutions that follow the aesthetics of the had already been copied elsewhere.67 late 12th century and late Romanesque illu- It can also be observed that some other mination. The decoration of the manuscript legends, mainly of local saints, were added is composed mainly by the initials; only Alc. as well. In the main text were among others 421 has ornamented quire signatures, which also included Historia Titi et Vespasiani and are unique to Alcobaça’s book production the legend of Saint Vincent. 8 The latter was in the 12th century. probably even copied in the scriptorium of The initials from the manuscript can the Lisbon’s cathedral by the master called be typologically divided into calligraph- Stephanus.9 ic, silhouette, and painted initials, while It is vital to note that two out of five vol- painted initials can be further divided umes of the Legendary still possess their into a group of initials with compact bod- original bindings, which is quite surprising ies and into initials formed by scrollwork. for such a large format manuscript and for An interesting subgroup of these initials its content, since the liturgical books were is leafy initials,11 whose body is formed in constant use by the monastic communi- only by leaves. The leaves do not grow out ty. Alc. 418 and Alc. 421 (that is the first and of the tendrils, but appear to grow out of leaves themselves and thus present a to- 6 Illustrations are copies of the microfilms, obtained from tally novel arrangement. The formal Ro- the National Library in Lisbon, Portugal. manesque duality of the scrollwork body 7 M. a. MiranDa, A iluminura românica em Santa Cruz de Coimbra e Santa Maria de Alcobaça (unpublished and leafy adornment is lost and no longer doctoral thesis, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 1996), 276-280. 10 a. a. nasciMento, Encadernaça˜ o Portuguesa Medieval. 8 MiranDa, note 7, 202. Alcobaça (Lisboa, 1984). 9 MiranDa, note 7, 200-202. 11 navala, note 1, 92. 41 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 41 15.11.2019 10:18:08 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper nevertheless appears as a completed and coherent work of art. The authors of the initials from Alc. 420 and most of the initials in Alc. 422 were two artists who were stylistically very close to the so-called Alcobaça’s heavy style and who combined these elements with the el- ements from the Papias Master.12 These ini- tials have compact and dense bodies, foli- age spreads in the bellies of the letters and is in most cases richly cross-hatched with tiny strokes of the pen.13 Stylistically differ- ent are the initials from other volumes of the Legendary, namely Alc. 418, 419, 421, and partly Alc. 422. These are richly ornamented scrollwork initials that lay on the painted background, which follows the contours of each letter. The initials mark the beginning of each of the volumes or the beginning of Fig. 2: Lisbon, Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal, every single legend through the text. Such Legendary, 4th volume, Alc. 421, fol. 93r initials are full of internal dynamics, move- ment and formal tension and are formed by somewhat surprising elements. It might exists. Now the initials are formed only by be concluded that by the very deformation leaves and other unusual elements that of the natural, by introducing bizarre and have no logical connection with the nat- illogical elements, these initials represent ural. It seems that such initials represent some kind of late Romanesque mannerism, an endpoint in the Romanesque foliated for which further artistic development is no scrollwork ornamentation. longer possible.14 Stylistic analysis of the Alcobaça’s Leg- These initials were made by a mas- endary shows that the artistic elements of ter, or even better, a group of the masters the manuscript were the work of several who used the same formal terminology different masters of drawing and painting, and followed similar formal patterns and who followed the same model, but were models. These artists that worked in Alco- stylistically very different in the conception baça’s scriptorium in the late 12th century of their initials. The collaboration of several are called “Masters of the late Romanesque different artists at the copying and illumi- mannerism”. This type of illumination first nation of such a comprehensive work as a appeared in the middle of the century in the Legendary was by no means a rarity; on the monastery of Clairvaux, and it very clearly contrary, it could be said that it was almost a appears in the illuminated “monochrome” rule in the monastic scriptoria, because such Bible. 15 Almost five decades later, the style an extensive liturgical text was quite a task re-appeared rather modified in the scripto- that demanded many hours of uninterrupt- rium of Cîteaux, where it flourished again.16 ed work and dedication. Therefore, it is not 12 navala, note 1, 122-133. surprising that the Alcobaça’s Legendary is 13 navala, note 1, 145. a work of different hands, which sometimes 14 navala, note 1, 146. worked simultaneously and sometimes in a 15 Troyes, Bibliothèque Municipale, Ms 271-5. consecutive way but all contributed to the 16 y. ZałusKa, L’Enluminure et le Scriptorium de Cîteax stylistic variety of the manuscript, which au XIIe Siècle (Commentarii cistercienses, Studia et Documenta, vol. IV), (Cîteaux: 1989), 160-167. 42 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 42 15.11.2019 10:18:09 Barbara Navala: PATTERNS OF DECORATION Fig. 3: Lisbon, Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal, Legendary, 2nd volume, Alc. 419, fol. 77r; Legendary, 4th volume, Alc. 421, fol. 131v; Legendary, 4th volume, Alc. 421, fol. 60v The dualism of the formal construction “cut out” Bible.17 These repeating elements of the initial (the scrollwork body and foli- are always of the same size and meticulous- ated ornament) disappears and the initial ly reproduced at the conception of different now becomes an inseparable item in which initials from various manuscripts. On this elements such as tendrils, all kinds of leaves, basis, it can be supposed that the artist used geometric elements, fruit, drapery, feathers stencils in order to facilitate the drawing of and fantasy elements are drawn and added repeating elements. The use of the stencils in order to create a fantastic and indetermi- made it possible for them to repeat the same nate composition that only schematically vegetative element in the exact same way represents the body of a letter. This type of and size in different compositions.18 illumination is surprisingly optimistic, full of The possibility of the use of stencils joie de vivre and points towards the new era, in the scriptorium is an interesting detail, which will begin at the turn of the century. which demonstrates the use of technical de- In connection with the initials that can vices within a scriptorium. It is easy to imag- be attributed to the Masters of the late Ro- ine the working process and that the copy- manesque mannerism, another formal ing and illumination of manuscripts was a distinction can be singled out: the design team effort in which the artists exchanged and the construction of different elements folios with drawings of exempla and models show that some of the elements seem to be as well as stencils, because this procedure continually repeating or appear one after enabled them to be more accurate and fast- another in the conception of the large ini- er since the method facilitated the drawing tials or even ornamented quire signatures. of some of the more complex elements.19 A clear example of such repetition is the Undoubtedly, the ornamented quire sig- body of a dragon that sometimes appears as natures are stylistically and morphological- a “real” dragon with a drawn head, ears, and ly tightly bound to the painted initials that tail but sometimes only the form of its body is used as an abstract artistic element. These 17 Lisbon, BN, Alc. 427-431. repeating elements such as globes with fan- 18 n. Golob, ’Kadelne iniciale v dveh volumnih frančiškan- shaped leaves, leaf ears or fan-shaped leaves skega graduala’, in: Zbornik za umetnostno zgodovino, n.s. XXXVIII, (2002), 152-183. appear not only in the Legendary but also 19 R. W. scHeller, Exemplum: Model-Book Drawings and in other manuscripts from the Alcobaça’s the Pratice of Artistic Transmission in the Middle Ages scriptorium, for example in the so-called (ca.900 – ca. 1470) (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1995). 43 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 43 15.11.2019 10:18:11 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Fig. 4: Lisbon, Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal, Legendary, 2nd volume, Alc. 419, fol. 92v; Legendary, 2nd volume, Alc. 419, fol. 98r prevail in a formal and an aesthetic sense. The ruling of this manuscript is very spa- Quire signatures mark in some manuscripts cious, and the margins are opulently large the end of each quire and in other manu- and empty. The bottom margins, approxi- scripts only the end of some of the quires mately 102 mm tall, offer enough space for with no evident methodology or order. In the artist’s intervention. Alcobaça manuscripts only Roman numer- Ornamented quire signatures in Alc. 421 als were used as the orientation in the pro- are closely connected to the painted initials cess of book-binding. Marking the quaterni- of the manuscript, and together they form a ons with quire signatures, which lie in the unique stylistic and formal dialogue. Stylisti- middle or at the right side of the bottom cally, they are very close to the type of illumi- margin, was not consistent. nation that can be attributed to the Masters Furthermore: when one examines the of the late Romanesque mannerism. Such il- materials, it can be deduced that the scrip- luminated quire signatures are unique and torium of Alcobaça was deciding quite exceptional in the Alcobaça’s collection of freely about marking or not marking the the 12th century. Although the quire signa- quaternions with quire signatures. Some tures are executed in a drawing technique quire signatures are also ornamented, with pen in black-brown tint, they can still mostly with calligraphic ornament. Only be described as painted, because they adopt the fourth volume of the Legendary (Alc. the formal language of the painted initials 421) has the quire signatures, adorned by and are formed by the same elements that the elements of painted initials. 20 assemble the initials. The fourth volume of the Legendary Ornamented quire signatures in Alc. 421 (Alc. 421) is also one of the two volumes denote eleven out of thirty quaternions in of this manuscript that still possesses the the manuscript. original binding, so its margins were never The authorship of the eleven ornament- trimmed and the folio layout is still exactly ed quire signatures can be assigned to one as originally conceived in the 12th century. single master, probably from the group of the Masters of late Romanesque mannerism. 20 navala, note 1, 69. 44 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 44 15.11.2019 10:18:12 Barbara Navala: PATTERNS OF DECORATION Fig. 5: Lisbon, Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal, Legendary, 4th volume, Alc. 421, fol. 17v; Legendary, 4th volume, Alc. 421, fol. 49v; Legendary, 4th volume, Alc. 421, fol. 65v; Legendary, 4th volume, Alc. 421, fol. 81v; Legendary, 4th volume, Alc. 421, fol. 102r However, the ornamented signatures are im- to connect the master of the quire signa- possible to connect with certainty to indi- tures to the exact parts of the illumination vidual initials in the text, and it is impossible in the manuscript. 45 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 45 15.11.2019 10:18:15 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper The Master of Alcobaça’s quire signa- Roman numeral, represents a globe with tures conceived the ornamental composi- filigree floral fan-shaped elements. Globes tion of all of them in the same way: above decorated with fan-like leaves represent an the Roman numeral, there is a stem carrying often-repeated motif also in initials. So, for a floral ornament that spreads left and right example, in initial P on folio 102r, the motif of the bottom margin of the folio. The orna- decorates the body of the letter. This is why ment consists mainly of leaves, which crown- the vital question of methods and work prac- like climb and envelop the top of the Roman tices within the scriptorium of the 12th cen- numeral. The only non-floral elements are tury arises. In one way, it can be said that the some pearl-studded globes and clasps. The quire signatures were conceived simultane- artist used a fine pen, enabling him to draw ously with the large painted initials in the text fine parallel lines, giving the leaves and other and formed some kind of an echo or were parts of the drawing a certain depth and life- even used as a “dictionary” of favourite and like appearance. Breaking down ornaments most essential elements. However, it is also into their constituent parts, twelve types of possible that while executing these quire leaves can be observed. Their comparatively signatures the artist developed his own note- large variety made it possible for the artist to book of elements that he will be using for the produce a large selection of combinations.21 large painted initials in an entirely novel and All these elements can also be found in the outstanding way. formal conception of large painted initials It is also interesting to observe the throughout the text. It is interesting to note rhythm of ornamented quire signatures that these elements now appear singled out, through the manuscript. The first orna- individualized and with no connection to mented quire signature denotes the end of the other elements and no connection to the first quaternion (folio 9v). After that, all the larger compositions of painted initials. subsequent quire signatures are ornamented Due to this singularity of artistic form, the until the fifth quire signature, which is not or- quire signatures obtain a completely new namented. The sixth quire signature is again aesthetic value; they are individualized as ornamented and so are all quire signatures, deliberate autonomous drawings, having including the eleventh. The twelfth quire sig- the task of model drawing. nature is not ornamented, but the thirteenth It can be said that the Master of the orna- is, and that is also the last ornamented quire mented quire signature was most probably signature in the manuscript. It is impossible the author of the larger painted initials in Alc. to say why only eleven out of 30 quire signa- 421. It also seems that while executing the tures are ornamented and why the rhythm of quire signatures he deliberately singled out this marginal artwork is suddenly interrupt- some of the elements and represented them ed at the first third of all the folios. Maybe it individually, so that they could be exposed in was the lack of time that obliged the artist their simple and singular beauty that is some- to concentrate on “more important” initials times overlooked when they form more sig- and simply leave the margins empty. Alter- nificant and more complex compositions. natively, it is also possible that this artist was However, it is also possible that while paint- assigned only the first thirteen quaternions, ing the quire signatures the artist was “re- and he simply decorated only those, so the hearsing his pen” and drew some elements remaining quaternions, assigned to other on a small scale before using them as part of masters, were left blank. a more complex work. This can be observed It is probably not a coincidence that at the tenth quire signature that, above the very similar crown-like leafy elements can be found in the Model-Book from the Cister- 21 b. benulič, ’Cistercian Legendarium (Alc. 421) from Al- cobaça: The problem of ornamented quire signatures’, cian Monastery in Rein in Austrian Styria.22 in: Zbornik za umetnostno zgodovino, s. n. XLIII (2007), 210-217. 22 Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Cod. 507. 46 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 46 15.11.2019 10:18:15 Barbara Navala: PATTERNS OF DECORATION This model book of patterns and templates, of course, cannot be considered as one of the sources of the Alcobaça manuscript; nevertheless, it can be concluded that the same artistic ideas and convictions pervad- ed in the 12th-century Cistercian monastic art. The Rein Model Book also presents an example of how formal stylistic elements were spread among calligraphers and illu- minators. In Alc. 421, there are several and various decorative elements (like the styl- ized forms of the dragon body, globes with filigree ornaments, fan-shaped leaves, styl- ized acanthus leaves etc.) that are stylisti- cally not homogenous and point to the fact that its authors might have consulted certain models, templates and stencils to produce ornaments of this kind. 23 Ornamented quire signatures in the fourth volume (Alc. 421) of the Legendary are undoubtedly unique. Although not all quire signatures are ornamented, those that are represent a crucial artistic element of the manuscript. They are the only repre- sentatives of so-called marginal or second- ary art from the Alcobaça collection of the 12th century. In their artistic conception the individual stroke of the master can be sin- gled out and, on the basis of the analysis of the elements that form the composition, his individual character can be determined. In his work, he allowed a certain interplay and complementation thus creating a whole which is in a way a dramatic and intense work of art. Analysis of the secondary and marginal artistic endeavours tells us a story about the work processes in the framework of the scriptorium where several different artists worked simultaneously and thus con- tributed to the execution of manuscripts that are today ranked as one of the most prominent representatives of the Cistercian Romanesque art. Barbara NAVALA Ulica Vide Janežičeve 9, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia Barbara.navala@mercator.si 23 benulič, note 21, 216. 47 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 47 15.11.2019 10:18:15 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 48 15.11.2019 10:18:15 Ana Krevelj APOCALYPSE DRAWING AS A POSSIBLE SOURCE FOR A FRESCO DECORATION IN HARTBERG CHAPEL Zusammenfassung Tieren treten ebenfalls im Freskenzyklus in dem romanischer Karner im Hartberg auf Dieser Beitrag präsentiert zwei Kunstwerke: (um 1250 datiert). Die Fresken werden am das Pergamentblatt und die Fresken. Das Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts schwer restau- Pergamentblatt befindet sich im Erzabtei riert und das ikonographische Programm St. Peter in Salzburg und ist um 1230 da- wurde unerkennbar. Hier wird die Mögli- tiert. Die Federzeichnungen illustrierten chkeit vorgestellt, dass das Pergamentb- primär die Apokalypse nach Johannes und latt aus Salzburg mit Fresken im Hartberg auch andere Szenen wie die vier Könige Karner verbunden ist basierend auf dem Ur- auf Tieren sitzend. Sie sind im Vision des sprungsdatum, dem Ursprungsort und der Propheten Daniel beschrieben. Könige auf Ikonografie beider Kunstwerke. Keywords: Apocalypse, Daniel’s vision, 13th century, parchment, fresco cycle This article presents two different today.2 To serve its secondary purpose as works of art and focuses on a pos- binding, the sheet was trimmed on all four sible relationship between them: a sides (but not equally) and folded, so parts drawing made on parchment and a fresco of the drawing, especially along the top and painting in a Romanesque charnel chapel. right margins, are lost. Freehand drawings Both are located in Austria and are roughly were made in brown ink with some red or dated to the first half of the 13th century. pink highlights and inscriptions in dark The first work of art is a Romanesque brown. They illustrate the visions of John drawing (Fig. 1), made on a rather large the Evangelist from the Throne in Heaven, sheet of parchment (it measures 395 × 585 described in the Revelation, chapter 4 to mm).1 It was used as a binding of an ac- the Heavenly Jerusalem shown to him by count book for the years 1439 to 1470 in an angel in Revelation, chapter 21. the treasury of the Archabbey of Saint Peter The scenes are represented as a com- in Salzburg, Austria, where it is still located plex diagram with three circles in the centre, of which the larger two are divided by diag- onals to create a four-spoked double wheel. 1 l. v. GeyMonat, ‘Apocalypse Drawing’, in: Pen and Parch- On each side of these concentric rings, there ment, Drawing in the Middle Ages, ed. by M. Holcomb (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2009), 2 The parchment has no shelfmark, just an inventory cat. 37, 130-133. number 975. 49 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 49 15.11.2019 10:18:15 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Fig. 1: Apocalypse drawing, Salzburg, Archabbey of Saint Peter, around 1230 (source: Pen and Parchment, Drawing in the Middle Ages, ed. by Melanie Holcomb, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2 June–23 August 2009), New York 2009, cat. 37, 131) are four semicircles. A few straight lines fur- are Christ with a crossbow on a white horse, ther subdivide the rest of the space. The the Devil with a sword on a red horse, Hy- available surface of the parchment is full pocrisy with a pair of scales on a black horse, of different figures with accompanying in- and Death with a hatchet on a pale horse. scriptions and citations from the Bible. The The semicircle on the lower edge enclos- smallest circle serves as the centre and repre- es seven angels in smaller circles, sounding sents the hand of the Lord blessing. All other the seven trumpets. In the centre, an angel figures and scenes are arranged concentri- binds a dragon. On the sides there are small- cally, proceeding from the centre outward er scenes representing the beginning of an without following any other orientation. Apocalypse. The scenes on top are almost In the second circle, there are four angels entirely lost, but inscriptions are preserved, with scrolls with passages from the Book of and they mention angels John sees stand- Revelation and the names of evangelists in- ing at the corners of the earth holding back scribed next to each angel. The objects of our the winds. The semicircle on the left repre- interest are depictions in the largest circle sents God the Father crowning Jesus Christ, representing four crowned men with scep- flanked by saints, prophets, patriarchs and tres and orbs, each riding on a different beast. martyrs below the throne and the semicir- These are the four beasts described by the cle on the right shows Christ in Majesty, sur- prophet Daniel in the Book of Daniel (7:6-9). rounded by symbols of Evangelists and en- They are coming out of the sea, surrounded closed with elders on the left and angels on by the winged heads of blowing winds. the right side. The four horsemen outside the outer The sheet was discovered and first pub- ring can be identified by inscriptions: they lished by an Austrian art historian Otto 50 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 50 15.11.2019 10:18:16 Ana Krevelj: APOCALYPSE DRAWING AS A POSSIBLE SOURCE FOR A FRESCO DECORATION... Benesch in 1962.3 He attributed the draw- functions besides a possibility of being a ing to the school of Salzburg and dated it draft for a wall-painting cycle.7 It could be around 1230 based on its style. The so-called a didactic diagram for the visualization and “Zackenstill” is a transitional style between memorization of the Apocalypse or an illus- Romanesque and Gothic. This linear style of tration for a manuscript containing a com- the drawing corresponds to the style of Aus- mentary on the Book of Revelation. He also trian frescoes of the 13th century. The near- pointed out the three questions regarding est and stylistically very similar case are the its origin, the time of creation according to wall paintings in a Romanesque church of its style and the use of theological sources.8 St. George in Bischofshofen near Salzburg, For him, it is evident that the drawing was also dated to around 1230. At that time, the made in the Archabbey of St. Peter itself or at town Bischofshofen was under the church least somewhere in Salzburg area. The indi- jurisdiction of Archabbey of Saint Peter.4 vidual features of the drawing in linear style Interesting is the remark Benesch made correspond to the artistic level in Salzburg about this drawing. He described it as “a until the middle of the 13th century and the document of unique importance in the his- complex programme indicates that certain tory of drawing. It is the only known de- theological sources must have been used. sign for a cycle of frescoes of the thirteenth Finally, Ludovico Geymonat agreed with century”.5 According to Benesch, the great Benesch in 2009.9 He proposed that such wall painting cycles in the Middle Ages had drawings may have had a role in devising and to be based on previously made preparatory carrying out the complex iconographic pro- compositions, conceived by educated eccle- grammes that can be found on the walls of a siastical patrons and then shown to artists as number of 13th-century chapels. He also sug- a guide. For him, this parchment is pointing gested that this particular drawing, accord- in this direction, especially because of its di- ing to its Salzburg provenance and visual evi- agrammatic layout that bears a resemblance dence, was made for someone interested in to a design of a small chapel in a quadrangle Apocalyptic writings and who may have kept form. There are some similar cases of this it within a scriptorium at his disposal and ac- period in Austria, for example a bishop’s cessible to his students and followers. Finally, chapel in Gurk in Carinthia or the chapel of he concludes his theory with a question of St. Michael in Göss Abbey in Styria.6 whether this drawing was ever involved in Later, Johann Apfelthaler proposed that the patronage of a painted cycle inspired by the drawing may have had other possible Daniel and the Revelation of John. The second work of art represented in 3 o. benescH, ‘cat. 304’, in: Great Drawings of all Time, ed. this article are wall paintings in a Roman- Ira Moskowitz (New York: Shorewood, 1962 – 1979), vol. II, no. 304. esque charnel chapel in Hartberg in Styria 4 benescH, note 3, 304. (Fig. 2). The chapel, located south of the par- 5 Although a few decades have passed since the first pub- ish church, is a central building with apsis lication of the drawing and the remark Benesch made, on the east side. It consists of two divided it still represents a rare case of a possible prototype for a monumental wall decoration. Robert W. Scheller men- spaces: the ossuary, located partially under- tions only two similar cases from the 13th century: a Ver- ground and a chapel of St. Michael in a high- celli rotulus and the drawings with the so-called Joinville Credo. The Vercelli rotulus records the ruined frescoes in er ground floor. The division is also accen- the local cathedral while the drawings of Joinville Credo tuated on the facade with horizontal frieze. are regarded as a design for a chapel mural. He also men- tions the Apocalypse drawing and agrees with Benesch, mentioning that the drawing is showing the complete 7 J. aPFeltHaler, ‘Apocalypse-Blatt’, in: Hl. Rupert von Salz- decorative programme of a small chapel cupola and its burg 696-1996. Katalog der Ausstellung im Dommuse- four supporting walls. r. W. s um zu Salzburg und in der Erzabtei St. Peter, ed. by P. cHeller, Exemplum: model- book drawings and the practice of artistic transmission Eder – J. Kronbichler , Salzburg 1996, 449-451. sterdam University Press, 1995), 36, note 121. 8 aPFeltHaler, note 7, 450. 6 benescH, note 3, 304. 9 GeyMonat, note 1, 130-133. 51 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 51 15.11.2019 10:18:16 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Fig. 3: Interior of the Chapel towards the north (source: Ana Krevelj) the 16th century).11 During the Baroque period, the interior was whitewashed, the apsis window was enlarged, and new openings were made. In 1715, fire destroyed the roof, and the fres- coes were exposed to bad weather condi- tions for an extended period. The bad state of the chapel was noticed just at the end of the 19th century, and in 1893 an academic painter and restorer Teophil Melicher start- ed with the restoration of poorly preserved and fragmentary frescoes within the whole restoration of the building (Fig. 3).12 Fig. 2: Chapel of. St. Michael, Hartberg, around 1250 The remaining frescoes were heavily (source: Ana Krevelj) restored or practically overpainted, and the It is not known when exactly the chapel lost parts were just supplemented by entire- was built, so the dating of its construction ly new scenes. The result of this procedure varies in the literature from the second half was even at that time considered to be ques- of the 12th century until the middle of the 13th tionable and disturbing, especially by an century.10 It is possible that the construction art historian and conservator Johann Graus was connected with the parish priest Ulrich (employed by k. k. Central-Commission zur von Hartberg, who appears in written sourc- Erforschung und Erhaltung der Baudenk- es between 1163 and 1201. Ulrich was of no- male in Vienna), because the original icono- ble background and had an excellent educa- graphic programme was no longer clearly tion. At first, he was the chaplain of the arch- bishop of Salzburg, Eberhard I (1147–1167) 11 R. WaGner-rieGer, ‘Gotische Architektur in der Steier- mark‘, in: Gotik in der Steiermark. Landesausstellung and at that time Salzburg also had a desire to veranstaltet vom Kulturreferat der Steiermärkischen establish a diocese in Hartberg. Later he was Landesregierung im Stift St. Lambrecht vom 28. Mai bis 8. Oktober 1978, ed. El. Langer (Graz: Kulturreferat der politically connected with Duke Leopold V. steiermärkischen Landesregiereung, 1978), 45-93; M. of Babenberg, who may also have contribut- scHWarZ, ‘Die Architektur der Spätzeit (1200-1246)‘, in: ed to the construction of the charnel chapel. 1000 Jahre Babenerger in Österreich. Niederösterreichi- sche Jubiläumausstellung Stift Lilienfeld 15. Mai – 31. In addition to St. Michael, the patron of the Oktober 1976 (Wien-Köln-Weimar: Böhlau, 1976), 511- chapel was also St. Ulrich (until the end of 522; M. SCHWARZ, Die Baukunst des 13. Jahrhunderts in Österreich (Wien-Köln-Weimar Böhlau, 2013), 77-80. 