ijems|scientificarticle
Externalisationof eu Borders
throughCooperationwithLibya:
ItalyasaGateway
totheEuropeanDream
selcenöner
BahçeşehirUniversity,Turkey
selcen.oner@eas.bau.edu.tr
mattiacirino
LuissUniversity,Italy
mattia.cirino@gmail.com
ThisarticlearguesthatcooperationbetweenItalyandLibyawith
eusupport,haveacceleratedanddeepenedespeciallyafterthemi-
grationcrisisin2015.TheintroductionofItaly–LibyaMemoran-
dumofUnderstanding(2017)tocopewiththechallengeofirregu-
larmigrationhasexternalizedtheeu’sbordersandcontributedto
transformationoftheMediterraneanSeaintolimes.Theconcep-
tualandanalyticalframeworkofthearticleisbasedonterritorial
implicationsofEuropeanisationofmigrationandparticularlythe
conceptoflimeswhichreferstodrawingalinetomaintainadis-
tinctionbetweenstabilityandorderwithinanddisorderoutside
(Walters2004).ThearticlefocusesonItaly,whichisoneofthe
countriesmostaffectedbythecrisisasitislocatedontheeu’sex-
ternalMediterraneanborder.Thestudydrawsonsemi-structured,
in-depth,face-to-faceinterviewsconductedinItalyinthefirst
halfof2019withthemembersoftheChamberofDeputiesfrom
variouspoliticalparties,searescuengorepresentativesinItaly,
arepresentativefromunhcrItaly,andamayorfromsouthern
Italy.Theinterviewsrevealvariousmetaphorsandnarrativessuch
as‘Italyhasbeenleftalone’becauseofsolidaritycrisisintheeu
and‘ItalyasagatewaytoEurope’foranalysingItaly’sroleinexter-
nalizingeubordersandmigrationmanagementthroughcoopera-
tionwithLibya.
KeyWords:irregularmigration,Italy,Libya,EuropeanUnion,
Mediterranean,searescuengos
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[62]
SelcenÖnerandMattiaCirino
introduction
Eversincetheso-calledmigrationcrisis(2015),securityconcerns
havebeenincreasinglyprioritisedintheeu,especiallyregardingre-
gionalthreatsidentifiedinmigration,trafficking,andterrorism.An
increasinglysecuritiseddiscoursehasstronglyinfluencedconceptu-
alizationsofborders,withemphasisincreasinglybeingputoncre-
atingaborderofcontrolandexclusion(BrowningandJoenniemi
2007,24;Moreno-Lax2018).Thereisarisingmovetowards‘mili-
tarizationofeuborders,’ratherthanahumanitarianapproachto
savepeople’slives(Irrera2016,27).Bothmemberstatesandthe
euitselfhaveintensifiedthissecuritizationfollowingthemigra-
tioncrisisandtheriseofpopulistradicalrighttendencies.Forex-
ample,memberstateshavereducedtheirSearchandRescue(sar)
capacity.Theresultingincreaseinmigrantdeathrateshasmadethe
Mediterraneanthedeadliestfrontierworldwide(EuropeanParlia-
ment2021,80).
Ontheotherhand,thesolidaritycrisiswithintheeuhasaccel-
eratedtheexternalisationoftheeubordercontrolandmigration
managementatrendspearheadedbycountriessituatedontheex-
ternaleubordersuchasItaly.Europe’seasternbordercontrolhas
alsobeenexternalisedtowardsTurkey,particularlyaftertheMarch
2016eu–TurkeyStatement,orso-called‘refugeedeal’whichwasfol-
lowedbythecooperationbetweenItalyandLibya(2017),andSpain’s
collaborationwithMorocco(Armillei2017,144)todecreaseirregu-
larmigrationflowstowardsEurope.Furthercomparativeresearch
isneededtoanalysehowtheeuhasconstructedcomplex,multi-
plebordersbyexternalizingitsbordersandmigrationmanagement.
Thisstudyaimstocontributetoexistingliteraturebyfocusingon
thecaseofItalyandthecollaborationwithLibyawhichwassup-
portedbytheeuaswell.CooperationbetweenItalyandLibyabegan
longbeforethemigrationcrisis.Sincethelate1990s,Italyhaspro-
motedbilateralcooperationwithLibya,withwhomitsharesacolo-
nialhistoryandcloseeconomicties,includingthroughseveralfor-
malandinformalagreements.Sincethe1990s,thiscooperationhas
beeninformalandsecretiveregardingthedetailsoftheagreements
(Klepp2010,4).Since2000,severalagreementsweremadewith
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ExternalisationofeuBordersthroughCooperationwithLibya
[63]
Libya,andalsoTunisia,tostrengthentheircapacitytopatroltheir
coasts(Cuttitta2018,30).In2000,ItalyandLibyasignedanagree-
menttofightterrorism,organisedcrime,drugtrafficking,andille-
galmigration(Hamood2008,32).AlthoughLibyawasperceivedasa
‘roguestate,’furtherimportantbilateralagreementsweresignedin
2003and2004thatintroducedseveralcrucialareasofclosecoopera-
tion(Klepp2010,4).In2004,ItalyprovidedLibyawithtrainingand
equipmenttoassistwithbordermanagement(Hamood2008,32).
Aftertheeconomicandthemigrationcrises,‘Italyhasbeen
leftalone’becameoneofthemostdominantandfrequentlyused
framesofItalianpoliticalelites,bothinthegovernmentandtheop-
position.ThisfurtherstrengthenedItaly’scooperationwithLibya,
whichhasbeenincreasinglysupportedbytheeu.
Inrecentyears,theeu’sandItaly’sapproachestotheexternal-
isationofeubordersandtomigrationmanagementhaveincreas-
inglyconverged.However,thishaseliminatedasylumprocedures
formanyasylumseekers,whowerepushedbacktoLibya.Thiswas
mostvisiblewhenleaderoftheLega,MatteoSalvini,wasMinis-
teroftheInterior,whenthefieldworkofthisstudywasconducted.
ThroughoutSalvini’stenureasInteriorMinister,migrantsrescued
atseafromsinkingdinghieshadtowaitmanydaysaboardngo
shipsbeforebeinggrantedaccesstoaharbouranddisembark.Those
whoarepushedbackorpulledbacktoLibyaorindetentioncentres,
frequentlyfacehumanrightsviolations.
ThisstudyfocusedonItalybecauseitisoneofthecountriesmost
affectedbytheeu’smigrationcrisisasitislocatedontheeu’sex-
ternalMediterraneanborder.Asoneofthemaingatewaystothe
‘Europeandream,’Italyisoneofthemainactorscontributingtothe
externalisationofeuborders.Bycollaboratingwithneighbouring
countries,particularlyLibya,Italytransferssomeofitsborderman-
agementresponsibilitiesinordertopreventfurtherirregularmigra-
tionflows.
Becauseofthesolidaritycrisiswithintheeuafterthemigra-
tioncrisis,theexternalbordercountriesoftheeufacedwithbig-
gerchallenges.Sincethecrisisdeveloped,theperceptionthat‘Italy
hasbeenabandoned’hasbecomeacommonnarrativeinItaly.As
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SelcenÖnerandMattiaCirino
oneofthemainfirstentrancepointstotheSchengenarea,Italyhas
todealwithmanyasylumapplicationsundertheDublinConven-
tion.Theeu’s‘solidaritycrisis’hasacceleratedcooperationbetween
ItalyandLibya,witheusupport,despiteextensivehumanrights
abusesinLibya.Thiscooperationhasenabledtheeutoexternalise
itsborderswhichhasledtothousandsofmigrantsdrowninginthe
MediterraneanSea.
