Poštnina placana pri pošti 4102 Kranj Journal of Management, Informatics and Human Resources ISSN 1318-5454 Volume 54, Issue 3, August 2021 Revija za management, informatiko in kadre Organizacija (Journal of Management, Informatics and Human Resources) is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed journal which is open to contributions of high quality, from any perspective relevant to the organizational phenomena. The journal is designed to encourage interest in all matters relating to organizational sciences and is intended to ap­peal to both the academic and professional community. In particular, journal publishes original articles that advance the empirical, theoretical, and methodological understand­ing of the theories and concepts of management and or­ganization. The journal welcomes contributions from other scientific disciplines that encourage new conceptualiza­tions in organizational theory and management practice. We welcome different perspectives of analysis, including the organizations of various sizes and from various branch­es, units that constitute organizations, and the networks in which organizations are embedded. Topics are drawn, but not limited to the following areas: • organizational theory, management, development, and organizational behaviour; • human resources management (such as organization & employee development, leadership, value creation through HRM, workplace phenomena etc.); • managerial and entrepreneurial aspects of education; • business information systems (such as digital business, decision support systems, business analytics etc.); • enterprise engineering (e.g., organizational design, business process management, enterprise transformation paradigms etc.); • papers that analyse and seek to improve organizational performance. Organizacija (Revija za management, informatiko in cloveške vire) je interdisciplinarna recenzirana revija, ki objavlja visoko kakovostne prispevke z vseh vidikov, ki so pomembni za organizacijske procese in strukture. Revija je zasnovana tako, da spodbuja zanimanje za razlicne vidike v zvezi z organizacijskimi vedami in je namenjena tako akademski kot strokovni skupnosti. Revija objavlja izvirne clanke, ki spodbujajo empiricno, teoreticno in metodološko razumevanje teorij in konceptov managementa in organizacije. Pozdravljamo tudi prispevke iz drugih znanstvenih disciplin, ki spodbujajo nove koncepte v organizacijski teoriji in praksi. Objavljamo clanke, ki analizirajo organiziranost z razlicnih vidikov, so usmerjeni na organizacije razlicnih velikosti in iz razlicnih sektorjev, na enote, ki sestavljajo organizacije, in na mreže, v katere so organizacije vpete. Teme so pokrivajo predvsem naslednja podrocja: • organizacijska teorija, upravljanje, razvoj in organizacijsko vedenje; • management cloveških virov (kot so organizacija in razvoj zaposlenih, vodenje, ustvarjanje vrednosti s pomocjo cloveških virov, organizacijski pojavi na delovnem mestu itd.); • vodstveni in podjetniški vidiki izobraževanja; • poslovni informacijski sistemi (kot so digitalno poslovanje, sistemi za podporo odlocanju, poslovna analitika itd.); • podjetniški inženiring (npr. organizacijsko oblikovanje, upravljanje poslovnih procesov, paradigme preoblikovanja podjetij itd.); • clanki, ki analizirajo organizacijsko uspešnost in prizadevanja za izboljšanje le-te. Kristijan BREZNIK, Kris LAW, Mitja GORENAK Elizabeth DOMINIC, Vijay VICTOR, Robert Jeyakumar NATHAN, Swetha LOGANATHAN Safiye SAHIN, Bilal ÇANKIR, Bahar SEREZ ARSLAN Jasmina ŽNIDARŠIC, Miha MARIC Zuhair ABBAS, Junaid ANSARI, Saba GULZAR, Unzila ZAMEER, Kanwal HUSSAIN Hotel Branding Exposed: a Content Analysis of Related Organisational Values Procedural Justice, Perceived Organisational Support, and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour in Business School Effect of Implicit Voice Theories on Employee Voice and Silence: A Study in Education and Health Sector Relationships between Work-Family Balance, Job Satisfaction, Life Satisfaction and Work Engagement among Higher Education Lecturers The Role of Workload, Nepotism, Job Satisfaction, and Organizational Politics on Turnover Intention: A Conservation of Resources Perspective RESEARCH PAPERS 180 193 210 227 238 EDITOR / UREDNIK Jože Zupancic University of Maribor, Faculty of Organizational Sciencies, Slovenia CO-EDITORS / SOUREDNIKI Petr Doucek Prague University of Economics, Faculty of Informatics and Statistics, Czech Republic Matjaž Maletic University of Maribor, Faculty of Organizational Sciencies, Slovenia Wlodzimierz Sroka WSB University, Department of Management, Dabrowa Górnicza, Poland EDITORIAL BOARD / UREDNIŠKI ODBOR REVIJE Hossein Arsham, University of Baltimore, USA Franc Cuš, University of Maribor, Slovenia Sasha M. Dekleva DePaul University, School of Accountancy and MIS, Chichago, USA Vlado Dimovski, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Daniel C. Ganster, Colorado State University, USA Jože Gricar, University of Maribor, Slovenia Werner Jammernegg Viena University of Economics and Business Administration, Austria Marius Alexander Janson, University of Missouri-St. Louis, USA Stefan Klein, University of Münster, Germany Aleksandar Markovic, University of Belgrade, Serbia Hermann Maurer, Technical University Graz, Austria Matjaž Mulej, University of Maribor, Slovenia Valentinas Navickas, Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania Ota Novotny, University of Economics, Prague, Czech Republic Milan Pagon, Independent University, Bangladesh (IUB), Dhaka, Bangladesh Björn Paape, RWTH-Technical University Aachen, Germany Matjaž Perc University of Maribor, Slovenia Dušan Petrac, NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, USA Nataša Petrovic University of Belgrade, Serbia Tetyana Pimonenko, Sumy State University, Balatsky Academic and Scientific Institute of Finance, Economics and Management, Ukraine Hans Puxbaum, Vienna University of Technology, Austria Vladislav Rajkovic, University of Maribor, Slovenia Gábor Rekettye, University of Pécs, Hungary Henk G. Sol, Faculy of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Netherlands Eugene Semenkin Reshetnev Siberian State University of Science and Technology, Krasnoyarsk, Russian Federation Velimir Srica, University of Zagreb, Croatia Paula Swatman, University of Tasmania, Australia Brian Timney, The University of Western Ontario, Canada Maurice Yolles, Liverpool John Moores University, UK Douglas R. Vogel, Harbin Institute of Technology-HIT, School of Management, China Gerhard Wilhelm Weber, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Stanislaw Wrycza, University of Gdansk, Poland Anna Lucyna Wziatek-Stasko, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland Yvonne Ziegler, Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences, Germany Hans-Dieter Zimmermann, FSH St. Gallen University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland DOI: 10.2478/orga-2021-0012 Hotel Branding Exposed: a Content Analysis of Related Organisational Values Kristijan BREZNIK1,2, Kris LAW3, Mitja GORENAK4 1 International School of Social and Business Studies, Celje, Slovenia, kristijan.breznik@mfdps.si 2 College of Nursing, Celje, Slovenia 3 Deakin University, Faculty of Sci Eng & Built Env, School of Engineering, Geelong 3220 VIC, Australia, kris.law@deakin.edu.au 4 University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia, mitja.gorenak@um.si (Corresponding author) Background/Purpose: This paper explores how organisational values can help to understand the interlinks of hotel brands and their hotel rating. The study assumes that the importance of organisational values in the service sector represents one of the key components of both growth and development of an organisation. Methods: Conceptual content analysis was used on the dataset of organisational values found on websites of the top 100 European hotel brands. Advanced network analytic procedures were applied to identify clustered dimen­sions of organisational values among various hotel brands. Results: Results identified shared organisational values among hotel brands clustered into four predominant dimen­sions: entrepreneurial, stakeholders, moral, and tradition. The study confirmed wide content variability of organisa­tional values within the hotel brand industry. Conclusion: The cluster analysis identified clusters of the most important words from values statements, conclud­ing that hotel brands highly value “entrepreneurial” and “ethical” clusters. The island analysis approach on hotel brands’ level also reveals that organisational values in this sector are determined by many factors, including the scale and market positioning. Our study provides theoretical and practical implications to hotel brand strategists in order to better understand their current and desired sector position. Keywords: Organisational values, Hotel industry, Branding, Content analysis, Network analysis 1 Introduction In order to achieve its goals, the operations of every organisation lean on various factors, such as business mod­els and culture. It is essential to understand what shaped these organisations into what they are today and what they value. Organisational values drive organisations’ way of thinking and (re)acting. These values arise from the founders’ values (Collins, Collins, & Porras, 2005). They are also understood as forces influencing organisations in various dimensions such as branding, market orientation, financial flows, social characteristics, etc. Organisational values are vital to the growth and development of an or­ganisation (Pedersen, Gwozdz, & Hvass, 2018), as they influence employee behaviour (Wilkins, Butt, & Annabi, 2018). Employees represent one of the fundamental pillars of any organisation (Ogunmokun, Eluwole, Avci, Lasisi, & Ikhide, 2020). In the service sector, employees are di­rectly corresponding to the needs of customers. Therefore, employees significantly contribute to business success (Pavlakovic & Jereb, 2020). Organisations need to empha­sise processes based on moral values of their employees (Blažic Pecek & Ovsenik, 2018). That is why companies are looking for passionate people who are willing to have fun and are ready to run the so-called “extra mile” to reach organisational goals (D’Amato & Tosca, 2019). That is es­pecially true in the service industry where employees have to capture customers’ needs and improve services innova­tively (Helmy, Adawiyah, & Setyawati, 2020). In the service industry, hospitality is well known for its steady growth in the recent decades and its rapid re­sponses to the changes in the market (Prevolšek, Rozman, Pažek, Maksimovic, & Potocnik