10 e. lanc, Die mittelalterlichen Wandmalereien in der Stei- 12 J. Graus, ‘Romanische Malereien zu Hartberg‘, in: Kir- ermark (Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie chenschmuck, 1897, 3; s. Walter, ‘Die Fresken im Hart- der Wissenschaften, 2002), 152-157 with complete list of berg Karner‘, in: Zeitschrift des Historischen Vereines für older bibliography about Hartberg chapel of St. Michael. Steiermark, 1978, 185-190; lanc, note 10, 153. 52 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 52 15.11.2019 10:18:17 Ana Krevelj: APOCALYPSE DRAWING AS A POSSIBLE SOURCE FOR A FRESCO DECORATION... The painting in the apsis represents the family tree of Christ with the Virgin and Child in the centre, while the sleeping Jesse is missing. Here are also several additional scenes that cannot be explained without some doubt and cannot be iconographical- ly defined with certainty. In 1897 and 1902, Johann Graus suggest- ed that the iconographic programme was based on a vision of St. Daniel of four king- doms.15 However, later there was a controver- sy in 1977–1979 between Elfriede Grabner,16 who followed Graus and Sepp Walter,17 who saw in seven riders “the oldest depiction of Fig. 4: Scheme of original parts of frescoes before the seven deadly sins in medieval Christian ico- restoration by J. Graus nography” and whom many other scholars, (source: E. Lanc, Die mittelalterlichen such as Mario Schwarz, often quote.18 Walter Wandmalereien in der Steiermark, Wien 2002, Figs. 189–190) interpreted the lion as Pride, the camel (?) as Wrath, the horse as Sloth, the dragon as Envy, recognizable. Johann Graus spoke after the whale (or basilisk) as Greed, the ox as the restoration with Theophil Melicher and Gluttony and the boar as Lust. made a scheme showing the original parts Elga Lanc19 compared the scheme of Jo- of frescoes according to Melicher’s descrip- hann Graus with the descriptions of kings tions. The blank areas were later painted by in St. Daniels vision, and although the whole Theophil Melicher (Fig. 4).13 cycle in the chapel still cannot be fully icon- The walls of the chapel are divided into ographically explained (the head of a horse, two registers. The lower register represents for example), she concluded that the origi- seven crowned men riding different ani- nal four riders do represent the vision of mals. They hold sceptres and orbs in their Daniel. She leaned her interpretation on hands. Four of them (kings riding a bull, a a study of Edgar Marsch about the written boar, a lion and a winged panther) are ac- sources on Daniel’s vision.20 Marsch evalu- cording to Melicher more or less original. In the scene with the king on a horse, only the 15 Graus, note 12, 2-7 and 17-20; J. Graus, ‘Romanische head of a horse is original, while the kings Wandmalereien zu Pürgg und Hartberg‘, in: Mitteilun- gen der k. k. Zentral-Kommission zur Erhaltung und Er- on the dragon and whale are new. forschung der Kunst- und Historischen Denkmale, N. F. The upper register represents Christ 28, 1902, 83-88. enthroned with Peter and Paul and other 16 E. Grabner, ‘Die vier Reiterbilder im Karner zu Hartberg. Zur ikonographischen Einordnung und Deutung der im standing figures defined as apostles. Only 19. Jahrhundert restaurierten romanischen Wandmale- Peter and some standing figures are origi- reien‘, in: Zeitschrift des Historischen Vereines für Steier- mark, 1977, 221-244; E. Grabner, ‘Zur Ikonographie Hart- nal. The scene with the devil dragging berger Karnerfresken‘, in: Zeitschrift des Historischen souls into the hellmouth is new, while the Vereines fűr Steiermark, 1979, 133-141. wolf with the lamb is reportedly original. 17 S. Walter, ‘Die Fresken im Hartberger Karner‘, in: Zeit- schrift des Historischen Vereines für Steiermark, 1978, The whole vault is entirely new. Melicher 185-238 ; S. Walter, ‘Die Fresken im Hartberger Karner‘, was inspired here by the fresco paintings in: Zeitschrift des Historischen Vereines für Steiermark, in the Romanesque chapel of St. Catherine 1979, 143-150. 18 S in Znojmo (Czech Republic), which he also cHWarZ, note 11, 77-80. 19 lanc, note 10, 154-157. restored previously.14 20 e. MarscH, ‘Die fünf Reiterbilder im Karner zu Hartberg‘, in: Biblische Prophetie und chronographische Dichtung, 13 lanc, note 10, 154. Stoff- und Wirkungsgeschichte der Vision des Propheten 14 lanc, note 10, 154. Daniel nach Dan. VII (Berlin: Schmidt, 1972), 89-96. 53 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 53 15.11.2019 10:18:18 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper The sequence is the same as in the chroni- cle Historiae Adversus Paganos of Paulus Orosius, who, according to Daniel, divides the world into four periods of dominion, which will finally be replaced by only one. The first ruler is Ninus from Babylon on a winged lion. The second is the Greek king- dom represented by Alexander the Great on a winged panther. Wings symbolize his rapid rise and a short reign. The panther has only one head instead of four, which in Dan- iel’s vision symbolize Alexander’s four suc- cessors. Orosius is writing about fourteen of them, so more panther heads were not rele- vant. The third kingdom is Egypt, represent- ed by an ox (Apis) with Ptolemy and the last is Rome with Emperor Augustus riding on a boar with ten horns (Dan. 7.24). For Orosius, it was significant that Christ was born under the rule of Augustus. According to Marsch that is the reason that Christ enthroned is represented just above the fourth rider and that he symbolises the final dominion, the Kingdom of God (Fig. 5).22 Comparing the Apocalypse drawing on Fig. 5: Emperor August on a boar with ten horns and parchment from Archabbey of St. Peter in Christ enthroned between St. Peter and St. Paul. (source: Ana Krevelj) Salzburg and the frescoes in Hartberg chap- el, some similarities are visible in the repre- ated the programme of the frescoes as the sentations of kings on animals (Figs. 6a-6b). most crucial cyclic representation of this They are sitting majestically on their beasts motif in the 13th century. He claims that the with crowns on their heads and with orbs representation of the motif of four riders in and sceptres in the shape of a lily in their the upper storey of the chapel expresses the hands. The drapery is swirling in the air in importance of eschatological sense for the a typical “Zackenstill” form. The beasts on symbolic understanding of the Vision. In the drawing have never been seen in real the chapel, Death and Salvation are ideally life. They do not resemble any specific spe- connected. The history of salvation is con- cies but, because of their symbolic mean- trasted with the individual experience of ing and corresponding inscriptions, there death in a visionary-symbolic way. Christ en- was no need for this. What the beasts in the throned and surrounded by apostles is rep- chapel looked like before the restoration, resented upon these four rulers on beasts. mouth between its teeth, a leopard with four wings and They symbolize four world-kingdoms that four heads and the forth beast, which was terrifying, will, according to Daniel’s vision, be re- frightening and very powerful. It had large iron teeth placed by the true kingdom of God. The and was different from all the former beasts, and it had ten horns. Between them there was a small horn which four beasts are positioned on each side of had eyes like the eyes of a human being and a mouth the apsis. Their sequence and appearance that spoke boastfully. only partially follow Daniel’s description.21 22 MarscH, note 20, 94-96; Graus (Pürgg und Hartberg, 1902), note 15 and Grabner, (Die vier Reiterbilder, 1977 and Zur Ikonographie der Hartberger Karnerfresken, 21 After Daniel 7.3-12 the prophet saw in his dream a lion 1979), note 16, present also other parallel examples of with wings of an eagle, a bear with three ribs in its the same iconographic type based on Orosius’ writings. 54 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 54 15.11.2019 10:18:19 Ana Krevelj: APOCALYPSE DRAWING AS A POSSIBLE SOURCE FOR A FRESCO DECORATION... Fig. 6a. Details from Apocalypse drawing representing kings on beasts. (source: same as Fig. 1) Fig. 6b. Details of two kings on beasts from the Hartberg Chapel (source: Ana Krevelj) we can only guess. I believe the lion did not the 19th century and because of lack of pho- have such an abundant mane, the panther tographic evidence of its original state be- could even lack wings, while the boar with fore the restoration, it is impossible to date ten horns looks very similar to the draw- and stylistically define them accurately. ing variant. The discrepancies are to be ex- Based on rough comparison with other re- pected. As Robert Scheller pointed out, it is lated monuments, Elga Lanc dates the fres- generally difficult to demonstrate the use coes towards the middle of the 13th century.24 of illuminated manuscripts as prototypes The Apocalypse drawing is dated to around for monumental wall decorations. The size 1230 and placed in the Salzburg area. It has and unique requirements of the wall surface been mentioned before that Hartberg was and subdivision presuppose a different ap- also connected with Salzburg Archabbey proach to that of the layout of an illuminated through Ulrich von Hartberg and Salzburg’s manuscript.23 Fresco technique required fast desire to establish new diocese in Hartberg work, making minute details such as in our at that time. We cannot overlook the fact that drawing hard to copy accurately, so it is also in Hartberg there are no scenes from Revela- reasonable to conclude that the author of tion of John as on parchment, although we the drawing was not skilled in fresco paint- should not forget that a large part of the cy- ing and that alterations were necessary. cle is missing (the whole vault for instance) Because of complete restoration of the and that the remaining parts were incorrect- original parts of the remaining frescoes in ly completed or altered. It is also interesting 23 ScHeller, note 5, 30. 24 Lanc, note 10, 157. 55 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 55 15.11.2019 10:18:19 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper that Melicher included new scenes, such as the Mouth of Hell and a Dragon, which cor- respond to iconography of the Apocalypse. The diagram of the drawing suggests that it may represent a design for quadrangle chapel while in Hartberg we have a rotunda. However, perhaps this exact distinction im- plies that in Hartberg we have a kind of an abbreviation of a larger scheme. As Ludovico Geymonat mentioned before,25 this draw- ing could be made for someone interested in Apocalyptic writings and who may have kept it within a scriptorium at his disposal and accessible to his students and followers and that it might have influenced directly or indirectly the fresco cycle in Hartberg. In conclusion, I would like to point out that the drawing and frescoes have some crucial common points (dating and style, connection with Salzburg and partial match- ing in iconography) and that this accidental- ly preserved parchment may represent rare evidence of existing pre-prepared schemes for complex fresco cycles in the 13th century. However, there are also some discrepancies between the two, so we can only assume that the drawing might directly or indirectly have influenced the Hartberg cycle. This is partially due to a heavy restoration in 19th century, which represents at least for the de- velopment of the restoration-conservation practice a critical lesson. All of this is partial- ly due to a lack of information, which may lead to some further research on the topic. Ana KREVELJ Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia, The Novo mesto Regional Office, Skalickega 1, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenia ana.krevelj@zvkds.si 25 GeyMonat, note 1, 133. 56 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 56 15.11.2019 10:18:19 Marta Luigina Mangini DRAWINGS ON PARCHMENT AND PAPER OF MEDIEVAL ITALIAN NOTARIES (12th–15th CENTURIES) Riassunto capacità grafiche tracciando segni speciali di autenticazione e disegnando a supporto Il contributo ha lo scopo di portare all’atten- di specifiche esigenze documentarie, non zione l’ampia presenza di disegni e schiz- va dimenticato che oltre a queste manifesta- zi tracciati su pergamena e carta dai notai zioni grafico-artistiche strettamente connes- medievali italiani. Dagli esempi – differenti se all’esercizio della propria professione, per area geografica, altezza cronologica e ti- i notai spesso tracciavano sulle coperte di pologia – risulta evidente che il know-how legatura, sui fogli di guardia e sulle pagine dei notai si esprimeva non solo attraverso inutilizzate dei propri registri pergamenacei parole e numeri, ma anche mediante segni e cartacei disegni estemporanei, frutto della e disegni piuò meno estemporanei e fun- loro cultura poliedrica nonché dei loro sen- zionali alla propria attività. Infatti se già nel- timenti piuìntimi. la routine quotidiana, i notai dimostravano Keywords: Italy, Middle Ages, notaries, drawings followed different paths in terms of geo- Contribution graphical, social, and occupational mobility, A adding their writing activity to their work bundant scholarly literature exists as doctors, apothecaries, moneylenders, ac- on Italian notarial culture in the Mid- countants, surveyors, merchants, butchers, dle Ages. Previous studies have tack- priests, teachers, poets, and so on.2 led the vocational training of these profes- sionals – that is, apprenticeship, technical 2 Notariorum itinera. Notai toscani del basso Medioevo tra routine, mobilitaè specializzazione, ed. by G. Pinto know-how and problem-solving1 – as well as and others, (Firenze: Olschki, 2018); Notariorum itine- their ability to use their knowledge outside ra. Notai liguri del basso Medioevo tra routine, mobilità e specializzazione, ed. by V. Ruzzin (Genova : Società the field of law. Regarding this last point, Ligure di Storia Patria, 2019) http://www.storiapatriage- there are many attestations of notaries who nova.it/Docs/Biblioteca_Digitale/SB/17ad39319c34c2e- 0a56490d1bf88c851/a2f8167ecc043750f2dddc89a1d- 1 In general on this topic, see: La produzione scritta tec- 3de01.pdf (last use 12.06.2019); a. bartoli lanGeli, Notai. nica e scientifica nel Medioevo: libro e documento tra Scrivere documenti nell’Italia medievale (Roma: Viella, scuole e professioni (Atti del Convegno internazionale 2006); La langue des actes (Actes du XIe Congrès inter- dell’Associazione italiana dei Paleografi e Diploma- national de diplomatique. Troyes, jeudi 11-samedi 13 tisti. Fisciano-Salerno, 28-30 settembre 2009, ed. by G. septembre 2003, Paris : École nationale des chartes - Sor- De Gregorio and others, Spoleto: Fondazione centro bone 2005) http://elec.enc.sorbonne.fr/CID2003 (last italiano di studi sull’alto Medioevo, 2012). viewed 12.06.2019); P. caMMarosano, ‘Laici ed ecclesiasti- 57 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 57 15.11.2019 10:18:19 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Aspects of the notaries’ graphic culture Rimini (c. 1270–1338), an illuminator, edu- are also well studied; even if this particular cated in the milieu of 13th-century Bolognese field of research has mostly focused on the artists, who at the same time worked as a no- paleographic aspects,3 and especially on the tary and was regularly registered in the local notaries’ skills in resorting, according to the college of notaries.6 Others include Matteo di circumstances, to quick or cursive scripts or Pietro di Bernardo from Umbria (1430/1435– else more formal and legible ones modelled 1507), and his son and grandson Girolamo on the contemporary book lettering. and Bernardo from Gualdo Tadino, most of The fact that medieval Italian notaries whose artworks in oil on board are still kept expressed their know-how not only through in the Pinacoteca of Nocera Umbra.7 words and numbers but also through signs, The examples may continue, but the drawings, and sketches has remained at the aim of this paper is not to reflect on these fringes of this strand of research.4 In this and other remarkable cases that seem des- sense, scholars have afforded their attention tined to remain numerically limited. Instead, to this aspect only in those rare cases in which I want to focus on some common, though the art of drawing became a complementary no less diverse and relevant, elements that profession to, or even overtook, the legal one. represent the Italian medieval notaries’ her- In this respect, one can mention Franc- itage of graphic skills. I will, therefore, con- esco Barberino from Florence (1264–1348), sider signs and drawings used by notaries in who met Giotto in Padua and drew inspira- their daily professional routine as well as in tion from him for the allegorical designs of their private life as means and spaces of free the Documenti d’Amore, which date from self-expression. 1309–1313.5 Another example is Neri from Higher artistic episodes aside, it is es- sential to point out that all notaries were ci nella produzione italiana di scritture dall’alto medio- required to have graphic skills to design, to evo all’età romanica’, in: Libri e documenti d’Italia: dai Longobardi alla rinascita delle città, Atti del Convegno place the writing on each page, to ensure the Nazionale dell’Associazione Italiana Paleografi e Diplo- correct assembly of the quires and to signal matisti, Cividale, 5-7 ottobre 1994, ed. by C. Scalon (Udi- clearly the division between each section. ne: Arti Grafiche Friulane, 1996) 1-14; A. Pratesi, ‘Appunti per una storia dell’evoluzione del notariato’, in: Studi in For these purposes, notaries exploited mod- onore di Leopoldo Sandri (Roma : Ufficio centrale per i els and elements derived from book culture, beni archivistici, della Scuola speciale per archivisti, bi- bliotecari dell’Universita di Roma, 1983), 759-772, also wherein, especially from the 12th century and in A. Pratesi, Tra carte e notai. Saggi di diplomatica dal throughout Europe, a clearer demarcation 1951 al 1991 (Roma: Societaàlla Biblioteca Vallicellia- of the textual sections developed so as to na, 1992), 521-535; E. Petrucci, ‘An clerici artem notariae possint exercere’, in: Studi in onore di Ottorino Bertoli- ni, vol. II (Pisa: Pacini, 1972), 553-598; A. Petrucci, Nota- illustrated it now kept at Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, rii. Documenti per la storia del notariato italiano (Mila- Barb. lat. 4077 (digital reproductions of the manuscript no: Giuffré, 1958), 3-44. are available at http://digi.vatlib.it/view/MSS_Barb. 3 In general, on this topic, see: G. nicolaJ, ‘Alle origini del- lat.4077, last viewed 12.06.2019); see E. Pasquini, ‘Fran-la minuscola notarile italiana e dei suoi caratteri storici’, cesco da Barberino’, in: Dizionario Biografico degli in: Scrittura e civiltà, 10 (1986), 49-82. Italiani, 49 (Roma: Istituto della Enciclopedia itali- 4 a. G ana, 1997), 689-691, http://www.treccani.it/enciclo- HiGnoli, ‘ Writing Texts, Drawing, Signs. On Some Non-alphabetical Signs in Charters of the Early Medi- pedia/francesco-da-barberino_%28Dizionario-Biografi- eval West’, in: Archiv für Diplomatik, 62 (2016), 11-40; J.F. co%29/ (last viewed 12.06.2019); Il notaio nella civiltà H fiorentina. Secoli XIII-XVI, (Firenze : Vallecchi, 1984), sheets 275 and 281. and Collection, 2016); a. GHiGnoli, ‘ Segni di notai. Scri- 6 S. nicolini, ‘Neri da Rimini’, in: Dizionario biografico vere per note e per segni in testi di chartae pisane dei dei miniatori italiani. Secoli IX-XVI, ed. by M. Bollati secoli VIII-XI’, in: Bullettino dell’Istituto storico italiano (Milano: Edizioni Sylvestre Bonnard, 2004), 816-820; a. per il medio evo, 115 (2013), 45-95. iaFrate, ‘Neri da Rimini’, in: Dizionario Biografico degli 5 Francesco da Barberino is the author of both text and Italiani, http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/neri-da- illustrations of the Documenti d’amore now kept at Bib- rimini_(Dizionario-Biografico) (last viewed 12.06.2019). lioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Barb. lat. 4076 (digital repro- 7 Matteo da Gualdo. Rinascimento eccentrico tra Umbria duction of the manuscript available at http://digi.vatlib. e Marche, ed. by E. Bairati and P. Dragoni (Città di Cas- it/view/MSS_Barb.lat.4076, last viewed 12.06.2019), and tello: Electa editori umbri associati, 2004). 58 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 58 15.11.2019 10:18:19 Marta Luigina Mangini: DRAWINGS ON PARCHMENT AND PAPER... support the efforts of conceptualization and memory.8 If necessary notaries were able to put texts in a bi-columnar mise en page, to organise records into several sections sepa- rated by white lines, to assign running titles, to use brackets, line-fillers, compartments, paragraphs, pieds-de-mouche, reference signs, marginal markings, pointing hands, ar- rows to point out initials, distinctive writing and friezes, and so on. So much so that, to borrow Carl Nordenfalk’s words, we can say that “practical purpose has been the mother of artistic invention”.9 Medieval Italian notaries employed Fig. 1: Initial decorated in Ambrosolo Aresi’s notarial these devices in when compiling the libri register (1362–1364). Milano, Archivio di Stato, Atti iurium, papers and registers intended to dei notai, b. 9 represent the institutions for which they worked. Among the many such cases de- intended to guide the binder in assembling tected during the MECA project,10 we can the coeval Liber continens exempla instru- mention as an example the initials, slightly mentorum et actorum pertinencium et detached from the rest of the word and or- spectancium hospitali Beati Bartholomei nate with floral motifs, written in brown and Cumane, ordinis Cruciferorum. 12 red ink at the beginning of the 13th century However, notaries typically employed by the notaries responsible for the Registro similar devices also in contexts not intend- delli Instromenti Antichi del monastero di ed for public fruition, with the simple pur- Chiaravalle Milanese;11 or else the figurative pose of effectively reporting the beginning signatures placed at the end of each quire of the acts in their own registers. One such example is provided by the acts of notary 8 R. assunto, ‘Scrittura come figura, figura come segno’, in: Rassegna della Istruzione Artistica, II/2 (1967), 5-18 and Ambrosolo Aresi from Milan who customar- II/4 (1967), 5-15; M.T. clancHy, From memory to written re- ily drew decorated initials outside the text cord. England 1066-1307 (Blackwell: Oxford-Cambridge Mass., 19932), 132-135 and 172-177; R. c justification (Fig. 1). Hartier, L’ordre des livres. Lecteurs, auteurs, biliothèques en Europe entre Similarly, the notaries Pietro di Lorenzo XIVe et XVIIIe siècle (Aix-en-Provence: Alinéa, 1992); P. from Vertova (1288),13 Pietro Sforzatica from Fioretti,’Ordine del testo, ordine dei testi. Strategie distin- tive nell’Occidente latino tra scrittura e lettura’, in: Scrivere Bergamo (1302)14 and Guarisco Bonafede, e leggere nell’Alto Medioevo (Atti del convegno, Spoleto, also from Bergamo (1309),15 drew friezes 28 aprile-4 maggio 2011, Spoleto: Fondazione Centro Italiano di Studi sull’Alto Medioevo, 2012), 515-551. with beautiful anthropomorphic and geo- 9 C. norDenFalK, ’The Beginning of Book Decoration’ in: metric decorations.16 Essays in honor of Georg Swarzenski, ed. by O. Goetz Highly symbolic signs and drawings (Chicago-Berlin: Henry Regnery in cooperation with Verlag Gebr. Mann, 1951), 9-20; republished in C. n were programmatically placed also on the or- DenFalK, Studies in the History of Book Illumination, (London: The Pindar Press,1992), 1-8. 12 F. Fossati, ‘Codice dei Cruciferi di Como’, in: Periodico 10 c. carbonetti and others, ‘Les cartulaires ecclésiastiques della Società Storica Comense, 1 (1878), 155-174. de l.’Italie médiévale’, in: Mélanges de l.’École française 13 Archivio di Stato di Bergamo, Notarile, fasc. 3, f. 35r. de Rome - Moyen ge, 127/2 (2015), https://mefrm.revues. org/2655?lang=it (last viewed 12.06.2019). The Medieval 14 Archivio di Stato di Bergamo, Notarile, fasc. 2b, ff. 18r, European Cartularies Project (MECA) is still ongoing, for 31v, 46v, 47r. further information see: http://www.efrome.it/it/la-ricer- 15 Archivio di Stato di Bergamo, Notarile, fasc. 4, f. 20r. ca/programmi/programmes-2017-2021/meca-medieval- 16 In general, on this topic, see: G. cavallo, ‘Iniziali, scritture european-cartularies.html (last viewed 12.06.2019). distintive, fregi. Morfologie e funzioni’, in: Libri e docu- 11 M.F. Baroni, ‘I documenti su “libro”, il “libro” come docu- menti d’Italia: dai longobardi alla rinascita delle città mento. Un registro di Chiaravalle (sec. XIV)’, in: Libri, (Atti del Convegno Nazionale dell’Associazione Italiana e altro. Nel passato e nel presente (Milano: Mondadori, Paleografi e Diplomatisti, Cividale, 5-7 ottobre 1994, ed. 2006), 55-64. by C. Scalon (Udine: Arti Grafiche Friulane, 1996), 15-33. 59 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 59 15.11.2019 10:18:20 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper covers of the registers containing the acts (1559-1567) –;22 sacred images with invoca- of the ecclesiastical and civic institutions for tive functions;23 depictions referring to the which they worked. In this regard, we can name of the notary – like the psicostasia (Fig. mention the coats of arms of the podestaòn 2) depicting the archangel Michael weigh- the register of the court records of Bologna17 ing souls24 drawn by notary Michele Mussi and Florence,18 or other coats of arms of the from Piacenza on the first folio of his regis- city gates on the oldest registers of the city ter (1309-1310) –;25 and specific recognition of Milan,19 or again other self-representative signs, or signa notarii, specially conceived images, such as the detailed prospectus of by each notary at the very beginning of his the façade of the cathedral of St. Maria Mag- career.26 These signa notarii were initially giore in Milan, drawn on the parchment designed around the invocative symbol of cover of its first register (1387–1401) by the the cross associated with Tironian notes re- same notary responsible for writing the ferring to the words notarius and iudex.27 records.20 These drawings are mostly on parch- 22 Sondrio, Archivio di Stato, Notarile, Pergamene sciolte, n. 485 and Sondrio, Archivio di Stato, Notarile, vol. 1386. ment. Sometimes they were drawn with the R. PeZZola, Pergamene sciolte dell’Archivio notarile di same ink used for writing the deeds and Sondrio. Ricognizione informatizzata (secoli XI-XVII) (Morbegno: Ad Fontes, 2012), http://www.adfontes. were intended to remain monochromatic; it/biblioteca/scaffale/rp-assosciolte/indice.html (last others were sketched with ink and then tem- viewed 12.06.2019). pera-coloured using the same techniques, 23 For example, according to the statutes of Bologna of 1389, notaries must draw a sacred image on each of materials, and procedures used for illumi- their registers: “in eorum libris pictas figuras domini nating manuscripts. In some Florentine nostri Iesu Christi et beate Marie virginis ac sancti Io- registers, the indications, written in the ver- hannis evangeliste sub pena vigintiquinque librarum Bononiorum pro quolibet omitente. Et quod tempore nacular by the notary as a reminder for the quo sacramenta aliqua per iudicem aut notarios de- correct colouring of the blazons, remain vis- feruntur, ipsi tales quibus sacramentum deferritur iu- rare debeant et sacramentum per eosdem prestare ad ible. It is therefore not by chance that in ana- sancta Dei evangelia, manu tactis figuris predictis” in Gli lysing these drawings Ruth Wolff has called statuti del Comune di Bologna degli anni 1352, 1357; 1376, 1389 (libri I-III), ed. by V. Braidi (Bologna, Dep- them “notarial illuminations”.21 utazione di Storia Patria per le Province di Romagna, Registers of civil and ecclesiastical insti- 2002), 999; see also G. taMba, ‘Gli atti di giurisdizione tutions aside, we find signs and drawings civile nella Camera actorum del Comune di Bologna (secoli XIV-XV)”, in: La documentazione degli organi gi- also on the bindings or on the first folio of udiziari nell’Italia tardo-medievale e moderna , ed. by A. Giorgi and others (Roma: Ministero ic families – like the one belonging to the per i beni e le attività culturali, Direzione generale per Sermondi family, drawn by notary Simone gli archivi, 2012), 249-274; cf. 260. Sermondi of Bormio on his first register 24 F. Gennari , ‘I disegni dei notai: primi risultati di un’indagine sui registri del Fondo Notarile dell’Archivio di Stato di Piacenza (secc. XIV-XV)’, in: In signo notarii 17 M. vallerani, ‘I disegni dei notai’, in: Duecento. Forme e (Ven- 2016>, ed. by A. Riva (Genova : Società Ligure di Storia ezia: Marsilio, 2000), 75-83. Patria, 2018), 32-69: 56-58, http://www.storiapatriageno- 18 r. WolFF, ‘Visualizzazioni giuridiche in pietra e su per- va.it/BD_vs_contenitore.aspx?Id_Scheda_Bibliografica_ gamena. Gli stemmi dei Podestà di Firenze’, in: L’arme Padre=5975&Id_Progetto=0 (last use 12.06.2019). segreta. Araldica e storia dell’arte nel Medioevo (secoli 25 F. Gennari, ‘Protocollo del notaio Michele Mussi’, in: XIIIXV), by M. Ferrari (Firenze: Le Lettere, 2015), 207- I misteri della cattedrale. Meraviglie nel labirinto del 220. sapere, (Milano: Skira, 2018), 94-95. strumentorum porte Cumacine (Milano, metà del se- 26 Signa et insignia. Storia, notariato ed archivi notarili colo XIII)’, in: Ianuensis non nascitur sed fit. Studi per in Italia, (Roma: Arti grafiche Jasillo, 1984); Ego sig-Ligure di Storia Patria, in the press). navi et roboravi. Signa e sigilli notarili nel tempo, ed. by 20 Milano, Archivio Storico Civico e Biblioteca Trivulziana, A. Rovere, (Genova: 1401). Brigati, 2014). 21 WolFF, note 18, 217. 27 Ego signavi et roboravi, note 26, 3-6. 