Ö. ERDOÐAN et al.: FORMABILITY CAPABILITIES AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TITANIUM ...
421–427
FORMABILITY CAPABILITIES AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
OF TITANIUM TAILOR-WELDED BLANKS
SPOSOBNOST OBLIKOVANJA IN MEHANSKE LASTNOSTI IZ
TITANA ZVARJENIH PLO^EVIN
Özgür Erdoðan
1*
, Sami Sevinç
2
, Rukiye Ertan
1
1
Department of Automotive Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Bursa Uludað University, Görükle, 16059
2
Oyak-Renault, Balat OSB, 16372 Bursa, Turkey
Prejem rokopisa – received: 2024-02-26; sprejem za objavo – accepted for publication: 2024-04-22
doi:10.17222/mit.2024.1118
Titanium alloys have many applications in aerospace, nuclear and automotive industries and in most parts are in sheet form and
require joints of high integrity to meet the design requirements and achieve reliable welds. For weight and cost reduction, the
technology of tailor-welded blanks (TWBs) is a promising technology in various components. TWBs are usually semi-finished
metallic sheets made of different strengths, materials, and/or thicknesses and a forming process is often needed to manufacture
the final components. In this paper, Grade-2 and Grade-5 titanium alloy sheets (Ti-TWBs) were laser welded and subjected to a
forming process in U-profile geometry at elevated temperatures. The deformation behaviors of the weld joints after forming pro-
cess were analyzed by mechanical tests such as tensile and hardness tests. The formability of the welded blanks is assessed
based on variations in the geometric changes related to the springback angles. The results showed that there was significant in-
crease in tensile strength with forming temperature increase and the failure mode was changed at 850 °C. The formability of the
Ti-TWBs was found to be strongly dependent on the applied process temperatures and forming at 850 °C leads to the lowest
springback angle.
Keywords: titanium, formability, laser welding, mechanical strength, tailored welded blanks
Zlitine na osnovi titana se uporabljajo na mnogih podro~jih v letalski, nuklearni in avtomobilski industriji. Ve~ina izdelkov iz
titana in Ti zlitin se v glavnem izdeluje oziroma oblikuje iz plo~evin, ki jih je treba najprej tudi medsebojno zvariti. Zvari
morajo imeti visoko integriteto zato, da zadostijo zahtevam oblikovanja in delovanja. Zmanj{anje mase izdelkov in stro{kov
njihove izdelave zahteva tehnologijo medsebojnega varjenja plo~evin (TWBs; angl.: technology of tailor welded blanks). To je
obetajo~a tehnologija za izdelavo razli~nih komponent. TWBs so obi~ajno polproizvodi iz razli~nih materialov in razli~no
debelino, ki jih je potrebno {e preoblikovati v finalni izdelek. V pri~ujo~em ~lanku avtorji opisujejo medsebojno lasersko
varjenje dveh vrst plo~evin iz Ti zlitin (Razred-2 in Razred-5), ki so jih nato {e preoblikovali s postopkom vro~ega stiskanja v
U-profile. Po postopku vro~ega stiskanja so avtorji analizirali potek proces deformacije in dolo~ili mehanske lastnosti; i.e.:
trdoto in natezno trdnost zvarnih spojev. Preoblikovalnost zvarnih spojev Ti plo~evinso avtorji analizirali tako, da so ocenjevali
geometrijske spremembe povezane s povratnim vzmetnim u~inkom (angl.: springback effect). Rezultati raziskave so pokazali,
da pride do pomembnega pove~anja natezne trdnosti in spremembe na~ina loma privro~em stiskanju nad 850
o
C. Avtorji so tudi
ugotovili, da je oblikovanje lasersko varjenih Ti plo~evin z vro~im stiskanjem mo~no odvisno od procesne temperature in da
vro~e stiskanje pri 850 °C vodi do nastanka najmanj{ega kota zaradi povratnega vzmetnega efekta.