Topler, 2017; Rangus & Brumen, 2016). Within the highly competitive hospitality industry, hotels are always striving to build profitable and reputed brands, and organisational values are therefore in­dispensable. A brand signals an array of product or service charac­teristics (Oh, Lee, & Lee, 2020). Travellers may decide by relying on what the brand projects about the hotel’s actual or expected performance standards of a certain hotel. The more intensely and positively the brand signals its prom­ising performance, the better the hotel’s chance to become the consumer’s final choice (Oh et al., 2020). However, researchers have paid little attention to the influence of hu­man value orientation on brand consciousness and behav­ioural intentions so far (Kautish, Khare, & Sharma, 2020). The importance of organisational values in the ser­vice sector is considered to be significant (Dobni, Ritch­ie & Zerbe, 2000), responding rapidly to any changes in the economy of the tourism sector. The tourism sector is always striving to be as agile as possible in providing ser­vices based on consumer demand, which is changing more rapidly than in other sectors. Values are strongly related to brand acceptance, which is essential for hotel brands. Given those contextual variables such as chain affiliation, hotel star rating, and size, they are essential for defining hotels’ organisational values. Despite extensive research that was previously done on organisational values (Pfifer, Goodstein, & Nolan, 1985; Simerly, 1987; Kenny, 1994; Cha & Edmondson, 2006, …) as well as research on branding (Gehani, 2001; Neumeier, 2005; Kapferer, 2008; Grace, Ross, & King, 2020, …) we have determined that there is no sufficient work identifying the critical determi­nants of organisational values among hotels. We found this to be a major gap that was interesting to research. This pa­per explores the core determinants of organisational values of hotel brands by using content analysis and network an­alytic methods among the top 100 European hotel brands. 2 Theoretical background 2.1 Values Individual values are regarded as beliefs upon which individuals perform their tasks (Allport, 1961), following their personal preferences. Relationships with an indi­vidual positively influence these values (England, 1967) which are relatively permanent and can be seen as guide­lines of individual behaviour (Rokeach, 1973). The na­ture of human values (Rokeach, 1973) classifies values in two major groups. The first group presents instrumental values, which are values linked to the way people work. The second group are terminal values related to the de­sired end state in contrast to the operational performance seen in instrumental values. Within each of the two basic types of values (instrumental and terminal), we find two sub-categories. The first sub-category of terminal values is personal terminal values, the second sub-category is social terminal values. This division is linked to the importance of value whether it is vital to the individual (salvation, peace) or the society (world peace, fraternity). In instru­mental values, we divide these into moral values (sense of guilt), and competence-based values (logical reasoning). Regarding the individual values, Schwartz (1992) defined four distinctive groups. The model created by (Schwartz, 1992) was circular; this helped him to arrange and group the values compatible with each other and de­velop a contra-pole of values that conflict. This proposed model especially highlighted four distinctive groups, where we can see “Openness to change” on the one hand and “Conservation” as well as “Self-transcendence” and “Self-enhancement” as the opposing forces on the other. Though values are relatively permanent, this does not apply to changes amongst individuals. These changes can occur based on changes in the economic, social or tech­nological sphere of life. (Freeman III, Herriges, Kling, Herriges, & Kling, 2014). Rokeach (1973) claims that all individuals have the same values and also states that signs of absolute value to a person change through time - based on the experiences and situation they live in or on how (Vecchione et al., 2019) they see it in different life stag­es. Malbašic, Rey, and Potocan (2015) applied Schwartz’s theory (Schwartz, 1992) on evaluating values for individ­uals, groups, and organisations. Personal values are the basis upon which concepts of organisational values are presented, where individuals are the founding blocks of any organisation. Without personal values at the individual level, there will be no development of organisational val­ues (Gorenak, 2019). 2.2 Organisational values A wide range of organisational values studies has reached a consensus about the definition of organisation­al values (Malbašic, Marimon, & Mas-Machuca, 2016). Organisational values arise from organisational culture (Pfeiffer, Goodstein, & Nolan, 1985), while organisational culture defines expectations regarding behaviour, modes of conduct, decision-making methods, and communica­tion (Simerly, 1987). Individual values are the basis for developing organisational values essential to every or­ganisation, just as they are for every individual (Kenny, 1994). People get together, bringing their values to the or­ganisation. However, according to (Pfeiffer et al., 1985), organisational values at the beginning of the existence of any organisation are very closely related to the personal values of the founding members in the very same organ­isation. At this stage, organisational values evolve organ­ically. The organisation grows; it would further define its organisational values. The initial organic growth of organ­isational values would be seen as hazardous, especially re­garding organisational values. This perception can hinder the growth and development of an organisation (Cha & Edmondson, 2006). Organisational values are essential for initial organic growth and are also crucial for long-term organisational performance (Collins et al., 2005). The in­ternalisation of organisational values through employees promotes organisational performance more significantly (Collins et al., 2005). It can be achieved by focusing on the seamless fit between an individual and an organisation. Posner, Kouzes, and Schmidt (1985) have empirically proven that the higher the level of fit between organisa­tional and personal values, the more positive approach to­wards work is shown by individuals and this leads to better performance. These five theories determine the fit between personal and organisational values: the personality-envi­ronment fit theory (Lewin, 1951), personality-job fit the­ory (Holland, 1985), personality-organisation fit theory (Judge & Cable, 1997), personality-vocational fit theory (Hoerr, 1989) and personality-group fit theory (Guzzo & Salas, 1996). These theories discuss various approaches to matching personal values and organisational setting, and organisational values. The relationship between organisations’ value state­ments and their reflection in the organisation has mostly been seen in organisational culture (Hofstede, 1998), in­cluding the values. However, not all types of value state­ments reflect elements of culture (Allison, 2019). Bourne, Jenkins, and Parry (2019) had approached this issue differ­ently. They addressed the need to further understand the important topic of values by developing an inventory and conceptual map of espoused values drawn from organisa­tional websites. Researchers have worked around deter­mining the organisational values of various organisations for a long time. At the same time, most research was done by analysing the individual organisation’s organisational values in many cases, with relation to various manageri­al topics. Lyons, Duxbury & Higgins (2006) conducted a study of over 500 participants from larger companies (500 employees or more), in which 22 values were identified. These values were grouped into five distinctive clusters: extrinsic work values, intrinsic work values, altruistic work values, extrinsic aspects of work and social environ­ment of work. 2.3 Branding and organisational values in the hotel industry Branding is a renowned concept and a useful tool for companies to identify and differentiate products or services in consumers’ minds (Liu, Wong, Tseng, Chang, & Phau, 2017). A brand can therefore be described as a feeling that a group of people shares about a product, service or com­pany (Neumeier, 2005). Well established in the literature is that well-built sustainable and robust consumer/brand rela­tionships are the cornerstones to recent marketing success. Understanding how consumers respond to brands has dom­inated the marketing literature for decades (Grace, Ross, & King, 2020). A company often uses branding strategy to communicate its identity and value to consumers and other stakeholders (Gehani, 2001). A strong brand is built around its own culture, which helps to distinguish simi­lar brands within the same industry and brings a group of like-minded consumers together; one of its most compet­itive parts (Kapferer, 2008). Contextual variables such as chain affiliation, hotel star rating, and size are essential for defining hotels’ organisational values (Dief & Font, 2012). In the hotel industry, star rating is closely related to brand image (Jiang, Gretzel & Law, 2014). How a brand is ac­cepted is strongly related to values as well; this is essential for hotel brands (Kumar & Sharma, 2014). By developing value in its brand, a hotel firm can sell its brand name to investors and developers, and reach customers, thus creat­ing demand to sustain growth (Barreda, Bilgihan, Nusair, & Okumus, 2016). Frontline employees are the ambassadors and practi­tioners of an organisation; their attitudes and behaviour influence the firm’s image (Park & Levy, 2014). By estab­lishing a link between branding, star-rating, and hotel val­ues, we can see that organisations that value tradition are less likely to respond to changes quickly. They are bound to respect the practice they have (Tajeddini and Trueman, 2012). The tourism sector trends influence the values tour­ists perceive as valuable (Dwyer, Edwards, Mistilis, Ro­man, & Scott, 2009), and motivating (Li & Cai, 2011). Or­ganisations must continuously strive to attract candidates that demonstrate those characteristics (Tepeci & Bartlett, 2002). While attracting employees who agree on the val­ues of the organisation, organisations also need to under­stand the values in relation to their customers. This study aims to explore the linkage between organ­isational values and hotel brands by answering the follow­ing research questions: RQ 1: What are the core determinants of the organisa­tional values of hotel brands? RQ 2: How are the hotel brands bonding by organisa­tional values? 