Theexternalisationofmigrationmanagementandeuborders
isanalysedbyfocusingonthecaseofItalyandthecooperation
withLibya.Thefirstsectionprovidestheconceptualandanalyt-
icalframework,basedonWalters’(2004)‘territorialimplications
ofEuropeanisationofmigration’andparticularlytheconceptof
limes.Thesecondsectionpresentsthemethodology,whilethethird
discussesthehistoricalbackgroundandchallengesofcooperation
regardingirregularmigrationbetweenItalyandLibya,andthe
euandLibya.Italsoexplainshowthishasexternalizedeubor-
dersandmigrationmanagement.Thefinalsectiondrawsonsemi-
structured,in-depth,face-to-faceeliteandexpertinterviewscon-
ductedinRomeinthefirsthalfof2019withmembersoftheCham-
berofDeputiesinItaly,searescuengorepresentativesinItaly,a
representativefromunhcrItaly,andamayorfromsouthernItaly.
TheresultingnarrativesareusedtoexplainItaly’sroleinexternal-
izingeubordersanddiscussthechallengesofcooperationbetween
ItalyandLibya,especiallyregardinghumanrights.
conceptualandanalyticalframework:
theconstructionoflimesinthe
mediterraneanseathroughcooperation
betweenitalyandlibya
Europeanpoliticianshaveincreasinglyemphasisedtheneedfora
geopoliticalvisionof(eu)rope(Bialasiewiczetal.2009,79).Individ-
ualeumemberstatesareinfluencedbynationalpolitical,geopoliti-
calculturesandvisionsofEurope,asisevidentinthewayparticular
memberstatesfocusondifferentneighbourhoods.FranceandItaly,
forinstance,seetheMediterraneanasEurope’sprimaryspaceofin-
tervention(Rupnik2007;citedbyBialasiewiczetal.2009,79).
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[65]
Criticalstudiesonsecurityandborderstheorisecontemporary
bordersbyemphasizingtheirincreasinglymobileandde-territorial-
isedre-spatialisationbeyondnationalterritories(Walters2004;
Rumford2006).Theresulting‘transportableborderpolitics’isre-
flectedintheoutsourcingofmigrationpoliciestothirdcountries,
newtechniquesofmobilitycontrol,andsurveillancemechanisms
(Bialasiewiczetal.2009).
Thecross-borderpolicingofpeopleandcounterterrorismproj-
ectshavereshapedEurope’sborders(Walters2006,142).During
the1990s,thepredominantconceptusedtodefineeuborderswas
FortressEuropewhichwasconstructedtowardsoutsiders.Ithasbe-
comemuchhardertoentertheSchengenareawhileseveralparts
oftheeuexternalbordershavebeenexternalised.Thischangedaf-
tertheSchengenagreementwasincorporatedintotheAmsterdam
Treaty:internalborderswereharmonisedwhiletheeu’sexternal
bordersbecame fuzzybecausetheyproducedintermediatespaces
betweeninsideandoutside.Thisdevelopmentenabledeupolicies
tobeexportedbeyonditsmemberstates(ChristiansenandTonra
2000,390–3).
AccordingtoHuntington(1993;citedbyChristiansenandTonra
2000,401),theMediterraneanSeaisakeyfaultlineina‘clash
ofcivilisations.’TheMediterranean’snorthernstatesdefinethem-
selvesasEuropean.Theysharemodernindustrialandservice-based
economies,secularpoliticaltraditions,andliberal-democraticgov-
ernmentalstructures.TheyalsoshareaMediterraneanidentity
withinabroaderEuropeanidentity.Incontrast,despitesharing
moreculturalidentifiersthantheirnorthernneighbours,thestates
andpeoplesfromthesouthoftheMediterraneanhaveamuch
weakercollectiveidentity(ChristiansenandTonra2000,401–2).
Theeu’sEuro-MedinitiativemadetheMediterraneananewver-
sionofMareNostrum,withtheeuplayingtheroleoftheancientRo-
mans(Tunander1997;citedbyChristiansenandTonra2000,411).
However,thishasbeenharshlychallengedespeciallysincethemi-
grationcrisis.
Therehasbeen‘securitisationofmigration’(Huysmans2000)
whichacceleratedafterthemigrationcrisis.Thedistinctionsbe-
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SelcenÖnerandMattiaCirino
tweenexternalandinternalsecurityhavebecomeblurred:bor-
derdefenceshavebeenthickenedthroughthecreationofbuffer
zonesandtherehasbeenanincreasinguseofmilitarytechnolo-
giesforborderenforcement.Moreover,thereis‘layeredborderin-
spection/policingapproachesthatmovecustomsandimmigration
inspectionactivitiesawayfromtheterritorialborder’(Bialasiewicz
2012,844)whichhasledtoexternalisationofborders.AsBialasie-
wicz(2012,845)notes,Frontex,whichistheexternalbordercontrol
agencyoftheeu,hasbecomethemostvisibleactorintheeu’s
increasinglyexclusionarybordercontrol.
Inhisdiscussionofthe‘multiplicityandpluralityofborders,’
Walters(2004,674–6)arguesthattheformandfunctionofEu-
rope’sbordershavebeentransformed.Hefocusesonthe‘territo-
rialimplicationsoftheEuropeanisationofmigration.’Heperceives
Fortress Europeasanalternativeforthefearof Sieve Europe,‘open
toallmanneroftransnationalthreats.’ForWalters(2004,678),the
geostrategicmomentrefersto‘instrumentalizationofterritoryfor
thepurposesofgoverningoneormoreofnewsecurityissues,’such
ashumantrafficking,asylum,andterrorism.Heemphasisesthat
geostrategiescanofferamorenuancedversionoftheproduction
ofgeopoliticalspaceinEuropethanconceptslike fuzzy bordersor
FortressEurope.
Walters(2004,679–82)considersseveralgeostrategiesofeubor-
ders.Thenetworked (non)borderachieveseffectivefrontiercontrol
throughcooperationbetweenstateagenciesonbothsidesofthe
frontier.Marchimpliesabufferzonebetweenpowerstoprotectthe
interior,suchasCentralandEastEuropeancountries.Thecolonial
frontierreferstothewaytheeu’scomplexbordersincludeasym-
metricpowerrelationswherebycentreisperceivedasthe‘reposi-
toryandarbitratorofwhatisproper’(Walters2004,683–8).Finally,
Walters(2004,690–1)suggestsanotherbordertypederivedfrom
imperialhistory:limes.Thisreferstoaborderbetweenapowerand
itsoutside,betweenthe‘empireandthebarbarians,orcosmosand
chaos.’Limesdrawsalinetomaintainadistinctionbetween‘stabil-
ityandorderwithinanddisorder,nomadism,barbarismoutside.’
Thus,eubordershavebecomemuchmorecomplex,especiallyaf-
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ExternalisationofeuBordersthroughCooperationwithLibya
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terthemigrationcrisisduetotheirexternalisationandincreasing
collaborationwithneighbouringcountries.
Thegeostrategyofthe colonialfrontierperceivesitasopentoex-
pansion,whereasthelimespresupposesamorepermanentfrontier.
Likethecolonialfrontier,thelimescreatesahierarchybetweeninside
andoutside,andinstitutionalisesasymmetricrelationsbetweenun-
equalpowers.Thecolonial frontieraimstoincorporatetheoutside
intotheinsidewhereasthe limesprecludesfurtherexpansionand
preserveswhattheempirehasachieved(Walters2004,691).Thus,
inthecaseof limesratherthanincorporationofoutside,exclusion
ofoutsideismaintainedwhiletransferringsomeresponsibilitiesof
bordercontrolandmigrationmanagement.
AccordingtoWalters(2004,691),theRomansconsideredthe
MediterraneanasMareNostrum(centreofthecivilisedworld)where-
as‘theareaofEuropewherethe limesmaterialisemorethanany-
wheretodayisitsMediterraneanfrontier.’Walters(2004,692)
claimsthat‘thelimesconstitutetheEuropeancommunityasagated
community.’ Limesreferto‘anedge,fringeorlimit,’asinEurope’s
Mediterraneanfrontier(Karadağ2019).Walters(2004,693)sug-
geststhatfurtherempiricalworkisneededtodeterminewhether
arrangementslikepolicepartnershipsareattemptstoextendcon-
trolbeyondthefrontier.Basedonthisanalyticalandconceptual
framework,thisarticlefocusesontheeu-supportedcollaboration
betweenItalyandLibyainresponsetoirregularmigrationacross
theMediterraneanSea.Itarguesthatthishascontributedtothe
constructionof limesintheMediterraneanSeabetweenthe‘cos-
mos’ofEuropeandthe‘chaos’oftheSouth,withItalyperceivedas
agatewaytotheEuropeandream.