Klju~ne besede: oblikovanje titana, lasersko varjenje, mehanska trdnost, oblikovanje varjenih plo~evin
1 INTRODUCTION
Despite its high cost, titanium and its alloys are the
preferred materials in aerospace, biomedical, and auto-
motive industries due to their mechanical strength, low
density, corrosion resistance and excellent creep proper-
ties up to 300 °C.
1
Notwithstanding the advantages, since
titanium alloys are found in the form of sheets, it also
has some manufacturing limitations while fabricating
spacecraft, jet engines and automotive bodies. Titanium
sheets exhibit low formability and high springback be-
haviour at room and low temperatures, and this causes
many challenges.
2,3
However, there are types with very
different properties within the wide range of titanium
grades. From the titanium family, the Grade-5
(Ti-6Al-4V) has a higher strength compared to Grade 2;
in spite of this Grade 2 has very high ductility, and can
be deformed into complex shapes by sheet forming.
4,5
In recent years, with the rapid development of tech-
nology and increasing environmental awareness, technol-
ogies in which mechanical properties can be changed in
a controlled manner to meet different performance re-
quirements have gained great importance, especially in
the automotive industry, as well as lightening studies.
6
For this purpose, tailor-welded blanks (TWBs) are devel-
oped to improve safety features, fuel consumption, and
crashworthiness when sheets of different grades or mate-
rials, various thicknesses and different coatings joined by
a welding process prior to forming into the final part ge-
ometry.
7
The use of TWB in the auto-body structure can
reduce the weight of the vehicle and energy utilization
during manufacturing.
8
Titanium in comparison to steel
and aluminium in the manufacture of TWBs has enor-
mous potential for the fabrication of lightweight systems
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 3, 421–427 421
UDK 546.82/.83:621.791.724:676.056.73 ISSN 1580-2949
Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni ~lanek MTAEC9, 58(3)421(2024)
*Corresponding author's e-mail:
ozgur341@gmail.com (Özgür Erdoðan)

in various industries with high mechanical demands and
improved part performance. There are few studies to
evaluate the suitability of titanium as TWB components.
Since there is a growing demand for TWBs and obtain-
ing components with a complex geometry and the de-
sired strength and functional properties, more work
needs to be done on this subject.
Adamus and Lacki
9
investigated the sheet-metal
forming of titanium welded blanks experimentally and
numerically. Stress and strain distribution were analysed
by forming spherical drawn-parts made of Grade-2 and
Grade-5 blanks, and electron beam welded Grade-2 to
Grade-5 blanks. Winowiecka et al.
10
evaluated the
drawability of Ti- TWBs consisting of titanium Grade-2
and Grade-5 alloys, and thinning was observed in
Grade-2 sheet metal close to the weld. This paper aims at
investigating the effects of tooling temperatures on the
formability of Ti-TWBs at elevated temperatures. Lai et
al.
11
employed a newly developed tooling system with a
heating-control function in their investigation. TWBs
with different thickness combinations examined for
formability under elevated temperatures. Karpagaraj et
al.
12
studied the formability limits for titanium
Ti–6Al–4V alloy TWB sheets having a thickness of 1.6
mm and 2 mm; in addition to that, microstructural stud-
ies were carried out to understand the effect of the
GTAW process. The quality of the weld was examined
through metallographic (macro- and micrographs) analy-
ses and mechanical tests.
In this respect, the weldability and post-weld
formability of titanium alloys have become very impor-
tant for many sectors. Laser welding is the most pre-
ferred process for tailored blank applications because of
its high welding speed, high precision, small heat-af-
fected zone and ease of interface with robots.
12–16
CO
2
and Nd:YAG lasers were traditionally the welding pro-
cesses mainly used for TWB applications.
17–19
Numerous studies can be found in the literature that
examine the weldability of titanium and its alloys.
20–24
Fomin et al.
25
carried out an experimental study on the
metallurgical and microstructural characterization of la-
ser-beam-welded T-joints between commercially pure ti-
tanium and Grade-5 alloy. Because of the poor deforma-
tion capability of titanium alloys at room temperature,
they are mostly formed in hot-forming processes. There-
fore, most investigations are focused on the mechanical
properties of titanium alloys at high temperatures. How-
ever, recent advanced forming methods enable them to
form at room temperature. Li et al.