60 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 60 15.11.2019 10:18:20 Marta Luigina Mangini: DRAWINGS ON PARCHMENT AND PAPER... apparently had fun playing with his palin- drome name,29 and those of notaries An- tonio di Padova (1299) and Andreas Capi- taneis de Vicomercato from Como (1476) who elaborated personal monograms. Other notaries adopted signa that includ- ed drawings with reference to onomastic, toponomastic, anthropomorphic, zoomor- phic, phytoomorphic, and architectural elements,30 while others are evocative of Christian symbology, such as crosses, fish, Mount Golgotha, and pelicans.31 Different from signa notarii, but com- parable to them due to their function which was strictly instrumental to the documentary context, are those drawings – human figures32 and animals33 – that sometimes notaries put in the margins of documents to quickly find them or within certain deeds in order to bet- ter describe the subject of the contracts. We can mention several of these cases. For example, the three drawings, in brown and red ink and tempera on parchment, of the dome of Florence drawn between 1420 and 1421 by Giovanni di Gherardo from Pra- Fig. 2: Archangel Michael weighing the souls, to, a notary but also a scholar of optics and drawing by the notary Michele Mussi of Piacenza on the first leaf of his register (1309- architecture, to support a complaint against 1310). Piacenza, Archivio di Stato, Filippo Brunelleschi accused of not respect- Atti dei notai, b. 15 ing the programmes and methods estab- lished for the realization of the building.34 From the beginning of the twelfth cen- Another example could be the signa tury, notaries started to design personal figurata stamped on some fabrics of fustian signs of recognition, making them delib- erately complicated so as to prevent imita- 29 Genova, Archivio di Stato, Archivio Segreto, 348, Paesi, Finale, n. 3; see Ego signavi et roboravi, note 26, 43-44. tions and guard themselves from counter- 30 Ego signavi et roboravi, note 26, 33, 45-55. feiters. Starting from this period, the graph- 31 Genova, Archivio di Stato, Archivio Segreto, 342, Paesi, ic elaborations of signa notarii assumed Bagnasco, n. 4; see Ego signavi et roboravi, note 26, 39. the most varied forms according to the im- 32 Il cartulario di Arnaldo Cumano e Giovanni di Donato. Savona, 1178-1188, ed. by L. Balletto and others (Roma: agination and inspiration of each notary: Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali, 1978), deeds spanning from the essential and geometri- number 93, 517, 769. cally stylized signa typical of Genoese no- 33 As we can see, for example, in Il cartulario di Arnaldo Cumano, note 32, deeds number 30 and 37; or in Cor- taries who, from the first half of the 12th radus Cossigi’s registers: this notary drew a bird along- century, used the personal pronoun Ego;28 side those notarial deeds relative to the Cathedral of Cremona (1305-1346), Cremona, Archivio di Stato, No- to the more complex, composed by inter- tarile, b. 5. twining the letters of the first name and 34 Filippo Brunelleschi: l’uomo, l’artista, ed. by P. Benigni, the surname of each professional. Among (Firenze: Biemme these are the signa of Oddo de Torsellis de 1977), 45-46, exhibition sheet number 45; Il notaio nella civiltà fiorentina. Secoli XIII-XVI, (Firenze: Vallecchi, 1984), 264-265, exhibition 28 Ego signavi et roboravi, note 26, 9-16. sheet number 282. 61 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 61 15.11.2019 10:18:20 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Fig. 3: Signa figurata depicted by notary Marcolo di Fig. 4: Courtship scene by notary Giovanni from Golasecca (1369). Milano, Archivio di Stato, Atti dei Pontenure (1371/72–1374). Piacenza, Archivio di notai, b. 13 Stato, Atti dei notai, b. 405 sold in Milan on June 10, 1369, and graphi- sometimes elementary, other times remark- cally depicted by notary Marcolo di Go- able. Entirely for different purposes, even if lasecca in the record of the sale (Fig. 3).35 often handed down within the same docu- Similarly relevant are the stylized, elemen- mentary context, are the many and mostly tary, and completely devoid of perspective monochromatic sketches through which representations of a section (between Lam- notaries expressed their iconographic mi- brate and Linate) of the River Lambro by crocosm. It often happened that, outside the notary designated to draw up the text the more official dimension, these profes- of the sentence of a dispute concerning the sionals indulged in extemporaneous graph- management of the waters pertaining to the ic-artistic expressions, which not by chance monastery of Chiaravalle.36 were called iscioperii by the Florentines. In these, as in other cases that could be These automatic or semiautomatic signs fre- mentioned, we are considering drawings quently stud the guardsheets, bindings and that are functional to the purpose of the margins of the professional books of nota- document, yet they also indirectly inform ries. We can consider these drawings as free us of the notaries’ personal graphic skills: manifestations of each notary’s personality, of his emotions and cultural interests.37 35 Milano, Atti dei notai, b. 13, image published in a. liva, Notariato e documento notarile a Milano dall’Alto Me- The writing surface that these sketch- dioevo al Settecento (Milano : Giuffré, 1979), picture es occupy and the space that notaries number VIII. 36 Milano, Fondo di religione, 2434, image published in L’immagine interessata. Territorio e cartografia in Lom- 37 Courtship scene by notary Giovanni from Pontenure bardia tra ‘500 e ‘800 (Como : New Press, 1984), 155 and (1371/72-1374), in Piacenza, Archivio di Stato, Atti dei 160, picture number Acque 1. notai, b. 405 (Fig. 4). 62 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 62 15.11.2019 10:18:20 Marta Luigina Mangini: DRAWINGS ON PARCHMENT AND PAPER... by the hand, his main working tool).39 Yet drawings are not always carefully considered representations. Often, these sketches were produced in response to a double process of automatism and projec- tion. They are spontaneous evidence of a perceptive and graphic-expressive skill that normally remains limited within fixed patterns. Notarial culture, therefore, allowed no- taries to express themselves freely in the choice of iconographic themes such as more or less real and identifiable human figures, landscape views, allegorical, he- raldic, phyto-zoomorphic elements. How- ever, at the same time, it was also a culture in which some figurative themes – mostly pornographic and sacred elements – were repeated almost obsessively. In any case, these drawings show us the most intimate Fig. 5: Notary Silvestro Bossi’s self-symbolic fragments of the context in which medieval representation (1403). Milano, Archivio di Stato, Atti dei notai, b. 111 Italian notaries mingled, operated, and after all spent their entire existence.40 deliberately left empty or for other uses al- low us to imagine the way each professional thought of himself in space and time. Marta Luigina MANGINI In this regard, we can mention the em- Dipartimento di Studi Storici, Università degli blematic case of early 15th-century notary Studi di Milano, via Festa del Perdono 7, 20122 Silvestro Bossi from Azzate38 who between Milano, Italy a record and the other of his register drew marta.mangini@unimi.it a clumsy ox with a pen in his mouth, and surmounted by a cross, under whose hoofs he added a caption with the pronoun Ego followed by three other sketches – a banner, a chalice and a pointing hand. If we break down this drawing we can easily under- stand the message the notary was trying to convey (Fig. 5): I am a member of the impor- tant Bossi family (whose surname comes from the Latin word bos, bovis, that is ox); I am endowed with a strong identity (sug- gested by the first person singular personal pronoun ego) embodied by my coat of arms (as we can see in the banner); I am a good Christian (this idea is represented by the chalice); and finally, I am a notary (evoked 39 F. Del treDici, Un’altra nobiltà. Storie di (in)distinzione a Milano. Secoli XIV-XV (Milano: Franco Angeli, 2017), 38 For Silvestro Bossi’s biography see Notai del contado 63-75. milanese in età viscontea (1347-1447), ed. by M. Lunari 40 All illustrations are published with the permission of the and others (Milano: Unicopli, 2009), sheet number 33. Ministero dei Beni e delle Attività Culturali d’Italia. 63 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 63 15.11.2019 10:18:20 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 64 15.11.2019 10:18:20 Ivana Prijatelj Pavičić THE SO-CALLED OHMUĆEVIĆ GENEALOGY (KRALJEVA SUTJESKA GENEALOGY) IN THE LIGHT OF THE RESULTS OF RECENT ICONOGRAPHIC, HISTORICAL, HERALDRY, AND RESTORATION RESEARCH PAPERS Riassunto del regno Illirico e quello Slavo – si dovrebbe tenere presente che essa manifesta la con- Negli ultimi anni, alcuni autori hanno studi- cezione della Nuova Era di nazione dicendo ato la cosiddetta genealogia di Ohmućević, che il Regno Bosniaco eìl nucleo di Illiria. È precedentemente associata al dipinto Il importante notare che quando la suddetta Cristo e il Donatore (re bosniaco Stjepan genealogia fu fatta, l’ex Regno Bosniaco Tomaš?) di Lovro Dobričević dalla galleria fu sotto il dominio dei Turchi Ottomani. Strossmayer di Zagabria. La genealogia e il Come espressione dell’idea dell’allora rein- dipinto provengono dal monastero Fran- tegrazione ideologica, gli stemmi dei paesi cescano di Kraljeva Sutjeska (Bosnia ed Illirici (Bosnia, Erzegovina, Rascia, Croazia Erzegovina). e Dalmazia) sono collegati allo stemma Il documento cerca di presentare i ri- composito nella cosidetta genealogia di sultati delle recenti ricerche iconografiche, Sutjeska. storiche, araldiche e di restauro sulla genea- Alla fine del documento, l’autore farà logia. Inoltre l’autore sottolineeraàlcuni fatti riferimento alla sfida museale, alla futura storici relativi alla “doppia reliquia” di Kralje- presentazione dell’immagine di Cristo e del va Sutjeska, di cui uno storico croato Stjepan Sovrano e alla genealogia di Sutjeska, dal Ćosić ha recentemente scritto. L’autore, tra 2010, quando la genealogia menzionata è le altre cose, mostra che nell’interpretazione stata conservata in una cartella separata de- della cosiddetta genealogia Sutjeska della positata nel ripostiglio della Galleria, cioè famiglia Ohmućević - che include gli stemmi esso non è più stato esposto nella Galleria. Keywords: Ohmućević genealogy, Petar Ohmućević, Lovro Dobričević, the Dead Christ and King Stephen Tomaš (Stjepan Tomaš), The Strossmayer Gallery of Old Masters (Strossmay- erova galerija starih majstora) Introduction (Ohmučević) genealogy, which was re- T moved a few years ago from the back of he topic of this paper is the so- the painting of Christ and the Donor in the called genealogy of Kraljeva Sutjeska Strossmayer Gallery in Zagreb (Fig. 2). The (Fig. 1) also called the Ohmućević painting has recently been attributed to the 65 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 65 15.11.2019 10:18:20 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper depicted in the painting was Stjepan Tomaš (1443-1461), the Bosnian King. Bishop Josip Juraj Strossmayer borrowed Dobričević’s painting from the friars of Sutjeska Francis- can monastery in 1871. The genealogy was named after the no- ble Ohmućević family, who lived at Slano near Dubrovnik. 2 The researchers suppose that the genealogy was commissioned by Petar (Pedro) Ivelja Ohmučević (died 1599), an Admiral of the Spanish Armada in the late 16th century. The year 1482 is written in the Ohmućević genealogy as the year that it was completed. It is the year of the fall of Herze- govina under the Ottoman rule. The geneal- ogy was commissioned in the late 16th centu- ry. It is a charter written on paper depicting the genealogical tree of Bosnian and Serbi- an kings, the coats of arms of Illyria and the so-called Illyrian countries (Bosnia, Rascia, Dalmatia, Croatia and Herzegovina), and Fig. 1: Lovro Dobričević, Christ and the Donor (King the coat of arms of the Ohmućević family. Stjepan Tomaš?), The Strossmayer Gallery of Old Some researchers have wondered Masters, Zagreb, c. 1460 (photo: Natalija Vasić) whether it was the original, a replica, or variant of a charter issued to Admiral Petar 15th-century painter Lovro Dobričević from Ohmućević by the Bosnian bishop and Kotor.1 It seems plausible that the person Franciscan provincial Antun Polus de Mat- 1 More about the painting: i. P theis (Matković) from Požega (died 1584?), riJatelJ Pavičić (a), ‘Dva nova priloga Lovri Dobričeviću’, in: Peristil, 34 (1991), 38–42; at the time that the Admiral was attempting Đ. vanđura, Strossmayerova donacija. Europska umjet- to prove his noble origin. nost od XV. do XIX. stoljeća (Zagreb: Hrvatska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti, 2006), 52, 558; I. PriJatelJ Pavičić (b), Petar Ohmućević tried to prove that his ‘Prilog poznavanju sudbine slike Uskrslog Krista i kralja family’s belonged to the old Bosnian nobil- Stjepana Tomaša porijeklom iz Kraljeve Sutjeske’, in: Stoljeća Kraljeve Sutjeske. Proceedings of the symposium ity (before the fall of Bosnia under the Ot- held in Kraljeva Sutjeska 17-18 October 2008 (Kraljeva toman rule) so as to obtain a noble title that Sutjeska–Sarajevo: Franjevačka teologija, 2010, ed. Marko Karamatić), 105-146; lJ. Dulibić, ‘Lovro Dobričević, Krist i donator, 1460. (?)’, in: Lj. Dulibić, I. Pasini Tržec and B. 2 After carrying out conservation and restoration, the Popovčak, in: Strossmayerova galerija starih majstora. charter was placed in a protective folder, specially de- Odabrana djela. katalog (Zagreb: Hrvatska akademija signed for its safe storage, and returned to the owner, znanosti i umjetnosti, 2013), 56–61; I. PriJatelJ Pavičić (c), the Strossmayer’s Gallery of Old Masters in Zagreb. U potrazi za izgubljenim slikarstvom, O majstoru Lovri More about the genealogy: v. solovJev, ‘Postanak ilirske iz Kotora i slikarstvu na prostoru Dubrovnika tijekom heraldike i porodica Ohmučević’, in: Glasnik skopskog druge polovice XV. stoljeća (Dubrovnik: Matica hrvatska Naučnog društva, XII. (1932), 79-126; I. banac, Grbovi – ogranak Dubrovnik, 2013), 249-259. Investigation estab- biljezi identiteta (Zagreb: Grafički zavod Hrvatske, lished that the genealogy was written not on parchment, 1991), 12–15; D. lovrenović, ‘Fojnički grbovnik, ilirska but on paper, coated with a layer of gelatine. More about heraldika i bosansko srednjevjekovlje’, in: Bosna Fran- the conservation-restauration work and interventions on ciscana 21(2004), anno. XII., 190–192); S. ćosić, Ide- genealogy: A. DraGoević, ‘Konzervatorsko-restauratorski ologija rodoslovlja. Korjenić-Neorićev grbovnik iz 1595 radovi na rodoslovlju Ohmučević’, in: Portal, 1(2010), (Dubrovnik: Zavod za povijesne znanosti u Dubrovni- 109-116. The author was given copyrights for publishing ku, Hrvatska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti – Zagreb: the photos taken by Natalija Vasić of the painting Christ Nacionalna i sveučilišna knjižnica, 2015), 15, 101–109, and the Donor of Lovro Dobričević and of the so-called 111–114 (it includes previous literature). The research Ohmućević genealogy, by Hrvatski restauratorski zavod of the noble family Ohmučević established their pres- Zagreb (The Croatian Conservation Institute) of Ministry ence on the territory of Hum and Dubrovnik in the 14th of Culture of the Republic of Croatia (Ministarstvo kul- and 15th centuries. After the Ottoman conquest of Hum, ture Republike Hrvatske). they moved to Slano. 66 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 66 15.11.2019 10:18:21 Ivana Prijatelj Pavičić: THE SO-CALLED OHMUĆEVIĆ GENEALOGY... Fig. 2a and 2b: So-called Ohmučević genealogy (Genealogy of the Serbian and Bosnian Nobles), before and after the restoration, The Strossmayer Gallery of Old Masters, Zagreb (photo: Natalija Vasić) was important to him as an admiral of the and Polish kings, as well as the Transylvanian, Spanish Armada at the time of Philip II of Moldavian, and Wallachian Dukes.3 Spain in the so-called classis Illyrica. Based In this paper, we will examine several on the documents collected by Ohmućević, topics. Why were the Kraljeva Sutjeska ge- the Royal Council in Naples recognized his nealogy and Dobričević’s painting of Christ noble Bosnian ancestry in 1594. and the Donor/King Stjepan Tomaš (?) It was at the time of Pope Clement VIII glued together (to form a coherent whole), (1592-1605), who sought to recruit not only in the late 16th century? Who was behind that Catholic but also Orthodox rulers in the Ecu- move? Where did it happen? Where had the menical Crusade War. He was also interested painting of Christ and King Stjepan Tomaš in the Illyricum lands, under Ottoman rule been kept until then? at that time, where he found Franciscans of Bosna Srebrena among other partners. Due Description and history of the to his initiative in the late 16th century, the idea Ohmućević Genealogy of linking all southern Slavs emerged in order to release them from the Ottoman administra- The painting depicting the portrait of Stjepan tion. In the anti-Ottoman Alliance, which was Tomaš (?) was important to the Franciscans then organized by the Pope, there were the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, the French 3 Z. blažević, Ilirizam prije ilirizma (Zagreb: Golden marketing, 2008), 157, 159, 160-161. 67 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 67 15.11.2019 10:18:22 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper dating back to 1595 (today in the National and University Library in Zagreb), and the armorial of Fojnica, which are also related to Pedro Ohmućević and his successors. For an understanding of the specific context of the creation of the Sutjeska gene- alogy, the field with a red galero (cardinal’s cap) seems to have been important as a he- raldic motif painted on the composite coat of arms on the genealogy charts of the Slavic states and kingdoms. According to historian Stjepan Ćosić, it is a question of the coat of arms of St Jerome, the patron saint of Illyria. The armorial of Korjenić-Neorić bears a de- piction of St Jerome (Fig. 3) and, below it, there is a painting of his coat of arms that includes a cardinal’s cap and shield with a depiction of a rampant lion. Ćosić states that this coat of arms is a modified version of a coat of arms of Slovenian March (Windisch- mark), known of in Habsburg heraldry.4 Ćosić stresses that the Sutjeska geneal- ogy does not show the coat of arms of Ser- bia with the cross and tinders, like in the Fig. 3: St Jerome with his coat of arms, Korjenić- Korjenić-Neorić armorial. The coat of arms Neorić Armorial, National and University Library, of Raška with three horseshoes is shown in- Zagreb (from: I. Banac, Grbovi biljezi identiteta stead. Based on these two heraldic motifs, (Zagreb: Grafički zavod Hrvatske, 1991, 149)) Ćosić’s opinion is that the Sutjeska geneal- of Bosna Srebrena, and many researchers ogy was made before the Korjenić-Neorić believe that they kept it as a memory of the genealogy.5 medieval tradition of the Bosnian Kingdom. Writing about the genealogy, historian However, how did Petar Ohmućević man- Stjepan Ćosić directs attention to the last age to obtain it? The Bosnian royal tradition will of Queen Katarina (Catherine) Kosača, was a crucial argument to the Franciscans who (when Bosnia fell under Ottoman in the survival of their Province of Bosna rule) left the Bosnian Kingdom to the Pa- Srebrena. It was also important to the tribes pal state. The composite coat of arms in the and noblemen of Bosnian origin who lived 4 Today, as part of the legacy of Ljudevit Gaj, it is kept at the at Slano, like Ohmućević. National and University Library in Zagreb. The Korjenić- The Sutjeska genealogy, because of the Neorić armorial was a model for several armorials, such as the Fojnica armorial in the Franciscan monastery at coats of arms that it contains, is a precious Fojnica, and the so-called Saraka (de Saracca) armorial historical document, as according to many (1746), today in the State Archives of Dubrovnik. Stjepan Ćosić writes that strict endogamy and the class close- researchers it is “the beginning of Illyr- ness of the Dubrovnik patricians to members of navy ian heraldry” (first observed by Aleksandar families of Slano (originally from old Bosnian nobility), Solovljev). Due to the coats of arms that it who served the Spanish and Naples courts, prevented Bosnian nobles from aquiring nobility in the Dubrovnik contains, it is associated with the most fa- Republic. These were the families of Ohmučević, Dolisti- mous Illyrian armorials with coats of arms Tasovčić-Diničić, Korjenić-Neorić-Jerinić and Ursinić. Therefore, based on a variety of apocryphal and authen- of the so-called Illyrian families, predomi- tic stories, they sought to find their kinship with the no- nantly of former noble families from Bosnia ble elites of medieval Bosnia, Hum, Serbia and Albania. and Hum, the ones called Korjenić-Neorić, ćosić, note 2, 15, 104. 5 ćosić, note 2, 105. 68 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 68 15.11.2019 10:18:22 Ivana Prijatelj Pavičić: THE SO-CALLED OHMUĆEVIĆ GENEALOGY... dynasty. (Fig. 4) In the 15th century, this saint was proclaimed protector of the Bosnian Kingdom by the Pope himself.7 In general, it illustrates the Bosnian-Il- lyrian idea and the idea of the former glo- ry of the Bosnian Kingdom, and the noble Ohmučević family is represented as one of the important Bosnian noble families.8 Ćosić is of the opinion that the compos- ite coat of arms of the Slavic states and king- doms, with the lozenge, divided by lines of partition, of the Kosača and the Nemanjić families is the “heraldic key” for the inter- pretation of the symbolism of the Sutjeska genealogy for the Franciscans and the nobil- ity of Slano, the Ohmućević family.9 It is worth pondering in the light of the time of its emergence, whether the intercon- fessional Illyrism, which is manifested in the Sutjeska genealogy and the Korjenić-Neorić armorial, is also a reflection of the political ideas of the Ohmućević family,10 and of the then Franciscan Illyrism, and of the ideologi- cal and political “Crusading” of Popes Sixtus V Fig. 4: St Gregory the Great as protector of the (1585-1590) and Clement VIII (1592-1605) Bosnian Kingdom, National and University Library, who intended to include, in the counter- Zagreb (from: I. Banac, Grbovi biljezi identiteta Ottoman coalition, the South Slavs from the (Zagreb: Grafički zavod Hrvatske, 1991, 150)) Balkan Peninsula then under the Ottoman Sutjeska genealogy, which includes, from rule.11 Can the emergence of the galero on top to bottom, the historical coat of arms of the depicted coat of arms be an argument the Bosnian Kingdom, the coat of arms of for the dating of the genealogy to the time the Nemanjić family and the galero of St Je- of the rule of Clement VIII, just as Don Pe- rome, the coat of arms of the Primorje (Lit- dro as admiral classis Illyrica participated in toral)/Hum/Herzegovina, is associated with the realization of anti-Ottoman plans of the the royal legitimacy of the last Bosnian King, Holy League (the papal Christian Coalition)? Stjepan Tomašević (1461-1463), who was According to historians Zrinka Blažević and also the last Serbian ruler thanks to the mar- riage with Jelena (Mara), Lazar Branković’s 7 ćosić, note 2, 16-17. daughter (after the fall of Smederevo under 8 ‘In the political-ideological articulation and distribu- the Ottoman rule) and thus also the legiti- tion of the contents of the first armorial’ – according to Ćosić (ćosić, note 2, 19, 153) – ‘the key role was played mate successor of Serbian rulers from the by Franciscans of Slano, who were connected with the Nemanjić dynasty.6 Bosnian Vicary and Court of the last Bosnian kings ever since the foundation of St Jerome monastery in the be- Another interesting thing for our theme ginning of the 15th century’. The Pragmatic matrix of the is the depiction of St Gregory the Great first armorials in the 17th and 18th centuries were used by (Pope Gregory I) at the top of the Sutjeska numerous individuals and families from different parts of ‘Illyria’who in the Ottoman expulsion saw the chance genealogy (above the described composite to grasp an opportunity and take their ‘old’ possessions coat of arms) as the protector of the Bosnian and noble titles. Kingdom and the patron of the Kotromanić 9 ćosić, note 2, 19, 112, 117, 159. 10 ćosić, note 2, 18-19, 27, 104-105. 6 ćosić, note 2, 106, 107. 11 ćosić, note 2, 104, 117. 69 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 69 15.11.2019 10:18:22 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Stjepan Ćosić, the Korjenić-Neorić armorial Coastal Region (the monastery belonged to dated back to 159512 revealed Don Pedro’s Bosnian vicary).19 position within the then anti-Ottoman plans The researchers of both artworks won- of the Christian Coalition.13 der who and why decided in the late 16th century to attach Petar Ivelja Ohmućević’s Political and ecclesiastical genealogy with the Illyrian armorial to the circumstances back of the painting. Regarding the Bosnian king’s portrait, at that moment the painting King Stjepan Tomaš was buried in the Church probably represented a holy relic as a memo- of St Michael on Bobovac in the immediate rial to the former Bosnian Kingdom. Seek- vicinity of today‘s monastery of Kraljeva ing an answer to this question as well as the Sutjeska. In 2010, I discussed the possibil- time at which the painting with the geneal- ity that Dobričević’s painting of Christ and ogy came to the Sutjeska monastery, promi- the Donor could have been intended for the nent Croatian historian Stjepan Ćosić points Church of St Michael in Bobovac. In 2015, out several possibilities. The first one is that Stjepan Ćosić also discussed this possibility. the painting in the Sutjeska monastery ar- Prijatelj Pavičić and Ćosić pointed out rived shortly after the “intervention” of Petar several possibilities: the first one is that Ivelja Ohmućević (of course, assuming that the painting with the genealogy arrived he himself had added the genealogy to the shortly after the commission by Petar Ivelja painting) in about 1596 when “the uncles Ohmučević.14 in Sutjeska got permission to rebuild the As a young researcher, I was most inter- church and monastery”.20 However, the dis- ested in identifying the author of the paint- tinguished historian suggests that this may ing depicting the Dead Christ, which had have happened later, in the late 17th or early been discussed for decades.15 I linked the 18th centuries. He questions if the arrival of painting of Christ and the Donor (Christ as the artwork at Kraljeva Sutjeska coincided Man of Sorrows)16 to the commissions that with the time at which a variant of the armori- Dobričević received from the Bosnian Fran- al of the youngest lineage of the Ohmučević ciscan Vicary between 1459 and 1461. The family arrived at the Franciscan monastery at contracts did not specify the location for Fojnica, known as Fojnica Armorial.21 which the painting was intended.17 Searching in this direction, Ćosić indicates In 1462, the Bosnian king Stjepan Tomaš the possibility that both the Fojnica Armo- died. His son, Stjepan Tomašević was the rial and a “double relic”22 from the Franciscan first Bosnian ruler crowned by the Papal monastery at Slano could have been brought crown at Jajce in 1462 (a year before the fall to Bosnia by two Franciscans of Bosnian of Bosnia under the Ottoman rule).18 Stjepan Vicary: Fr. Mato Kmetović, recorded as a Foj- Ćosić explores whether Dobričević’s paint- nica guardian in 173923 and Fr. Ivan Kmetović, ing of Christ and the Donor was in the pos- who was a Fojnica guardian a couple of years session of the Franciscan monastery of St later (1741).24 It is important to note that both Jerome for a time, at Slano in Dubrovnik of them originated from the village of Banići, 12 Z. b which belonged to the parish town of Slano, lažević, note 3, 154, 157, 160-165, 170; ćosić, note 2, 112. in the Dubrovnik Coastal Area, and that both 13 ćosić, note 2, 30, 46, 112. 14 P 19 ć riJatelJ Pavičić (b), note 1, 104-146 (it includes previous osić, note 2, 113. literature). 20 ćosić, note 2, 113–117. 15 PriJatelJ Pavičić (a), note 1, 38–42; PriJatelJ Pavičić (c), 21 ćosić, note 2, 113. note 1, 249-250 (it includes previous literature). 22 ćosić, note 2,112–113. 16 More about iconography of Christ as Man of Sorrows 23 ćosić, note 2, 113. see: DULIBIĆ, note 1, 56–61. 24 ćosić, note 2, 113. At that time Antun-Damjan Ohmućević 17 PriJatelJ Pavičić (b), note 1, 105-115, 131-135. (+1729) was in the Habsburgs service during the Great 18 ćosić, note 2, 111-113. Turkish War. ĆOSIĆ, note 2, 159. 70 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 70 15.11.2019 10:18:22 Ivana Prijatelj Pavičić: THE SO-CALLED OHMUĆEVIĆ GENEALOGY... of them originated from the old Bosnian no- by the separation of Dobričević’s paint- bility, the family of Korjenić-Neorić. Ćosić at- ing and the Sutjeska genealogy. Since 2010, tempts to reinforce this hypothesis by the fact when the mentioned genealogy was stored that during the first half of the 18th century in a separate folder deposited in the Stross- the two mentioned Franciscans administered mayer Gallery storage room (Archives of three monasteries of Bosna Srebrena, those of the Croatian Academy of Sciences/HAZU), Fojnica, Kraljeva Sutjeska, and Kreševo. i.e., it has no longer been exhibited in the Stjepan Ćosić further explores whether Gallery. the painting may have been in the possession Bishop Strossmayer (1871) promised of the Franciscan monastery of St Jerome for a to take care of it, but his promise has re- while, at Slano in the Dubrovnik Coastal Area, cently been “broken” by the heirs of this where many members of the Ohmućević fam- Collection.28 After the restoration interven- ily were buried.25 It is a question of the mon- tion carried out on the painting in 2006, astery that had belonged to Bosnian Vicary the Ohmućević genealogy and the paint- until the fall of Bosnia under the Ottoman ing of Christ and the Donor were separated, rule, but it was located on the territory of the and they no longer form a coherent whole. Dubrovnik Republic. Apart from the commis- Therefore, in her presentation in 2017, Ljer- sions that Dobričević did for Bosnia, Ćosić ka Dulibić pointed out the issue that arose gives a particular emphasis on the painting instantly before the staff of the Strossmayer that Dobričević was commissioned to paint Gallery regarding their appropriate muse- in February 1460 for the main altar of the um presentation to the visitors. Franciscan church at Slano.26 Unfortunately, the polyptych painted by Dobričević for the church at Slano has disappeared as well as his The proposal for the new appropriate other paintings for Bosnian Vicary, which I museum presentation of Sutjeska mentioned earlier.27 Does he not address the genealogy to the visitors issue of whether the Franciscans could com- mission a painting of a Bosnian king’s portrait We live in a time in which it is not simple by Dobričević for the monastery at Slano on to present the Sutjeska genealogy with the the territory of the Dubrovnik Republic? composite coat of arms of Slavic states and I suppose that historian Stjepan Ćosić of- kingdoms. A future museum mode of pres- fers a few interesting hypothetical answers re- entation of the former state of the work garding the-origin and destiny of Dobričević’s of art, which was a coherent whole then, painting of Christ and the Donor, and how could explain its cultural, historical and it reached Petar Ohmučević, who was most symbolic value. probably the one who decided to glue the ge- The presentation would introduce the nealogy to the back of the painting. intriguing story hidden behind the so-called Sutjeska “double relic”, as Dobričević’s painting with the attached Sutjeska geneal- The question of the future presentation of ogy was called.29 When the genealogy was the painting of Christ and the Donor and of the Sutjeska genealogy in the Strossmayer 28 Bishop Strossmayer, as one of the key ideologues of Yugoslavism, included this two-piece arteork in his Gallery: the museal challenge Zagreb collection. His Illyrian and proto-Yugoslav themes attracted researchers, historians, and heralds, who engaged in it during both the First and later the Before concluding this paper, I consider it Second Yugoslavia. necessary to examine the situation created 29 LJ. Dulibić, ‘Ikonografija Cristo passo kao nositelj ilirske heraldike’, paper on the scholarly colloquia Semantika 25 ć osobne prezentacije: grbovi, insignije i portreti u osić, note 2, 113. ikonografiji naručitelja od 15. – 18. stoljeća u Hrvatskoj, 26 ćosić, note 2, 108–109. held in the Institute of Art History (Institut za povijest 27 ćosić, note 2, 158-159 (it includes previous literature). umjetnosti), 6th June 2017 in Zagreb. 