Althougheuenlargementhaslostmomentum,furtherenlarge-
mentstotheEastmaystilloccurinthelongerterm.Incontrast,
thereisnoprospectofenlargementtothesouth.Rather,theeu’s
approachtoitssouthernneighbourhood,whichitconsidersasare-
gionofmultiplesecuritychallenges,isdrivenbyastrategyof‘con-
tainmentinthefaceofaworldthatisviewedasprofoundlyalien’
(Walters2004,692).
Whereastheeu’seasternneighbourhood’sEuropeannessisless
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SelcenÖnerandMattiaCirino
questioned,thatofthesouthismuchmorecontested,leadingto
aratherstaticviewoftheeu’ssouthernborders.Thisinturnhas
contributedtotheconstructionofthe limesintheMediterranean
(BrowningandJoenniemi2007,25).
Toexemplifythenotionof limes,Walters(2004)discussesthe
wallfinancedjointlybytheeuandSpaintopreventirregularmigra-
tionfromMoroccanmainlandtotheSpanishenclavecitiesofCeuta
andMelilla.Walters(2004)arguesthattheeu’sbordersreflectdy-
namismandplurality.InthecaseofItaly,theeuhasexternalised
itsbordersandshiftedresponsibilitiesontoneighbouringcountries
likeLibyatocontainirregularmigration.Asaresult,limeshasbeen
constructedintheMediterraneanSea.
Morespecifically,the‘out-sourcingofmigrationmanagement
toAfricanstates,’particularlyLibya,isacrucialexampleof‘out-
sourcingandoff-shoringofEurope’sborderwork’(Bialasiewicz
2012,848–52).AsBialasiewicz(2012,847)argues,‘Europe’sneigh-
boursarebecomingEurope’spolicemen,withtheMediterranean
astheprimarysiteforexternalisingEuropeangovernanceanda
laboratoryforfindingvarioussolutionsforpolicingeuborders.’
AsWalters(2004,693)argues,‘attheeu’sSouthernfrontier,the
geostrategyof limesseemstobedominant’evenbeforethemigra-
tioncrisis.CarreraandCortinovis(2019)criticisethe‘containedmo-
bilityparadigm,’achievedbyincreasingcriminalisationofsearescue
ngos,eumemberstates’gradualoperationaldisengagementfrom
saractivities,andItaly’sdelegationofcontainmenttaskstoLibyan
CoastGuard,supportedbytheeu.Thisarticlearguesthattheeu’s
externalisationofitsbordersandmigrationmanagementhasdeep-
enedasaconsequenceofthe‘migrationcrisis’andtheeu’s‘solidar-
itycrisis.’ThemainnarrativeinItalyof‘havingbeenleftalone’has
acceleratedanddeepeneditscooperationwithLibyawhichhasbeen
supportedbytheeuaswell.Thisinturnhasledtoconstructionof
limesintheMediterraneanbetweenapeacefulandprosperousEu-
ropeandachaoticSouth.
methodology
Forthisstudydatawascollectedthrough18semi-structured,in-
depth,face-to-faceeliteandexpertinterviewsconductedinRome
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ExternalisationofeuBordersthroughCooperationwithLibya
[69]
inMarch2019.TheintervieweesincludedpoliticiansfromItaly’s
ChamberofDeputiesfromvariouspoliticalparties,searescuengo
representativesinItaly,amayorfromsouthernItaly,andarepresen-
tativefromunhcrItaly.ExceptfortheFiveStarMovement(m5s)
deputy,allthepoliticianswerefromoppositionpartiesatthattime.
Interviewrequestswithseveralmembersofothergoverningparties
wererejected.Thus,theinterviewsmostlyreflectacriticalapproach
toItalianandeumigrationpolicies,andItaly’scollaborationwith
Libya.
Toanalysetheinterviews,themetaphorsandframesthatthein-
tervieweesfrequentlyusedtoevaluateItaly’smigrationpolicy,how
itsabandonmentledtodeepeningcooperationwithLibyaandthe
humanitarianchallengesofthiscollaborationareanalysed.
FrameanalysiswasintroducedbyGoffman(1974).Verloo(2005,
20)definesapolicyframeasanorganizingprinciplethattrans-
formsfragmentaryinformationintoastructuredprobleminwhich
asolutionisimplicitlyorexplicitlyincluded.Actorsusuallymake
intentionaldecisionsandchoosebetweentheavailablecompeting
framestopursuetheirgoals(‘strategicframing’).Thetypesofac-
torscanbecomparedbasedontheframestheyemploy(Dombos
andZentai2012,5–13).Issueframescanbearticulatedbybothstate
andnon-stateactors,asdominantstateframesorcontestingnon-
governmentalframes(DombosandZentai2012,5–6).
Thisarticleanalyzedtheframesofmostlyoppositionpartiesand
searescuengorepresentativeswhofocusonthehumanitarian
challengesofthecollaborationwithLibya.Searescuengorepre-
sentativeswereincludedinthestudybecausetheycloselyobserve
thesituationintheMediterraneanSea.Thus,theycanevaluatethe
humanitarianimpactsofItaly’scollaborationwithLibyaandthe
constructionoflimesintheMediterranean’snorthandsouth.
externalisationofeuborders
andmigrationmanagementtowardslibya
andtheroleofitaly
WhileLibyawaspreviouslymoreofadestinationcountryformi-
grantsfromArabandSub-Saharancountries,ithasbecomeatransit
countryforirregularimmigrantstryingtoreachItalyasafirststep
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toachievingtheEuropeandream.MigrantsarriveinLibyafrom
manywar-torncountries,suchasSudanandSomalia.However,
Libyalackstheadministrativeandlegalsystemtoidentifyorpro-
tectrefugees(Klepp2010,3–4).Themigratoryjourneysbeforethe
Mediterraneancrossingsarealsohighlyrisky,ofteninvolvingcross-
ingremoteterrainliketheSaharaDesertandresidingincountries
likeLibya(MissingMigrantsProject2021).
Libya’sincreasingimportanceasthemainjumping-offpointfor
entryintoEuropebyseahascreatedasenseofurgencyintheeu.
Inresponse,ithastriedtopreventirregulararrivalsfromLibyaand
deepenedeu–Libyacooperation,includingbypartiallyexporting
bordermanagementresponsibilities.Acentralaimistostrengthen
thesecountries’migrationmanagementcapacities,particularlyre-
gardingbordercontrol(Hamood2008,19–20)todecreaseirregular
migrationtoEurope.
InJune2005,theCouncilannouncedanad hocdialogueand
cooperationwithLibyaonmigrationissuesbasedonrespectforhu-
manrights.However,Libyaisnotasignatorytothe1951Geneva
Conventionorits1967Protocol.Facedwiththechoiceofremain-
inginLibyaorriskingtheMediterraneancrossingtoEurope,many
peoplehavechosenthelatter(Hamood2008,20–5)torealisetheir
‘Europeandream,’whichrepresentstheironlyhopeforsurvivaland
abetterfuture.Ontheotherhand,in2005Italy’sInteriorMinistry
announcedthatItalyandLibyaplannedtocreatejointteamsto
tacklesmuggling.Withoutsigningareadmissionagreement,they
agreedverballyonreturns.ThishasallowedItalytorestrictentry
intoitsterritorywhilecarryingoutmassdeportations,especially
since2004,whenmanyirregularimmigrantsarrivedinLampe-
dusa.However,thewaythesedeportationswerecarriedoutviolates
Italy’snationalandinternationalobligations,particularlyregarding
therighttoseekasylumandnon-refoulement.Afterbeingreturned
toLibya,somemigrantsweredetainedwithoutaccesstounhcr
whilefacingtheriskoftortureandill-treatmentindetentioncen-
tres.Othersweresentbacktotheircountriesoforigin,wherethey
arealsoatriskofhumanrightsviolations.Italyhasneverthelessfi-
nancedcharterflightstorepatriateirregularimmigrantsfromLibya
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ExternalisationofeuBordersthroughCooperationwithLibya
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totheircountriesoforigin.Ithasalsofinancedtheconstructionof
campsfortheseimmigrantsinLibya(Hamood2008,32–3).Accord-
ingtoKlepp(2010,5–8),implementationofthesecooperationpro-
gramshasactuallyeliminatedratherthanexternalisedtheasylum
systeminLibya.