26
investigated the de-
formation characteristics, formability and springback
characteristics of titanium alloy sheets at room tempera-
ture. Mainly the deformation characteristics of titanium
alloys at room temperature are discussed. Ramadass et
al.
27
conducted experimental and numerical studies on
the formability of Grade-2 titanium sheets using the
Erichsen cupping test method. Zhu et al.
28
investigated
the formability of commercially pure titanium Grade-2
foils to determine the optimum forming process. The in-
fluences of geometry, temperature and high-velocity
impact were examined to ensure a better understanding
of their impacts on the formability of the foils.
Campanella et al.
29
carried out a comprehensive study to
understand the effect of various production methods on
titanium Grade-5 parts. This study focused on aeronauti-
cal parts and two different geometries were used. Results
were evaluated in terms of mechanical, geometrical, and
microstructural aspects. Ertan and Çetin
30
investigated
the deformation temperature’s effect on the mechanical
properties and springback behavior of Grade-5 titanium
sheets. Tekin et al.
31
examined the springback behavior
and mechanical properties of Grade-2 titanium sheets,
which were hot formed at elevated temperatures.
In the present study, Grade-2 and Grade-5 Ti alloy
sheets with 1 mm thickness were laser welded and de-
formed to fabricate Ti tailor-welded blanks (Ti-TWB).
The mechanical properties were investigated through
tensile and microhardness tests. Further, the effect of
forming temperature on the formability was studied by
the 3D scanning method with springback angle measure-
ments of the U-profile.
2 EXPERIMENTAL PART
2.1 Materials
Materials used are rolled sheets of 1-mm-thick, com-
mercially pure, Grade-2 and Grade-5 titanium alloys.
The chemical composition of the materials is presented
in Table 1.
Table 1: Chemical composition of Grade-2 and Grade-5 titanium al-
loys
F eOCNHA lV
Grade-2 0.3 0.25 0.08 0.03 0.015 – –
Grade-5 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.0125 6 4
2.2 Laser Welding
Grade-2 and Grade-5 titanium alloys sheets were pri-
marily cut into blanks with a size of 330 mm × 125 mm
× 1 mm in the specimen-preparation process. The blanks’
length direction was along the rolling direction. Prior to
welding, the plates were mechanically ground and
cleaned with acetone. The Grade-2 and Grade-5 sheets
were clamped adjacent to each other in a fixture to guar-
antee the correct alignment during the laser welding. The
welds were performed in the flat position with a butt
joint and without adding filler material.
To prevent the entry of air into the welding zone and
to protect the welding seam from the adverse effects of
air, high-purity argon gas is preferred as the shielding
gas. The welding operation was carried out by means of
a SISMA SWA-300 Nd:YAG laser-welding machine,
whose main characteristics are mentioned in Table 2.
Ö. ERDOÐAN et al.: FORMABILITY CAPABILITIES AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TITANIUM ...
422 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 3, 421–427

2.3 Forming Process
After the welding process, the joints were heated to
550 °C and 900 °C for 10 min in a conventional furnace,
directly transferred to the press and subsequently
formed. The transfer time from the furnace to the cold
die was 5 s, and the temperature drop was 50 °C. The
forming process was carried out in U-profile die for
Ti-TWBs in a 200-tonne hydraulic press with 10 mm/s
punch speed. The blanks were formed and held for 1 min
in the dies. During the forming of the welded blanks
there was not a loss of material cohesion nor any fracture
in the weld zone or base material. The experimental
setup is shown in Figure 1a, in which the punch and die
were made by a tool steel. The welded specimens were
placed after aligning the weld-line parallel to the center
of the U-profile die with the weld top surface facing the
punch (Figure 1b).
2.4 Test Procedure
Tensile and hardness tests were conducted to observe
the mechanical properties of the Ti-TWBs formed joints.