71 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 71 15.11.2019 10:18:22 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper detached from the back of the painting, the historical context of the creation of the “Bosnian relic” ceased to exist after several painting and the genealogy, that is, to the centuries of its strong symbolic role for the history of this “double relic”. Franciscan Province of Bosnia Srebrena. One of the contemporary museum modes of presentation of a former state of Ivana PRIJATELJ PAVIČIČ a piece of art could explain the cultural, his- Faculty of Social Sciences and Philosophy, Uni- torical, and especially symbolic value that versity of Split, Poljička cesta 35, HR – 2100 Split, the original work of art used to have as a Croatia coherent whole, which it was when Bishop prijatelj@ffst.hr Strossmayer borrowed it from Sutjeska fri- ars in 1871. I am aware that we live in a time when it is not simple to present – on a large board located beside Dobričević’s painting of Christ and the Donor – the Sutjeska ge- nealogy with the composite coat of arms of Slavic kingdoms that includes the coat of arms of the Nemanjić family, without an ap- propriate expert explanation of the history of its significance. This is just one of the rea- sons that it would be necessary for today’s audience of the Strossmayer Gallery to ex- plain the time of the creation and change of the symbolism of genealogy. According to the modern concept of the 16th century (when the Sutjeska geneal- ogy was created), the Kingdom of Bosnia, which was then under the Ottoman rule, was the core of former Illyria. The text on the board should explain that the idea of the Bosnian kingdom was then based on the legitimacy of the son of King Stjepan Tomašević.30 Moreover, the genealogy and the last will of Queen Katarina Kosača should not be forgotten but emphasized. In her will, the queen had given the Pope the legacy of the Bosnian kingdom because at the time after the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia it was expected from the Holy See (Lat. Sancta Sedes) to lead the liberation of Illyria.31 I do hope that there will soon be a museum presentation that will include an interdisciplinary approach to the complex 30 ćosić, note 4, 110. 31 lovrić, ‘Bosanska srednjevjekovna državnost u tradiciji Bosne Srebrene’, in: Zbornik radova sa znanstvenog skupa u povodu 500. obljetnice smrti fra Anđela Zvizdovića (Sarajevo-Fojnica: Franjevačka teologija – Sarajevo, 2000); ćosić, note 4, 104–107 (it includes previous literature). 72 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 72 15.11.2019 10:18:22 Nataša Golob THE REVERSE FACE OF THE PAINTED PAGE Résumé papier, ainsi que l’utilisation d’outils spéci- fiques et une technique particulière de tra- Dans les articles de recherches publiés sur vail. Un regard au recto et au verso de la ce sujet, l’enluminure est présente comme page peinte nous offre des informations un travail accomplie, montrant une ca- complémentaires plus complètes et aborde pacité esthétique et stylistique. Le verso également les aspects anthropologiques du du parchemin portant l’enluminure révèle travail au Moyen ge, qui s’appliquent à la d’autres détails, on peut voir l’effet des pig- fois aux environnements monastiques et ments sélectionnés sur le parchemin et le urbains. Keywords: illumination, reverse face, shades of colours, technical devices Painted page and coloured shades on stiff and flat; despite its relative thickness, the reverse side all painted segments left a coloured shade A on the reverse side of the folio, regardless of few years ago, I had the opportunity whether they were bright or dark. to admire the Missal for the Augsburg Because the colouristic character of rite, printed in Dillingen in 1555.1 It is Gerung’s Crucifixion is so impressive, I com- a splendid work, and as tradition demands, pared the composition with two other ex- the canon leaves are printed on parchment, amples, also individually coloured. Identical opening with the Crucifixion (Figs. 1a, 1b) compositions gain an essentially different The expressive power of lines on the wood- character due to the choice of colours. Ob- cut, made by Matthias Gerung, was intensi- viously, the pallet is influencing the expres- fied by layers of paint and the enhancement siveness, giving more weight to the content, of some details, such as streams of blood on enhancing the religious message, and inten- Christ’s body. The colourist that complement- sifying iconographic accents. Comparative ed the image of this tragedy used gold and Missals2 from the same print run and embel- dense layers of colours. Due to the demands lished with colours by other illuminators are of the printing process, the parchment is also exceptional works, but it seems that the colourists used relatively light colours, and 1 Missale secundum ritum Augustensis ecclesie, Dillingen: Sebald Mayer 1555. Ca. 355 × 245 mm; five woodcuts of higher importance, among them the Crucifiction, 2 Christie’s sale 5960; auction catalogue, 21st November were commisioned to Matthias Gerung by the Cardinal 2012, lot 116; Augsburg, Staats- und Stadtbibliothek, MF Prince Bishop Otto Truchsess von Waldburg. Th A 498 – 1555b. 73 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 73 15.11.2019 10:18:22 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Figs. 1a–1b: Maribor, Archbishopric Archives, R 25: Missale secundum ritum Augustensis ecclesie, Dillingen: Sebald Mayer 1555, Crucifixion and reverse side of the composition they do not exceed the necessity of cover- sides emerge? Is it possible that they were ing the surface of the woodcut. Thus, only already visible during the process of illumi- the illusion of this event was created and al- nating? Would it be possible that they were together the level of selective realism is not annoying to the eyes of the illuminator, the surpassed. One may expect that they com- commissioner, and the first owner at this plied with the wishes of commissioners, but early stage? Did the coloured shades cause they also did not take a step away from the unpleasant feelings, because they are blur- average colour scheme to immerse them- ring the page, and are influencing the legi- selves in the essence of the woodcut. This bility of the text? One could say that they are simple comparison illustrates well the es- causing aesthetic damage. At least from our sence of the colour, also marking the potent perspective, it seems logical – if the shades expression of line and of colour. appeared instantly – to move the intended Here is the question: did illuminators composition on the reverse side from one or manuscript workers in a broader sense part of the folio to another section, espe- know the weight that layers of paint carry cially at the instances when there was no over the aesthetic quality of the subordi- shortage of the surface.3 Regarding the pres- nated, i.e., reverse side of the folio, which 3 More attention was paid to manuscripts from Carolingi- touches on the working process, composi- an age until the end of the Romanesque; the impression tion, and quality of the substances used for that damage on the reverse side of the folio appeared painting? only after several decades is sustained by several ex- amples; even excellent illuminators did not choose for This is related to another issue: when their compositions a non-affected place; therefore, it did the coloured shades on the reverse seems that during their work the damaging effects did not appear. Such case is the illumination of the so-called 74 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 74 15.11.2019 10:18:23 Nataša Golob: THE REVERSE FACE OF THE PAINTED PAGE ervation of medieval and renaissance illumi- sciences), and there are three classes of ma- nated manuscripts, a dilemma remains: did terials that are specific and unique for every the processes slow down after a period of manuscript: a) a variety of parchments and severe deterioration and not progress any substances used for their fabrication; b) a further, or did this process ever stop at all? variety of pigments and their additives; c) As an art historian, I am familiar with a variety of layers, grounds, necessary for many a manuscript and have long known the decoration. These three components that some of them are in poor condition contributed to the final result and the sub- and that this was caused by applying vari- sequent life of the manuscript. It is not news ous damaging substances. Sometimes, after that an average atelier had a selection of pig- several controls, we ascertained the signs of ments at their disposal, which, at least to the deterioration and realized that some pro- naked eye, could in different combinations cesses could not be stopped. That caused produce the same hue of colour, and sub- the inaccessibility for research of a number sequently contribute to an aesthetic whole. of famous manuscripts; some, like the Gi- Only modern technology can give an an- ant Admont Bible, were victims of unusual swer to which pigments they used when, chemical components, like the mixture of for example, blue was needed for various silver and gold dust with pigments.4 Also elements, but it is not unusual for us to be severely damaged is the group of so-called able to detect the differences in chemical “black manuscripts” for the Burgundian composition from the shades on the reverse court of the second half of the 15th century. side of the painted detail easily with the na- As is clear now, the advancing of deteriora- ked eye.5 tion due to using inappropriate material is Many manuscripts are worthy of par- revealed after several centuries. The crea- ticular interest because of the process of the tors of these magnificent codices could not ageing of the painted layers, which influ- have known that by choosing particular enced the final aesthetic and iconographic substances, they condemned to death their result. As an intriguing example, I choose most beautiful works of art. the so-called De Fay Gospels.6 This Carolin- There is no answer suitable for all man- gian manuscript was produced in the world- uscripts; every item requires individual renowned scriptorium of St Martin at Tours analysis (this is in the domain of natural 5 The analysis of the Book of Hours of Catherine of Cleves, Odbert Gospels, copied and illuminated in the abbey of now New York, Morgan Library & Museum, MS M. 917 Saint Omer, early 11th century, now New York, Pierpont and M. 945, ca. 1445, showed that several illuminators Morgan Library, Ms M 333. On fol. 84r is depicted Saint worked by the side of Master of Catherine of Cleves. Dif- John, his bank has a rim in malachite green rim; on the ferent hands are underlined also by the use of pigments reverse side, fol. 84r is below the capitularium Explici- and various kinetics of the hands. F. Trujillo, ‘From the unt breves causae painted a dedicatory picture, show- master’s hand? A study of working methods of the Mas- ing the tonsured Odbert and a fellow monk presenting ter of Catherine of Cleves’, in: Care and Conservation books to Saint Bertin, their hands covered respectfully of manuscripts. 13. Proceedings of the fifteenth Seminar in the presence of the holy founder of their monastic held at the University of Copenhagen, 13th – 15th April community. The composition of Saint John in elaborate 2011, Copenhagen 2016, 451–472. Similar results are drawn frame is visible as a shade also on fol. 84r, yet not also quoted by other studies because of the importance causing an un-aesthetic result. Disturbing are only traces of the workshop(s), involved in the illumination of the of green fields, crossing the dedicatory composition. – I Visconti Book of Hours, cf.: C. rob-santer, ‘Die Trecento- presume that the illuminator handed out a perfect co- Ausstattung des Visconti-Stundenbuches – Ein Werk- dex, with no disturbing shades. For the manuscript cf. r. stattbericht’, in: Wege zum illuminierten Buch. Herstel- KaHsnitZ, ’Der christologische Zyklus im Odbert-Psalter‘, lungsbedingungen für Buchmalerei in Mittelalter und in: Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte, 51/1988, 33-125; e. früher Neuzeit, (ed. by C. Beier und E. T. Kubina), (Wien, WilliaMs, [16] Odbert Gospels’, in: Pen and Parchment. Köln, Weimar: Böhlau Verlag, 2014), 125–147; as a tech- Drawing in the Middle Ages, ed. By M. Holcomb, (New Haven and London, Yale University Press, underdrawing is shining through the layers of paint (p. 2009), 74–76. 134), the analysis also showed that several painters used 4 a. F pigments of different compositions (p. 144). inGernaGel, Die Admonter Riesenbibel (Wien, ÖNB, Cod. Ser. n. 2701 und 2702), (Graz: Akademische Druck- 6 https:// gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8426037h [ac- u. Verlagsanstalt, 2001), 19. cessed May, 30, 2019]. 75 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 75 15.11.2019 10:18:23 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Figs. 2a–2b: Paris, National Library of France, Ms lat. 9385: Evangiles dits De Fay, 18r–18v, Tours, 845–851 (Figs. 2a, 2b). A glance through the pages of was mixed in the gold base,7 yet only chemi- this perfectly preserved manuscript alerts cal and physical analyses would yield exact us that its pages are no longer offering the answers regarding the composition and per- same aesthetic that they had at the moment centage of ingredients.8 of their creation. The purple areas, the let- It is presumably the process of ageing ters and rims in gold, half-palmettes in or- that transformed layers of silver leaves and ange and red, folded green ribbon, and oth- lines of silver ink on the dark surface and er features that are preserved on the front left distinctive shades: if the transformation page and on its reverse side are in substan- from glittering into dark grey had been im- tially the same level of quality as in the mid- mediate, the decisions for quantities of sil- 9th century; their intensity of colour did not ver accents would have been accepted with change over the years. The original colour much more precaution. Many illuminated character is well preserved when supported works suffered aesthetic changes because of by golden ink. dark silver surfaces.9 The quality and shine In contrast, the pictorial essence of the parts where silver ink was applied has 7 c. Denoël, ‘Sur les traces d’un livre d’évangiles du XIe siècle provenant de la Bibliothèque d’Antoine Loisel changed significantly: on the front page, the (Paris, BNF, Latin 17228)’, v: Revue Mabillon, n.t., t. 17(= silver ink turned almost completely black, t. 78), 2006, 35–52, cf. 40. on the reverse side, there are dark grey 8 Denoël (note 7) refers to the investigations of pigments, used in the Fleury abbey. She concludes that during the shades. There are several opening pages pre-Romanesque era, scriptoria in less wealthy monaster- for each Gospel, where silver ink has lost its ies used mixtures of silver and gold pigments. Her infor- brilliance and is immersed in the surround- mation does not include whether is this statement valid for manuscripts, commissioned from the part of richer ing purple; hence, the most important in- aristocracy, or for the ones intended for free market. troductory words became illegible. It is well 9 Often we read remarks, saying: “silver leaf, which has known that during the Carolingian and Ot- now almost completely turned black, must have origi- nally enhanced the glittering of the illuminations.” Cf. L. tonian era many experiments regarding pig- WatteeuW & M. van bos, ‘» Un tres beau psaultier, tout es- ments were executed, and cheaper silver cript de lettre d’or et d’azur«: History, imaging and analy- ses of the Peterborough Psalter (Brussels, KBR 9961 – 76 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 76 15.11.2019 10:18:23 Nataša Golob: THE REVERSE FACE OF THE PAINTED PAGE Figs. 3a–3b: Ljubljana, National and University Library, Ms 2: Aurelius Augustinus: De Civitate Dei, 98r–98v, Charterhouse Bistra, 1347 of silver and gold on the front side often reverse of the parchment may be caused by have a counterpart on the reverse side, with the selection of ground, either usual gesso, dark areas and wrinkling, but they are also coloured gesso, Armenian bole, or a base dependent on the grounds used. Recent de- containing mercury.11 The final decision, for velopments in 3D microscopy and 3D imag- example, to use raised grey gesso, or a raised ing with Photometric Stereo are providing vermillion layer, was the personal decision insight into the topography of art materials. of the illuminator (Figs. 3a, 3b). His decision The process of Reflection Transformation influenced different hues in metallic leaves. Imaging can provide new insights into the Cennino Cennini, who dedicated so many study of illumination, especially in tech- chapters of his Il libro dell’arte to gold back- niques, showing changes in more or less grounds on parchment (Cap. CLVII–CLXI), concave surfaces. It is a very useful tool for does not utter a single word about possible the identification of techniques applied influences to the reverse side, but one must in the creation of gilded letters, parts of admit that there were so many techniques initials, backgrounds and similar features, of painting and so many substances that ob- showing cracking, flaking of metal surfaces, viously a painter was necessarily a practical and other forms of deterioration.10 We are chemist, and the results of his work were well aware of the fact that dark spots on the sometimes unpredictable.12 9962)’, in: Care and Conservation of manuscripts. 15. 11 WatteeuW & van bos, note 9, 280. Proceedings of the fifteenth Seminar held at the Univer- 12 The magic of glittering segments in silver and gold and sity of Copenhagen, 2nd – 4th April 2014, Copenhagen multi-coloured initials is not related only to the direct 2016, 269–285, cf. 283. worship of precious materials, more important is alle- 10 WatteeuW & van bos, note 9, 274–277. goric and theological determinant in the character of 77 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 77 15.11.2019 10:18:23 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper There are no art historical publications fully oversaw the accurate positioning of on the aspects of the reverse face of the parch- painted surfaces on both faces of the folios ment; also specialized catalogues and stud- and thus avoided the majority of shadowy ies hardly ever offer a reproduction of both traces. Despite the fact that calf parchment sides. I understand that the folio, showing bears the applications of strong colours “damages” of colour hues are not interesting well, not all differences were avoidable. For from the point of view of aesthetics and that iconographic reasons, there are four medal- studies are concentrated on the importance lions on the corners of the composition of of illumination in a proper sense of the word. Ancestors of Jesus:15 on the other side, where Publications display attention for the creative the dedicatory image is painted, we can no- force of the painter, for artistic achievement tice their shadowy shapes, but because of which is a feast for the eyes, and for icono- the compactness of the parchment they are graphic importance. The fact is that repro- not a disturbance.16 ductions of the reverse side are often crucial It was a general rule that for liturgical for offering complementary information, manuscripts parchments of good qual- which is based on a possibility of following ity were available; consequently, painted the working process and material properties initials with decorative branches of leaves in a specific time and in a specific milieu. In and blossoms were set in the proper place this respect, the digital views of entire manu- within the text, or on margins without dis- scripts are outstanding support for research, turbing the text on the reverse face. Some- as we have access to the reproduction of the times the decision was made that floral front and reverse faces. Indeed, nothing can borders on the recto and verso were to be a complete substitute for viewing the orig- be identical, being traced through. The inal, but it provides a lead. reason might be twofold: with this ingen- Mediaeval manuscript workers were ious method, they saved time and possibly aware of the importance of using quality avoided the bleed-through of paint from parchment folios and pigments. Some of the other side of the leaf.17 their decisions, which we can rarely trace, The case of manuscripts with particu- are evidence of their awareness of material larly thin parchment is another story. An limits. Frank M. Bischoff demonstrated the example is Summa Monaldina, made in the thought and deliberation that went into the milieu of Paris University around 1300. The choice of parchments by copyists and illu- thin parchment caused a particular compre- minators, working on the Gospels for Henry hension of the “reverse face” and of the role the Lion (ca. 1188).13 For folios for which illu- of drawings on the recto and verso sides of mination dominated, they chose calf parch- each leaf. There are approximately 1600 au- ment, which is thick and quite bright, while tonomous drawings on the margins, shining for prevalently textual pages they used through the folio and thus enjoying a double sheep parchment, which is slightly thinner life: on the upper side, in their complete and and yellowish.14 The master illuminator care- clear form, and on the reverse side, as a soft mediaeval art. Though allegorical and exegetical inter- ment. Geschichte, Struktur, Restaurierung, Herstellung, pretations of colour and light were in the domain of the ed. by P. Rück (Sigmaringen: Thorbecke Verlag, 1991), learned ones, consecrated in the meanings of the Chris- 97 – 144, cf. 134 ss. tian iconology, the delight in admiring the glittering and 15 On the upper corners are medallions of Christ as Spon- colourful works of art, available on public spaces to eve- sus and Maria as Sponsa, persons from the Song of ryone, was not curtailed. Cf. r. assunto, Die Theorie des Songs, here related to the images of Henry the Lion and Schönen im Mittelalter 2 (Köln: Du Mont, 1982), 63. his wife, Mathilde; in medallions on the bottom corners 13 Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek, Cod. Guelf. 105 are depictions of Jeremiah and St Paul. Noviss. 20 resp. München, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, 16 e. KleMM, Das Evangeliar Heinrichs des Löwen (Frank- Clm 30055. furt am Main, Insel-Verlag, 1988), pl. 5 and 6. 14 F. M. biscHoFF, ‘Pergamentdicke und Lagenordnung. Be- 17 J. J. G. alexanDer, Medieval Illuminators and Their Me- obachtungen zur Herstellungstechnik Helmarshausner thods of Work (New Haven and London, Yale University Evangeliare des 11. und 12. Jahrhunderts‘, in: Das Perga- Press, 1992), 49, note 79. 78 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 78 15.11.2019 10:18:23 Nataša Golob: THE REVERSE FACE OF THE PAINTED PAGE shadow. These marginal drawings are not a Early stages in the research of these jolly decoration, or a pictorial whim devoid working methods have been documented of content, but are painted key-words and a in the catalogues of manuscript illumina- help to the reader looking for a definition tion from the 19th century, when techniques in the legal encyclopaedia. The choice of a of illumination displayed by unfinished nearly transparent parchment is above all in- manuscripts were set under the magnifying formation on praxis in a workshop.18 glass; also mentioned were underdrawings, autonomous drawings, sketches, forms, out- lined with pouncing, impressed outlines, Painted page and traces of technical shades of pressed forms, etc. Numerous devices on the reverse side notes and also speculations on the nature of these technical devices received a fine and The presence of the painter’s line and his thorough overview in the monographs of creative intention also offer a view from an- J.J.G. Alexander on the working methods of other angle – underdrawings and sketches medieval illuminators and Robert W. Schel- rarely leave evidence on the reverse face, but ler’s monograph on model-book drawings. the presence of technical devices can also They signified the essence of this field and be discovered through their traces. Illumina- turned attention to the importance of pre- tors made use of them when a drawing of a served documents of pictorial praxis in the form or of a whole composition was needed Middle Ages and Renaissance.19 It is worth at short notice and in an acceptable quality. emphasizing that the insight in the medi- It was often just a repetition of more or less eval workshop practice elucidated on one common forms, already used and now re- side the role of commissioner, the creator used in a new scenery or iconographic con- of an iconographic programme, the illumi- text. The use of technical devices is evidenced nator with several helping hands, and on by mechanical traces: it is not unusual that in the other the importance and availability of a manuscript workshop the evidence of sten- models, in particular, examples for isolated cils, cartoons, pouncing, ways of transfer- forms or complete compositions. At some ring the model, and similar were “softened” instances, attentive research documented or erased after the work was finished. Still, the transfer of compositions into various many traces remained, and it seems that back techniques.20 To properly set up mediaeval then, in the Middle Ages, their presence from techniques of copying and multiplying in an aesthetic point of view was not questiona- the real rhythm of the past, the data reveals ble. Many of these devices (patterns, stencils, their understanding of authorship. In these templates, etc.) originated most probably societies, the open appropriation of forms from various projects of the past, and this and ideas, of copying, and similar was often reuse might explain the peculiarities in the just a social practice but also occurred due to dimensions of forms. The choices illumina- tors made were also prescribed by the physi- 19 alexanDer (note 17); r. W. scHeller, Exemplum. Model- Book Drawings and the Practice of Artistic Transmis- cal factors of materials, the decisions of the sion in the Middle Ages (ca. 900 – ca. 1470), (Amster- scribes regarding the remaining space left to dam: Amsterdam University Press, 1995). the illuminator before he could set to work, 20 b. carDon, ’Rogier van der Weyden and the Master of Amiens 200 concerning the Relationship between pan- and other factors. elpainting and bookillustration’, in: Dessin sous-jacent dans la peinture. Colloque VIII, 8–10 septembre 1989, 18 n. Golob, Painted Key-Words: ’Accessing Contents ed. by H. Verougstraete-Marcq et R. Van Schoute, Lou- by Images’, in: Change in Medieval and Renaissance vain-la-Neuve 1991, 43–53. On p. 43, he explicitly pre- Scripts and Manuscripts (Proceedings of the 19th Col- sents the point of research, namely the impact of South loquium of the Comité international de paléographie Netherlandish (panel) painters on manuscript illumi- latine: Berlin, 16–18 September, 2015, ed. by M. Schubert nation. But: the nature of dependance between tech- and E. Overgaauw; Bibliologia, 50, 2019), 137–149, notes niques of painting requests accurate analysis and gener- on relation between parchment and marginal drawings alization is not appropriate postion, though the author on pp. 140–141. admits that numerous works of art have disappeared. 79 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 79 15.11.2019 10:18:23 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper necessity, when several artists were in a situ- and his helpers had available. Moreover, ation to form a collaborative group in order they are not rare.25 to accept a larger commission. Circumstanc- The character of pricks with regard es in vibrant towns created the atmosphere to their traces cannot escape an attentive in which ideas and stylistic differences in eye: prickings reveal when a certain image works of individual authors contributed to was created in respect to the manuscript. art, acceptable for all. They attained varietà, In Graduale, possibly from ca. 1400,26 the an artisanal excellency, and were praised for composition of the initial was inked over it, but in reality, only fantasy, novelty was ap- the pattern of pricking on the front side and preciated, namely ingenio.21 so the “blind perforated image” received a Medieval vocabulary regarding the formal and iconographic character. Pricks technical aids and processes of their use is are also visible on the reverse side and, by quite differentiated, reaching from poetical their nature, we can claim that the needle and philosophical evaluations of the crea- perforated the parchment only after the mu- tive process to very practical descriptions.22 sical notation and texts were already written Skilled labour, concentrated on repetitive on the reverse face of the folio. patterns, remained appreciated in the fol- For initials and other compositions, lowing centuries;23 it was prevalently limited pouncing must have been executed free- to decorative frames on paintings of larger hand and not with a pouncing wheel.27 dimensions, no more for compositions in il- However, traces of this procedure would luminated manuscripts and books. On a wall not be preserved in two major cases: if the painting or on panel painting, one can see a pouncing were performed before the text line of dots, connected with a line only on was also written on the reverse side, pricks one surface, while on parchment folio the would interfere with the line of writing but prickings are also visible on reverse sides. I they would not be preserved in case there trust the statement that there are no written was an intention to finish the pounced im- texts from the Middle Ages24 with preserved age; the pricks would be evened out to pre- and detailed instructions remaining, and all vent the leaking of the paint through to the information is derived from the inspection other side. of manuscripts, meaning that particular ges- In some particular manuscripts, not all tures or specific details repeated and in a of the initials were designed by the same manuscript are evidence of the use of tech- method of pricking around the model, as nical devices, which the master illuminator several initials show the underdrawings in brown ink. However, it is not unusual to see 21 W.