AfterthefirstFrontexTechnicalAssistanceMissiontoLibyain
June2007,ItalyandLibyasignedseveralbilateralagreementstocre-
atejointpatrolsalongLibya’scoast.ThisallowedItaliancoastguard
vesselstooperateinLibyanwaters.In2008,ItalyandLibyasigned
theTreatyofFriendship,Partnership,andCooperation,perceived
asacrucialsteptowardsreconciliation.Itsprovisionsincludedbi-
lateraleffortstocombatillegalmigration,facilitatedbyjointseapa-
trolslaunchedinDecember2007.InMay2009,duringtheBerlus-
conigovernment,Italy’sparliamentapprovedlegislationmakingir-
regularmigrationpunishablebyafineanddetention.Italsoau-
thoriseddeportationofmigrantsthroughapush-backpolicy(Bia-
lasiewicz2012,852–3).AsBialasiewicz(2012,858)emphasises,the
2007and2009bilateraltreatiesfocusedoncollaborationinthefight
againstterrorism,organisedcrimeandirregularmigration.
Italy’sexternalbordercontrolswereconductedunderthe Con-
stantVigilanceoperation.ThisinvolvedpatrollingtheStraitofSicily
after2004andthentheMare Nostrumoperationwhichfocused
onsarbetweenOctober2013andNovember2014.Subsequently,
Frontexlaunchedthe Tritonoperation,whichfocusedonexter-
nalbordercontrolratherthansaractivities.After700migrants
diedduringarescueoperationcarriedoutbyacommercialvessel,
Italylaunchedanewmilitaryoperation, Eunavfor Med Sophia,to
fightsmugglingnetworksandpreventboatsleavingLibya(Cuttitta
2018,7).
euandLibya’scooperationonmigrationandbordermanage-
mentstartedin2013withtheestablishmentoftheeuBorderAs-
sistanceMissiontoLibya(eubam),designedtodevelopaborder
managementframework(EuropeanParliament2021,129).Mosteu
actionssincethemigrationcrisishavefocusedonincreasingbor-
dercontrolsand‘externalisingmigrationmanagementoutsideof
theEuropeanterritory,’particularlytoTurkey,Libya,andMorocco
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SelcenÖnerandMattiaCirino
(Gattinara2017,320).Frontexhasalsosupportedcooperationpro-
grammeswithLibyatopatrolLibyanwatersandreturnirregularmi-
grantstoLibya(Klepp2010,7).AttheVallettaSummitof2015,there
wasapushforfurtherexternalisingborderandmigrationcontrolin
responsetothehumanitariancrisis(Perkowski2016,333).
On2February2017,theItaly-LibyaMemorandumofUnder-
standingwassignedtoprovidepatrolboatsfortheLibyanCoast
Guard.Italy’sgovernmentfocusedon‘equippingtheLibyanCoast
Guardtomakepull-backoperationstoLibya.’However,thisresulted
indrowningsand refoulementtoLibya’sdetentioncentresinviola-
tionofinternationallaw(Maccanico2019).
InFebruary2017,euleadersagreedonnewmeasurestoreduce
irregulararrivalsalongthecentralMediterraneanroute.Theycom-
mittedtoincreasingcooperationwithLibyaandtacklingmigrant
smugglersonthebasisoftheMaltaDeclaration.InNovember2017,
theeuestablishedajointmigrationtaskforcewiththeAfrican
Unionandtheunwhichaimedtopooleffortsandenhancecoop-
erationinresponsetomigrationchallengesinAfrica,particularly
Libya(EuropeanCouncil2021).
InAugust2017,theeu-trainedLibyanCoastGuardclaimedre-
sponsibilityoveralargesarregion,warningngosagainsten-
teringtheareawithoutauthorization.However,Libyastilllacks
capabilitiestoconducteffectivesaroperations.The27August
2017meetinginParisbetweenItaly,Germany,France,andSpain
calledforothereumemberstates,particularlythosebordering
theMediterranean,tosupportItalianattemptstoexternalisemi-
grationmanagementbyfundingcountriesintheSahelregionand
Libyanmunicipalities.Effortstomonitorandrestrictmaritimeres-
cuersformedpartofawidereustrategytorelyontheLibyanCoast
GuardtodetermigrantsfromcrossingthecentralMediterranean
Sea.Althoughthispolicymayhavehelpedreducecrossings,the
humanitarianresultshavebeenhighlyquestionable(Cusumano
2019,113).
CarreraandCortinovis(2019)arguethateuandItaliansupport
forLibyathroughfunding,training,andequipmentincreasedthe
LibyanCoastGuard’scapacitytoconductunlawfuloperationsatsea,
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ExternalisationofeuBordersthroughCooperationwithLibya
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enabledtheLibyanauthoritiestoestablishaLibyansarregion,and
setupaMaritimeRescueCoordinationCentre(mrcc).TheEuro-
peanCommissionalsoindirectlysupportedtheseactivitiesthrough
theeuTrustFundforAfrica(eutf).
AftercooperatingwiththeLibyanCoastGuard,Libya’ssarwas
combinedwithanti-smugglingoperations,whichreducedcrossings
viathecentralMediterranean(Ghezelbashetal.2018,319).Byco-
operatingwithLibya,bothItalyandtheeuallowedLibya’santi-
migrationpoliciestobecomeharsher(Klepp2010,13).Meanwhile,
MaltaalsoagreedwithLibyatocooperateoninterceptingandre-
turningmigrantstoLibya(EuropeanParliament2021,130).
Along-timecountryofemigration,Italyhasinrecentdecades
becomeamajordestinationcountryforirregularimmigrantsarriv-
ingbyboat.These‘boatpeople’havebeenconstructedasathreatto
nationalsecurity(Armillei2017,141),especiallysinceLega’sleader,
MatteoSalvini,becameMinisterofInteriorin2018.
AttheEuropeanSummitofJune2018,euleaderscalledforfur-
thermeasurestoreduceillegalmigrationacrossthecentralMediter-
ranean.Theyagreedtostepupeffortstostopmigrantsmugglersop-
eratingoutofLibya,continuetosupportItalyandotherfrontline
eucountries,increasetheirsupportfortheLibyancoastguard,im-
provereceptionconditions,increasevoluntaryreturntocountries
oforiginofmigrantsinLibya,andenhancecooperationwithother
countriesoforiginandtransit,andonresettlement.InJuly2019,
theeuapprovedfivenewmigration-relatedprogrammesinNorth
Africa.Thesewereadoptedundertheeutf,establishedinNovem-
ber2015toaddresstherootcausesofforceddisplacementandirreg-
ularmigration.Theeu’sactionsinLibyafocusedontrainingofthe
coastguard,protecting,assistingmigrantsandrefugees,supporting
localcommunities,andimprovingbordermanagement.Theywere
fundedthroughtheeutfforAfrica(EuropeanCouncil2021).
Themaintoolforsupportingmigration-relatedactionsinLibya
iseutf’sNorthofAfricaSection.Libyaisthemainbeneficiaryof
theeutfNorthAfrica,withatotalfundingof€455millionsofar
(EuropeanCommission2021).Thisexemplifiestheeu’ssupportof
externalizingitsbordersandmigrationmanagementthroughcol-
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SelcenÖnerandMattiaCirino
table1 IrregularMigrationintheMediterranean
Year      
Arrivals ,, , , , , ,
Deadandmissing , , , , , ,
notes Basedondatafromunhcr(https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/
mediterranean).ThedataincludesseaarrivalstoItaly,Cyprus,andMalta,and
bothseaandlandarrivalstoGreeceandSpain,includingtheCanaryIslands.Data
areupto31December2020forallcountriesexceptCyprus,forwhichthelastavail-
abledataisupto31August2020.
laborationwithLibya,andtheconstructionoflimesintheMediter-
raneanSea,especiallyafterthemigrationcrisis.