3 Methods 3.1 Instrument The study was carried out on a list of the top 100 European hotel brands provided by Doggrell (2018). Or­ganisational values of the targeted hotel brands were re­trieved manually as text files from their websites in April 2019. From the web pages of the top 100 hotel brands, we obtained organisational values of 84 hotel brands as 16 organisational values were missing. In the first phase, conceptual content analysis was used to identify the most frequent words in organisational values of all hotel brands in the dataset. In the subsequent steps, network analytic procedures were applied. 3.2 Content analysis The organisational values retrieved were used as the base for applying conceptual content analysis in order to identify the most frequent words. However, in-text words with no specific meaning, i.e., stop words, or redundant words, often occur. To start with the conceptual content analytic procedure, we manually deleted redundant words (such as “the”, “and”, “in” and others) first. Also, syno­nyms (different words with the same meaning) were taken into account. All synonyms of every word were manual­ly replaced with the most appropriate word. Frequencies of words in organisational values of all 84 hotel brands were calculated by using content analytic procedures and statistical software. The R-Software (2019) and its library tm (Feinerer, Hornik, Software, & Ghostscript, 2018) were used. Then, the keywords were identified as the most fre­quently used words in the organisational values of hotel brands. 3.3 Network analytic procedures Network analysis was conducted using the Pajek pro­gram (Mrvar & Batagelj, 2019) and VOSViewer graphical tool (van Eck & Waltman, 2019), to construct and visualise bibliometric networks. Algorithms for network construc­tion were written in R-Software (2019). The social network, in general, is defined in two parts: the first part consists of actors represented by nodes in the network representation, and the second part is the re­lation(s) between actors. In the network representation, relations are shown by links between actors (either di­rected or undirected). In this study, actors are determined by keywords identified in the conceptual content analytic part. Their relations are defined by the co-occurrence of two keywords in organisational value of the same organi­sation (i.e. the same hotel brand). Analysis of the network of keywords proceeded with clustering and identification of denser parts of the network. The actors in the keywords network were clustered using the VOS clustering method (Waltman, van Eck, & Noyons, 2010). One of the advantages of the VOS clus­tering quality function over the modularity function is the elegant mathematical relationship between the VOS clus­tering quality function and the VOS mapping quality func­tion. The resulting network is displayed using the VOS mapping quality function. One of the most advanced methods for detecting dens­er parts within a network is the island approach. Specif­ically, islands are a very general and efficient approach to determine significant subnetworks of a given network (Batagelj, Doreian, Ferligoj, & Kejžar, 2014). The island actors are more closely related to each other than to actors outside the island. 4 Results Firstly, conceptual content analysis was carried out on organisational values to identify the most important words, i.e. words with the highest frequency. After having deleted redundant words and accounting for synonyms, the set has 161 words left. The highest number of words in one organ­isational value of a hotel brand is 21. The highest number of words belongs to the Park Hyatt hotel brand, followed by Westin Hotels & Resorts (19 words) and the NH Col­lection Hotels (17 words). The network of words has then been constructed with the relation of co-occurrence in the same hotel brand val­ue. Therefore, words are shown ‘linked’ in the network if they occur together in at least one hotel brand organisa­tional value. The obtained network is undirected (if one value is related to the second value, the opposite is also true) and weighted (a pair of values can occur together in several different hotel brand values). The degree distribu­tion of words in the network is displayed on a log-log scale in Figure 1. The degree distribution in Figure 1 indicates a scale-free network which is often the case in real-world networks (Choromanski, Matuszak, & Mi.kisz, 2013). Degrees range from 1 to 207, while the peak frequency appears at degree 10. While not many fall on the lower end, the high­est degree is achieved by the word “excellence”, namely in the set of hotel brands values this word co-occurs with other words 207-times. As suggested in similar studies (Breznik & Law, 2019; Law & Breznik, 2018; Breznik 2016, van Eck & Waltman, 2011), the number of words was further reduced to apply advanced network analytic procedures. For this reason, we set the threshold of the unique frequency of a word at 5. Table 1 shows the list of words that appear in at least five different organisational values (we will use the term key­words), together with the degrees for top organisational values. From Table 1, keywords like “excellence” and “integ­rity”, and also “customer” and “service”, are on the top of the list. The next step was to form the clusters of keywords with regards to network properties. VOS clustering meth­od was used, and results are displayed in Figure 2. The method of clustering, in general, is a standard procedure to determine groups of statistical entities (clusters) that belong together. Moreover, clusters can be understood as a mathematical partition of a set of 36 keywords, group­ing of elements into non-empty subsets. The size of each keyword presented in Figure 2 is proportional to the de­gree of the keyword. For instance, the keyword excellence (coloured red – top left cluster) is the largest. Four clusters can be seen in Figure 2. In the red one (top left cluster), the most common of all keywords is ex­cellence, together with keywords such as customer, prof­itability, service, business and experience. This group of values represents entrepreneurship. This cluster is there­fore named the “entrepreneurial” cluster. In the yellow (top-right) cluster, keywords such as community, commitment, responsibility, environment and cooperation represent the stakeholders’ care. This group of values represents the stakeholders. This cluster is named the “stakeholders” cluster. In the green one (bottom right cluster), integrity, hon­esty, accountability, and respect represent morality key­words. This group of values represents morality. Thus, this cluster is named the “moral” cluster. The last one, the bottom left cluster (coloured blue) with keywords hospitality, unique, culture and history, represents the industry’s tradition. This group of values represents tradition. Thus, this cluster is named the “tra­dition” cluster. Clustering procedures can also be reversed. We can construct a network of brands with relation defined as keyword(s) occurring in organisational values of both brands. Two brands are linked if they share at least one common keyword in their organisational values. The net­work of brands is classified as an undirected and weighted network. Weights on the links, displayed by the size and colour, stand for the number of keywords shared in values between linked brands. Higher weights on the links are in­dicated by darker colour and thicker links. We have determined five distinctive islands of hotel brands regarding the keywords they share (Figure 3). The size of the island’s circle represents the number of hotel rooms that a particular hotel brand has within Europe. The colour, on the other hand, represents the type of a hotel that each brand corresponds to. The black colour represents luxurious hotels. By contrast, the white colour represents the economy type of hotels. Colour shades are represent­ing different kinds of hotels. The first island involves four hotel brands, AC Hotels by Marriot, JW Marriot, Marriot hotels and Renaissance Hotels. All of these hotels are quality high-end hotels of ei­ther upscale, upper-upscale or luxurious level. Interesting­ly, these hotels all belong to Marriot International, which runs several hotel brands. This group of hotel brand values include excellence, embracing change, and putting people first as the top values. This island of hotel brands can be linked directly to the top left cluster of keywords obtained from the clustering method, of which the lead value is also excellence. The second island involves four hotel brands, Best Western, Campanile, Dorint and Premier Inn. They are all mid-range hotels belonging to economy, midscale and up­scale level. Interestingly, these four hotel brands are owned by four different companies. This group’s keywords are hospitality, authenticity, and consumer orientation, which can be directly linked to the bottom left cluster (tradition) of keywords according to the clustering method. The lead value is also hospitality. The third island consists of three hotel brands, Days Inn, Ramada Worldwide, Tryp by Wyndham. They are all mid-range hotels belonging to economy, midscale and upper-midscale level. Interestingly, they all belong to the same organisation, the Wyndham Hotel Group. This group’s keywords include integrity, accountability, inclu­siveness, caring and fun, associated with the bottom right cluster (moral), with integrity as the lead keyword. There are three hotel brands within the fourth island, Grand Hyatt, Hyatt Regency, Wyndham Hotels & Resorts. These are all the high-end hotels, belonging to upper-up­scale or luxurious level, run by two different organisations, Hyatt Hotels Corporation and Wyndham Hotel Group, with headquarters in the United States of America. This group of hotel brands has shared keywords, such as integ­rity, humility, creativity and innovation, directly linked to the bottom right cluster (moral) with integrity as the top keyword. The fifth and the last island comprises three hotel brands, Danubius, Park Hyatt and Westin Hotels & Re­sorts. They are all high-end hotels of the upper midscale, upper-upscale or luxurious level. Interestingly, this is the second island where none of the hotel brands shares key­words with other hotel brands. In other words, three differ­ent companies run three hotel brands. This group of hotel brands shows the core keywords such as cooperation and responsibility to partners and community. They are direct­ly linked to the top right cluster (stakeholder) of keywords obtained from the clustering method, of which cooperation is the lead keyword. 