All the tests were performed at room temperature. The
samples were cut from the bottom of the welded U-pro-
file (Figure 1b) using a 3-axis water jet (Robojet)
according to the ASTM-E8 standards. Test specimens
had standard dimensions of 140 mm in length and 20
mm in width. Tensile tests were conducted under stan-
dard laboratory conditions, specifically at room tempera-
ture, utilizing a cross-head speed of 2 mm/min. These
tests were conducted using a Zwick/Roell 100-kN uni-
versal tensile-testing machine. The Vickers hardness test
was carried out employing an indentation load of 0.5 kg
and a dwell time of 10 s, utilizing an EmCo hardness test
machine. Each sample underwent hardness measurement
at five distinct points, ensuring comprehensive data col-
lection across the sample surface. Subsequently, the av-
erage hardness values were calculated to provide a repre-
sentative assessment of the material’s hardness
characteristics. Dimensional data of the U-profiles were
obtained using the Faro-Quantum Max FaroArm 3D
scanner. This data was utilized to analyse the springback
behavior of the profiles, providing valuable insights into
their structural response to forming processes. The
scanned data were integrated into the CAD data using
CATIA V5 software, facilitating the visualization and
analysis of the combined data sets.
Ö. ERDOÐAN et al.: FORMABILITY CAPABILITIES AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TITANIUM ...
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 3, 421–427 423
Table 2: Laser-welding process parameters for welding Grade-2 and Grade-5 alloys
Process Average power Peak power Pulse energy Pulse duration Spot diameter
Laser beam
transport
Nd: YAG laser welding 0.3 kW 12 kW 30.6 J 3.6 ms 1.3 mm Fiber-coupled
Table 3: Mechanical properties of Ti-TWB specimens before and after forming process
Type of speci-
mens
Process stages
0.2 % yield
strength (MPa)
Ultimate tensile
strength (MPa)
Total strain
(%)
Grade-2 No welding, no forming 280.0 344.0 18
Grade-5 No welding, no forming 927.5 957.8 10
Weld Welding (Grade-2 – Grade-5), no forming 351.0 372.2 9.39
WF1 Welding (Grade-2 – Grade-5) and forming (RT) - 170.0 0.95
WF2 Welding (Grade-2 – Grade-5) and forming (500
o
C) 309.8 313.4 4.1
WF3 Welding (Grade-2 – Grade-5) and forming (850
o
C) 336.4 373.1 12.9
Figure 1: Experimental setup of: a) die and punch used for hot forming, b) Ti-TWB U-profile after welding and forming and cutting areas of the
samples on the U-profile

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Mechanical Properties
The specimens of Ti-TWBs formed as U-profile at
room temperature (RT), 500 °C and 850 °C were sub-
jected to tensile tests at RT. The tensile deformation is
performed using three specimens for each group. The
data presented in Table 3 represents average values. The
results are given and compared in Table 3. It is observed
that the Grade-2 sheet was more ductile than the Grade-5
with more elongation. The yield strength and ultimate
tensile strength of the Ti-TWB were very close to
Grade-2 sheet metal. The Grade-2 sheet material was
ductile enough to withstand the deformation during a
uniaxial tensile test due to the presence of a harder weld
zone. The results show that the yield strength and tensile
strength increases related to the forming temperature in-
creasing. This is thought to be due to heating before
forming reduced the residual stresses inside the
weldment and the drawability and mechanical properties
were improved with stress relieving in Ti-TWBs.
11
As shown in Figure 2, the tensile strength of the
specimens was slightly increased with increasing form-
ing temperature up to 850 °C. In the welded specimens
formed at room temperature, the fracture occurred in the
elastic region with a very small elongation of 0.95 %,
and before reaching the yield stress point. The strength
increased dramatically about 84 % up to 500 °C, which
indicates adequate penetration in the weld area and stress
relieving due to heating before forming.
32
While a signif-
icant increase in elongation has not occurred up to
500 °C, it was increased considerably to around 21 %
between 500 °C and 850 °C forming the start tempera-
ture. The slight increase of around 19 % in tensile
strength between 500 °C and 850 °C also supports this,
due to the softening effect of recrystallization in compar-
ison to the no-forming condition. In the literature, the
recrystallization temperatures for Grade-2 and Grade-5
Ti alloys were investigated by some researchers for the
same forming parameters as the present study. Tekin et
al.