-D. löHr und s. WePPelMann, ‘»Glieder in der Kunst various techniques in just one codex (Figs. der Malerei« - Cennino Cenninis Genealogie und die Suche nach Kontinuität zwischen Handwerktradition, 4a, 4b). Such is the manuscript containing Werkstattpraxis und Historiographie‘, 13-43, in: Fantasie Ulrich von Pottenstein’s Das Buch der natür- und Handwerk. Cennino Cennini und die Tradition der toskanischen Malerei von Giotto bis Lorenzo Monaco, lichen Weisheit,28 once kept in the library of ed. by W.-D. Löhr und S. Weppelmann, (München: Hirmer 2008), cf. 28. – Ein Blick auf die Herstellungsweise der Miniaturen‘, 22 Italian artistic literature assembled words like carta in: Wege zum illuminierten Buch (note 5), 10–25. lucida (transparent paper), straforo (perforated 26 The manuscript in question is Graduale, Novo mesto, templates), spolvero (outlined form, obtained by Franciscan monastery, Aa-1. pricking), calco (tracing the cartoon onto surface with 27 This is evidenced by diverse intervals between pricks; stylus) etc. Cf. löHr und WePPelMann (note 21), 33 and when using the pouncing wheel, the intervals are always footnote 163. equal. Cf. also J. a. Dane, ‘On the shadowy existence of 23 scHeller (note 19), 70–77; c. c. baMbacH, Drawing and the Medieval Pricking Wheel’, in: Scriptorium, L, 1966/1, Painting in the Italian Renaissance Workshop. Theory 13–21. and Practice 1300–1600 (Cambridge, Cambridge 28 Now: New Haven, Yale University, Beinecke Rare University Press, 1999). Book and Manuscript Library, Ms 653, after the mid- 24 S.a., ‘Vorwort‘, in: Wege zum illuminierten Buch (note 15th century; l. FaGin Davis, ‘An Austrian Bibliophile 5), 7–9, spec. 8. of the Seventeenth Century: Wolfgang Engelbert von 80 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 80 15.11.2019 10:18:24 Nataša Golob: THE REVERSE FACE OF THE PAINTED PAGE Figs. 4a–4b: Yale University, The Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Ms 653: Ulrich von Pottenstein: Das Buch der natürlichen Weisheit, 210r–210v, south German workshop Prince Wolfgang Engelbert von Auersperg in his Ljubljana palace. Sixty images29 display a wide range of technical devices; some objects were pre- pared for the colourist as simple repetitions of outlined stencils and forms with pricked outlines (trees, sun, moon, mountain, fox, wolf, spider, ox (which is sometimes also horse, depending on the shape of the tail), lion (with a humanized head), rooster, etc.). In this workshop, graphic sheets were also available,30 and it is witnessed by a sitting bear, or an ape with crossed legs, also found in other contemporary books with illumina- Fig. 4c: Drawings of perforations and outlines tion or woodcut decoration. There are many with a stylus. images of animals, but they do not fit in the same standard of sizes. Several animals are devices: the outline of the roe-buck was often repeated but in constant dimensions: made either by the method of tracing over there is always a hedgehog of the same size, transparent vellum or paper, but it is possi- a fox that is not bigger than a hedgehog, al- ble that this particular shape was cut from ways a rather big peacock, and so on. All this a harder material (like stiff parchment), and indicates that in this particular workshop, was outlined with a stylus, or quill, or silver- models, templates, and stencils were exten- point. These traces are hardly visible on the sively used. Also, a crow is not always a crow front side; the lines are blurred by repeated but also an eagle, outlined with the halo of a outlines and watercolours, yet we feel them model and painted black. Roe and roe-buck under the fingers on the reverse face and, were formed with the help of two different with the help of light and shadow, we see them as a relief. The outline of a roe was in- Auersperg, Count of the Holy Roman Empire’, in: stead made with perforations along the con- Codices manuscripti, 30/2000, 3–17. i. Mueller, ‘The tours of the model. Here again, the traces are Illustrations of Cyrill’s fables from Ms 653’, in: Codices manuscripti, 30/2000, 19–26. visible on the reverse side. This workshop 29 Manuscript is digitized: https://brbl-dl.library.yale.edu/ extensively used one model for peacocks, vufind/Record/3566746 sometimes turned to the left and sometimes 30 scHeller, note 19, 76 on importance of graphic sheets to the right. Not all steps in illumination and drawn model books. 81 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 81 15.11.2019 10:18:25 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper can be explained: on 227v is a peacock in his usual form, and the relief on 227v is en- hanced with red ink. Yet always, regardless of the entirety of the composition, the pea- cock is of identical dimensions. These illustrations are not of impressive quality, and it seems to be the logical con- clusion that they were produced in a work- shop where a swift tempo was demanded. The manuscript was not particularly expen- sive and was intended for a clientele hun- gry for text and capable of adding proper images to the texts from their own fantasy. The workshop and such results would not require attention to quality, unless this man- uscript shows that both sides of illustrations form complementary information. In this particular case, the reverse side of the paper is an important transmitter of insights into the working process. Like sculptures, ivory plaques, paintings, and similar, the hidden side is hiding surprising evidence, and trac- es of working processes are telling a story of its own in the story of the work of art.31 Nataša GOLOB Department of Art History, Faculty of Arts, Uni- versity of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 2, SI – 1000 Lju- bljana, Slovenia natasa.golob@ff.uni-lj.si 31 M. buDny, ’Assembly Marks in the Vivian Bible and Scribal, Editorial, and Organizational Marks in Medieval Books’, in: Making of the Medieval Manuscript: Tech- niques of Production, ed. by L. L. Brownrigg (Los Altos Hills – London: The Red Gull Press, 1995), 199–246. 82 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 82 15.11.2019 10:18:25 Joris Corin Heyder PASTICHE AESTHETIC. A FORGER’S OR A RESTORER’S PRACTICE? Zusammenfassung ungewöhnliche materielle Bestand des Ge- betbuchs erschlossen, bei dem es sich um Woran lässt sich erkennen, ob es sich bei einen Zusammenschluss aus diversen Ge- einer Handschrift um eine „Fälschung“ bets- und Stundenbüchern des 15. und 16. oder aber um eine restauratorische Maß- Jahrhunderts handelt. Sodann werden Per- nahme des 19. Jahrhundert handelt? Der sonen wie der Pariser Buchbinder Capé Beitrag versucht dieser Frage anhand ei- in den Blick genommen, die aller Wahr- nes heute nahezu unbekannten Kodex scheinlichkeit nach mit der aktuellen Ge- des Baltimore Art Museums (Walters 436) stalt des Buches in Verbindung gebracht auf den Grund zu gehen, der seit Randall werden können und schließlich die am (1997) als eine Arbeit aus dem Umkreis Beispiel des Gebetbuchs Walters 436 zu des flämischen Buchmalers Simon Bening beobachtenden Praktiken zeithistorisch gilt. In drei Abschnitten wird zunächst der kontextualisiert. Keywords: Forgery, Restoration, Simon Bening, Flemish Illuminated Manuscripts, Book- binder Charles-François Capé Introductory remarks Manuscripts related to this group are those W that are bound and glued together from hile studying medieval manu- various medieval manuscripts but shall rep- scripts, one occasionally stum- resent, unlike the first group, one single, bles upon those volumes that are intact codex. This barely studied group of bound together from various manuscripts. manuscripts had its heyday in the 19th cen- These miscellany codices have a long tra- tury and doubtlessly resulted from two cen- dition in the history of books.1 Prior to the tral aspects: first, the booming art market, modern era, they were an effective way and, second, the 19th-century revival of me- of keeping the costs of binding limited, dieval art in general and the consequences and to collect, for example, texts by differ- for contemporary art and design connected ent authors referring to the same subject. with it.2 Therefore, it is often difficult to say, 2 Since the literature on the gothic revival is too rich to 1 S. WestPHal, ‘Sammelhandschrift‘, in: Medieval Germany. be summarized, I would like to mention only some rel- An Encyclopedia, ed. by J. M. Jeep (New York – London: evant monographs and multi-authored works, cf. e. cau, Routledge 2001), 691–694. Le style troubadour: l’autre romantisme, (Montreuil: 83 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 83 15.11.2019 10:18:25 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper whether the “re-invention” of a medieval Materiality: A barely studied Flemish manuscript from different bits and pieces prayer book in Baltimore (W.436) was done by a forger or a restorer. This paper aims to reconstruct the histo- In an undated letter probably written be- ry of a barely known prayer book (W.436)3 fore 1969 by the then young expert of late in the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore Flemish manuscripts Alfons Biermann that was attributed to the circle of Simon (1935–2014) and addressed to Dorothy Bening (c. 1483–1561) by Lilian Randall in Miner (1936–2008), who at the time was the 1997,4 but which instead appears to be a curator of the manuscripts department at 19th century product made from dismem- the Walters Art Gallery, the here-discussed bered parts of 15th and early 16th centuries prayer book’s unresolved status becomes books of hours from Flanders and maybe quite clear. He wrote: “[…] I am very inter- Holland. Arguments for this hypothesis will ested to see the photographs of the MS. be presented based on material observa- W.436, because they will be very important tions. They trace the compilator’s effort to for my thesis in connection with the Ben- merge different fragments by using unify- ing works […].”6 ing miniatures and decoration as well as Biermann asked Miner for photographs the astonishing negligence of contents and of a prayer book of c. 1500 that had been different styles that were put together. The almost unknown until then. It has only oc- focus will be on the person who perhaps casionally been mentioned in the literature stood behind the amalgamation of Walters and was assumed to be the work of the 436. Whether the manuscript’s pastiche Flemish miniaturist Lievine Bening (c. 1510– aesthetic is the result of a forger’s wit or the 1576), who is better known as an English effort of a restorer may be tackled by con- court painter of three kings and queens and textualizing the manuscript within the 19th under the name Lievine Teerlinc, using her century art market and its specific taste for husband’s surname.7 Lievine was the daugh- medieval illuminations, for instance those ter of Simon Bening, who, nowadays, is still created by the famous art forger William revered as one of the most sought after min- Caleb Wing (1801–1875), or the occurrence iaturists of late medieval art on parchment.8 of journals like the Coloriste enluminure.5 It is unclear who first proposed the manu- Gourcuff Gradenigo, 2017). Gothic Revival Worldwide: script’s attribution to Lievine; however, her A.W.N. Pugin’s Global Influence, ed. by T. Brittain-Catlin, oeuvre remains unknown because there is J. De Maeyer, and M. Bressani (Louvain: Leuven Univer- not one single work that can be attributed sity Press, 2016). The Revival of Medieval Illumination: Nineteenth-Century Belgium Manuscripts and Illumi- to her with some degree of certainty.9 Bier- nations from a European Perspective = Renaissance de mann had no good reason to doubt such an L’enluminure médiévale: Manuscripts et enluminures belges du XIXe sie` cle et leur contexte européen, ed. by attribution to Lievine, since the manuscript T. Coomans and J. DeMaeyer (Louvain: Leuven univer- sity press, 2007). c. aMalvi, Le Gou ˆ t du moyen âge (Paris: 6 The letter is preserved in the files of Ms. W.436 in the Plon, 1996). manuscripts department of the Baltimore Art Museum. 3 Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Ms. W.436, i+95+bis+i The item has no individual shelf number. I am very sheets of parchment, 99 × 151 mm, c. 1470, c. 1500 and grateful to Lynley Herbert, curator of Manuscripts & c. 1850(?). The digitized manuscript can be found here: Rare Books, who kindly gave me the opportunity to http://purl.thewalters.org/art/W.436/description [last ac- carefully study some of the treasures of the Walters Art cess: 4.11.2019] Museum. 4 l. M. c. r 7 c. l anDall, Medieval and renaissance manuscripts evin, Extraordinary women of the Medieval in the Walters Art Gallery. Belgium, 1250–1530. (Balti- and Renaissance world: a biographical dictionary more: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), vol. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2000), 278–280. 3.2, cat. 295, 509–521. 8 The first comprehensive monograph on the illuminator 5 A digitized version of Le Coloriste enlumineur : journal has recently been presented by: J.c. HeyDer, Simon d’enseignement du dessin, de la miniature, des émaux, Bening und die Kunst der Wiederholung (forthcoming). de l’aquarelle, de la peinture sur verre, sur soie, etc.. : à 9 Illuminating the Renaissance: The Triumph of Flemish l’usage des amateurs et professionnels can be found here: Manuscript Painting in Europe. London, ed. by T. Kren, https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k898710h [last acc- S. McKendrick, and M.W. Ainsworth (Los Angeles: Getty ess: 4.11.2019]. Publications, 2003), 22, 37, 412, 447–448. 84 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 84 15.11.2019 10:18:25 Joris Corin Heyder: PASTICHE AESTHETIC. A FORGER’S OR A RESTORER’S PRACTICE? Fig. 1: Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Ms. W.436, fol. 14, 16, c. 1500 © Walters Art Museum could be another example of one that was the same period, the material evidence of created in the prolific workshop in which the manuscript suggests a rather different he was actually interested. conclusion. In fact, it is clearly a compila- Going beyond the brief entry in the cen- tion of several texts from at least five dif- sus of De Ricci,10 Lilian Randall presented a ferent scribal hands, and more importantly far-reaching note in her catalogue on the a specimen artfully bonded from different collection of the Walters Art Museum, com- books of hours and/or prayer books. How- prising no less than thirteen closely-printed ever, there is little doubt that the miniatures quarto pages including a meticulous de- were executed in the same campaign, if not scription of the manuscript.11 Based on Ran- by the same hand. With regards to the bor- dall’s entry, it is difficult to understand the ders, things look different again, because an manuscript’s complex structure. While Ran- execution by distinctive artists and maybe dall attempted to explain the different parts even in different places is out of the ques- of the codex by hypothesizing different writ- tion. Further analysis of some of the charac- ers and painters that worked more or less in teristic parts of the book may illustrate why these, admittedly, somewhat contradictory 10 Census of Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts in the United States and Canada, ed. by S. De Ricci, and W. J. material indications are of such importance Wilson, (New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1935), vol. 1, for the understanding of the whole manu- cat. no. 328, 809. script and its history. 11 ranDall, vol. 3.2, note 4, cat. 295, 509–521. 85 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 85 15.11.2019 10:18:26 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Starting with a calendar (fol. 1–13v) is not only the highly unusual incorpora- written in a Burgundian littera bastarda, the tion of the Annunciation at this particular predominantly English and northern French position in the book that raises suspicion feasts indicate an English patron. Among but also the fact that it is not painted on those feasts are, for instance, St Wulstan,12 a separate folio as was common in most King Edward,13 St Cuthbert,14 the transla- of the Flemish manuscripts at the time of tion of King Edward,15 St Ethelreda,16 the Simon Bening. By reading the text begin- translation of Edward the Confessor,17 and ning on the opposing recto page (fol. 18): so forth. The same scribe has also written In illo tempore Missus est angelus Gabriel, two suffrages to St Leonhard and St David it becomes clear why an illuminator could (fol. 14–15v) that form the third quire, but have had the odd idea to illustrate Luke’s another scribe apparently took the lead on gospels with that scene. It starts with the the fourth quire.18 However, it is not only the beginning of the Christmas story. To date, scribe who changed but the overall design I have not been able to find another (late) (Fig. 1): A comparison of fol. 14 and 16 dem- medieval example in which this text pas- onstrates that the first scribe used seventeen sage has been illustrated in a comparable ruled lines, while the second one makes do way. The succeeding devotional prayers with a ruling of only fifteen lines. Both the (fol. 24v–39) are correspondingly illustrat- weaker red of the rubric differs as does the ed by a full-page miniature painted on the size of the pages: while the first three quires blank verso (fol. 24v) of the text end of St were 72 mm width by 96 mm height, the Mark. The image depicts Christ child sup- pages of the fourth quire measure 58 mm ported and flanked by six angels holding width by 88 mm height. the instruments of the Passion (Fig. 2a). Moreover, the succession of texts is as Surely, this scene is a faithful copy after ver- frustrating as the low number of only two sions used in the Ganto-Bruges workshops, suffrages that are following the calendar. particularly in the workshop of the Maxi- Only one out of five of the following gos- milian Master and Simon Bening.19 Thus, pel sequences (fol. 16–24) that were writ- the comparison with the earliest known ten by the second scribe is emphasized by a version executed between 1492 and 1504 full-page miniature. The mentioned excep- by the Maximilian Master in the Book of tion is the beginning of the gospels of St hours of queen Joanne of Castile in Cleve- Luke (fol. 17v–18). Typically, this standard land (Fig. 2b) demonstrates how stiffly the text is illustrated by a portrait of the apos- composition in the Baltimore prayer book tle or his symbol, the winged ox or bull. In is pinned onto a golden ground, whereas this manuscript, however, an Annuncia- in the Cleveland version the composition tion (fol. 17v) is painted on the blank verso is immersed in a lawn base. The same ap- page that follows the gospels of St John. It plies for the versions by Simon Bening in the Prayerbook of Albrecht of Branden- 12 Jan. 19: Wlstani epi. burg (Fig. 2c) in Los Angeles, and another 13 Mar. 18: Eduuardi regis (ruled 963–978). 14 Mar. 20: Cuthberthi epi. 19 To mention only the most important predecessors in 15 Apr. 20: Translacio eduuardi regis (cf. Mar. 18). chronological order: Isabella Hours, Cleveland, Cleve- 16 Jun. 23: Etheldride. land Museum of Art, CMA 63256, fol. 50, 1492–1504, cf. http://www.clevelandart.org/art/1963.256.50.a [last 17 Oct. 13: Translacio s. eduuardi regis (ruled 1003–1066). access: 12.8.2019]; DaCosta-Hours, New York, PML, 18 The collation of ms. W.436 is: quire 1: 10 (fol. 1–10); Morgan Ms. 399, fol. 385v, c. 1515, cf. https://www.them- quire 2: 4, with first folio canceled (fol. 11–13); quire 3: 2 organ.org/collection/da-costa-hours/758 [last access: (fol. 14–15); quires 4–7: 8 (fol. 16–47); quire 8: 4, includ- 12.8.2019]; Prayerbook of Cardinal Albrecht of Bran- ing 48bis (fols. 48–50); quire 9: 6 (fol. 51–56); quires 10– denburg, Los Angeles, Getty Museum, Ms. LUDWIG IX 18: 4 (fol. 57–92); quire 19: 4, with third folio canceled 19, fol. 31v, c. 1525–30, cf. http://www.getty.edu/art/ (fol. 93–95), cf. http://www.thedigitalwalters.org/Data/ collection/objects/3963/simon-bening-the-christ-child- WaltersManuscripts/html/W436/description.html [last surrounded-by-the-instruments-of-the-passion-flemish- access: 12.8.2019]. about-1525-1530/ [last access: 12.8.2019]. 86 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 86 15.11.2019 10:18:26 Joris Corin Heyder: PASTICHE AESTHETIC. A FORGER’S OR A RESTORER’S PRACTICE? Fig. 2a: Christ child supported and Fig. 2b: Christ child supported and flanked by six angels holding the flanked by six angels holding the instruments of the Passion, Baltimore, instruments of the Passion, Cleveland, Walters Art Museum, Ms. W.436, fol. 24v, Cleveland Museum of Art, CMA c. 1850(?) © Walters Art Museum. 63256, fol. 50, 1492–1504 © Cleveland Museum of Art. Fig. 2c: Christ child supported and flanked Fig. 2d: Christ child supported and flanked by six angels holding the instruments of by six angels holding the instruments of the the Passion, Los Angeles, Getty Museum, Passio n, New York, PML, Morgan Ms. 399, Ms. LUDWIG IX 19, fol. 31v, c. 1525–30 © fol. 385v, c. 1515 © The Morgan Library. The J. Paul Getty Museum. 87 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 87 15.11.2019 10:18:28 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Fig. 3: Virgin and the child and Strew border, Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Ms. W.436, fol. 39v–40, c. 1850(?), c. 1475 © Walters Art Museum. version of the same illuminator or one of seated at the centre on a low grass-topped his workshop assistants in the so-called Da brick wall with the Christ child and attended Costa-Hours (Fig. 2d), today kept in the by an angel against a red cloth of honour Pierpont Morgan Museum in New York. with canopy. A cleric in black habit kneels to While the composition is painstakingly and the right behind the wall. Both his position faithfully copied line by line, the miniature behind the Virgin as well as his proximity in the Baltimore prayer book fails to com- to the Mother of God are highly unusual for ply with either the high finish or the subtle miniatures from this period. The facing text execution of surfaces present in the three is framed by a type of border of the highest other examples. quality (Fig. 3), which is usually connected It follows suffrages to female saints (fol. with the Vienna Master of Mary of Burgun- 39v–52v), first to the Virgin Mary, with the dy and his followers, as suggested by the prayer Sub tuam protectionem […] (fol. 40) comparison to the border of the Ecce homo and continued by prayers to St. Anne (fol. (fol. 69) in the so-called Nassau Hours in 41), St. Margaret (fol. 43), and so on. The text the Oxford Bodleian Library.20 This kind of to the Virgin Mary is introduced by a full- 20 Nassau Hours, Oxford, Bodleian Library, Ms. 219–220, fol. page miniature (fol. 39v–40), once again 69, c. 1470s, cf. https://digital.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/inquire/ painted in the sequence of the gathering p/9dd2bf8a-7472-4a62-98c3-92eb4446713b [last access: 12.8.2019]. Cf. also: J. J. G. alexanDer, The Master of Mary and on the blank verso of the preceding text Burgundy. A Book of Hours for Engelbert of Nassau, The (Fig. 3). The miniature represents the virgin Bodleian Library, Oxford (New York: George Braziller, 1970). 88 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 88 15.11.2019 10:18:29 Joris Corin Heyder: PASTICHE AESTHETIC. A FORGER’S OR A RESTORER’S PRACTICE? period around 1470.22 Therefore, it is some- what unlikely to connect those borders with the workshop of Simon Bening. The suffrage to St Barbara (fol. 48bis) remained imperfect, both in respect to the text as well as to the illumination. Another break is manifested at the beginning of the suffrage to the Holy Face, the prayer Salve sancta facies (fol. 53, Fig. 4). This appears to be true based on the observations, first, it forms part of an independent quire; sec- ond, it measures only 84 mm instead of 88 mm height; third, it has been written by a third scribe and is characterized by an old- fashioned text decoration in red, blue, and gold, embellished with white penwork. Remarkably, the next miniature with the Agony in the garden (fol. 56v) is part of the same quire, even if it is painted on a leaf that is otherwise left blank (Fig. 5a). This brings us to the next caesura (Fig. 5a): the miniature is placed on the opposite side of the beginning of a devotional se- Fig. 4: Prayer Salve sancta facies, Baltimore, Walters quence, which begins with the prayer Con- Art Museum, Ms. W.436, fol. 53, c. 1475 © Walters Art fitebor tibi domine (fol. 57). The contrast to Museum. all previous parts is both visually and phys- ically apparent. From this part on,23 the parchment is thicker and of poorer quality, border-style had its climax between c. 1465 which is also indicative of the beginning and 1500. of a new quire. Moreover, the succeeding Consequently, it represents Simon pages now measure 65 mm instead of 58 Bening’s father’s generation or even one mm width and 92 mm instead of 84 mm earlier generation, which leads directly to height. A different scribe was responsible the question of why he or his workshop for the execution of the littera gothica hy- should have continued to work with such brida. Unlike his Flemish colleagues, he a style in the Baltimore manuscript. Similar needed eighteen instead of fourteen or borders can be found in a somewhat modi- fifteen lines. However, first and foremost, fied shape in the Grimani Breviary.21 How- both the text and the border convey a com- ever, Simon’s father Alexander Bening (c. pletely different type of decoration princi- 1450–1519) was still involved in the produc- ple. As for the huge C-initial, a glance at a tion of this manuscript. The combination late 15th century Dutch prayer book offered of strew borders with silver tinted grounds at the Christie’s Arcana sale in 2011 helps to combined with the use of a Burgundian lit- tera batarda indicates the execution of this 22 Another good example for this kind of border decora- tion–typical for the Vienna Master of Mary of Burgundy Flemish border type in the earliest possible –is present in the so-called Madrid Hastings Hours, Ma- drid, Fundación Lázaro Galdiano, Inv. 15503, cf. Illumi- nating the Renaissance, note 9, 155, ill. 25c. 21 Grimani Breviary, Venice, Biblioteca Nazionale Mar- 23 The subsequent parts of the manuscript comprise: a Suf- ciana, cod. Lat. I, 99 (=2138), c. 1515, cf. e. KöniG, and J. frage to the Holy Face (fol. 53–56), Devotional Sequenc- HeyDer, Das Breviarium Grimani (Simbach am Inn: Bu- es (fol. 56v–83v); Suffrages (fol. 84–94v), and a Prayer to chhandlung Anton Pfeiler Junior, 2016). the Virgin (fol. 95–95v). 89 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 89 15.11.2019 10:18:30 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Fig. 5a: Agony in the garden and Confitebor tibi domine, Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Ms. W.436, fol. 56v– 57, c. 1850(?), c. 1500 © Walters Art Museum. classify this part of the book (Fig. 5b).24 Ap- parently, it is of Dutch origin. It is, thus, all the more surprising to find already on the verso of the Confitebor tibi domine prayer a miniature with Christ as a Man of Sorrows Seated on Cross (fol. 57v–58, Fig. 6), revered by a cleric in a black habit. The miniature is painted in the same style present in all former parts of the man- uscript. The O-initial of the pre-Commun- ion prayer starting on the opposite side with O fons totius misericordie (fol. 58) is embellished by a shield against red ground containing the monogram “P R”. The letters are linked by blue strapwork with the fancy Fig. 5b: Nocturn, Book of hours and Prayer book in Italian motto “DA VIVERE” above. It is not Dutch, Christie‘s London, Arcana sale, 6.7.2011, lot 19, clear whether these elements have been fol. 83, c. 1480 © The Arcana Collection: Exceptional Illuminated Manuscripts and Incunabula, Part I, 24 Book of hours and Prayer book in Dutch, Christie‘s Lon- don, Arcana sale, 6.7.2011, lot 19, fol. 83, c. 1480, cf. The 7 July 2010, London, King Street, ed. by Christie’s, Arcana Collection: Exceptional Illuminated Manuscripts (London: Christie’s, 2010), lot 19. and Incunabula, Part I, 7 July 2010, London, King Street, ed. by Christie’s (London: Christie’s, 2010), lot 19. 90 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 90 15.11.2019 10:18:31 Joris Corin Heyder: PASTICHE AESTHETIC. A FORGER’S OR A RESTORER’S PRACTICE? Fig. 6: Christ as a Man of Sorrows Seated on Cross and O fons totius misericordie, Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Ms. W.436, fol. 57v–58 c. 1850(?), c. 1500 © Walters Art Museum. added to the O-initial and whether the bor- Actors: A Parisian Bookbinder and der decoration took part of the original “homme d‘un gouˆt éminemment Dutch decoration campaign, or if it was artistique” and an American collector used to melt together the different sections to one homogenous book, consisting of There is no doubt that the volume is a com- thirteen miniatures and additional nine his- pilation of more than one manuscript. The toriated initials in Ganto-Bruges style. This manuscript’s material evidence, therefore, attempt to conceal discontinuities not only is open to two conflicting interpretations: applies stylistically but also with regard to a first option could be that we are dealing repeated figures like the cleric in a black with parts of different late medieval prayer habit (ill. 3, 6). Evidently, he is the blue- books and/or books of hours that have print for a patron in a prayer book, and, been merged during the life of artists like consequently, Lilian Randall and her col- Simon Bening or his daughter Lievine Teer- leagues at the Walter’s Art Gallery assume linc. A second prospect might be that we are an ecclesiastical patronage with English dealing with parts of books that have been connection.25 merged at some point in the 19th century. If the second solution applies, it is likely that someone artfully covered up the discrepan- cies between the different parts using a co- 25 Cf. http://www.thedigitalwalters.org/Data/WaltersM- herent illustration. Indeed, all of the minia- anuscripts/html/W436/description.html [last access: tures originate in well-known Ganto-Bruges 15.8.2019]. 