5 Discussion 5.1 Keyword clusters From this study, clusters of keywords are obtained in order to show the values shared among hotel brands, demonstrating the same values with four apparent dimen­sions. The results imply that these keyword clusters, entre­preneurial and ethical, are highly valued by hotel brands, this being in line with findings from Dobni, Ritchie & Zerbe (2000). These values are embedded in many hotel brands, representing the “excellence” in the competitive market, regardless of the market positions, and this ex­cellence is also seen in findings from D’Amato & Tosca (2019). Entrepreneurial cluster, with “excellence” as the principal keyword, represents the driving forces of com­petitiveness. With “integrity” as the primary value, the “moral” cluster demonstrates the importance of corporate responsibility and ethics as the baselines. The smaller clus­ters, “stakeholder” and “tradition”, represent the specifics of hotel brands. Interlinks between clusters are also noted. This finding explains that every hotel brand can brace its own and unique list of keywords from the four clusters. Based on these findings, we can answer the first research question: What are the core determinants of organisational values of hotel brands? The four clusters identified in the study represent the core determinants of the organisational values of hotel brands. 5.2 Island analysis of hotel brands From the results obtained by the island analysis (Fig­ure 3), it is possible to conclude that high-end hotel brands are striving for entrepreneurial success while emphasising a high level of integrity (moral) and responsibility towards their “stakeholders”. The high-end chain hotel brand (owned by the same group) inclines toward entrepreneur­ial success on excellence. In contrast, other high-end ho­tel islands (of different individual hotel groups) are more concerned about the keywords relating to stakeholders and morals. There are two islands of mid-range hotel brands; one from the same hotel group while the other consists of differ­ent brands. It is interesting to see the mid-range chain-ho­tel group emphasising the keywords relating to the moral cluster. This implies the same results as the other high-end chain-hotel island and further explains that the chain-ho­tel groups, both at high-end or mid-range, are putting the stakeholder’s benefits on priority. Considering that most of the chain-hotel groups are listed companies, the stake­holders’ interests should be prioritised. On the other hand, another mid-ranged hotel island of hotel brands owned by different companies reveals that the most shared values re­late to ‘tradition’ and are generally perceived as the core service qualities expected by customers. These findings clearly support the proposal from Pedersen, Gwozdz, & Hvass (2018), namely that organisational values are vital to growth and development of an organisation as well as with the findings from Wilkins, Butt, & Annabi (2018), that set the influence of these values in behaviour of their employ­ees as well. Based on these findings of the island analysis, we can answer our second research question: How are the hotel brands bonding by organisational values? In some cases, regardless of the brand range, stakeholder’s bene­fits are seen as the priority. Other cases show ‘tradition’ as their primary value cluster, which is generally perceived as the core service qualities expected by customers, reaching only one segment of the stakeholders. 5.3 Theoretical and Practical Implications This study is a good attempt to demonstrate the mixed approach: content analysis with keyword clustering and island approach within network analytic procedure. The integrated approach of methodology offers a more holistic understanding of the case being studied, with both meth­ods complementing each other. Our study has also offered some practical implications, specifically the strategists in the field. Results from the keyword clusters offer an implication that organisations (hotel brands) are generally the attributes from one of the four clusters. The keywords are representing attributes or values of the hotel brands. These attributes are determined by a set of actors, including business strategies, value propositions and organisational cultures. The interlinks be­tween clusters show that organisations may have attributes from more than one cluster. Organisations can embrace their list of values without being bounded by the clusters of keywords but form their uniqueness as indicated by Gehani (2001). These practical implications are directly useful for managements of hotel chains as well as other managements in understanding the in-depth importance of organisational values with relationship to brand image. The results of the island analysis offer practical impli­cations to hotel brand strategists as well. Organisational values are determined by both internal and external fac­tors, many of them affected by organisational culture (Pfeiffer, Goodstein, & Nolan, 1985). Factors such as chain affiliation, hotel star rating, and size are essential for defining organisational values of a certain hotel (Dief & Font, 2012). Therefore our primary suggestion is to de­termine organisational values through situational analysis before confirming organisational values and then setting organisational strategies on these values. 5.4 Limitations and possibilities of further research This study, however, has some limitations. Since most of the hotel brands in this study are from within Europe, it may be possible that we have missed some regionally big brands outside it, namely those from Asia. These regional brands may also reflect the strong traditional values of the specific culture. Therefore, this study can be extended to the regional level in order to explore the possible links be­tween hotel brands and values. Another option to be con­sidered for further research is changing the environment. Instead of hotel chains it would be potentially interesting to perform similar research in almost any other business field. Such examples may include travel agencies, sports franchises, food related industry and many more. Regard­ing the sample collection approach, we decided to only focus on values that are clearly stated on the hotel brands web pages rather than on other sources of information. 6 Conclusions Results of value clusters identified the values shared among hotel brands within four predominant dimensions, namely the entrepreneurial, stakeholders, moral, and tra­dition. The results from cluster analysis imply the two clusters of values (keywords inside organisational values), entrepreneurial and ethical, to be highly valued by hotel brands. Furthermore, the results from the island analy­sis offer practical implications to hotel brand strategists, namely that values are determined by many factors, in­cluding the scale and market positioning. For future work, it would be more interesting to con­duct a qualitative analysis of the value statements instead of the quantitative research that we have conducted. With the Covid-19 pandemic affecting the tourism sector, it would also be possible to compare the current result with hotel brand values that emerged after the Covid-19 pan­demic. Literature 1Received: 5th December 2020; revised: 16th May 2021; accepted: 10th June 2021 Figure 1: Degree distribution of words in the network of co-occurrence Table 1: Distribution of words frequencies and degree distribution Word Unique frequency % Frequency Degree W-degree excellence 23 27,38 29 101 206 integrity 19 22,62 20 73 148 customer 17 20,24 19 69 123 service 16 19,05 19 80 146 hospitality 15 17,86 15 47 79 respect 13 15,48 13 68 109 responsibility 13 15,48 13 49 82 unique 12 14,29 15 78 120 profitability 12 14,29 15 56 81 culture 12 14,29 14 57 80 business 12 14,29 13 44 65 caring 11 13,10 12 46 76 innovation 11 13,10 11 45 75 future 10 11,90 13 42 53 creativity 10 11,90 10 53 89 wellness 9 10,71 14 57 87 global 9 10,71 12 44 81 comfort 9 10,71 11 41 61 quality 9 10,71 9 67 112 embrace 9 10,71 9 32 48 team 8 9,52 12 41 61 committed 8 9,52 10 60 83 environment 8 9,52 10 20 32 inclusive 8 9,52 9 48 62 personality 8 9,52 8 57 76 historical 7 8,33 8 51 71 intellectual 7 8,33 8 29 47 community 7 8,33 7 52 62 experiences 7 8,33 7 50 65 accountability 6 7,14 9 21 33 design 6 7,14 8 33 51 honesty 6 7,14 6 34 44 atmosphere 5 5,95 7 43 52 cooperation 5 5,95 6 24 25 local 5 5,95 5 35 42 happiness 5 5,95 5 21 26 Unique frequency – the number of occurrences of an observed word in organisational values where occurrences in the same organisational value are counted only once % - the percentage of all possible occurrences Frequency – the number of occurrences of an observed word in organisational values all counted Degree – the number of adjacent words in the network of words W-degree – weighted degree is the sum of weights on links with adjacent words Figure 2: Network of keywords in organisational values of hotel chains clustered with VOS clustering method Figure 3: Islands of size between 3 and 10 in the network of hotel brands Allison, J. 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DOI: 10.1111/jopy.12502 Waltman, L., van Eck, N. J., & Noyons, E. C. M. (2010). A unified approach to mapping and clustering of bib­liometric networks. Journal of Informetrics, 4(4), 629-635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2010.07.002 Wilkins, S., Butt, M. M., & Annabi, C. A. (2018). The in­fluence of organizational identification on employee attitudes and behaviours in multinational higher edu­cation institutions. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 40(1), 48-66. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360080X.2017.1411060 Kristijan Breznik is Associate Professor in Mathematics and Research Methodology at the International School for Social and Business Studies in Celje, Slovenia. His main research interests, beside social network analysis, are data analysis, graph theory, database development, entrepreneurial networks as well as sport statistics. Currently, he is Editor-in-chief of International Journal of Management, Knowledge and Learning and member of the Editorial Boards of some prominent journals. ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8136-9592 Kris Law holds a PhD in Organizational Learning and an MPhil in Machining Processes, both obtained from the City University of Hong Kong. Upon her PhD graduation, she undertook a post-doctoral research scholarship in the Graduate Institute of Industrial Engineering, National Taiwan University on a regional high-tech industry study. Her expertise lies in Organizational Learning and Development (OLD), Technological Innovation and Entrepreneurship (TIE), Engineering Education, and Smart Industrial Initiatives (SII). ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3659-0033 Mitja Gorenak got his Ph.D. in the area of Human Resources Management from Faculty of Organizational Sciences, University of Maribor, he works for Faculty of Tourism, University of Maribor. He is also an adjunct professor at the University of Lapland, specializing in human resources in tourism sector with special interest in values, competencies, and ethical conduct of individuals. He is also a licenced tour guide in Slovenia. ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8786-1959 Razkritje o blagovnih znamkah hotelov: vsebinska analiza povezav z organizacijskimi vrednotami Ozadje/Namen: Clanek proucuje, kako skozi perspektivo organizacijskih vrednot lahko razumemo medsebojno povezavo med blagovnimi znamkami hotelov in njihovo kategorizacijo. Študija predpostavlja, da je pomen organiza­cijskih vrednot v storitvenem sektorju ena od kljucnih sestavin rasti in razvoja organizacije. Metode: Analiza konceptualne vsebine je bila uporabljena na naboru organizacijskih vrednot, ki jih najdemo na spletnih mestih 100 najboljših evropskih hotelskih blagovnih znamk. Za dolocitev grucastih dimenzij organizacijskih vrednot med razlicnimi hotelskimi blagovnimi znamkami so bili uporabljene napredne metode iz analize omrežij. Rezultati: Rezultati so opredelili skupne organizacijske vrednote med hotelskimi blagovnimi znamkami, razvršceni­mi v štiri prevladujoce dimenzije: podjetništvo, deležniki, moralnost in tradicija. Študija je potrdila široko vsebinsko variabilnost organizacijskih vrednot v hotelski industriji Ugotovitve in zakljucki: Analiza posameznih dimenzij je opredelila skupine najpomembnejših besed iz izjav o vrednotah in ugotovila, da sta med razlicnimi blagovnimi znamkami hotelov zelo cenjeni »podjetniška« in »eticna« dimenzija. Nadaljnji pristop analize skupin na ravni blagovnih znamk razkriva tudi, da organizacijske vrednote v tem sektorju dolocajo številni dejavniki, vkljucno z obsegom in tržnim položajem. Rezultati študije ponujajo teoreticne in prakticne ugotovitve, ki bodo v pomoc strategom hotelskih blagovnih znamk, da bi bolje razumeli njihov trenutni in lažje dosegli želeni položaj v sektorju. Kljucne besede: Organizacijske vrednote, Hotelirstvo, Blagovne znamke, Analiza vsebine, Analiza omrežij DOI: 10.2478/orga-2021-0013 Procedural Justice, Perceived Organisational Support, and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour in Business School Elizabeth DOMINIC1, Vijay VICTOR2,3, Robert Jeyakumar NATHAN4, Swetha LOGANATHAN2 1 Saintgits Institute of Management, Kottukulam Hills, Pathamuttam P. O, Kerala, India, 686532, Elizabeth.dominic@saintgits.org (Corresponding Author) 2 CHRIST (Deemed to be University), Hosur Rd, Bhavani Nagar, S.G. Palya, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India, 560029, vijay.victor@christuniversity.in; swetha.l@eco.christuniversity.in 3 College of Business and Economics, University of Johannesburg, PO Box 524, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa 4 Multimedia University, 75450 Melaka, Malaysia, robert.jeyakumar@mmu.edu.my Background/Purpose: The effectiveness of a Business School depends on the extra role behaviours or Organ­isational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) of its committed academics. The social exchange theory postulates that employees tend to display OCB when they know how their organisation would treat them. As B-School academics’ inclination towards OCB is less understood, this study examines the interaction between Procedural Justice (PJ), Perceived Organisational Support (POS) and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) among B-School aca­demics. Methods: A survey was carried out to collect data from B-School academics, 378 responses were collected from B-Schools from the state of Kerala, India. Data validity and reliability analyses, and direct and indirect effects of research variables were tested using Partial Least Square (PLS) path modelling. Results: The results indicate PJ positively influences POS as well as dimensions of the OCB for B-School academ­ics. Contrary to previous OCB studies, this study finds that POS do not significantly relate to Courtesy. The findings also show that POS fully mediates PJ’s relationship with Altruism, Conscientiousness and Civic Virtues of B-School academics. Conclusion: This research explains the dynamics of PJ and POS towards OCB in a B-School setting. The academic setting of this study provides more insight into the relationships and provides insights into enhancing the organi­sational citizenship behaviour of academics in enhancing educational outcomes. Further, it also adds to existing understanding of organisational behaviour theory. Keywords: Organisational citizenship behaviour, Perceived organisational support, Procedural justice, Business school; India 1 Introduction The progress of organisations depends on the willing­ness of its employees to go beyond their role requirements (Nazir et.al, 2019). This tendency often described as Or­ganisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) is defined as “individual behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognised by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organisation”’ (Organ, 1988, p.3). OCB is often hy­pothesised to influence organisational effectiveness pos­itively (Greenidge & Coyne, 2014). The various dimen­sions of OCB were found to be linked to organisational performance in various settings (Al-Madadha et.al, 2021; Patnaik & Shukla, 2020; Kim et.al, 2013). From a theoret­ical perspective, OCB displayed by employees cannot be explained using the motivational antecedents that explain role behaviours as these are subtle immeasurable actions that come from a sense of social responsibility and com­munity (Singh & Singh, 2013). Among the centres of excellence and departments in a university, the Business School (B-School) is often regard­ed as a prestigious unit that promotes business programs to graduate students and practitioners. The quality and brand of the B-School often reflects the success and image of a university. Most often, B-School’s performance that is de­scribed and measured as ‘prescribed by task roles’, though necessary, is not sufficient for predicting the overall ef­fectiveness of a B-School. The OCB displayed by teach­ers was found to be associated with the effectiveness of the school at large (Somech & Obayon, 2019). Similarly, Zeinabadi and Salehi (2011) showed that higher levels of OCB among teachers contributed to innovative teaching practices and increased support for students. Academics with higher OCB will be willing to spend extra time for their institute or for the students and will be voluntarily going out of their way to carry out the institute’s activities (DiPaola & Neves, 2009). In B-Schools specifically, greater emphasis is placed on academics. OCB is expected from the academics in faculty as the industry is growing more competitive now more than ever before. Several studies have shown that the increased academic stress among B-School academ­ics affects their performance (Miller et al., 2011; Baner­jee & Mehta, 2016). Teaching stress, work overload and poor interpersonal relationships are identified as the most pressing issues among B-School faculty members (Baner­jee & Mehta, 2016). Poor interpersonal relationship leads to job dissatisfaction and eventually increases the attrition rate (Kernodle & Noble, 2013; Banerjee & Mehta, 2016; Noble, 2006). Further, Somech and Obayon (2019) state that context plays an important role in determining OCB of employees. The Indian context, in particular, is unique in the sense that despite being a collectivistic culture, there is a growing sense of individualism among young people who are taking up professional courses in management and engineering that are modelled according to the standards and work culture of the West (Gupta & Singh, 2013). Ad­ditionally, the ways in which employees are treated trick­les down to the ways in which they treat their subordinates (Hon & Lu, 2010; Somech & Obayon, 2019). The OCB among B-school academics is bound to have an effect on the students who go on to work for other organisations. Therefore, OCB and its antecedents among B-school aca­demics presents a novel area for examination with various implications. Empirical literature on the social exchange predictors of OCB among educators is limited (Zeinabadi & Salehi, 2011). In the context of B-School, there is a lack of studies in the area of PJ, POS and OCB. Thus, this study inves­tigates the OCB of academics of B-Schools in India. In examining the antecedents to OCB, this study takes pro­cedural justice (PJ) and perceived organisational support (POS) as having a significant impact. PJ seems to have a significant influence on job satisfaction, job stress and the organisational commitment of the employees (Lambert et al., 2007). Meta analyses indicate that the employees ex­hibit organisational commitment behaviour when they feel that they are being treated fairly by the institution and their superiors (Pignata et al., 2016). The social exchange the­ory postulates that the norm of reciprocity is an important factor determining the display of OCB (Gupta & Singh, 2013). Several studies argue that POS helps in building reciprocity among employees as they feel they need to give back to organisations for supporting them and their growth (Jiang & Law, 2013; Paillé et.al, 2013). This also portrays that POS and PJ largely influence OCB. There­fore, this study primarily aims to examine the interaction of B-school academics’ Organisational Citizenship Behav­iour (OCB) with Procedural Justice (PJ) and Perceived Or­ganisational Support (POS). 