Boththeeu’sandItaly’srestrictivemigrationpolicieshaveabol-
ishedtherightsofmanyasylumseekersthroughpush-backpoli-
ciesandatransferofresponsibilitiestoLibya(CaponioandCappi-
ali2018,125–6).Withtheeffectoftheseexternalisationpolicies,you
mayseeintable1thattherehasbeenadeclineinthenumberofar-
rivalstoeumemberstatesintheMediterraneanafterthepeakin
2015.DespitereducednumbersofcrossingssincetheCovid-19pan-
demiceruptedin2020,manypeoplehavediedintheMediterranean
whiletryingtoreachEurope.FromJanuarytoSeptember2021,for
example,anestimated1,369migrantsdrowned(Statista2021).
Thus,thiscollaborationwithLibyaisparticularlychallengingin
termsofhumanrightsbecausethosesentback,havenochanceto
applyforasylumandmaybeputindetentioncentreswherethey
canfacehumanrightsabuses.Asaresult,throughexternalisationof
borderstowardsLibya,limeshavebeenconstructedintheMediter-
raneanSea.
analysisoftheinterviews
The eu’sSolidarityCrisis:‘ItalyHasBeenLeftAlone’
Theeuhasfacedasolidaritycrisis,especiallysincethemigration
crisis.Alltheintervieweescriticisedtheeu’smigrationpolicyand
founditineffective.Becauseofthelackofsolidarityamongmember
states,Italyandtheotherexternalbordercountrieshavebeenleft
alone.ManyintervieweesarguedthattheDublinRegulationhasto
ijems

ExternalisationofeuBordersthroughCooperationwithLibya
[75]
berevised,althoughsomehavenotedthatthiswouldbeextremely
difficultbecauseofresistancebysomememberstatesthatbelieve
maintainingthe status quoismuchbetterfortheirnationalinter-
ests.
Interviewee4,aDemocraticParty(pd)deputy,arguedthat‘for
manyyearsItalyhasbeenleftaloneinmanagingthemigrantflows.’
HeaddedthattherehadbeensomeattemptstorevisetheDublin
Regulation.However,theformerItaliangovernment(m5s-Lega)
hadavoidedthis.HenotedthatLegawasabsentduringmanymeet-
ingsinBrusselswhenreformoftheDublinRegulationwasde-
bated.Thepoliticalelitesfromtheoppositionpartiesclaimedthat
althoughLega’smainrhetoricwasanti-immigrantandclaimedthat
‘Italyhasbeenleftalone’afterthemigrationcrisis,Legadidnot
pushforrevisionoftheDublinRegulation.Thus,theinterviewees
emphasisedcontradictions,particularlyinLega’sattitudestowards
migration.
Interviewee17,am5sdeputy,arguedthat‘Italywasleftalone
tofacethisemergency’wheneumembersshouldhavefacedthis
problemtogethertofindasolution.Hestatedthat‘ourgoaliswork-
ingtogether,cooperatingwithothermemberstatesabouttherevi-
sionoftheDublinRegulation.’Headdedthat‘wehavetoimprove
thehumanitariancorridorsbynewbilateralagreementswithhome
countries.Wehavetoinvestinthosecountries.’
Mostoftheintervieweescriticisedthelackofsolidaritybetween
memberstates,whichputgreatpressureonthosecountrieslike
Italy,situatedontheeu’sexternalborders.Interviewee10,amayor
fromsouthernItaly,statedthat‘althoughthissensitivesubject
shouldbeaddressedbyalleumemberstates,actuallyonlyMediter-
raneanstatesaddressthisissue[...]Wehavebeenlefttoourfate.’
Althoughthemayorwascriticalabouttheeu’ssolidaritycrisis,he
alsocriticisedtheItaliangovernment’spolicies.Specifically,those
managingItaly’smigrationpolicyweregivingaweirdmessage.As
heputit,thegovernmentclaimthat‘therearenomorelandings,
nomoredead,ourportsareclosedandtheMediterraneanSeahas
becomeacalmsea.Butthetruthisdifferent,ourportsareopen,
andpeoplearestilldying.’Hecontinued,
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SelcenÖnerandMattiaCirino
Wearewelcoming,wewillhelppeoplewhoareindanger,butwe
needtheinterventionofcentralinstitutions[...]Wehadseven
landingsin2019,almost300landingsin2018.Theonlythingthat
changesisthenumberofimmigrants.Inthepast,therewere80–
100immigrantsonaboat,todaythereare12–15onaboat.Im-
migrantscontinuetoland.
Thus,duetotheirlocationontheeu’sexternalborders,Mediter-
raneanstateslikeItalyweremuchmoreaffectedbythemigration
andsolidaritycrisesthathaveacceleratedanddeepenedtheeu’s
externalisationofborders,whichhasledtotheconstructionofthe
limesintheMediterraneanSea.
Someoftheintervieweesfromthepoliticalelitescriticisedthe
eumigrationpolicybecauseofitsperceptionofimmigrationasan
‘emergencyphenomenon’ratherthana‘structuralproblem.’Inter-
viewee7,apddeputy,arguedthattheeu’smigrationpolicyhad
failedbecause‘theyconsidermigrationonlyasanemergencyphe-
nomenon.’ShearguedinsteadthattheDublinRegulationmustbe
revisedtoincludeanewCommonEuropeanAsylumSystembased
onsolidarity.Assheputit,‘wehavetointroducestructuralpolicies
tosolvethisissue,notonlyinItalybutalsointheirhomecountries.’
TheEuropeanCommissionproposedanewMigrationPactin2020,
however,itcannotintroduceequalsolidaritywithintheeu.Rather,
itencouragedshiftingresponsibilitiestoneighbouringcountriesby
externalisingmigrationmanagement.Thus,theeuhasbeencon-
tinuingitstrendofexternalisingborderstodealwiththechallenge
ofirregularmigration.
Interviewee15,apddeputy,whoalsobelievedthatEurope’smi-
grationpolicyhadfailed,arguedthattheeushouldfacethischal-
lengecohesively,onthebasisofco-responsibility.Hestatedthat
‘neitherItalynorGreeceandSpainshouldbeleftalone.Theentire
Mediterraneanfrontwasleftalone.’Interviewee6,anItalianLeft
deputy,notedthat‘ifwecloseoneborderanotheroneopens.The
LibyanroutetowardsItalywasclosed,thentheMoroccanrouteto
Spainwasopened.’Thus,thefailureoftheeu’smigrationpolicyand
thesolidaritycrisisledtotheemergenceoftheframethat‘Italyhas
ijems

ExternalisationofeuBordersthroughCooperationwithLibya
[77]
beenleftalone,’whichintensifiedtheexternalisationofitsborders.
Thisinturncreatedvariouscomplex,multiple,andfuzzyeuborders
thatledtotheconstructionoflimesintheMediterranean,whilenew
routesareemerging,suchastherecentconflictsandpushbacksof
irregularmigrantsintheborderbetweenPolandandBelarus.
Italyasa‘GatewaytoEurope’
SomeintervieweesdiscussedItaly’spositionasatransitcountryto
otherEuropeancountriesasa‘gatewaytoEurope.’Theyemphasised
theimportanceofprovidingchannelsforlegalmigrationtocon-
tributetoItalianandEuropeaneconomies.AccordingtoIntervie-
wee7fromOpenArms,‘we[Italy]areatransitcountryforimmi-
grantswhowanttoreachothercountries.’Interviewee14,adeputy
frompd,arguedthateveryonewassosadabouttheyoungchild,Ay-
lanKurdi,whowasfounddeadontheshorenearBodrum,Turkey,
in2015,yetnothinghaschanged.Sheadded,‘wecanestablishlegal
channelsofentryforeconomicmigrantsacrossEurope,notonlyin
Italy.Italyisnotthefinaldestination.ItisthegatewaytoEurope.’