31
have found that dynamic recrystallization appeared
at 550 °C forming a start temperature in Grade-2 Ti al-
loy. However, the recrystallization temperature for
Grade-5 Ti alloy was described approximately at 750 °C
by Ertan and Çetin.
30
The change of the elongation of Ti-TWB specimens
in Grade-2 and Grade-5 side, after the forming process at
different forming start temperatures (RT, 500 °C and
850 °C) is shown in Figure 3. It is clear that specimens
formed at room temperature exhibited an elongation
mostly in the Grade-2 side of the Ti-TWBs and welding
seam before forming was shifted 4.8 mm towards Grade
5. This is because Grade 2 is more ductile than Grade 5
at low temperatures. The elongation after the forming at
500 °C of the weldments occurred mostly on the Grade-2
side. The location of the weld seam was displaced 204 %
more than the specimen formed at room temperature.
The high increase in ductility of Grade-2 at 500 °C is
thought to be due to recrystallization. However, it is seen
that the formed sheets at 850 °C elongate more on the
Grade-5 side. Although it is thought that there is an elon-
gation in both materials at this temperature, there was a
displacement of the weld seam towards Grade 2 due to
an effective recrystallization event on the Grade-5 side.
This is because Grade 5 is recrystallized at approxi-
mately 750 °C, and its ductility changes at these temper-
atures. However, there was no separation in any of the
welds during forming in or outside the welding area.
During the tensile tests of the Ti-TWBs formed at RT
and elevated temperatures, two types of failure occurred.
The specimens formed at RT and at 500 °C forming start
temperature were fractured at the weld. But the speci-
mens formed at 850 °C forming start temperature were
fractured from the Grade-2 side, as seen from Figure 4.
The failure of specimens in the tensile test occurred on
the Grade-2 side with a distance of approximately 30
Ö. ERDOÐAN et al.: FORMABILITY CAPABILITIES AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TITANIUM ...
424 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 3, 421–427
Figure 3: Displacement of the weld seam from the centre during
forming Ti-TWBs at different temperatures (RT, 500 °C and 850 °C)
Figure 2: Effect of deformation temperature on tensile strength and
total strain in Ti-TWBs

mm from the weld. In Figure 4 it is shown that the duc-
tile failure took place due to localized necking after the
onset of diffuse necking in the Grade-2 sheet. In welded
joints, it is expected that the fracture will occur from the
weaker material region. This confirmed the good quality
of weld without any major defects. In addition, it is
thought that the shaping process at 850 °C reduces the
stresses in the weld area with the effect of heat treatment
and increases the penetration with the effect of diffusion.
It was observed that the high forming temperature after
welding has a significant influence on the strength and
elongation.
Figure 5 shows the microhardness distribution of
LBW Ti-TWBs for Grade-2 to Grade-5 welds after the
forming process at RT, 500 °C and 850 °C start tempera-
ture conditions. It was found that the Grade 5 was much
harder than the Grade 2 because of the presence of alloy-
ing elements like aluminium and vanadium.
15
The hard-
ness of the weld zone (WZ) varies between 258 and 307
HV was was higher than the Grade-2 base material hard-
ness (140 HV) and lower than the Grade-5 base material
hardness (335 HV) in all specimens. This is due to the
diffusion of alloying elements from the Grade-5 side to
the Grade-2 side.
33
It is seen that this behavior continues
towards the Grade-2 side and the hardness is higher in
the areas closer to the weld zone. Especially in the sam-
ples formed at the 850 °C start temperature, with the in-
crease of weld penetration. As a result of the deforma-
tion process at 500 °C, a significant decrease in hardness
occurred compared to room temperature and 850 °C.
This decrease supports the ductility increase obtained as
a result of the tensile test (Figure 2) and the elongation
on the Grade-2 side of the formed welds. The hardness
in the Grade-5 side of the formed Ti-TWBs was de-
creased with forming temperature increasing. The aver-
age hardness value was reduced from 333 HV to 317 HV
and to 302 HV with a forming-temperature decrease
from RT, 500 °C and 850 °C, respectively.