2 Literature Review This section reviews the existing literature in the field of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) to provide an overview of existing works relating to Procedural jus­tice (PJ) and Perceived Organisational Support (POS), and especially on the potential mediation role of POS in the OCB framework. Following this, the paper constructs the hypotheses forwarded to test both direct and the POS me­diated impact of PJ on OCB. 2.1 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour OCB is defined as “individual behaviour that is dis­cretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the for­mal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organisation” (Organ, 1988, p.3). Since OCBs are beyond the stated job requirements (Bateman & Organ, 1983), they cannot be imposed nor can their absence be officially reprimanded (Organ, 1988). Or­gan (1988, 1990) identified five dimensions to OCB and these included altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy and civic virtue. Recently, Halbesleben and Bel­lairs (2016), taking an individual’s perspective, describe OCB as a set of behaviours which provide them “the best opportunity to achieve their future goals with respect to work”. Podsakoff et al. (2009) pointed out that, although many researchers use different evaluative dimensions, one of the most common measurement methods were the five dimensions proposed by Organ (1988, 1990)- altru­ism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy and civic virtue. Altruism can be explained as voluntary behaviours to improve others’ performance by helping them (Erdogan & Bedük, 2013). Conscientiousness expresses the behav­iours that are beyond the minimum roles expected from an employee (Yildiz, 2014). Sportsmanship is defined as the avoidance of complaint even in uneasy situations and the willingness to work in a positive working environment (Tokgöz & Seymen, 2013). Courtesy could be defined as the responsible behaviours between the employees. Civic virtue is related to active participation in organisational de­cisions and taking responsibility even without being asked to (Podsakoff et.al, 1990). The body of literature on OCB has grown significant­ly over the past three decades with results in support of the role of OCB in a broad set of desirable individual and organisational outcomes, including better employee per­formance and increased quality and quantity of unit-lev­el production (Organ et.al, 2006). The demonstration of OCB has been considered indispensable for the successful functioning of an organisation in a business setting charac­terized by flattened organisational structures, rivalry from international economies, and increased employee autono­my and accountability (Podsakoff et.al, 2009). Among ed­ucators, empirical research has identified trust and self-ef­ficacy of the teacher to be important determinants of OCB (Choong et.al, 2019). 2.2 Procedural Justice Procedural justice (PJ), a component of Organisational justice (OJ), refers to employees’ perceptions regarding the fairness of the policies and procedures used to make deci­sions regarding the allocations of organisational resources (Colquitt, 2001). Gupta and Singh (2013), combined the conceptualisation given by Thibaut and Walker (1975) and Leventhal et.al (1980) to define procedural justice as com­prising two facets. The first aspect is related to the fairness in procedures that are defined in terms of “consistency, lack of bias, correctability, representation, accuracy and ethicality”. The second aspect pertains to employee per­ception of “having a voice in decision making and influ­ence of outcomes of such decisions”. According to them, this distinction becomes significant in the Indian context as the “high power distance” creates a situation where despite the procedures being fair, Indian employees may still not have a say in the decision making process. Of the various dimensions of justice, PJ has been established to be a stable and strong predictor of OCBs (Jiang & Law, 2013). Extensive research on the dimen­sionality of OJ has shown that the different dimensions of the construct have different effects on employee behaviour (Gupta & Singh, 2013; Zeinabadi & Salehi, 2011; Moor­man et.al, 1998). PJ as a component of organisational jus­tice is relational as it depends on the nature of relationship between the organisation and the employee. Employee-or­ganisational relationships in collectivist cultures such as India tend to be more personal than the West, making a relational dimension of OJ more relevant (Gupta & Singh, 2013). Therefore, PJ as a dimension is more relevant than the construct in its entirety. 2.3 Perceived Organisational Support POS is defined as “a general perception concerning the extent to which the organisation values (employees’) general contributions and cares for their well-being” (Ei­senberger et.al, 1990). It can be seen as the sensitivity and opinion of employees regarding the extent to which their involvement is valued and recognized by their organisa­tions (Krishnan & Mary, 2012). Similarly, POS would represent the socio-emotional resources that the employ­ees perceive as being offered by their organisation to as­sist them in the day-to-day work performance (Wong et.al, 2015). POS, thus, forms the foundation of reciprocity from a social exchange perspective and contributes to a belief among employees that they will be treated fairly in the future and that the organisation will contribute to their growth (Singh & Singh, 2013). A majority of empirical works related to POS have focused on its role in employee retention (Arasanmi & Krishna, 2019). POS also has an important role to play with regard to work-family enrichment that allows them to develop commitment towards their employment as it is a means to provide for and support their families (Ghislieri et al., 2017). The examination of POS’ relationship with OCB and the influence of PJ have not been extensively examined in earlier works relating to academics. However, there are theoretical justifications for the inclusion of POS in the examination of the aforementioned relationships. From a theoretical perspective, the social exchange theory applies the norm of reciprocity to explain POS (DeCon­inck, 2010). Arguing from the line of thought presented by Gupta and Singh (2013), reciprocity is one of the pathways explaining OCB. Therefore, POS is introduced as a rele­vant construct in the framework of this research in relation to understanding its impact towards the OCB dynamics at a B-School. 2.4 Procedural Justice and Perceived Organisational Support Several studies have documented a strong positive re­lationship between PJ and POS and have also established that PJ predicts POS (Wong et.al, 2013; DeConinck, 2010; Rhoades and Eisenberger, 2002). The social exchange re­lationship between the management and the employees is found to be influenced by PJ (Tekleab et al., 2011). This relationship, however, is mediated by POS, indicating the existence of a relationship between PJ and POS. Eisen­berger et.al (1986) hypothesised that fair treatment deter­mines the POS of employees. This is due to the creation of a perception that the organisation is concerned about their well-being (DeConinck, 2010). Further, Nazir et.al (2019) explain that the existence of high PJ implies that employ­ees will also feel supported by the organisation, indicated by high POS, resulting in higher levels of commitment and identification with the goals and objectives of the organi­sation. Thus, based on the findings from these studies, a direct relationship between PJ and POS is hypothesized in H1; Hypothesis 1: PJ positively impacts POS of academics at B-School. 2.5 Procedural Justice and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Dimensions Researchers hypothesise that employees’ perceptions about organisational fairness and justice plays a vital role in encouraging their OCB (Organ, 1990). PJ has a positive effect on factors such as innovative behaviour and affective commitment towards the organisation (Nazir et al., 2019). Of the organisational justice dimensions, PJ was found to be a stable and consistent predictor of OCB (Jiang & Law, 2013). The relationship between PJ and OCB dimensions has been researched extensively in various contexts. Gupta and Singh (2013) analysed the influence of PJ and the 5 dimensions of OCB in the Indian context. Zeinabadi and Salehi (2011) investigated the role of PJ in the OCB of pri­mary teachers in Tehran. Hon and Lu (2010) examined the relationship between expatriate PJ and various constructs including altruism towards expatriates. The effect of PJ on different dimensions of OCB were found to be different (Jiang & Law, 2013). The relation­ship between PJ and conscientiousness was explored in the studies of Tepper and Taylor (2003), Ehrhart (2004) and Gupta and Singh (2013). The influence of PJ on courte­sy and civic virtue has been examined by Moorman et.al (1993) and Tepper and Taylor (2003). Gupta and Singh (2013) identified a positive influence of PJ on OCB di­mensions- sportsmanship and civic virtue. Jiang and Law (2013) postulate two mechanisms through which PJ results in OBC. The first pathway involves reciprocal employee behaviour as employees try to balance the social exchange of employment for the ‘benefit’ given to them by the or­ganisation by engaging in extra-role behaviours. The sec­ond pathway is an assurance of reward where employees feel that that PJ ensures that their efforts are rewarded in the future by the organisation. Thus, the research examining the contribution of PJ to OCB provides convincing evidence that employees will be more likely to perform extra role behaviours if they feel the organisation has treated them fairly. Based on the dis­cussions above, the following hypotheses are forwarded for testing. Hypothesis 1a: PJ positively impacts Altruism of aca­demics at B-School. Hypothesis 1b: PJ positively impacts Conscientious­ness of academics at B-School. Hypothesis 1c: PJ positively impacts Sportsmanship of academics at B-School. Hypothesis 1d: PJ positively impacts Courtesy of aca­demics at B-School. Hypothesis1e: PJ positively impacts Civic Virtue of ac­ademics at B-School. 2.6 Perceived Organisational Support and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Dimensions Organisational support theory (Eisenberger et.al, 1986) suggests that, following the norm of reciprocity, employees would display OCB in return for POS as it meets many of the socio-emotional needs of employees. Extending from the argument of Jiang and Law (2013), reciprocity is one of the channels for OBC and POS helps in building this reciprocity. The findings of the study by Paillé et.al (2013) posits that employees engage in proactive behaviours as a result of reciprocity between the actions of the organisa­tion and their own. When the employee perceives that the employer shows concern for their well-being, they would feel indebted to the organisation and respond favourably to the organisation in the form of positive behaviour such as the OCB (Pohl & Paillé, 2011). Singh and Singh (2013) argue that employees perform OCB anticipating that they will be rewarded in the future because of high POS. Fur­ther, an advantageous environment creates the pressure for employees to reciprocate (Singh & Singh, 2013). There­fore, reciprocity can be understood as a pathway for ex­plaining the POS and OCB relationship. Riggle et al. (2009) identified a moderate positive association between POS and contextual performance, interpreted as OCB. Similarly, a positive and significant relationship between POS and OCB was established by Barzoki and Rezaei (2017). An extensive examination of the relation of POS and OCB dimensions showed that there is a significant positive relationship for all five dimensions of OCB (Singh & Singh, 2013). Hence, this research for­wards the following hypotheses to test the impacts of POS towards OCB dimensions for academics at B-School. Hypothesis 2a: POS positively impacts Altruism of ac­ademics at B-School. Hypothesis 2b: POS positively impacts Conscientious­ness of academics at B-School. Hypothesis 2c: POS positively impacts Sportsmanship of academics at B-School. Hypothesis 2d: POS positively impacts Courtesy of ac­ademics at B-School. Hypothesis 2e: POS positively impacts Civic Virtue of academics at B-School. 