Thus,irregularimmigrantswhoenterItalyfromLibyabutoriginate
fromvariouscountries,usuallyseeItalyasatransitcountry,the
main‘gatewaytotheEuropeandream.’Inresponse,Italyhasfur-
therexternaliseditsborderstowardsLibya.
Someintervieweessuggestedintroducinghumanitariancorri-
dorsandaninclusivemigrationpolicythatincludescollaboration
withandinvestmentinorigincountries.Interviewee14,adeputy
frompd,claimedthatmostarrivalsareeconomicmigrants,added
that‘Iftheyaren’trefugees,theothercountriesdon’twantthem
andtheystayhere[...]Wehavetosignreadmissionagreements[...]
Ithinkthathumanitarianaircorridorsmaybeasolution.’
Interviewee4,fromunhcrItaly,arguedthatsomehotspots
havebeenintroducedinthesouthofItalyincitieslikeLampedusa,
Trapani,Pozzallo,andTaranto.However,hedidnotthinkthiscan
betheonlysolutiontoirregularmigrantflows.Rather,aninclu-
sivepolicythatincludestheimmigrants’homecountriesisrequired.
Thus,ItalyandtheeumuststartadialoguewithAfricancoun-
tries.Thismayinclude‘therevivalofhumanitariancorridors’and
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allowingasylumseekerstoleavetheircountrieswithout‘starting
ajourneyofhope.’Interviewee6,adeputyfrompd,arguedthat
asylum,relocation,andfamilyunificationmustbeaccelerated,and
legalchannelsofarrivalforworkingmigrantsandasylumseekers
mustbecreated.Thus,theinterviewees,mostlybelongingtooppo-
sitionparties,suggestedfurthercollaborationwithorigincountries
inAfricaandcalledforlegalchannelsformigration,ratherthan
shiftingresponsibilitiestowardsLibya,whichisnotreadytodeal
withthischallengelegallyoradministratively.
ContradictionsofItaly’sMigrationPolicy:
InstrumentalizationofMigrationbyLega
Mostoftheoppositionpartyintervieweescriticiseddichotomiesin
Italy’smigrationpolicies.Interviewee16,apddeputy,arguedthat
‘ourcurrentimmigrationpolicyisaclosed-doorpolicy.’Someinter-
vieweesfromoppositionpartiesclaimedthatItaly’sm5s-Legagov-
ernmentdidnotreallywanttosolvemigrationissue.Interviewee
11,apddeputy,arguedthat‘theideaofconsidering“migrantsasin-
vaders”isridiculous[...]Wemustmanagetheseflows[...]Ourgov-
ernmentisstillstokingfearsofimmigrants.’Heclaimedthat‘they
arenotdoinganythingtosolvethatissue[...]becausetheydonot
wanttosolvethatissue.’Thus,theyclaimedthatLegawasinstru-
mentalisingthemigrationissue.Interviewee6,adeputyfrompd,
arguedthattheLega-m5sgovernmentalwayscomplainedthatEu-
ropeanpoliciesabandonedItaly,yet‘theychosetostayawayfrom
globalandEuropeanmeetings,whichareusefultodealwiththis
abandonment.’TheLega-m5sgovernment,particularlyLega,whose
leaderMatteoSalvini,wasitsMinisterofInterior,claimedthatthe
euhadabandonedItaly.However,theydidnotattendregionaland
globalmeetingsonmigrationthatcouldhelpresolvetheissue.
Althoughtheintervieweescriticisedthemigrationpolicyofthe
Italiangovernmentatthetime,Interviewee14,adeputyfrompd,
whowasfromoneoftheoppositionpartiesclaimedthatifonlyex-
ternalbordercountriesintheeuaccepttheseimmigrants,there-
sultingchaoscoulddestroyItaly’swelfaresystem.Predictinghuge
irregularmigrantflowsinthecomingyears,shearguedthatAfrican
ijems

ExternalisationofeuBordersthroughCooperationwithLibya
[79]
migrantsmostlycomefromothercountriesthanLibyaaftertran-
sitinginotherAfricancountriesthathadsignedtheGenevaCon-
vention.
Regardingsolutionsformigration,someintervieweessuggested
collaborationwithEuropeanandglobalactorswhileotherscalledfor
furthersupportandinvestmentinorigincountries.Interviewee4,
fromunhcrItaly,arguedthattheonlysolutiontoirregularmigra-
tionwasdialoguebetweentheseEuropeanandglobalactors.Inter-
viewee16,fromoneofthegoverningparties(m5s),arguedthat‘if
wewanttopreventpeoplebeinginvolvedindangerousjourneys,we
havetoimprovetheireconomicconditionsinthehomecountries.’
Interviewee5calledforenhancedlegalchannelsandfamilyunifica-
tionsothatpeoplenolongerhavetorelyonsmugglersanddanger-
ousjourneystosavetheirlives.Heemphasisedthat‘itisnecessary
toensureanasylumsystemthatmustbefair,efficientandwellman-
aged.’Thus,someoftheinterviewees’solutionstodealwithirreg-
ularmigrationincludedmorecollaborationandmulti-levelgover-
nanceatlocal,national,European,andgloballevels,andgreaterin-
vestmentinorigincountriesratherthanexternalisationofeubor-
dersandmigrationmanagement.
Externalisationof eu BordersthroughCooperationwithLibya
andtheConstructionofLimesintheMediterranean
MostintervieweesmentionedItaly’sclosed-doormigrationpolicy.
Interviewee4fromunhcrItalyarguedthatitwasfollowingthe
trendinbothEuropeandglobally:
TheytrypreventingpeoplearrivingonItalianshores.Thiscould
onlybeachievedbyintensivediplomaticactivitywithLibyaand
otherorigincountries.Weshouldprovidethemwitheconomic
opportunitiesandlogisticalsupport.
HealsoclaimedthattheagreementbetweentheItaliangovern-
mentandAlSarrajinLibyain2017reaffirmedtheneedtoensure
theinterventionoftheLibyanCoastGuardinitssarzones.
Interviewee13,adeputyfromForzaItalianotedthat,Italyis
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awarethatLibyahasnotsignedinternationalconventionsprotect-
ingtherightsoftherefugees.However,itiscrucialforItalytohave
Libyaasanegotiatingpartner.Thisagreementwasreachedundera
left-winggovernmentbutconfirmedbyaright-winggovernment.
Thus,inrecentdecades,differentgovernmentshaveconsistently
collaboratedwithLibyatocopewiththechallengeofirregularmi-
gration.However,theclosed-doorpolicyandexternalisationofmi-
grationbecamemorevisibleandprioritisedwhenSalviniwasMin-
istryofInterior.
SomeintervieweesmentionedthattheagreementbetweenItaly
andLibyawasinspiredbythe‘refugeedeal’betweenTurkeyandthe
eu(2016).TheunhcrItalyandsearescuengorepresentatives
wereparticularlycriticalaboutexternalisationofbordersthrough
cooperationwithLibya.Interviewee7,fromOpenArms,claimed
that‘theagreementbetweenLibyaandItalywasinspiredbythe
dealbetweenTurkeyandtheeu.’Interviewee8,fromsosMediter-
ranee,arguedthattherearewidelydocumentedcasesofviolence,
abuseofimmigrants,andverypoorconditionsinLibyandetention
centres,whereasSyriansinTurkeyhavebeengiventemporarypro-
tectioninspiredbytheeudirectivesandregulations.
Interviewee18,fromSea-Eye,wasalsoworriedbycollaboration
betweenItalyandLibya:
Italyandtheeuingeneralarehandingovertheirresponsibilities
toLibya.FortheItalianCoastGuard,itisillegaltobringpeople
backtoLibya,sotheyletLibyansdothejobandnoonewillpun-
ishthemforforcingpeopletostayinaninsecurecountry.