91 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 91 15.11.2019 10:18:33 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper patterns. However, this is no guarantee for (1806–1867).28 His last name is printed in their authenticity. gold capitals centred on the inside of the Occasionally it occurred in the 15th and front cover.29 As the manuscript was pur- 16th centuries that a book project that had chased by the art collector, philanthropist, been started by earlier miniaturist was con- and founder of the Walters Art Gallery, tinued at later times and by order of new pa- Henry Walters (1848–1931) between 1895 trons. The famous Très Belles Heures, origi- and 1931, it is out of the question that he nally ordered by Jean, the Duc of Berry, and and Capé, who died in 1867, came into con- the connected Turin-Milan-Hours are good tact with each other. According to Roger examples for such a procedure.26 To my Devauchelle, Capé had obscure, even illit- knowledge, however, not one single exam- erate origins.30 Nevertheless, he was one of ple for a compilation of a prayer book and/ the most renowned bookbinders and ama- or a book of hours from the 15th or 16th cen- teurs in painted parchment and paper in turies has yet been put forward to suggest the years between 1830 and 1860. His bind- that it was a known practice to homogenize ing styles were regarded as retrospective;31 different parts with each other via shared il- they sought to imitate works from 16th lustrations.27 “Errors” like the Annunciation century Renaissance bookbinders like Jean miniature for the introduction of the gos- Grolier to mention only the most prominent pels of Saint Luke appear to be unlikely for exponent.32 Shortly after Capé’s demise, his a time in which illustrative traditions left al- collection of old books, prints, vignettes, most no room for creative variations. In the drawings, as well as manuscripts was auc- 19th century, by contrast, eccentricities like tioned. It is remarkable to see that he pos- this seem to be much more feasible. The sessed, amongst many other objects, min- 19th century also fits because of the strict iatures on parchment, some of which with adherence to the textual orientation, which religious subjects. A “monsieur Vignères” could explain the odd placement of the An- praised the deceased Capé in the preface as nunciation-miniature in the first place. Con- follows: clusively, the hypothesis is that someone brought together all the bits and pieces and 28 Capé was active at 16 rue Dauphine in Paris, between gave them a uniting form. Who, then, would 1848 and 1867, cf. r. DevaucHelle, La reliure en France de ses origines à nos jours (Paris: Rousseau-Girard, be a better candidate than the bookbinder, 1960 [1859–1861]), vol. 2, 200, 205 and vol. 3, 41–42; J. who established the manuscript’s current FLETY, ‘Contribution à la connaissance d‘un relieur du XIXe siècle, Charles François Capé’, in: Revue française condition? d‘histoire du livre, 37.1982, 733–743. For another Capé The mid-19th-century French brown binding, cf. also: The History of Bookbinding, 525–1950 leather binding was executed by the Pa- A.D.: An Exhibition Held at the Baltimore Museum of Art, November 12, 1957, to January 12, 1958, ed. by D. risian bookbinder Charles-François Capé Miner (Baltimore: Trustees of the Walters Art Gallery, 1957), cat. no. 554. 29 Cf. http://www.thedigitalwalters.org/Data/WaltersM- anuscripts/W436/data/W.436/sap/W436_000002_sap. 26 Cf. F. boesPFluG and e. KöniG, Die Très Belles Heures von jpg [last access: 17.8.2019]. Jean de France, Duc de Berry: ein Meisterwerk an der Schwelle zur Neuzeit (die Très Belles Heures de Notre- 30 DevaucHelle, vol. 3, note 28, 41–43 [41]. Dame, Manuscrit Nouv. acq. lat. 3093, Bibliothèque 31 W. De bruiJn, and G. ManDelbrote, The Arcadian Library: Nationale, Paris ; das verbrannte Turiner Gebetbuch, Bindings and Provenance (Oxford: Oxford University K.IV.29, Biblioteca Nazionale Turin ; die Blätter im Press, 2014), 161. Louvre, RF 2022, 2023, 2023v, 2024, 2025, Musée du 32 A characteristic Grolier binding is present in De origi- Louvre, Paris ; der erhaltene Band mit Messen, Museo ne de amplitudine civitatis Veronae, Oxford, Bodle- Civico, Turin) (Luzern: Faksimile Verlag, 1998); a. van ian Library, S 528, Grolier-binding, cf. https://digital. buren et al, Heures de Turin-Milan : Inv. Nr. 47 Museo bodleian.ox.ac.uk/inquire/p/cc4dc6a1-4faa-467e-b3d7- Civico d’Arte Antica e Palazzo Madama Turin. Faksimi- 8acc862c11e4 [last access: 17.8.2019]. A comparison to le (Luzern: Faksimile Verlag, 1996). one of Capé’s bindings in the Bibliothèque nationale 27 Practices like the editing and correction of border de France emphasizes the relation between both the decorations like in Grimani Breviary have a com- 16th and the 19th century bookbinders, cf. Book of hours pletely different quality, cf. KöniG, and HeyDer, note for the use of Rome, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, NAL 21, 47–59. 3250, Capé-binding. 92 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 92 15.11.2019 10:18:33 Joris Corin Heyder: PASTICHE AESTHETIC. A FORGER’S OR A RESTORER’S PRACTICE? For me, he always was a man with emi- or less skill. […] But why such torpidity? The nent artistic taste [homme d‘un gouˆt arts cannot develop as long as they are in éminemment artistique] both in the the hands of simple craftsmen […].”34 Roger bookbinding as well as in the illustra- Devauchelle commented on the situation tion of books. He knew how to conduct with reference to the motto of the Paris exhi- and assemble the most famous book bition of 1855: “NOUS NE POUVONS QUE bindings and gildings with meticulous- COPIER LES ANCIENS” –“We copy noth- ly care and even to make them more ing but the ancients” (my translation).35 In perfect; it is very rare that one single fact, it was at that time that artisans retrieved man is perfectly doing the entire bind- not only centuries-old patterns but also tra- ing of a book.33 ditional painting techniques. The knowl- edge of such working processes grew rap- After all, Capé not only took care of the idly so that at the end-of-the-century jour- binding itself but also of the book’s illustra- nals like Le Coloriste enlumineur. Journal tion. Or to put it differently: was Capé able d’enseignement du dessin, de la miniature to organize contemporary illuminators to […] saw the light of day.36 The journal propa- recreate a book out of miscellanies by add- gated the art of illumination as a bourgeois ing miniatures in a refined manner? In the hobby to be practised in the well-equipped light of those considerations, this could be living room. the case; however, the question remains: Skills in the art of illuminating manu- why should he have embarked on such a scripts were, however, indispensable, for time-consuming endeavour? One possi- instance, in the case of the collection of ble answer to this question is certainly the the bibliophile John Boykett Jarman (1782– growing art market. Art collectors like Hen- 1864), which fell victim to a flood of the ry Walters enthusiastically bought medieval River Thames.37 A former Jarman book of artworks, even if, in light of his wide-ranging hours today kept in the Bibliothèque nation- collecting interests, detailed knowledge in ale de France in Paris38 possesses damaged the characteristics of late medieval art can- but largely untouched original miniatures as not be assumed. well as such that were repainted by the late 19th century illuminator Caleb William Wing (Fig. 7). In particular, the young female’s Practices: Forging, Restoring or A sweet and rosy face on fol. 76v of NAL 3210 Question of Aesthetics? (Fig. 7) reveals the miniature’s execution, In the 34 The original quote reads as follows: “On copie les an- Bulletin du Bibliophile from 1853, the ciens artistes plus ou moins servilement, avec plus ou bibliophile Paul van Malden bemoaned the moins de bonheur. […] Pourquoi cet engourdissement? bookbinders’ custom to particularly copy Les arts ne peuvent progresser lorsqu’ils sont abandon- nés à de simples ouvriers […].” My translation. Cf. De- Renaissance designs: “One is copying the vaucHelle, vol. 3, note 28, 15–16. ancients more or less servile and with more 35 The passage reads as follows: “Cet appel demeura sans écho […] les grands relieurs, entre 1850 et 1870, ne purent échapper à la loi commune: Capé, Lortic, Duru, 33 The original quote reads as follows: “Il fut toujours pour Marius-Michel père, Niedrée et Trautz exercèrent leur moi un homme d‘un gouˆt éminemment artistique, tant profession en la basant sur cet axiome écrit en toutes pour la reliure que pour l‘illustration des livres, d’un lettres dans le rapport de l’Exposition de 1855: NOUS soin minutieux afin de faire toujours plus parfait, sa- NE POUVONS QUE COPIER LES ANCIENS”, cf. De- chant, au plus haut point, diriger et réunir les travaux vaucHelle, vol. 3, note 28, 15–16. des plus fameux ouvriers relieurs et doreurs; car il est 36 Cf. note 5. très-rare qu’un seul homme fasse entièrement et par- faitement la reliure d’un livre.” My translation. Cf. Cata- 37 Cf. J. BacKHouse, ‘A Victorian Connoisseur and His Manu- logue d’Estampes anciennes & modernes livres à figures scripts: The Tale of Mr. Jarman and Mr. Wing’, in: British vignettes pour illustration [...] composant la Collection Museum Quarterly 32 (1967–68): 76–92. de Feu M. Capé, ancien Relieur dont la Vente aura lieu 38 Book of hours for the use of Rome, Paris, Bibliothèque Hotel des Comissaires-Priseurs, Rue Drouot [...], (Paris: nationale, NAL 3210, cf. https://archivesetmanuscrits. Drouot, 1868), 3. bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc71698t [last access: 15.8.2019]. 93 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 93 15.11.2019 10:18:33 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Fig. 7: Nativity and Death with Young female, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, ms. NAL 3210, fol. 29, 76v, 15th century / 19th century © Bibliothèque nationale de France. which took place long after the original illustrations not only had different places of painting campaign. The Jarman case is and origin but also different times of execution. exemple of the unconstrained involvement Even if the underlying design principles of modern miniaturists in the late 19th cen- may not be equal to those of the Baltimore tury. Another example exemplifies the ex- manuscript Walters 436, the Amiens exam- istence of a 18th or 19th century “album of ple represents the wide variety of a culture miniatures”. The manuscript compilation in that was open to the art of the pastiche. the Bibliothèque Louis Aragon in Amiens is pasted together with the help of the cut- tings of at least five books of hours or prayer Conclusion books.39 The manuscript entered the library in 1891 and seemed to be assembled in the Neither Caleb Wing’s repaintings nor the Amiens Augustinian convent somewhere Amiens album are likely to be the result of between 1664 and 1791.40 The cuttings used an intent to defraud. They rather reflect an for their part belong to manuscripts, whose openness for idealizing restorations as well as an aesthetically guided rearrangement 39 Amiens, Bibliothèque Louis Aragon, Ms. 107 C, cf. of miniature cuttings. Hence, my proposi- https://bvmm.irht.cnrs.fr//resultRecherche/resultRe- tion is to interpret the presented material cherche.php?COMPOSITION_ID=9946 [last access: 4.5.2019]. observations of the first chapter together 40 Cf. https://artmiens.wordpress.com/2018/04/16/lalbum- with the little we do know about the French de-miniatures-damiens-decoupages-et-collages-de-frag- bookbinder Capé in the second chapter as ments-denluminures/ [last access: 4.5.2019]. 94 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 94 15.11.2019 10:18:34 Joris Corin Heyder: PASTICHE AESTHETIC. A FORGER’S OR A RESTORER’S PRACTICE? an extraordinary example of an attempt to rescue dismembered parts of devotional manuscripts by creating something entirely new. The success of his assumed interven- tion is emphasized by Randall’s conclusion that the Baltimore manuscript was done by the Bening workshop. It is, however, the most unlikely solution. Instead by imagining someone who creates new and intact manu- scripts out of older bits and pieces suits well to a manuscript with a Capé binding held in the BnF in Paris.41 It needs a second and third look to realize the almost invisible ad- ditions to some of the folia therein. Appar- ently, some pages had lost their lower parts for unknown reasons, and they were fixed by Capé while he executed the new binding. This could be, at least, an indication of more comprehensive restoration works by his workshop. Therefore, it cannot be ruled out that the Baltimore manuscript is such a “res- toration piece”. Then, however, the restora- tion would have reached a completely new dimension: the bookbinder would have not only invented a new physical entity but also – and surely with the help of a gifted miniaturist – an unprecedented illustrative programme. Joris Corin HEYDER Universität Bielefeld, Fakultät für Geschichtswis- senschaft, Philosophie und Theologie. Arbeits- bereich Historische Bildwissenschaft/Kunst- geschichte, Postfach 10 01 31, D-33501 Bielefeld, Germany j.c.heyder@uni-bielefeld.de 41 Book of hours for the use of Rome, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, NAL 3250, https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf. fr/ark:/12148/cc100283d [last access: 13.8.2019]. 95 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 95 15.11.2019 10:18:34 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 96 15.11.2019 10:18:34 Gašper Cerkovnik SOME OBSERVATIONS ON USE OF BOOK ILLUSTRATIONS FOR POPULAR SOUTH-GERMAN PRAYER BOOKS AS MODELS IN CENTRAL EUROPEAN ART Zusammenfassung Buchillustrationen als Vorbild für andere Kunstwerke. Positiv zu vermerken ist, dass Schriftliche Quellen und eine beträchtli- es ein besseres Verständnis dafür gibt, wie che Anzahl von erhaltenen süddeutschen einige Buchillustrationen in teilweise über- Gebetsbuchillustrationen aus dem Kreis wiegend Analphabeten und wirtschaftlich Albrecht Dürers als selbstendige Drucke in schwierigen Umgebungen so populär wur- modernen Grafischen Sammlungen weisen den. Negativ ist, dass wir berücksichtigen darauf hin, dass es nicht ungewöhnlich war, müssen, dass diese Drucke vom Künstler dass Buchillustrationen dieser Zeit als ein- und Mäzen möglicherweise nie als spezi- zelne Drucke verkauft wurden, unabhängig fische Buchillustrationen erkannt wurden, von ihrer Größe. Dies hat positive und nega- wodurch ein Teil ihres ursprünglichen Kon- tive Konsequenzen bei der Recherche von texts und ihrer Bedeutung verloren ging. Key-words: prayer book illustrations, South Germany, Salus animae, Hortulus animae, print market Introduction of the printing press and paper mills in the T last decades of the 15th century. Printed me- he period around 1500 is marked dia not only distributed knowledge – it was by one of the greatest flourishings crucial in disseminating artistic style and of the fine arts in Central Europe. compositions, which inspired other artists Images of sacred and increasingly secular or could be used as models or templates nature covered the churches, houses and for less imaginative masters. The never-be- even streets in the form of altars, pulpits, fore-seen flourishing of visual arts of the epitaphs, venerated images, interior and pre-Reformation era was interrupted by the exterior wall paintings, illuminated and Reformation and later to some extent by the printed books, independent prints and Counter-Reformation in the Catholic lands. pamphlets, decorative arts, and others. The The abundance of different artworks was expansion of visual arts was greatly rein- decimated and fragmented by series of sub- forced by printed media such as woodcuts sequent tragic events that dragged into the and engravings – older techniques that fi- 20th century. Many artworks that survived nally came into their own with the spread lost their original historical context and, 97 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 97 15.11.2019 10:18:34 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper consequently, all the information about book illustrations.2 For artists and to some their authors, patrons, dates of completion, extent collectors, separately printed wood- functions, and other aspects. Identifying cuts or engravings were probably more de- printed models is often the only way to de- sirable, since the image was not disturbed termine when a specific artwork in the form by print on the opposite side. Buying sepa- of painting or sculpture was made (in most rate prints and not the whole book was also cases as terminus post quem), the meaning a reasonable choice from the financial point it may have had, and the cultural and artistic of view.3 Somewhat more surprising is the background of the artists and the patrons. fact that the similar was true for the group The more artworks we can register as being of small woodcut illustrations from south- modelled after prints and the more infor- ern Germany. Of special interest are several mation we can connect to the used prints, woodcut series of modest size but relatively the more we can deduce about the art of high artistic and technical value that heavily the period. Unfortunately, the prints were rely on Dürer’s compositions and style, and not immune to later historical events either: were made by artists closely connected to some were deliberately destroyed due to the great Nuremberg master. All the series their unsuitable or unfashionable content, were intended for popular prayer books of others by accidental disasters or by other- the period entitled in Latin Hortulus animae wise unsuitable environments. Recent stud- (Little Garden of the Soul, Seelengärtlein or ies, such as that of Peter Schmid on printed Würzgertlein in German) and Salus animae images in south German manuscripts of (The Salvation of the Soul) – later being a the 15th century,1 show the complex use of Nuremberg version of the first.4 The most prints since the beginning of the new me- important and problematic is the Salus ani- dia and the problematic legacy of the overly mae series published in Nuremberg in 1503 eager systematization of early researchers. (with disputed attribution to Dürer him- Most of the early prints were systematically self5), followed by several Hortulus animae removed from their historical settings, often series by Dürer’s co-workers: Hans Baldung cleaned of any additional writing and color- called Grien’s published in 1511 and 1512 in ation, and included in specialized print col- Strasbourg, Erhart Schön’s from c. 1515 and lections. In these regards, printed images Hans Springinklee’s series from 1516 and produced as illustrations for printed books 1518 published in Lyon and Nuremberg. All seem to be a more reliable source – they are usually much easier to date and localize and 2 The most important in this regard are the two woodcut series The Large Passion and The Life of the Virgin both have an accompanying text explaining their published in 1511: A. FröHlicH, ‘Die Große Passion’ & A. meaning. Nevertheless, a closer inspection scHerbauM, ‘Das Marienleben’, in: Albrecht Dürer: Das druckgraphische Werk: Band II: Holzschnitte und Holz- of historical sources and preserved exam- schnittfolgen, ed. by R. Schoch & M. Mende & A. Scher- ples of book illustrations from this era re- baum (München – Berlin – London – New York: Prestel veal a more complex situation. 2002), 176-213, 214-279. 3 For a concise overview of prices of prints from Nurem- berg, see: W. scHMiDt, ‘Nürnberger Kunst- und Graphik- preise der Dürerzeit’, in: Anzeiger des Germanischen Printed illustrations for small-format Nationalmuseums (2002), 241-252. prayer books 4 M. C. olDenbourG, Hortulus animae. [1494]-1523: Bi- bliographie und Illustration (Hamburg: Dr. Ernst Haus- wedell & Co., 1973). It is a long-known fact that major graphic se- 5 The authorship of Salus animae series and the un- published series depicting sunday gospels divided ries by Dürer were available as independent Dürer-scholars in two equally prominent groups, the prints long before they were published as view against Dürer’s authorship currently prevailing: A. scHerbauM, ‘Gebetbuch’ and ‘Andactsbuch mit Sonntag- sevangelien’, in: Albrecht Dürer: Das druckgraphische 1 P. scHMiDt, Gedruckte Bilder in handgeschriebenen Buch- Werk: Band III: Buchillustrationen, ed. by R. Schoch & ern: zum Gebrauch von Druckgraphik im 15. Jahrhun- M. Mende & A. Scherbaum (München – Berlin – London dert (Köln – Weimar – Wien: Böhlau Verlag, 2003), 1-17. – New York: Prestel 2004), 494-523. 98 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 98 15.11.2019 10:18:34 Gašper Cerkovnik: SOME OBSERVATIONS ON USE OF BOOK ILLUSTRATIONS... the above-mentioned artists probably had these series exerted in other fine arts me- access to Dürer’s collection of drawings dia must be regarded as the consequence and prints.6 of their unique combination of the fashion- The structure of the prayer book was able Dürer style, highly detailed technical based on that of Books of Hours, with great- execution, and popular iconographical mo- er emphasis on mystic texts and specialized tifs. The latter was dictated by the form of prayers that included Indulgences – like the prayer book itself. The Hortulus animae in the case of the prayer of St. Gregory the prayer book (and its variations) included il- Great and the prayer to St. Anna with Virgin lustrations depicting the life and images of with Child.7 The prayers to saints were (de- Christ and Mary, and the apostles, as well as pending on where they were published) of- images of different saints. This made them ten customized to be better adapted to local a highly useful compendium of Christian traditions – in the case of Salus animae, for narrative scenes and different figures of example, the local St. Sebald received spe- saints. Furthermore, the standing figures cial attention. The popularity and accessibil- could be remodelled, without much effort, ity of these prayer books published not only into any saint needed with simple changes in Latin but also in various German dialects, of attributes. French, Czech and Polish, on often low qual- The influence of Hortulus animae illus- ity and therefore cheaper paper, probably tration can be easily explained by numerous introduced south German graphic art to en- cheap publications, which is not the case tirely new and previously inaccessible audi- with the Salus animae prayer book. The se- ences throughout Central Europe. Research ries of 63 small woodcut illustrations (each on the impact of these series on other ar- measuring 61 × 41 mm) was created for a tistic media, primarily painting, to a lesser pocket-sized prayer book with the full title extent in decorative arts (metal engraving) of Salus animae, dos ist der selen hayl wirt and sculpture, is scarce in comparison to gena[nn]t, published in Nuremberg on Oc- better-known prints of the leading masters tober 18th 1503 by Hieronymus Höltzel. The of the period, like Dürer and Cranach, but booklet has 288 sheets and 65 illustrations, shows this was considerable.8 The influence the illustrations with St. Hieronymus and St. Sebald being duplicated. This prayer book 6 Baldung, Springinklee and Schön at different periods is quite rare, with only six copies known collaborated with Dürer; Meister um Albrecht Dürer. Ausstellung im Germanischen National-Museum vom world-wide (the most complete copy is in 4. Juli bis 17. September, ed. by P. Strieder and others the Library of Congress, Washington DC).9 (Nürnberg: Germanisches Nationalmuseum: Anzeiger Germanischen Nationalmuseums, 1961). For a critical The unusually high quality of illustrations review of Dürer’s workshop and his relationship to for this type of book in this early period other artists, see: A. Grebe, ‘Maister nach Dürer. Überle- and the fact most of the surviving copies gungen zur Dürerwerkstatt’, in: Das Dürer-Haus. Neue Ergebnisse der Forschung, ed. by U. Großmann and F. are printed on parchment, coloured, and Sonnenberger (Nürnberg: Germanisches Nationalmu- even illuminated suggests Höltzel’s initial seum 2007), 121-140. target audience was wealthy Nuremberg 7 F. X. HaiMerl, Mittelalterliche Frömmigkeit im Spiegl der Gebetbuchliteratur Süddeutschlands, (München: Mün- patricians. We do not know precisely what chener theologische Studien. Abt. 1. Bd. 4., 1952), 123-149. happened to the woodcut plates – although 8 K. löcHer, ‘Zur Nachwirkung der Druckgraphik von some were used as book illustrations later, Hans Baldung Grien. Das Straßburger Gebetbuch von 1511’, in: Pinxit, sculpsit, fecit. Kunsthistorische Studien. we should seriously consider that most of Festschrift für Bruno Bushart, ed. By B. Hamacher & C. Karnehm (München: Deutscher Kunstverlag 1994) Their Meaning and Influence in Other Fine Arts Media] 51-58; J. H (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Ljubljana, öFler, Die Tafelmalerei der Dürerzeit in Kärn- ten (1500-1530) (Klagenfur: Verlag des Geschichtverei- 2010); G. cerKovniK, ‘Eine Gruppe von Tafelbildern aus nes für Kärnten 1998) 28; G. c dem Anfang des 16. Jahrhunderts in der Abtei Lichtent- erKovniK, ‘ Lesorezne ilu- stracije nemških tiskanih molitvenikov poznega 15. in hal, Baden-Baden, und deren graphische Vorlagen’, zgodnjega 16. stoletja: pomen in vpliv v drugih likovnih in: Zeitschrift für die Geschichte des Oberrheins, 162 medijih’ [Woodcut Illustrations of the German Printed (2014), 209-230. Prayer Books of the Late 15th and Early 16th Centuries: 9 scHerbauM, note 5, 494. 99 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 99 15.11.2019 10:18:34 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper them were at least for some period primarily used to print separate prints for artists and collectors. This is indicated by the circum- stances in which the series was introduced to art history. Historical sources on print production and distribution In 1909, the British art historian Campbell Dodgson (at the time the librarian at the Brit- ish Museum and later keeper of Prints and Drawings) – not yet aware of the published prayer book – reconstructed the whole se- ries with a large quantity of separate prints of equal measurements and styles in sev- eral European print collections.10 The prints printed only on one side of the paper sheet are often dismissed as proof prints (“Probe- drucke” in German). Proof prints were made during the preparation of a matrix (wooden or metal) by artists or specialized print artisans to test the print. However, Fig. 1: Albrecht Dürer (?), many of the Salus animae separate prints Saint James the Great, Salus animae, 1503 show no signs of being proof prints; they (The Art Gallery of Ernest Zmeták, Nové Zámky). Source: https://www.webumenia.sk/en/dielo/ all show the final state, which supports the SVK:GNZ.G_563.. thesis they were readily available as inde- pendent prints. Furthermore, some show help of surviving illustrations we can with damage from heavy use that (according to some certainty presume it was some sort our knowledge) cannot be explained with of humanist encyclopaedia. Fortunately, their use in books (Fig. 1). Schreyer kept a memorial book (“Memori- The practice of book illustrations being albuch”, now in the library of Germanisches printed and sold separately in Nuremberg Nationalmuseum), which contains several is supported by two written sources from contracts and cost accounts with the author the end of the 15th and the beginning of the and with the woodcutter Sebald Gallensdor- 16th centuries. The first can be found in the fer between the years 1493 and 1497, which records of Sebald Schreyer, Nuremberg hu- give us some glimpse in production of manist, merchant, publisher, and Dürer’s prints of the time. From the beginning, the neighbour, who undertook a very ambitious illustrations were considered an indispensa- book project in the last decade of the 15th ble part of the project. Danhauser commit- century. He was preparing the publication ted himself to provide the needed models of an extensive text by German humanist for illustrations that were then transferred Peter Danhauser entitled Archetypus trium- to wood blocks by painters. Some compo- phantis Romae. The project was never fin- sition had to be made anew by local paint- ished and the manuscript lost, but with the ers; according to the style of several illustra- tions kept as separate prints, Schreyer chose 10 C. DoDGson, Holzschnitte zu zwei nürnberger Andachts- the workshop of Dürer’s teacher Michael büchern aus dem Anfange des XVI. Jahrhunderts, (Ber- Wolgemut. Blocks were cut by Gallensdorfer lin: Graphische Gesellschaft 1909). 100 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 100 15.11.2019 10:18:34 Gašper Cerkovnik: SOME OBSERVATIONS ON USE OF BOOK ILLUSTRATIONS... afterwards. The accounts reveal how much challenged environments. However, it must the work of different professionals in this be taken into account that these prints may process was valued at the time. The highest have never been recognized as specific payment was received by the woodcutter book illustrations by the artist and patron, Gallensdorfer, followed by the author Dan- thus losing some of their original context hauser, the anonymous transfer-painters and meaning.12 and the painter-inventor. According to the contract, Schreyer expected much from Gallensdorfer: he had to commit entirely to Gašper CERKOVNIK the project, not taking any other jobs, and Department of Art History, Faculty of Arts, he was not allowed to sell separate prints Aškerčeva cesta 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia or even talk about them or show anybody gasper.cerkovnik@ff.uni-lj.si what he was doing. Schreyer’s strict demand that Gallensdorfer not be allowed to sell il- lustrations as separate prints suggests that this was a common practice at the time. The second written source that sup- ports this practice and even describes in what form the small prayer book illustra- tions were sold on the market dates from a couple of decades later. In the winter of 1520/1521, Ferdinand Columbus, son of Christopher Columbus and a high dignitary in the Spanish court, visited Germany and the Netherlands, spending much time and money on buying books and prints. His in- ventory describes over one hundred small illustrations with Christian motifs intended for prayer books, often a group of them be- ing printed on one sheet of paper that could be cut later.11 The abovementioned written sources and the considerable number of surviving prayer book illustrations from the circle of Albrecht Dürer as separate prints in mod- ern prints collections indicate it was not uncommon for book illustrations of this period to be sold as individual prints, re- gardless of their size. This has positive and negative consequences when researching book illustrations as models for other art- works. On a positive note, it allows for a better understanding of how some book il- lustrations became so popular in sometimes predominately illiterate and economically 11 P. ParsHall, ‘Ferdinand Columbus’s Prints after 1500 from the German–Speaking Regions’, in: M. P. McDonalD, The Print Collection of Ferdinand Columbus (1488–1539). A Renaissance Collector in Seville (London: British Mu- 12 Source of illustration: Web umenia, https://www.webu- seum Press 2004), 177. menia.sk/en/dielo/SVK:GNZ.G_563. 