3 Research framework The theoretical model framed for this study is illus­trated in Figure 1. This study posits that PJ has a positive impact on OCB directly and indirectly through POS. The framework also seeks to test for the positive impact of PJ on POS, and positive impact of POS on OCB dimensions. 3.1 Path Modelling and Data Analysis Partial least Squares based Structural Equation Mod­elling was used for the analysis of the model formulated. The primary reason for choosing PLS SEM as the main research tool was that the data used in the study do not sat­isfy the normality assumption which is one of the prereq­uisites for using the Covariance based Structural Equation Modelling (CB-SEM) (Astrachan et.al, 2014). The model formulated was tested for construct validity, convergent validity and discriminant validity. The signifi­cance of the paths was explored using the bootstrapping method (resampling = 5000). Bootstrapping uses a set of non-parametric evaluation criteria to estimate the signifi­cance levels and t values for the paths (Hair et al., 2016). SmartPLS software 3.0 was used to perform the path mod­elling and test the research hypotheses. 3.2 Data Collection and Sampling Data were gathered from academics from differ­ent Business Schools in the state Kerala, India in 2020. Snowball sampling was used to reach out to over 400 ac­ademics, from which 378 of them returned the completed surveys. This response rate of 94.5 percent was primarily due to the nature of sample and sampling methods applied. The sample size for the study was determined using the Inverse-square root method and the Gamma-exponential method provided by WarpPLS software. The minimum absolute significant path coefficient was set as 0.18, (min­imum significant path coefficient for this model) and the significance level and power level used were set as 0.050 and 0.800 respectively. As per the results, the inverse square root method suggests using a minimum sample size of 242 and the minimum sample to be used as per the Gamma exponential method is 228. The sample size used for this study is 378, which is more than adequate based on the above results. The demographic details of the sample are described in Table 1. The survey contained measures of procedural justice, perceived organisational support and organisational citi­zenship behaviour adapted from various studies and adapt­ed to fit academics at B-School. Procedural Justice was measured using 5 items as given by Niehoff and Moorman (1993). Perceived Organisational Support was measured using 9 items as given by Eisenberger et.al (1986). Organ­isational Citizenship Behaviour was taken as comprising 5 dimensions- altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy and civic virtue. These were measured using the items given by Podsakoff et.al., (1990). The items includ­ed in the survey questionnaire from the above-mentioned scales are included in the appendix. 4 Results 4.1 Demographic Profile of the Respondents The demographic profile of the respondents is present­ed in Table 1. Out of the 378 respondents, 219 (57.9 %) are male and 159 (42.1 %) are female, indicating male academics are in general more in number. Nearly half of the participants were below the ages of 35 and their proportion declined with increase in age. Nearly 75 percent of the participants were assistant professors. This was also reflected in terms of the experience where a large segment of sample had less than 9 years of experience. The similarities in these variables are evident from the factors or age and experi­ence relationship that explains designation of B-school academics. 4.2 Assessment of the Measurement Model The assessment of the measurement model was per­formed using convergent validity, discriminant validity and internal consistency reliability as suggested by Hair et.al (2016). Average Variance Extracted (AVE), factor loadings and Cronbach’s alpha were used to evaluate con­vergent validity. The Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) tech­nique was used to test the discriminant validity of the mod­el. The internal consistency reliability was checked using Cronbach’s Alpha and Jöreskog’s rho (.c). The Average Variance Extracted (AVEs) of each la­tent variable is examined to assess the convergent validity of the model. The AVE values are required to be higher than 0.50 to confirm the convergent validity of the model (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). The results given in Table 2 shows that the AVE values are above 0.50, hence the convergent validity is confirmed. The internal consistency and relia­bility of the model are measured using Cronbach’s alpha and Composite Reliability. The Jöreskog’s rho (.c) repre­sents composite reliability for each latent variable (Bagoz­zi & Yi, 1988). Cronbach Alpha and Composite Reliability values above 0.70 show adequate internal consistency and reliability. Table 4.1. shows that the Cronbach Alpha and Composite Reliability values are higher than 0.70 imply­ing satisfactory internal consistency and reliability. The indicator reliability was tested using outer loadings. The acceptable threshold loading value is 0.70. However, Hul­land (1999) states that factor loadings in the range between 0.40 to 0.70 is also considered acceptable in exploratory research. Having confirmed adequate convergent validity, indicator reliability and internal consistency and reliabili­ty, the model was tested for discriminant validity. The HTMT technique was used to test the discriminant validity of the model as it is considered as a better meas­ure than the other prevalent techniques (Henseler et al., 2016). HTMT values should be below 0.85 or 0.90 (Kline, 2011). The lower the HTMT value of a pair of constructs, the more distinct they are. Table 4.2 gives the Hetero­trait-Monotrait ratio of correlations. The results given in Table 3 specifies that the values are well below the threshold value of 0.85. Hence, the dis­criminant validity of the model has been met. 4.3 Assessment of the Structural Model The structural model was assessed for the presence of collinearity issues using the Variance Inflation Fac­tor (VIF). The VIF values were below the recommended threshold value of 3.0 (O’ Brien, 2007), specifying that there is no issue of collinearity in the model. Chin (1998) classified the R Squared values for endogenous latent variables as 0.67 (Substantial), 0.33 (Moderate) and 0.19 (Weak) in SEM models. The R Square value for the con­struct perceived organisational support is 0.18. For this study, only the procedural justice dimension of the con­struct organisational justice and fairness is considered, hence the low R squared value. The Cohen’s f square ratio was also assessed to check how substantial each direct effect is. Cohen (1998) states that an f2 value below of 0.02 as unsubstantial, 0.02 – 0.015 as weak, 0.15 – 0.35 as moderate and above 0.35 as strong effect. The relationship between procedural justice and perceived organisational support has a moderate effect of 0.22 and the construct perceived organisational support has a weak effect on all other constructs except the con­struct courtesy for which the effect is unsubstantial. The research model with outer loadings and path coefficients along with the significance levels is given in Figure 3. Table 4 gives the standard bootstrap results with t val­ues. The proposed hypotheses were tested for significance using the bootstrapping (resample = 5000) results. The results show that there is a significant positive rela­tionship between procedural justice and perceived organi­sational support (ß = 0.427, p value = 0.000). Hypothesis 1 is supported based on this result. The relationship between procedural justice and altruism is however not significant, hence hypothesis 1a is rejected. Procedural justice has a significant relationship with conscientiousness only at a 10 percent significance level, and courtesy (ß = 0.153, p value = 0.011). Based on the results, hypotheses 1b and 1d are supported. Procedural justice has a significant relationship with sportsmanship (ß = 0.113, p value = 0.024) and civic virtues (ß = 0.019, p value = 0.813). So, hypotheses 1c and 1e are rejected. Perceived organisational support has a significant positive relationship with altruism (ß = 0.192, p value = 0.001), conscientiousness (ß = 0.204, p value = 0.001), sportsmanship (ß = 0.121, p value = 0.040) and civic virtues (ß = 0.248, p value = 0.000). Therefore, hy­potheses 2a, 2b, 2c and 2e are supported. The relationship between perceived organisational support and courtesy is found negative and not significant, hence hypothesis 2d is rejected. The results of the mediation effect assessed using in­direct effects are given in Table 5. Based on the results, it can be construed that perceived organisational support fully mediates the relationship between PJ and altruism (ß = 0.082, p value = 0.004); PJ and Conscientiousness (ß = 0.087, p value = 0.003); PJ and civic virtues (ß = 0.106, p value = 0.002). No mediation effect of POS was observed in the relationship between PJ and sportsmanship (ß = 0.052, p value = 0.056), as well as PJ and courtesy (ß = -0.0152, p value = 0.583). The goodness of model fit reported in PLS SEM is based on the bootstrapping results, which help identify any significant differences between the empirical model and the implied correlation matrix (Henseler et al., 2016). The standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR), the unweighted least squares discrepancy (dULS) and the geodesic discrepancy (dG) are used to assess the model’s goodness of fit. The