Thus,severalsearescuengorepresentativesfromvariouscoun-
triesbutactiveinItalyperceivedthecooperationbetweenItalyand
LibyaassimilartotherefugeedealbetweentheeuandTurkey.
However,theyweremorecriticalaboutexternalisationofborders
andmigrationmanagementtoLibya.Theyexpressedcriticalframes
basedonhumanitarianconcernsthatpotentialrefugeesmaybe
sentbacktoLibyawithoutaccesstoproperasylumprocedures.This
collaborationhasshiftedresponsibilityformigrationmanagement
ijems

ExternalisationofeuBordersthroughCooperationwithLibya
[81]
toLibyaandtheconstructionofthe limesintheMediterranean.
Interviewee5,fromunhcrItaly,arguedthatimprovingthe
LibyanCoastGuardisnotsufficient.Whiletransferringsarop-
erationshasreducedthenumberofseacrossings,theproportion
ofdrowningstoarrivalshasincreased.unhcrItalyrepresentative
doesnotbelievethatLibyaisasafedisembarkationpoint,adding
that‘werecommendthataftersaroperationspeopleshouldnot
besentbacktoLibya.’Thus,bothunhcrItalyandsearescuengo
representativesemphasisedthehumanitarianchallengesofItaly-
Libyacooperationinmigrationandusedcriticalframesaboutpush-
backstoLibya.
Interviewee2,fromDoctorswithoutBordersinItaly,addedthat
containmentofarrivalshasbeenachievedthroughexternalisation
policiesthathavesubstantiallyreducedflows.Heclaimedthatmain
goaloftheagreementbetweenLibyaandItalyiscontainingdepar-
tures.Interviewee1,fromtheItalianheadquarterofProactivaOpen
Arms,arguedthat‘wearemakingdealswithanilliberalstatewhere
humanrightsaresystematicallyviolated.Itisagovernmentwhich
doesnothavestability’while‘we[Italians]arecontributingtothe
system,givingmoney,patrolboats,trainingthesepeople.’Intervie-
wee1,arguedthattheItaliangovernmenthasnotfoundasolution
ataEuropeanlevelsotheytrytokeeppeopleinLibya.Sheclaimed
thatpeoplestuckinLibyandetentioncampsaretortured,abused,or
raped.Thus,sinceItalywasabandonedwhilethemigrationissuere-
mainsunsolvedatEuropeanlevel,Italyhastried,withtheeu’shelp,
torestrictandcontainirregularmigrationinLibyatopreventfur-
therflowstoItalywhichismostlyperceivedbyirregularmigrants
asagatewaytotheEuropeandream.Someintervieweesfromop-
positionpartieswerealsocriticalaboutthedealbetweenItalyand
Libya.
AccordingtoInterviewee11,adeputyfrompd,‘thedealbetween
Turkeyandtheeuisverydifferentfromthedealthatwesigned
withLibya.Libyadoesn’thaveastablegovernmentandithasreaped
financialbenefitsfromimmigration.’Headdedthat‘wemadeadeal
withLibyangovernmentofAlSarrajasapoliticalpartner[...]only
becausetheywererecognisedbytheunasLibya’slegitimaterepre-
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[82]
SelcenÖnerandMattiaCirino
sentative.’Hehaddoubtsabouttheagreement,especiallybecause
ofhumanrightsviolationsinLibya.
Interviewee9,adeputyofPiù-Europa,claimedthatthereareItal-
ianvesselsbasedinTripolisupportingtheLibyanCoastGuard.He
addedthathispartyhadcalledforaParliamentaryCommitteeof
InquirytoclarifytheeffectsoftheItaliangovernment’spolicies.
Someoppositionpartyandngointervieweesnotedtheinhu-
manconditionsinLibyandetentioncamps.Interviewee11,adeputy
frompd,claimedthatthecampshadopenedmanyyearsagobefore
beinglegitimisedbyBerlusconi’sgovernmentin2011andfinanced
byapartnershipwithGhaddafi.Interviewee14,adeputyfrompd,
arguedthatmovingtheborderfarawaydoesnotwork.Sheadded
that‘theinvestmentshouldn’tbemadebygivingmoneytoLibyans
tostopmigrantsindetentioncamps.Theseagreementsshouldbe
madewithhomecountries,suchasNigeriaorTunisia.’Thus,rather
thancollaboratingwithLibya,someoftheintervieweescalledfor
collaborationwithorigincountriesinAfrica.Interviewee6,adeputy
frompd,claimedthattheideaofhotspotsinthirdcountrieslike
Libyaiswrongbecause,ratherthanexternalisation,itmeansabol-
ishingtheasylumprocessforthosepeople.
Interviewee4,fromunhcrItaly,claimedthatafterthe2017
agreementbetweenItalianPrimeMinisterGentiloniandLibya’s
formerPrimeMinisterAlSerraj,Italyprovidedlogisticalsupportto
theLibyanCoastGuard.However,manyexpertscriticisedsystem-
aticviolationsofhumanrightsinLibyandetentioncamps.Intervie-
wee6,fromOpenArms,claimedthattheagreementbetweenItaly
andLibyareachedbytheInteriorMinisterofthepreviousgovern-
mentwasunacceptablebecausethisallowedMatteoSalvinitoin-
troduceevenharshermigrationpolicies.HenotedthatLibyanever
ratifiedfundamentalconventionsandcannotensuretheirimple-
mentationbecausethereisnostablegovernment.Nevertheless,‘we
gavemoneyandmeanstotheLibyanCoastGuard.’Headdedthat
ifmigrantsaresentbacktoLibya,theymaybetorturedatdeten-
tioncentres,asrevealedbyaninvestigationbythetvprogramme
PiazzaPulita.
FewintervieweessupportedcooperationbetweenItalyandLibya.
ijems

ExternalisationofeuBordersthroughCooperationwithLibya
[83]
However,ratherthanpush-backs,theyrecommendedfocusingon
cooperationtoimprovehumanrightsconditionsthere.Interviewee
15,adeputyfrompd,suggestedthatItalyshouldhelpimprovehu-
manrightsconditionsinLibyawiththesupportofinternationalen-
tities.Interviewee10,amayorfromsouthernItaly,suggestedthat
‘wehavetocooperatewithallstateswhichareontheMediterranean
[...]ItalyleftLibyaaloneformanyyears.’Thus,thereisacontinu-
ityinItaly’smigrationpolicyintermsofcooperationwithLibya,
whichhasintensifiedinrecentyearssincethemigrationcrisis.This
collaborationhasbeensupportedbytheeu.Theexternalisationof
bordersandkeepingirregularmigrantsinLibyahavecontributedto
theconstructionof limesintheMediterraneanwhichcannotstop
irregularmigrationflowsfromLibyatoItaly,moreover,humanitar-
iandisastersintheMediterraneanSeaarestillgoingon.
conclusion
Thesecurityparadigmthatperceivesmigrantsasathreatusually
prevailsoverlegalobligationstoprotecthumanrights,eveninthe
eu,despitesupposedlybeinga‘normativepower’(Manners2002).
Theeuhasmovedtowardsarestrictivemigrationpolicyandthe
socialconstructionofmigrationasasecurityquestion.Metaphors
suchasan‘invasion’or‘flood’ofimmigrantsportraythemasase-
riousthreattoeuwelfaresystem.Inshort,theEuropeanizationof
migrationpolicyhas‘securitisedmigrationbyintegratingmigration
policyintoaninternalsecurityframework’(Huysmans2000,751–
70).
Itseemsthatthesecuritycomponentwillpredominateinthe
eufortheforeseeablefuture.Forexample,eu–Libyacooperation
prioritisesbordercontrolandsurveillance,whichhasledtoexter-
nalisationofeubordersandcontainmentofirregularimmigrants
inLibya,whichhasledtotheconstructionof limesintheMediter-
ranean.Immigrantswillprobablycontinuetryingtomakedanger-
ousjourneystoEuropeacrosstheMediterraneandespiterisking
theirlives(Hamood2008,33–8).Thissortofjourneyshavepersisted
albeitinalesserproportionduringtheCovid-19pandemic.