101 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 101 15.11.2019 10:18:35 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 102 15.11.2019 10:18:35 Matej Klemenčič VENETIAN EARLY MODERN SINGLE-LEAF PRINTS AFTER CONTEMPORARY SCULPTURE: QUESTIONS OF FORM AND FUNCTION Riassunto rappresentare un singolo pezzo di scultu- ra e potevano essere realizzate per scopi Durante l’epoca moderna, sia la scultura di marketing, celebrativi o propagandistici classica che quella moderna furono spesso o altro ancora. L’articolo discute alcune di tradotte a stampa. Queste stampe sono state queste stampe singole, incise per illustrare pubblicate in diverse occasioni e utilizzate le opere dello scultore veneziano Antonio per vari scopi, spesso in serie con illustrazio- Corradini, e pubblicate a Venezia, Vienna e ni di importanti opere d’arte, come ad esem- Roma. Le incisioni vengono discusse in vi- pio a Roma, o come cataloghi di intere col- sta della loro funzione e dello sviluppo della lezioni di sculture. D’altra parte, potevano carriera di Corradini. Keywords: single-leaf prints, sculpture, Venice, Baroque, Antonio Corradini In one of his early drawings, Giambat- sculptor, therefore, whom Tiepolo wanted tista Tiepolo portrayed his colleagues to distinguish from the others, most prob- and friends, gathered sometime be- ably all of them painters. It would be in- tween 1716 and 1718 in a so-called “ac- triguing to identify him with one of the cademia del nudo”, a drawing academy younger Venetian sculptors of the time organised by Collegio dei pittori on Fon- but, unfortunately, there is little evidence damenta Nuove in contrada Santa Maria that would help us deduce his name.1 Formosa, in Venice (Fig. 1). Recently, the Even though our anonymous sculptor two figures on the right were identified as was carefully singled out by his contem- Gregorio Lazzarini (standing) and Antonio porary Tiepolo, at the time still a young, Balestra (sitting, and acting as a corrector), but already a very promising painter, this while the others remain anonymous. Most- 1 For the drawing see, most recently, e. luccHese, ‘Nel ly they are immersed in the drawing of a segno della grazia. Antonio Balestra maestro di Anton standing naked male model on the left. Maria Zanetti di Girolamo e nella “Scuola del Nudo” di Giambattista Tiepolo’, in: Valori Tattili, 9 (2017), 166 The only exception is the artist sitting in ss. (with bibliography). The drawing, still in private the upper row who stands out not only as a collection, has been earlier in Haseltine collection little taller than the others but also because in London and later in Rasini collection in Milan; see A. Morassi, Disegni antichi dalla collezione Rasini in he is evidently not drawing, but instead Milano (Milano: Ulrico Hoepli, 1937), 47, cat. num. modelling a statue in clay with his hands: a LXVIII; A. Morassi, “A ‘Scuola del Nudo’ by Tiepolo”, in: Master Drawings, 9 (1971), 43-50. 103 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 103 15.11.2019 10:18:35 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Fig.1: G. Tiepolo, Scuola del Nudo, 1716-1718. Private collection (Morassi, note 1 (1937), tab. LXVIII). essay will discuss one of many specific could be made for marketing, celebratory, connections between the arts of painting or propagandistic purposes, among others. and sculpture, and especially the presen- In the case of Venice, we will concentrate tation of sculpture in two dimensions. Re- on this last group, on the single-leaf prints garding this, there are several questions, of contemporary sculpture, on prints that for example, the importance of prepara- were not originally intended to become tory drawings for sculptors, drawings and part of a larger compendium. Since they paintings of sculpture, and presentation of were not bound into books, they were also sculpture in prints. Unfortunately, all these more vulnerable, and several prints are questions have rarely been discussed and therefore available today in a very small only a small number of drawings by Vene- number. Their form and function will be tian sculptors from the decades around discussed on the example of Antonio Cor- 1700 have been identified; the number of radini, arguably most famous of the 18th- known prints made after contemporary century Venetian sculptors before Antonio sculpture also remains considerably small. Canova. His unique position among con- During the early modern period, these temporary Venetian sculptors and his ex- prints were published on different occa- traordinary international career can shed a sions and used for various purposes, often special light on illustrations of his most es- in series as illustrations of important works sential achievements in marble, their func- of art, or as catalogues of whole collections tion, and contemporary response to them. of sculpture. Furthermore, they could also Relations between sculptors and paint- represent a single piece of sculpture and ers, reciprocal reception of their works, 104 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 104 15.11.2019 10:18:36 Matej Klemenčič: VENETIAN EARLY MODERN SINGLE-LEAF PRINTS... and possible influences have been at least and riccordi have been preserved in two partially studied, especially for the later 17th workshop collections – fondo di bottega – century and for some of the most impor- of Giovanni Maria Morlaiter and the Mari- tant artists of the Settecento: for Giusto Le nali family, and several other works have Court, Enrico Merengo, Antonio Zanchi, also been identified.5 However, the number and Johann Carl Loth, as well as for Sebas- of known drawings remains relatively small, tiano Ricci, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Piet- and the largest collection is again from the ro Baratta, Antonio Tarsia, Giovanni Maria workshop collection of the Marinali fami- Morlaiter, and Antonio Corradini, among ly.6 Nevertheless, we know that sculptors’ others.2 One of the most direct demonstra- drawings were already eagerly collected by tions of painters’ reception of sculptural some contemporaries. Marble statues and work is a drawing after a certain piece of drawings alike, works of Giusto Le Court, sculpture. In such cases, we can observe the foremost Venetian sculptor of the 17th how important for them was the choice of century, nicknamed by contemporaries as different points of view just to capture the “Bernini Adriatico”, have been an essential main characteristics of the statue under ob- part of the collection of Zaccaria Sagredo.7 servation. Classical statuary was evidently Unlike his Veronese drawings, they prob- one of the most obvious choices to study,3 ably remain unidentified in museums and and so sometimes was also modern sculp- private collections. Recent discoveries of ture. Among the latter, drawings by Giam- some of Le Court’s drawings and models for battista Tiepolo and his sons after busts the sculptural decoration of the Monument by Alessandro Vittoria are among the best- to Giovanni Pesaro show how important known examples.4 these works can be for understanding of his In contrast, studies of contemporary overall oeuvre.8 drawings of sculptors are of great impor- Sometimes, drawings were made of tance for understanding their working pro- sculptures in order to prepare prints. Es- cedures. For Venice (and Veneto), an impor- pecially with regard to classical sculpture, tant nucleus of sculptural bozzetti, modelli, it became increasingly necessary for ar- tists and connoisseurs to have easy access 2 See, for example, P. rossi, ‘Il ruolo della scultura nel to the most important items in churches, Seicento e la sua interrelazione con la pittura’, in: La private or public collections, in Rome and pittura nel Veneto. Il Seicento (ed. by M. Lucco, Mila- no: Electa, 2001 ), 2, 617-644; G. Pavanello, ‘Tiepolo e elsewhere. Even modern sculpture was la scultura: dalla copia all’invenzione’, in: Giambatti- sta Tiepolo nel terzo centenario della nascita (ed. L. 5 For Morlaiter esp. M. De vincenti, ‘Catalogo del “fondo Puppi, Padova: Poligrafo, 1998), 1, 165-170; P. r di bottega” di Giovanni Maria Morlaiter’, in: Bollettino ossi, ‘Giambattista Tiepolo e la scultura del suo tempo’, in: dei Musei Civici Veneziani, 6 (2011), 12-77; for Marinali, Giambattista Tiepolo nel terzo centenario della nasci- for example, S. carMellini, Zwischen Steinbruch und Stu- ta (ed. L. Puppi, Padova: Poligrafo, 1998), 1, 171-176; M. dio: die Bildhauerwerkstatt von Orazio Marinali und D Giacomo Cassetti (1683-1754) (Marburg: Tectum, 2011). e vincenti, ‘Per Giovanni Maria Morlaiter: uno scul- tore nella cerchia di Sebastiano Ricci’, in: Sebastiano Among several recent publications see, for example (for Ricci, 1659-1734 (ed. G. Pavanello, Verona: Scripta, Le Court), M. cleMente, ‘Giusto Le Court e i suoi “bellissi- 2012), 375-382. mi modelli di creta”: un’aggiunta al catalogo’, in: Giusto Le Court, due opere ritrovate (Firenze: Giovanni Pratesi, 3 See, for example, many drawings and paintings that 2015), 43-63. include the so-called Bust of Vitellio; an interesting, al- beit rather earlier example of actual drawing study with 6 See carMellini, note 5. three heads of Vitellio from different points of view by 7 C. MaZZa, I Sagredo: committenti e collezionisti d’arte Jacopo Palma il Giovane, see S. Mason, Palma il Giovane nella Venezia del Sei e Settecento (Venezia: IVSLA, 2004), 1548-1628. Disegni e dipinti, 105; S. Guerriero, “Un disegno di Giusto Le Court nella (Milano: Electa, 1990), 39, cat. 2b. collezione Certani”, in: Saggi e memorie di storia dell’ar- 4 See, for example, K. E. M te, 27 (2003), 254. aison, ‘The Tiepolo Drawings after the Portrait Bust of Palma Giovane by Alessandro 8 M. De Grassi, ‘Un modellino di Giusto Le Court per il Vittoria’, in: Master Drawings, 6 (1968), 392-294, 448- monumento Pesaro ai Frari’, in: Arte veneta, 53 (1998), 460; G. Knox, t. Martin, ‘Giambattista Tiepolo: A Series 124-127; Guerriero, note 7, 251-264; D. tulić, ‘Giusto Le of Chalk Drawings after Alessandro Vittoria’s Bust of Court e il Monumento Pesaro ai Frari: un bozzetto per i Giulio Contarini’, in: Master Drawings, 25 (1987), 158- “quattro bellissimi Affricani”’, in: Arte veneta, 69 (2012), 163, 189-200. 147-150. 105 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 105 15.11.2019 10:18:36 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Fig. 2: G. A. Faldoni after Giuseppe Maria Mazza, Venus and Cupid, 1708 (Zava Boccazzi, note 12, 321, Fig. 15) sometimes published as part of larger il- In Rome, a significant number of pub- lustrated publications, and far from being lications in book form was overshadowing rare are the cases when a sculptor who was a smaller number of single-leaf prints, mak- not able to go to Rome, used a print rather ing them seemingly unimportant. In Venice, than a sketch or a model of the original, the story is different. There were no similar to produce his version of some important publications of contemporary sculpture in modern statue. This is particularly obvious book form, even though similar publica- when prints were made of less precise draw- tions of prints of famous paintings in Venice ings or even included some iconographical exist. Sculpture does appear in publications changes. Among the Venetian examples, on antiquities, like Scipione Maffei’s Verona there is a marble statue of Saint Catherine, illustrata, which includes in her third part made in 1699 in Venice by Paolo Callalo, of 1732, a number of engravings by Andrea one of Le Court’s followers, for the Altar Zucchi of Tiepolo’s drawings,10 or an illus- of the Holy Cross in a former Franciscan trated catalogue of the public collection church in Ljubljana. It was commissioned of classical sculpture in Libreria Marciana. – together with Saint James the Greater – The latter was prepared by the two cousins by a wealthy merchant, Jakob Schell von Anton Maria (“di Girolamo” and “di Ales- Schellenburg. Callalo based his saint – a pa- sandro”) Zanetti in the late 1730s and pub- tron saint of Schell’s spouse Ana Katharina lished in two lavishly illustrated volumes in Schell – after a print of Saint Catherine by 1740 and 1743.11 Benoit Thiboust, which is based on a draw- ing of a slightly altered Saint Susanna, a seških delavnic okrog leta 1700’, in: Zbornik za umetno- stno zgodovino, n. s. 36 (2000), 201-202. famous statue of François Duquesnoy in 10 S. MaFFei, Verona illustrata. Parte terza (Verona, 1732), Santa Maria di Loreto of Rome.9 esp. 399 ss. 11 A. M. Zanetti, Delle antiche statue Greche e Romane […] 9 M. KleMenčič, ‘Od Enrica Merenga do Paola Callala: pro- Parte prima (Venezia 1740); Parte Seconda (Venezia, blem avtorstva kipov na oltarjih ljubljanskih kamno- 1742). 106 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 106 15.11.2019 10:18:36 Matej Klemenčič: VENETIAN EARLY MODERN SINGLE-LEAF PRINTS... Apart from book compilations, prints Venetian Senate chose Corradini for a pres- of single sculptures were sometimes pre- tigious commission of the monumental stat- sented as single-leaf prints. To the best of ue of the Marshal Johann Matthias von der my knowledge, their position within repro- Schulenburg. The statue, proudly signed An- ductions of sculpture has not yet been stud- tonius Corradini venetus sculpsit, was fin- ied thoroughly, and even single prints were ished by the end of the following year and only rarely discussed. That means that we was shipped to Corfu in 1718.14 The commis- are usually not aware of the circumstances sion itself and the possible public presenta- of their preparation and printing, we do tion of the statue in Venice must have been not know who commissioned them and extraordinary events since the statue is men- why, what their function was, and who their tioned in Diario ordinario d’Ungheria on 25 public was. In the case of Venice, there are December of 1717.15 A print was made, prob- some important prints of larger ensembles ably soon after the monument was erected, containing sculpture, like altarpieces and in 1718, by Andrea Zucchi (Fig. 3), one of the funeral monuments, but the illustration of most important engravers in Venice at the sculpture on them often seems to have been time. The author of the drawing is not docu- of secondary importance to the engravers. mented, even though the name of Giovanni Similar to single leaf prints depicting Battista Tiepolo has been suggested. The contemporary sculpture in Venice is an en- print presents the statue from a viewpoint graving of Venus and Cupid, a marble group that underlines the monumental scale of the made by Bolognese sculptor Giuseppe Ma- whole and gives the standing marble figure ria Mazza for the collection of the Manin of Marshall Schulenburg a victorious look. family. It was not published separately, but Since we do not know who actually com- as an addition to the journal La Galleria missioned the print by Zucchi, and the in- di Minerva in 1708 (Fig. 2).12 Regarding its scription is not clear on this, we can only as- function, it does connect with examples sume that Zucchi’s print was most probably discussed later here of the work of Antonio intended to glorify the Venetian victory over Corradini: it was an illustration of a sculpture the Turks, and probably also to give the nec- that was highly praised by contemporaries. essary merit to Marshal Schulenburg. What All further examples presented in this does stand out is the detailed and carefully paper were published as single leaf prints planned depiction of the full-length marble of the work of Antonio Corradini. Only two portrait itself.16 were made in Venice, but we will also dis- The years of 1716 and 1717 were a pivotal cuss two later engravings from Vienna and time in Corradini’s career. Most probably at Rome. Corradini, born in Venice in 1688, the same time as the Schulenburg portrait, learned sculpture with Antonio Tarsia and Corradini was able to present to the Vene- received his first documented commissions tian public another of his works, the one in the beginnings of the 1710s. It seems that that made him instantly the most famous of around 1716, when he was not yet thirty, he contemporary Venetian sculptors. It was his quickly rose to fame, and began to work for first depiction of a veiled female statue, the the most prominent patrons in Venice and abroad.13 On 12 September 1716, just three 14 P. rossi, ‘Johann Matthias von der Schulenburg e due weeks after the critical defeat of the Turk- scultori del suo tempo’, in: Arte veneta, 70 (2013), 238- 241. ish naval fleet at the Island of Corfu, the 15 See Diario ordinario d’Ungheria (118, 1717), 12. For the commission and for a suggestion of a public presenta- 12 F. Zava boccaZZi, ‘I Veneti della galleria Conti di Lucca tion in Venice see rossi, note 14, 238. (1704-1707)’, in: Saggi e Memorie di storia dell’arte, 17 16 See coGo, note 13, 162-163; for Zucchi, see, for example, (1990), 125-126. L. trevisan, G. Zavatta, Incisori itineranti nell’area vene- 13 For Corradini, see B. coGo, Antonio Corradini: scultore ta nel Seicento. Dizionario bio-bibliografico (Verona: veneziano. 1688-1752 (Este: Libr. Gregoriana Estense, Università di Verona, 2013), 123–124 (with further bi- 1996). bliography). 107 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 107 15.11.2019 10:18:36 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Court, if we consider the status of sculptors in Venice ever since the death of Alessandro Vittoria and before the era of Antonio Cano- va. If we consider an engraving of a sculp- ture, which was already a rare occasion in Venice, as part of Corradini’s career, the Schulenburg print is even more extraordi- nary because of Corradini’s young age, and the reason for producing it was probably the historical, political, and military impor- tance of the defeat of the Turkish navy. The situation was different in the case of the next engraving. In the early 1720s, Cor- radini was involved in a commission of Scula dei Carmini for their altarpiece in Santa Ma- ria dei Carmini. In 1722–1723, he produced a marble statue of Virginity, placed on the al- tarpiece together with Humility by Giuseppe Torretti. Even though Corradini’s Virginity is not a veiled statue, it stands out in his over- Fig. 3: A. Zucchi, after A. Corradini’s statue, Marshal all oeuvre and contemporary sculpture as Johann Matthias von der Schulenburg, ca. 1718. one of the most beautiful adaptations of Vienna, National Library, PORT_00068509_01 late Cinquecento works in a modern, Sette- cento idiom. Its immediate recognition and so-called Donna Velata. On Christmas Day historical importance are testified to by a sin- 1717, not only the report in Diario ordinario gle-leaf print, which was produced probably on Corfu monument was published; on the no later than 1724, again by Andrea Zucchi same day, Antonio Balestra, a well-known after a drawing by Giambattista Tiepolo (Fig. Venetian painter, wrote a letter to the Flor- 4). Here, the function of the print is docu- entine art historian and collector Francesco mented: Zucchi himself, through the inscrip- Maria Niccolo Gabburri. In a short passage, tion below, dedicates the engraving to the he praised Corradini as a young Venetian famous art collector Zaccaria Sagredo for his sculptor who had made a statue of Faith with promotion of fine arts “with nobility, author- a veiled face, which managed to “astonish the ity and beneficence.” On the print, the statue whole city” because of the translucent veil in is taken out of the context of the altarpiece; marble that covered the face of the statue. it remains isolated, and its qualities are again The statue is now recognized as the repre- underlined by an excellent drawing, this time sentation of Faith, finished by Corradini at signed by Tiepolo. Again, a low viewpoint the end of 1717 for the monument of the Ma- was chosen to achieve a monumental effect. nin family in the Cathedral of Udine.17 As I have been able to show elsewhere, Unfortunately, there is no print of this the altarpiece itself, especially the choice of statue, but from this moment onwards, Cor- models for the statues carved by Antonio Cor- radini’s career was at its peak, and until the radini and Giuseppe Torretti, was probably end of the 1720s he was enjoying a position related to contemporary activities of sculp- that was rivalled only by that of Giusto Le tors in Venice, with the institution of Colleg- gio dei scultori, and the first steps towards 17 See M. KleMenčič, ‘Antonio Corradini, Collegio dei scul- an academy of arts in Venice. Sagredo’s role tori, and Neo-Cinquecentismo in Venice around 1720’, in: The Enduring Legacy of the Venetian Renaissance in these events is still not clear, but he was (ed. by A. Badiee Banta, Abingdon and New York: Rout- an admirer of sculpture, and he owned three ledge, 2016), 103-119, with bibliography. 108 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 108 15.11.2019 10:18:37 Matej Klemenčič: VENETIAN EARLY MODERN SINGLE-LEAF PRINTS... Fig. 5: J. J. Sedelmayr Jr. after J. E. Fischer von Erlach and A. Corradini, Saint John of Nepomuk, before 1736. Kunstbibliothek der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz. Fig. 4: A. Zucchi, after G. Tiepolo’s drawing of A. for Rome, where he was, again, among the Corradini’s statue, Virginity, ca. 1723-1724. Private most celebrated sculptors, receiving distin- collection. guished guests in his studio, such as James crucial works of Corradini, a veiled Religion Stuart, the so-called “Old Pretender” to the (most probably the one today in the Louvre, British throne, and Pope Benedict XIV him- Paris), Adonis (now in the Metropolitan Mu- self. Eventually, he left Rome for Naples, seum, New York), and its companion piece where he died in 1752, while working on Venus (remains missing).18 Still, the reason a demanding project of decorating the pri- for Zucchi’s choice to present Sagredo with vate chapel of Raimondo di Sangro, Prince an engraving of one of Corradini’s works of Sansevero. One of his last works, Chastity, remains elusive. Was it Sagredo’s affection as well as his invention of the Veiled Christ, for Corradini’s work, was it the fact that both carved in marble only after his death by the collector and the sculptor collaborated Giuseppe Sanmartino, remain among the in the proposal for the Colleggio and Acca- most intriguing sights of Naples to this day.19 demia, or something else? During his time in Vienna, several of his At the peak of his career in his home- earlier works in Dresden were published as town, Corradini left Serenissima for the part of Raymond Leplat’s Recueil des mar- Holy Roman Empire around 1730, and set- bres antiques in 1733.20 At the same time, tled in Vienna for a decade, receiving the ti- one more of his Viennese works was tle of court sculptor by Emperor Charles VI. In the early 1740s, even though his title was 19 See coGo, note 13, 97 ss. confirmed by Maria Theresa, he left Vienna 20 R. lePlat, Recueil des marbres antiques qui se trouvent dans la Galerie du Roy de Pologne à Dresden (Dresde: 18 See KleMenčič, note 17, 110–116. Stössel, 1733); coGo, note 13, 240 ss. 109 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 109 15.11.2019 10:18:37 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper engraved again as a single-leaf print (Fig. 5). It was a presentation of the new monument to Saint John of Nepomuk in Prague cathe- dral. It was executed by engraver Jeremias Jakob Sedelmayr before it was finished. The monument was designed by Joseph Ema- nuel Fischer von Erlach and Antonio Corra- dini was commissioned with wooden mod- els for the statues, which were later made by Viennese goldsmith Johann Joseph Würth, and the monument was erected in 1736. The print itself was part of a larger promotional campaign that initially led to the canoniza- tion of the saint in 1729 and later to the erec- tion of the new monument. Long inscrip- tions in both Latin and German presented the main protagonists of the project and were evidently made in connection with the intention to raise money and to further pro- mote Habsburg initiatives regarding Saint John of Nepomuk. The engraving was not directly promoting the artists involved, but their names and status were still conspicu- ously stressed and were obviously confirm- ing the importance of the project.21 When Antonio Corradini came to Rome in the 1740s, he was enjoying celeb- rity status, but it seems that his fame was Fig. 6: F. Monaco after A. Corradini, Vestal Tuccia, ca. not enough to guarantee significant com- 1743/1747. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, missions. His activities there and his later 51.501.2714 move to Naples remain to be studied, as well as his works of the period. The last commissioned himself an engraving, made engraving discussed here will show how by Francesco Monaco (Fig. 6). It is not dat- Corradini was by this time already aware ed but was probably engraved between of the importance that prints could have in 1743 and 1747, since the print is dedicated attracting the attention of the larger pub- to Cardinal Neri Maria Corsini, protector lic, including connoisseurs and patrons. of the Portuguese crown in Rome. In these In 1743, soon after his arrival to Rome, he years, Corradini was involved in an impor- made another veiled statue , Vestal Tuccia, tant Roman commission for the church of which remained unsold and was offered to Saint Roch in Lisbon, for the chapel of Saint the public through a lottery, perhaps un- John the Baptist, for which he presented successfully, since it remained in Palazzo two large marble angels.22 The engraving of Barberini, where it was on view after Corra- Vestal Tuccia is probably the only genuine- dini’s move to Naples. This time, Corradini ly self-promotional one of the four prints discussed here, and Corradini’s name on 21 For the complex story of the monument itself and for the lower left is embellished with his title the print see F. MatscHe, ‘Das Grabmal des Johannes von Nepomuk im Prager Veitsdom als sakrales Denkmal’, in: Johannes von Nepomuk 1393–1993 (ed. by R. Baumstark, J. italiana in Portogallo. Opere artisti committenti (Roma: von Herzogenberg, P. Volk, München 1993), 44. Gangemi, 2010), 129 ss. 110 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 110 15.11.2019 10:18:38 Matej Klemenčič: VENETIAN EARLY MODERN SINGLE-LEAF PRINTS... of court sculptor to Maria Theresa (“her Majesty Queen of Hungary and Bohemia”). The importance of single-leaf prints of Corradini’s sculptures should be further discussed in a wider context of similar en- gravings in Venice and elsewhere. Even when we can assume that such prints have predominately political or propagandistic functions, in general, and that rarely were the artists themselves their publishers, these prints were, in the end, also used as a self- promotional instrument by most ambitious artists. At least in the case of Antonio Cor- radini it seems that he was able to learn, throughout his career, the possibilities of such engravings, and he used the medium himself when he came to Rome. This corre- sponds to other proofs of his ambitions and self-promotional activities, which are beauti- fully phrased in a description of his veiled Modesty. On the occasion of its inaugura- tion in the Cappella Sansevero in Naples on July 1752, shortly before Corradini’s death, abate Filippo Venuti, a Tuscan archaeologist and encyclopaedist, did not fail to observe that the sculptor with his veiled statues be- came the first artist who had the pleasure of surpassing the famous ancient Greek and Roman sculptors.23 This statement was, of course, a result of the artistic qualities of Corradini, but it was also a result of carefully planned career moves, among which there was – last but not least – the use of engrav- ings to promote his achievements. Matej KLEMENČIČ Department of Art History, Faculty of Arts, Aškerčeva cesta 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia matej.klemencic@ff.uni-lj.si 23 See KleMenčič, note 17, 103-104. 111 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 111 15.11.2019 10:18:38 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 112 15.11.2019 10:18:38 Tina Buh, Andrej Smrekar BERTHOLD’S GUM BICHROMATES IN/AS ARTISTIC PRACTICE Résumé bicromateé correspondent aux peintures de ses quatre amis au point qu’il est impos- Le procédé à la gomme bicromateé était sible de dire ce qui était arrivé en premier. connu bien avant son popularization par les La comparaison des plaques de verre photographes pictorialistes vers 1900. Il était utilisées dans le processus de gomme au bi- particulièrement proche des techniques cromate avec d’autres révèle que les plaques néo-impressionniste, de Monet tardive ou destinées au procédé de gomme au bicro- divisionniste. Avgust Berthold (1880–1818) mate étaient surexposées. Ainsi, le proces- était un photographe slovène de renom- sus de postproduction identifie les inten- mée internationale, considéré comme le tions artistiques du photographe et de ses cinquième impressionniste de la tradition amis peintres. artistique slovène. Ses tirages à la gomme Keywords: bichromate gum print, Slovenian Impressionism, Avgust Berthold, mutual inspiration Daguerreotype, puharotype, and the any other work of art.3 Soon, their claims to gum bichromate process art were negated by the extension of the me- L dium to limitless reproduction of (almost) ike almost any great invention, pho- identical images. Even today, there is no uni- tography was invented in a search versal definition of the medium of photog- for something else, a perfect repro- raphy. The Bressonian punctum disdainfully duction of an image in which a chemical relegates the dark room part of the process process would replace subjectively guided to artisanal execution. Nevertheless, there hand.1 Thus, the daguerreotype, as well as are photographers who extend the creative the puharotype,2 were unique and singular process into dark-room wizardry, using the creations deemed unrepeatable, just like negative, the fruit of the punctum, only as a primary source to interpretation that hypo- 1 S. BANN, Parallel Lines. Printmakers, Painters and thetically makes each work of art unique and Photographers in Nineteenth-Century France (New “unrepeatable”. Gum bichromate printing Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2001), 89–92. 2 The term has been coined from the name of Janez Pu- 3 ‘Images transparentes sur la verre par Pucher’, in: La har (1814–1864), Slovenian inventor of a particular and Lumière, II, št. 37, Pariz (1852), 147; La Lumière, II, št. 40, still mysterious process of photography on glass plate Pariz (1852), 160 ; M. KAMBIČ, ‘Izumitelja Janez Puhar in in 1842. William Talbot’, Sinteza, št. 28, 29, (Ljubljana 1973), 27–30. 