3.2 Springback Behavior
The springback behaviors of Ti-TWBs formed at dif-
ferent temperatures are given in Figure 6. By comparing
the profile of the U-bending parts formed at different
temperatures, it is found that the springback angle was
reduced and formability increased significantly with
forming temperature increasing. According to Figure 6,
the lower springback angles and higher dimensional ac-
curacy were achieved on the Grade-2 side compared to
Grade-5 side of the weldments. As known from the liter-
ature, Ti alloys have a hexagonal close-packed crystal
structure with a limited number of slip planes. For this
reason, Ti has lower formability at RT, but at high tem-
peratures, the existence of alternative slip systems im-
proves the formability.
26
According to Figure 2, the
strength of the Ti-TWBs after the forming process gener-
ally increases as the temperature increases. On the other
hand, the hardness decreased with the deformation tem-
perature increased and the plastic deformation capabili-
ties was increased (Figure 5). The springback angles in
different positions were decreased with forming start
temperature increasing in both the Grade-2 and Grade-5
sides of the formed Ti-TWBs. However, while this de-
crease was more on the Grade-2 side at 500 °C, it oc-
curred at 850 °C on the Grade-5 side of the weldments.
The reductions in springback angles  1,  2 and  3 were
Ö. ERDOÐAN et al.: FORMABILITY CAPABILITIES AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TITANIUM ...
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 3, 421–427 425
Figure 4: Failure mode of the Ti-TWBs formed at 850 °C
Figure 5: Microhardness profile along the cross-section of the Ti-TWB specimens

around 30 %, 24 % and 10 %, respectively, at the form-
ing start temperature at 500 °C compared to forming at
room temperature. On the Grade-5 side, the 1, 2 and
 3 springback angles decreased by 37 %, 24 % and
28 %, respectively, at 850 °C compared to room temper-
ature. These results were obtained in accordance with the
tensile test and hardness test results.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The present study investigates the mechanical proper-
ties and springback behavior of dissimilar welded and
formed titanium Grade-2 and Grade-5 materials using la-
ser welding. Based on the test results the following con-
clusions were drawn:
Increasing the forming temperature resulted in an in-
crease in welding penetration. Additionally, the tensile
strength improved and the strain increased considerably
at 500–850 °C forming start temperature. In weldments
formed at room temperature, fractures occurred before
reaching the yield point. With the increase in forming
temperature to 850 °C, residual stresses decreased, and
the tensile-strength values even exceeded those of Grade
2. Therefore, the fractures occurred in Grade 2 were not
from the weld area.
In the case of room temperature forming, a slight in-
crease in elongation was observed generally on the
Grade-2 side of the weldments due to the higher ductility
of Grade 2. As a result of the forming process at 500 °C,
it was observed that the weld seam shifted from the cen-
tre to the Grade-5 side by 14.6 mm. At 850 °C, the de-
formation occurred towards the Grade-2 side, and the
weld seam deviated from the center by 7.3 mm. This is
attributed to the fact that Grade 2 and Grade 5 undergo
recrystallization at different temperatures, leading to
changes in their ductility at these temperatures.
By increasing the forming start temperature from
room temperature up to 500 °C and 850 °C, different av-
erage hardness values were obtained on the Grade-2 and
Grade-5 sides of the weldments. While a significant de-
crease in hardness was observed with the increase in
temperature on the Grade-5 side, the lowest hardness
values were recorded at 500 °C on the Grade-2 side.
The springback behaviour of the Ti-TWBs was also
affected by the forming start temperature and dimen-
sional accuracy improved with increasing temperature on
both the Grade-2 and Grade-5 sides. The springback an-
gles of the formed weldments exhibited a maximum im-
provement of 40 % on the Grade-2 side and 37 % on the
Grade-5 side at 850 °C.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of
“The Scientific and Technological Research Council of
Turkey” (TUBÝTAK), Grant Number: 22AG001.
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