AsCarreraandCortinovis(2019)suggest,theeuneedstostop
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[84]
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fundingmigrationmanagement-driventrainingandcapacitybuild-
ingonsarandbordermaritimesurveillanceinunsafethirdcoun-
triessuchasLibya.Instead,asCarreraandCortinovis(2019)ar-
gue,theeucouldestablishaneusarfundtoencourageacoor-
dinatedsarresponsetostrengthendisembarkationcapacities,re-
ceptioncapacities,anddomesticasylumsystemsofmemberstates.
Thespiritofsolidaritywithintheeumustprevailtosafeguardthe
eu’scompatibilitywithitsnormsandprinciples.
DuringtheCovid-19pandemic,despitereducedglobalmobility,
theroleofneighbouringcountriesoftheeuincontainingirregu-
larmigrationhasevenrisen,asreflectedinthenewMigrationPact
(EuropeanCommission2020)putforwardbytheEuropeanCom-
mission.Thisnewpactaimstobalancefairsharingofresponsibility
andsolidarityinordertorebuildtrustbetweenmemberstatesand
confidenceintheeu’scapacityofmigrationmanagement.However,
thereisstillanemphasisonwaysofimprovingcooperationwiththe
countriesoforiginandtransit.Thus,thepactstillfocusesonex-
ternalisingprotectionobligationsandcontainmentofasylumseek-
ersandmigrantsintransitcountries.Accordingtothepact,the‘eu
willseektopromotetailor-madeandmutuallybeneficialpartner-
shipswiththirdcountries.’Thesewillhelpaddresschallengessuch
assmugglingwhiletheeuanditsmemberstateswillusevarious
toolstosupportcooperationwiththirdcountriesonreadmission.
Thepactalsofocusesonexternalbordercontrol,statingthatthe
EuropeanBorderandCoastGuardstandingcorps,scheduledforde-
ploymentfrom1January2021,willprovideincreasedsupport.In
termsoflegalmigrationopportunities,theCommissionwilllaunch
TalentPartnershipswithkeynon-eucountries,compatiblewiththe
eu’slabourandskillsneeds.
Accordingtoareportfromtheep’sPolicyDepartmentforCiti-
zens’RightsandConstitutionalAffairs(EuropeanParliament2021,
159-160),theNewMigrationPactconsidersrescueasanexception
tothegeneralruleofcontainmentofirregularmigration.However,
itconflictswithsarConventions.Thus,push-backsmaybenor-
malisedasamigrationmanagementtechnique,regardlessoftheir
humanrightsimplications.Thereportalsocriticisesmakingmigra-
ijems

ExternalisationofeuBordersthroughCooperationwithLibya
[85]
tionmanagementthemainpriorityofeufundingmechanismsdue
tomisuseofdevelopment(ConsolidatedVersionoftheTreatyon
FunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion2012,Article208)andhuman-
itarianaid(ConsolidatedVersionoftheTreatyonFunctioningof
theEuropeanUnion2012,Article214).Thisfallsshortoftheeu’s
legalobligationtopromotefundamentalrightswhenactingexter-
nally(ConsolidatedVersionoftheTreatyonEuropeanUnion2012,
Articles2,21;ConsolidatedVersionoftheTreatyonFunctioningof
theEuropeanUnion2012,Article205).Thisisbindingonalleuin-
stitutions,agencies,andmemberstateswhenimplementingeulaw
(Article51oftheCharterofFundamentalRights2012).Italsorisks
underminingforeignpolicycoherenceandmayleadtomistrustby
externalpartners,therebydamagingtheeu’sabilitytoaddressthe
rootcausesofmigrationandbuildrelationshipsbasedonequalpart-
nerships.
Accordingtoepreport(EuropeanParliament2021,155–8),pre-
paredbythePolicyDepartmentforCitizens’RightsandConstitu-
tionalAffairs,theeu’sapproachfocusesonthefightagainstirreg-
ularmigrationwhilegivinglimitedconsiderationtotherightsof
migrants,includingthoseofforciblydisplacedpersonsinneedof
internationalprotection.Theeuhasprovidedfinancialandmate-
rialsupporttobordermanagementprojectsinneighbouringcoun-
trieslikeLibyaandTurkey.Thereportnotesthatinformalarrange-
ments,suchastheonebetweenItalyandLibya,andfinancialinstru-
ments(eutfa)poseriskstotheeulegalsystembychallengingju-
dicialanddemocraticaccountability.Thereportrecommendsthat,
inaccordancewiththerighttogoodadministrationandtheEuro-
peanOmbudsman’srecommendations,theepshouldinsistthatall
agreementswiththirdcountriesandalleuexternalactionsonlybe
implementedfollowingacomprehensivecompliancecheck.Inad-
dition,euexternaldevelopmentandhumanitarianfundingshould
notdependoncooperationonmigrationcontainmentbecausethis
contradictstheaimofdevelopmentaidandhumanitarianassis-
tancebyundermininghumanrights.Theepshouldalsocontest
thelegalityoffundingmeasuresthatfailtocomplywithdevelop-
mentcooperationandhumanitarianaidpolicyobjectives(Consoli-
volume14|2021|number2

[86]
SelcenÖnerandMattiaCirino
datedVersionoftheTreatyonFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion
2012,Article263).Finally,theEuropeanCommissionshouldprovide
acomplete,publicoverviewofeufundingtothirdcountriesinmi-
grationmanagementattheep’sbehest.Thus,especiallyfromtheep
therehasbeenanincreasingnumberofcritiquesaboutmigration
managementandexternalbordercontroloftheeu,particularlyon
externalisationofbordercontrolandmigrationmanagement.
Asaresult,opportunitiesforlegalmigrationtotheeuhaveto
beextensivelyimprovedtoovercomethechallengesofirregularmi-
gration.ToovercomethechallengesintheMediterranean,primar-
ilysolidaritywithintheeuhastobeachievedandefficientmulti-
levelgovernancemechanismshavetobeintroduced.Theseshould
includelocal,national,European,andglobalapproachestoidentify
effectivesolutionstomigrationmanagement.Whilecooperation
withoriginandtransitcountriescanbeimproved,thisshouldnot
meanpush-backs,externalisationofeuborders,orshiftingrespon-
sibilitiestotheneighbouringcountrieswhichcausedconstruction
ofthelimesintheMediterranean.Actually,thatmeanswideningthe
gapbetweenthenorthernandsouthernMediterraneanwhichmay
causemuchdeepersocio-economicchallengesinthelongerterm.
Rather,thereshouldbemoresocio-economicinvestmentinAfrica
andnewchannelsforlegalmigrationhavetobeintroducedthrough-
outAfrica,notjustfromLibya.Withoutstructuraltransformations
andreformsinthefieldofEuropeanandglobalmigrationandasy-
lumpolicies,allcountrieslocatedontheeu’sexternalborderswill
beseenasagatewaytotheEuropeandream.Thepandemichas
dramaticallywidenedthesocio-economicgapbetweenNorthand
South,therebysignificantlyincreasingpullfactorstowardsEurope.
Evenwhenoneroutemaybeclosed,anotheroneisfoundbyirregu-
larmigrantswhichwasreflectedintherecenttragicincidentsinthe
borderbetweenPolandandBelarus(Tondo2021).
AlthoughtheMediterraneanSeahasnovisibleborderfencelike
thatbetweenMoroccoandCeutaandMelilla, limeshasbeencon-
structedacrosstheMediterraneanSeaduetoItaly’scollaboration
withLibya,whichhasexternalisedeuborderstocontainirregular
immigrantsinLibya.WhilelimesmayreducemigrationflowstoEu-
ijems

ExternalisationofeuBordersthroughCooperationwithLibya
[87]
ropeovertheshortormediumterm,itcannotsolveEurope’slong-
termsecuritychallengesandfurtherchallengetheeuasa‘norma-
tivepower.’Moreover,ithascausedseverehumanrightsabusesand
thelossofthousandsoflivesintheMediterraneanSea.
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License(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
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