113 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 113 15.11.2019 10:18:38 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper is part of a process most suitable to the ar- different pigments and tried out landscape, tistic intention of photography, because it architectural photography, genre, portrait, is finished in a darkroom by a prolonged and the nude in the open air. postproduction process. Known from the In 1904, he exhibited his Portrait of earliest years of photography’s history, it Jakopič in Belgrade.6 This “official” portrait was popularized after 1894 by pictorialist had several experimental predecessors dis- photographers.4 The gum bichromate pro- covered a few years ago in the Jakopič Be- cess allows the manipulation of light and quest. Berthold tried differently textured the selective treatment of details towards an paper supports, varying in grain in black articulation of the mood in postproduction and red pigment and a smoother paper with that does not necessarily correspond to a seemingly lighter red pigment. In contrast snap-shot document. The National Gallery to the black-pigmented image, red-pigment- of Slovenia has had the privilege of acquir- ed ones are less satisfactory. It is no wonder ing several bichromates in recent years but then that Berthold preferred black, grey, or above all to clean and conserve Berthold’s blue pigments. However, the red-pigmented photographic plates and make new prints portrait of Jakopič in an oblong format is a from them. beautiful document of the intimate friend- ship between the two artists (Fig. 1). In con- trast to the others, the portrait is extraordi- Berthold’s photography and Slovenian narily direct, informal, even relaxed and Impressionists thus a testimony of proximity of the two soulmates. Slovenian photographer, Avgust Berthold As a native of Škofja Loka, where paint- (1880–1919) probably learned the gum bichro- ers Rihard Jakopič (1869–1943) and Ivan mate process at the Höchere Graphische Bun- Grohar (1867–1911) lived at the time, while des-lehr- und Versuch Anstalt, department of Matej Sternen (1870–1949) stayed in the Photographie und Reproduktionsverfahren in nearby hamlet of Godešič, he worked close- Vienna in the 1902/03 academic year.5 It was ly with the Slovenian Impressionist paint- allegedly Rihard Jakopič (1869–1943), Slove- ers. Their work lends evidence to the cross- nian Impressionist painter and amateur pho- fertilization of painting and photography. tographer, who catalysed Berthold’s career as Jakopič and Sternen were amateur photog- a photographer. The school that stimulated raphers and used photography extensively experimentation ideally suited the obsessions as their working tool. It is evident that the of the young Berthold. Within three years, he painters also used Berthold’s photographs experimented with different plate sizes, with for their purposes, and Sternen might have utilized them even in Munich during his 4 The photosensitive property of the bichromates was known in the 18th century. Alphonse Poitevin applied it winter sojourns. One of the most impor- to photography in 1858 adding pigments to the colloi- tant Slovenian icons The Sower, 1907, by dal solution. An advanced gum bicromate process was Ivan Grohar was based on Berthold’s pho- introduced and popularized in 1894 by Pierre-Auguste Rouillé-Ladevéze, when he showed his prints at the ex- tograph. Berthold’s gum bichromate photo, hibition of the Paris Photo Club. It was in use until about exhibited in 1906, helped the painter to re- 1930, especially by the pictorialist photographers. G. BALDWIN, Looking at Photographs: A Guide to Technical solve a pictorial problem laboured on for Terms (Los Angeles: Getty Publications, London: British over a year.7 Coarse grain, light and shadow Museum Press, 1991), 51-52. C. JAMES, The Book of Alter- native Photographic Processes, Boston, 2015, pp. 58–61 6 First Yougoslav Exhibition dedicated to the coronation 5 Education in Munich and Frankfurt has not been cor- of king Petar I Karadjordjević. roborated. His inquisitive nature and the quality of his 7 t. breJc, “Groharjev Sejalec / Grohar’s Sower”, artistic oeuvre testify to self-education. Among other in: Slo venske Atene 1907-1991 / Slovenian Athens. things he constructed his x-ray camera himself. S. SOSIČ, (premikajoč se po polju slovenske umetnosti kot sejalec Avgust Berthold: fotograf z začetka stoletja,< Mestna / the motif of the sower a challenge to 43 contemporary Galerija, Ljubljana, junij–julij, 1997>, (Ljubljana:Mestna artists), , galerija, 1997), 20. (Ljubljana, Museum of Modern Art, 1992), n. p. 114 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 114 15.11.2019 10:18:38 Tina Buh, Andrej Smrekar: BERTHOLD’S GUM BICHROMATES IN/AS ARTISTIC PRACTICE Fig. 1: Avgust Berthold: Portrait of Rihard Jakopič (1904), gum print, National Gallery of Slovenia NG F 213 contrast and softened drawing keen to the late Impressionist and Symbolist painting techniques lead Grohar to an equivocal ar- ticulation of the figure and the landscape to encapsulate the ideological identification of the land and the man who works it into an image of the Motherland. As for Berthold’s photography, we Fig. 2: Avgust Berthold: Devin / Duino, 1905, gum print, black pigment, Private collection should consider first the influence of con- temporary Western art that shaped the pho- Ljubljana, next to the new Palace of Justice, tographer’s vision. His Symbolist landscapes purchased with lottery winnings. His gum with cropped tree trunks correspond to the bichromate creations won him medals in compositions of Grohar but even more so international exhibitions in Brussels (1905), the ones by Matija Jama (1872–1947), who Brno (1907) and Oslo (1908). The First Ex- as the fourth Impressionist painter was hibition of the Slovenian Photo-amateur present in Škofja Loka only metaphorical- Club of Ljubljana in Jakopič Pavilion, 1911, ly through intense correspondence with marked his last public appearance as an Jakopič. Berthold’s gum bichromate pho- artist. His inquisitive spirit took him to ex- tographs make us more aware of the share perimentation with X-rays, and his lack of of Symbolism in Slovenian Impressionist awareness of the damaging effects of the painting which makes this local phenome- rays hastened his premature death. non so peculiar. In the Devin/Duino Castle To claim a predilection of the photo- print, Berthold’s trick was the transforma- grapher for dawn and dusk lighting effects tion of a daylight photograph into a noctur- needs some qualification.8 So far we have nal scene (Fig. 2). Berthold’s little bichro- been unable to identify Berthold’s plates mate was by far the most successful among used in gum bichromate process. However, the known images of the castle, such as a a careful comparison of the existing nega- photograph of Fran Vesel (1884–1944) and tive with the bichromate print of Devin/Dui- a painting by Ivan Grohar. The picturesque no lends evidence that the same negative tourist trap changed into a praying Sphynx looming large in the moonlight over the 8 SOSIČ, note 8, p. 41 Gulf of Trieste. S. SOSIČ, ”Fotograf Avgust Berthold, slovenski impre- sionist“ in: Slovenski impresionisti in njihov čas 1890– By 1905, Berthold established a pho- 1920, ed. by B. Jaki and others, , Ljubljana, Natio- nal Gallery of Slovenia, p. 208. 115 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 115 15.11.2019 10:18:39 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Tina BUH Department of Conservation and Restoration, National Gallery of Slovenia, Puharjeva 9, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia tina_buh@ng-slo.si Andrej SMREKAR Curatorial Department, National Gallery of Slo- venia, Puharjeva 9, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia andrej_smrekar@ng-slo.si Fig. 3: Avgust Berthold: Self-portrait, (c. 1905), gum print, blue pigment, Private collection was used over a long period of time and even posthumously. Our working hypoth- esis is that Berthold enlarged his negatives for the bichromate prints in his darkroom. As negatives for contact printing they were redundant, oversize – harder to store, per- haps even useless after serving their pur- pose, and therefore expendable. Such an enlarged plate was overexposed, losing de- tail in comparison to the master negative. Despite burned plates, Berthold master- fully manipulated light. In his Self-portrait (c. 1905, Fig. 3), he managed to cast it “from the inside” in a counter-light effect just like in the red-pigmented portrait of Jakopič. The Devin/Duino Castle is the crowning example of the counter-lit scene that almost incorporates the solar disk, a peculiarity of specific paintings by Jakopič, turned into a mysterious nocturnal drama. A predilection perhaps, but the effects were the fruit of the postproduction, an interpretation that enhanced the photographic plate. This is the meaning of pictorialism: Berthold’s in- tention comes closest to that of his painter friends. 116 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 116 15.11.2019 10:18:39 Špela Šubic NIKO KRALJ’S PRESENTATION PANELS DEPICTING HIS DESIGNS FOR THE STOL FACTORY, EARLY 1950s Zusammenfassung Techniken und der abgebildeten Produkte sind sie zu einem Gegenstand von außerge- Die besprechene Präsentationskartons wöhnlichem Wert geworden. In den 1950er wurden wahrscheinlich verwendet, um Jahren wandte sich die traditionell starke Produktprototypen zu bewerben, die Niko Holzverarbeitung den Trends zu, die das Kralj für die Stol-Fabrik entworfen hatte. Bewusstsein für die Lebensqualität in der Zum Zeitpunkt ihrer Entstehung waren neuen politischen Ökonomie stärkten und sie von sekundärer Bedeutung, da die Fa- das Design als eigenständigen Beruf förder- brik das Design und den Prototyp bevor- ten. Die vorliegenden Präsentationskartons zugte, sowie die Entscheidung, ob das dar- sind gleichzeitig ein Beweis dafür, daß nicht gestellte Produkt serienmäßig produziert nur ein technischer Entwurf oder Foto eines werden sollte. Aufgrund ihres Alters, ihrer Produkts wichtig sind, sondern auch seine Seltenheit, des Zeitgeistes, der instabilen plastische Visualisierung. Keywords: airbrush, photocollage, Niko Kralj, chair, industrial design Introduction are often forgotten, or they become unim- T portant for the public, author and the manu- his study focuses on cardboard pres- facturer. These panels are therefore a rare ex- entation panels that show several isting side-product from the backstage of the pieces of furniture in a combination creative, production and possibly even sales of photocollages and airbrush. The furniture process of a critical furniture factory, the first was designed by Niko Kralj, and the presen- in the territory of former Yugoslavia to have tation panels are kept in the Museum of Ar- introduced a regular work position for an in- chitecture and Design (henceforth MAO). dustrial designer: the Stol factory. They rep- The presentation panels present one resent a valuable document of an essential of the phases in the complex process of part of design history, when design in Yugo- developing an industrial product, which in- slavia first became a profession in the 1950s. cludes sketches, plans, models, prototypes As the first professional industrial designer and many other construction and aesthetic in the country, Niko Kralj became an essen- checks. When (if) the object reaches its pro- tial factor in the endeavours to establish de- duction process, the development processes sign as a profession in its own right. 117 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 117 15.11.2019 10:18:39 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper The presentation panels could have were covered in differently coloured dust been intended for further use: one possibil- patches. Our assumption that these patch- ity is that various typographical interven- es are mould will need to be confirmed tions would be added to create advertise- by experts. Before they arrived at the mu- ments. If this was to be the case, the “float- seum, the presentation panels were stored ing” objects and the composition with the amongst printed matter and manuscripts mystical void make sense. One thing we in a poorly insulated loft, which was also know for certain is that they are a result of accessible to rodents. This could be one of a precise and targeted creative process. If the reasons for the stains that appear on all we assume that they were created for pro- presentation panels. motional purposes, we have to view the re- We are currently discussing the restora- sult as an object of visual communication or tion and conservation analysis and proce- graphic design. dures with the restoration department at the However, they could be intended mere- Archives of the Republic of Slovenia. ly for an internal presentation, for instance, Even though they essentially are docu- for the wholesale retailers during a strate- mentary material, we have – as a result of gic meeting. Alternatively, they could have their rarity, technique and documentary val- played a part in the designer’s early ambi- ue – categorized them as “musealia” almost tious attempts to present his prototypes to seventy years after they were created. the management. Only two of the eight ob- The MAO design collection revolves jects have been produced in significant vol- around awarded objects from the interna- umes: the Rex 120 and the foldable stool. tional comparative exhibition Biennial of Design.2 In accordance with the tendencies at the time,3 it was originally known as the “in- Aspects of technique dustrial design collection”, which solely con- tained finished products. Through the years With their combination of techniques and many other exceptional design products, artistic expression, these works represent a models and prototypes were added to it. novelty in the industrial design collection of As MAO is permanently collecting items Slovenian authors. In our search for compa- that could offer an insight into high qual- rable material we have failed to find any simi- ity design, larger quantities of unselected lar works within the MAO collections or simi- materials are occasionally gifted to the mu- lar institutions in Slovenia. Not merely in the seum, which was also the case with Kralj’s design or technical collections, we have not legacy. As he was the key figure of industrial even found anything similar in the art collec- design in Slovenia, we accepted the entire tions from the early 1950s. collection and only later started dividing be- We noticed the presentation panels tween the professional and private archive, during our preparations for the Niko Kralj the latter being returned to his relatives. The exhibition,1 as we were systematically cross- objects that remained in the museum were checking all available documentary materi- divided into musealia and documentation. als. We noticed them because of their con- With their discovery, the presentation tents, but we became especially attentive panels obtained a new value as they depict due to their fragile state, because the photo- models or prototypes of models, most of graphs were becoming unglued in certain 2 The international comparative design exhibition, organ- places, and some parts of the cardboard ized continuously since 1963, is today known as the Bi- ennial of Design. Since 1972 it has been organized by 1 M. Č the Architectural Museum of Ljubljana (today known as eliK et al., Niko Kralj: The Unknown Famous Design- er, ed. by B. Predan and Š. Šubic, 3 In the 1950s, industrialization was considered to be (Ljubljana: Museum of Architecture and Design = Muzej progress, so design moved from handcrafts and unique za arhitekturo in oblikovanje, 2012). items to industrial and large series production. 118 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 118 15.11.2019 10:18:39 Špela Šubic: NIKO KRALJ’S PRESENTATION PANELS... which have not been preserved. Not only and 1960, confirmed our assumption that did they become musealia due to their in- the combination of these two techniques dustrial and graphic design value, but they was not used for advertising purposes at the also became a sort of nostalgic and trendy time these panels were created. document. With slight deviations, all eight panels are roughly of the same dimensions and Eight presentation panels format. With the exception of one that is vertical, all the rest are horizontal panels, In six examples, the object is realistically slightly larger than A4 format. The tech- portrayed with a photograph, surrounded nique used is photo collage, in most cases with an imaginary, almost space-like back- combined with airbrush. In all eight ex- ground, as a counterweight to which the amples, the central object is the presented object is defined in space with its strong piece of furniture, which has been manu- shadow. The two objects presented on the ally cut out from a photograph. Six of them white surface, which are shadowed by the have been reworked with dramatic shad- cut our raster paper, are presented in a more ing, which – in a combination of shadows two-dimensional way, almost dry and tech- and the airbrush spray – created a three- nical in their presentation. In both cases dimensional effect. In the other two, which we wonder whether the final presentation have been glued onto a white background, panels remained unpublished because pro- the shadow of the object was added with fessional photographs without any later in- cut out raster paper. Six panels used black terventions were simply a better solution. painted cardboard as the background sur- In 1956, the magazine Arhitekt published face, while the remaining two have a white the professional photographs taken by Ja- background surface made from a softer nez Kališnik,4 a photographer specialized type of cardboard. They were all covered in photographing design and architecture, with a thin semi-transparent sheet of trac- alongside a competition report (which was ing paper that was attached to the upper a part of a larger project with the final goal part at the back; however, with some of of creating the exhibition Flat for our condi- them, this has been torn off or unglued. tions). The quality of his photographs sur- The combination of airbrush and photo passed the artistic expression of our panels collage techniques is impressive. We do not in all aspects. know whose decision this was, nor do we Armchair Rex 120 with a model (Fig. 1) know who made the presentation panels. is the only presentation panel to include a Taking into account the dramatic position- person. The purpose of this panel was to ing they could serve as an advertisement, show the object’s usability, present it in a and it is possible that they were ready for lively way, in its best light, as three-dimen- print. The examples on the black back- sionally as possible. The figure adds drama, ground might have been created for a differ- which cannot be found in the other exam- ent purpose than those created on the white ples. It is compositionally sound –the shad- background, because they are stylistically ow of the object is cut off – it reaches into somewhat different. As a comparison aid, the very edge of the panels and beyond. The we used expert and general public maga- background has been painted black, while zines from the time with contributions on the airbrush spray is white. One can still see interior design, contemporary design, and that a thin semi-transparent sheet of tracing advertisements. Looking through the maga- paper was attached to the top back as pro- zines Arhitekt (Architect), Les (Wood), Naša tection, but this has been torn off at some žena ( Our Woman) with the supplement Naš dom ( Our Home) printed between 1950 4 ‘Competition for Rational Furniture’, in: Arhitekt, 18-19 (1956), 33-35. 119 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 119 15.11.2019 10:18:40 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Fig. 2: Coffee table; 24.5 × 33; cardboard, photograph, airbrush, thin semi-transparent tracing paper. Inv. No. 534:LJU;0037060 first piece, this one and all the rest present only the object, which has been extremely precisely cut out from a photograph and Fig. 1: Armchair Rex 120 with a model; 24.5 × glued onto a seemingly endless space, de- 21; cardboard, photograph, airbrush. Inv. No. fined merely by the shadow. 534:LJU;0037055. In the years of following and research- ing Kralj’s work, we have not come across stage. Taking into account the different mo- this object. We have concluded that it must tif, this could be the result of more frequent have been made merely as a prototype ver- use. Alongside the edges of the black sur- sion. Its special characteristic lies in the face of the shadow, there are visible traces upwards turned edges of the table surface. of drawing pins, which held the stencil in This panel presents important proof of the place while the cardboard was being air- existence of an object that no longer exists. brushed. Slight dust stains are noticeable on On the panel Chair with a slatted back- the top part of the panel. rest (Fig. 3), the traces of the drawing pins The presented chair was the first ver- indicate that the stencil for the shadows was, sion of Rex that went into mass production. as was the case in most examples, attached In order to create this chair, Kralj used his to the already black background. The small patented plywood curved in two directions, object appears somewhat lost within the which at the time represented a technologi- given format. cal as well as design challenge. Contrary to The bottom part of the chair is construct- the later, much more popular version, this ed in the same way as the foldable stool, but version was not foldable, but it had a differ- with an added backrest. The slats that ena- ent practical characteristic: the chairs could bled the plywood to be bent into two direc- be stacked. The armrests can be lifted to the tions could have become an anatomical and backrest which enables one to lower the top aesthetic feature also in other pieces. This chair onto the legs of the bottom chair. panel is the only presentation of this chair Coffee table (Fig. 2) is the only panel to to be found so far. have a bright shadow to the object. The sten- The size of the depicted Deckchair Rex cil used to create the shadow was placed (Fig. 4) stands out in comparison to the for- against the cardboard before this was paint- mat of the cardboard. Compositionally, the ed black, which is confirmed by the traces author considered the object and its shad- of the drawing pins. In opposition to the ow as a whole. 120 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 120 15.11.2019 10:18:41 Špela Šubic: NIKO KRALJ’S PRESENTATION PANELS... Fig. 3: Chair with a slatted backrest; 24.7 × 30; Fig. 5: Rex Chair; 24.7 × 30; cardboard, photograph, cardboard, photograph, airbrush, thin semi- airbrush, thin semi-transparent tracing paper. Inv. transparent tracing paper. Inv. No. 534:LJU;0037059 No. 534:LJU;0037056 or whether the chair already a market suc- cess by that time. However, we do know that it was never produced in any large quanti- ties, as the deckchair never appeared any- where else but in the rare publications of photographs. The object Chair Rex (Fig. 5) and its shadow are once again treated as a whole, for it is the shadow in combination with the airbrush application that is a necessary part of the three-dimensional appearance. To- day, a comparable presentation would be created by computer rendering. The same Fig. 4: Deckchair Rex; 24.7 × 32.7; cardboard, dust stains as before appear along the upper photograph, airbrush, thin semi-transparent tracing edge. The perforation of the photograph paper. Inv. No. 534:LJU;0003593 along the sides of the backrest is truly minis- cule, and one can still see the airbrush effect The dust stains at the top are intense, through the tiny holes. and they also spread across the photo- The chair is of a squarer shape than the graph and the thin semi-transparent trac- armchair. The improved version went into ing paper. The white stains are less intense. production, while this photograph clearly The photograph is very precisely cut out shows a prototype. along the slats of the deckchair, and the The brown stains appear predominant- shadowing shows the same precision. A ly on the black background around the Little larger part of the photograph became un- Indian (Fig. 6) photograph near the back- stuck over time. rest, while the white stains appear on the The deckchair Rex was obviously a de- upper and left edge of the cardboard. rivative of the idea with the plywood curved From the point of view of its composi- in two directions and the continuation of tion, and taking into account the format, the the parallel slats motif. We cannot judge relatively small chair is placed in the centre whether the deckchair prototype was devel- of the aura, the role of which has in this case oped at the same time as the Rex armchair almost taken over from the object itself. 121 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 121 15.11.2019 10:18:42 Works of Art on Parchment and Paper Fig. 6: Little Indian; 24.7 × 29.7; cardboard, Fig. 7: Foldable Stool in a box; 21.5 × 32; cardboard, photograph, airbrush, thin semi-transparent tracing photograph, raster paper. Inv. No. 534:LJU;0037061 paper. Inv. No. 534:LJU;0037058 Galerija in Ljubljana” and “Thonet patented ‘Little Indian’ is a foldable chair. MAO the procedure 100 years ago, and today Stol has one prototype with armrests and two steps … (along)side it into global …(pro)duc- without them. One of them carries a pro- tion…own models…( p)atents.”6 For this pan- duction sticker from the factory, which el, we have a post quem non date (i.e., the means that at least a small series was manu- date of the exhibition). factured. Technologically interesting is the Niko Kralj was the curator of the exhi- ‘Indian plume’ made out of curved plywood bition in Mala Galerija between 25 January leaves, which is supposed to soften the con- and 7 February 1954.7 This sticker indicates tact between the back and the backrest. This that the stool could have been bought there chair never worked statically, which might in the box. The stool was deliberately not be the reason that it was never produced in photographed in its assembled state, but in a large series. parts, folded within the box. The trends at Simple photocollage Foldable Stool in the time was to economize with storage and a box (Fig. 7) does not have a dark back- transport space, which led to the do-it-your- ground; the base is made from a thinner card- self assembly. This was best monetized by board, and it has no airbrush interventions. Ikea, which started introducing the system The photograph has a few brown stains and at the same time as Kralj. His most famous lesions. The depth of field is achieved with work – the foldable Rex chair – was creat- the added raster paper alongside the right ed with the idea of the economical use of and lower part of the photograph. space. The construction of the stool meant This is the only example that we know that the user had to tighten a single screw, to have been published.5 Compositionally which is all it took for the stool to achieve it is not well thought out, but the publica- total construction stability of a working tion reveals that this was not relevant as household stool made from solid wood and only the central motif with the shadowing curved plywood covered in polyvinyl. Even was used. though it was industrially produced, it has The photograph reveals a valuable piece become a rare find. of information: a printed sticker on the box, showing the text “For the exhibition of the 6 “K razstavi industrijsko izdelanega stola v Mali galeriji v Ljubljani” ; and: “Thonet je patentiral postopek pred industrially manufactured chair in Mala 100 leti, danes stopa Stol … ( všt)ric v svetovno …( proiz) vodnjo …( l)astnimi modeli…( p)atenti.” 5 n. KralJ, ’Moderno pohištvo in nove konstrukcije’, in: 7 G. B., ‘Razstava »100 let industrijskega stola«’, in Arhitekt, Les, 6/7, VI (1954), 101 - 106 11 (1954), 19. 122 Works_of_Art_FINAL.indd 122 15.11.2019 10:18:43 Špela Šubic: NIKO KRALJ’S PRESENTATION PANELS... art with spray cans,8 in design by computer programmes, and it is most broadly used for decorating cars and motorbikes. Art had established a new technique and pathed the way to new implementa- tions in various fields. The same holds true for photocollages. Various types of experi- mentation with photographs appeared practically at the same time as photography itself. At first accepted as not a very serious artistic expression, photomontages and photocollages were used as a witty idea or a subversion. Man Ray was a pioneer also in Fig. 8: Mosquito; 24.7 × 34.7; cardboard, photograph, this technique, and he was followed by Bau- raster paper, thin semi-transparent tracing paper. haus and the penetrating Hannah Höch and Inv. No. 534:LJU;0037057 Marianne Brandt. Photocollages were at the In the case of the Mosquito (Fig. 8) pho- time so unusual that the artists were consid- tocollage, the base is also made from thin- ered engineers, for they were seen to build ner, white cardboard, while the shadow is and assemble their works.9 cut out from printed raster paper. The grey Slovene constructivists started using and brown dust stains are the most intense photocollages early on, and they have been between the photograph and the shadow. long overlooked by conservative public and The composition is better thought out, but critics, even though the photocollages by as we had ascertained in the previous exam- Avgust Černigoj and Eduard Stepančič were ple, it is irrelevant. reproduced in a special issue of the maga- The sitting surface made from curved zine Der Sturm as early as 1929.10 As regards plywood is interesting, but represents a con- the contents, they were far from our exam- struction disadvantage, as it is made from ples; however, they clearly show that the two halves, screwed together on the bottom technique was known in our territory. side of the seat. The four legs and the back- As regards the contents, two photo- rest are also screwed into the same part. The graphs can be compared to ours, both from cute shape that gave the chair its name did Bauhaus. One was made for the needs of not truly work in practice. A few prototypes promoting Breuer’s Wassily armchair and were created, and they can be seen in vari- was made by Herbert Bayer in 1927, 11 while ous publications. It is in production today, the other was made by a Bauhaus student, with certain construction improvements, Erich Consemüller. 12 The older photographs but with a worse visual appearance. made much better use of the language of photography, its possibilities of expres- sion, including additional interventions. In Considering a broader frame 8 An example of a work of fine art: Ana Sluga, Triptych I, 2016, acrylic and spray on canvass;