results are shown in Table 6. These three measures quantify the deviation of the empirical cor­relation matrix from the model-implied correlation matrix. The cut off for SRMR is 0.08 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The SRMR for the model is less than 0.08 and the values for dULS, dG, as per the results show adequate goodness of fit. 5 Discussion The bootstrapping results show that procedural justice has a significant positive relationship with POS, sports­manship and courtesy. These results are corroborated by other studies in various contexts (Nazir et al., 2019; Dan­iel, 2016; Al-Quraan & Khasawneh, 2017). The results indicate that fair treatment of employees instils sportsman­ship and courteous behaviour in employees that could ulti­mately benefit the organisation. Procedural justice did not seem to have a direct significant relationship with altruism, civic virtues and conscientiousness. However, a significant mediation effect was observed in PJs relationship with al­truism, conscientiousness and civic virtues when POS was used as a mediating variable. From the bootstrapping results, it could be seen that the perceived organisational support has a positive and sig­nificant relationship with all independent variables except courtesy. It is not surprising that relationship between POS and courtesy was found not significant, as courtesy dis­played in an organisation, need not depend on one’s per­ception regarding the support that one receives from the organisation, rather it might be the result of the presence of a personality trait or may be the result of one’s upbringing. Prosocial motivation was also found to be playing a role in eliciting courtesy (Lazauskaite-Zabielske, Urbanaviciute, & Bagdziuniene, 2015). Collectivists value social order, security and group harmony. Hence, it can be expected that they will be motivated to engage in courtesy behav­iour in order to prevent chaos or conflict from happening. Such courtesy behaviour could be encouraged more in a high-power distance culture, which is typical of India, where the study was conducted, which emphasises author­ity (Schwartz, 1999) and conformity (Wang et.al, 2013). From the mediation analysis, stronger support was found for the mediating effect and influence of PJ on OCB. Except for courtesy, POS significantly mediates the rela­tionship between procedural justice and different dimen­sions of OCB. POS fully mediates PJs relationship with altruism, sportsmanship and civic virtues implying that the perceived support from the organisation in ensuring fairness in the work environment motivates the B-school teachers to display a selfless enthusiastic behaviour to­wards the institution. POS partially mediates PJ’s relation­ship with conscientiousness. These results further bolster the argument that organisational support plays a crucial role in influencing OCB for academics. 6 Conclusion and Recommendations for Future Research The objective of this study was to test a plausible explanation for why and how PJ influences OCB in a B-School environment among academics. The mediation effect of POS in the relationship between the PJ and OCB was also measured and analysed. The relationship between PJ and POS is reinforced by the results of this study. POS is found to have a positive and significant relationship with altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship and civic vir­tue dimensions of OCB among B-School academics. But the relationship between POS and courtesy was found not significant among academics in B-School. PJ had a sig­nificant relationship with sportsmanship and courtesy. The study concludes with a note that OCB among academics in B schools could be improved by increasing organisational support and fair treatment. This study provides insights in understanding the dy­namics of OCB in an academic setting which adds to the current understanding of organisational behaviour theory. It assists in the development of measures to evaluate OCB of academics and can be used to create better educational outcomes for business school students. This study is lim­ited to samples from B-Schools in the state of Kerala in India and this may limit the generalizability of the find­ings to other communities due to different socio-economic and cultural factors. Further studies can be carried out to test the research framework put forth in this study at other institutions and among different types of learning institu­tions, as well as in other regions. Literature 1Received: 17th January 2021; revised: 23rd June 2020; accepted: 5th July 2021 Figure 1: The research model Table 1: Demographic Profile of the Respondents Variables Frequency Percentage Gender 1. Male 219 57.90 2. Female 159 42.10 Total 378 100 Age 1. Below 30 92 24.30 2. 31 – 35 115 30.40 3. 36 – 40 59 15.60 4. 41 – 45 49 13.00 5. 46 – 50 14 3.70 6. Above 50 49 13.00 Total 378 100 Designation 1. Assistant Professor 280 74.10 2. Associate Professor 53 14.00 3. Professor 45 11.90 Total 378 100 Total Years of Academic Experience 1. Less than or equal to 3 Years 97 25.70 2. 4 – 6 Years 89 23.50 3. 7 – 9 Years 67 17.70 4. 10 – 12 Years 37 9.80 5. Above 12 Years 88 23.30 Total 378 100 Table 2: Outer Loadings, Cronbach’s Alpha and Average Variance Extracted Constr Items Outer Loadings Jöreskog’s rho (.c) Cronbach’s alpha(a) Average Variance Extracted Procedural Justice PJ1 – PJ5 0.70 – 0.89 0.923 0.895 0.708 Perceived Organi­sational Support POS1 -POS9 0.76 – 0.87 0.948 0.939 0.672 Altruism A1 – A5 0.67 – 0.83 0.867 0.790 0.567 Conscientiousness C1 – C3 0.77 – 0.83 0.849 0.732 0.651 Sportsmanship S1 – S4 0.80 – 0.84 0.880 0.798 0.709 Courtesy CY1 – CY5 0.65 – 0.82 0.872 0.816 0.579 Civic Virtue CV1 – CV4 0.65 – 0.83 0.861 0.790 0.609 Table 3: Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratio of correlations Construct PJ POS Alt C S CY CV Procedural Justice Perceived Organisa­tional Support 0.4570 Altruism 0.1788 0.2393 Conscientiousness 0.2416 0.3020 0.4247 Sportsmanship 0.1934 0.2061 0.2836 0.4114 Courtesy 0.1540 0.0309 0.3105 0.3413 0.0542 Civic Virtue 0.1532 0.2728 0.3739 0.5404 0.2126 0.4190 Figure 2: Research Model with Path Coefficients and Significance Levels Table 4: Bootstrapping Direct Effect Results Direct Effect Original coefficient (ß) Standard bootstrap results Mean value t-value p-value (2-sided) PJ -> POS 0.427 0.430 7.973 0.000 PJ -> Altruism 0.082 0.082 1.262 0.220 PJ -> Conscientiousness 0.113 0.113 1.955 0.057 PJ -> Sportsmanship 0.131 0.133 1.951 0.024 PJ -> Courtesy 0.153 0.166 2.489 0.011 PJ -> Civic Virtues 0.019 0.018 0.488 0.813 POS -> Altruism 0.192 0.200 3.236 0.001 POS-> Conscientiousness 0.204 0.208 3.423 0.001 POS -> Sportsmanship 0.121 0.144 2.335 0.040 POS -> Courtesy -0.038 -0.040 -0.564 0.553 POS -> Civic Virtues 0.248 0.257 3.562 0.000 Note: PJ: Procedural Justice; POS: Perceived Organisational Support Table 5: Mediation Analysis Indirect Effect Original coeffi­cient Standard bootstrap results Mean value t-value p-value (2-sided) Mediation Effect PJ -> POS -> Altruism 0.082 0.086 2.909 0.004 Full Mediation PJ ->POS -> Conscientiousness 0.087 0.090 2.923 0.003 Full Mediation PJ -> POS -> Sportsmanship 0.052 0.055 1.912 0.056 No Mediation PJ ->POS ->Courtesy -0.016 -0.017 0.574 0.566 No Mediation PJ -> POS -> Civic Virtues 0.106 0.111 3.128 0.002 Full Mediation Note: PJ: Procedural Justice; POS: Perceived Organisational Support Table 6: Goodness of Fit (Estimated Model) Value HI95 HI99 SRMR 0.0566 0.0468 0.0604 dULS 2.0182 1.3824 2.2992 dG 0.6930 0.5845 0.6774 Al-Madadha, A., Al-Adwan, A. 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Her areas of interests include leadership, personality, impression management and organizational citizenship behavior. Vijay Victor is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Economics, CHRIST (Deemed to be University), Central Campus, Bangalore, India. He is also attached to the College of Economics and Business, University of Johannesburg, as a research associate. He obtained his PhD from the Szent Istvan University, Hungary under the Stipendium Hungaricum framework, a fully-funded PhD fellowship granted by the Hungarian Government. He was also awarded the prestigious Erasmus Mundus Fellowship instituted by the European Commission in 2014. His areas of interest include behavioural economics, macroeconomic policies, and econometrics. Robert Jeyakumar Nathan is Deputy Director at the Centre for Lifelong Education and Learning Innovation (LEARN) at Multimedia University, Malaysia; and the Head of Academic Innovation and Product Intelligence. He lecturers at the business faculty and conducts design thinking and innovation training for academics and corporations. His research interests include Marketing and Information Technology; Electronic Commerce; Leadership; Sustainability, Multicultural Studies and Financial Technologies. Swetha Loganathan is a Ph.D. scholar at the Department of Economics, CHRIST (Deemed to be University), Central Campus, Bangalore, India. She has qualified for the Junior Research Fellowship of the University Grants Commission, Government of India. She has published in the areas of international trade and macroeconomics. Her areas of interest include international trade liberalisation, open economy macroeconomics and development debates on globalisation. Proceduralna pravicnost, zaznana organizacijska podpora in identifikacija zaposlenih z organizacijo v po­slovnih šolah Ozadje/namen: Uspešnost poslovne šole je odvisna od pripravljenosti zaposlenih, da prevzamejo dodatne vloge v organizaciji, torej od identifikacije zaposlenih z organizacijo. Teorija socialne izmenjave predvideva, da zaposleni ponavadi izkazujejo identifikacijo z organizacijo, ko vedo, kako bi se njihova organizacija obnašala do njih. Ker je nagnjenje uciteljev v poslovnih šolah k identifikaciji z organizacijo malo raziskano, ta študija preucuje interakcijo med proceduralno pravicnostjo (PJ), zaznano organizacijsko podporo (POS) in identifikacijo zaposlenih z organizacijo (OCB) med ucitelji in raziskovalci v poslovnih šolah. Metode: Z anketiranjem 378 zaposlenih v poslovnih šolah v državi Kerala v Indiji smo zbrali empiricne podatke. Analize veljavnosti in zanesljivosti podatkov ter neposredni in posredni ucinki raziskovalnih spremenljivk so bili pre­izkušeni z modeliranjem po metodi delnega najmanjšega kvadrata (PLS). Rezultati: Rezultati kažejo, da PJ pozitivno vpliva na POS in dimenzije OCB pri uciteljih in raziskovalcih v poslovnih šolah. V nasprotju s prejšnjimi študijami OCB ta študija ugotavlja, da POS ni bistveno povezan z vljudnostjo. Ugoto­vitve tudi kažejo, da POS v celoti posreduje odnos PJ z altruizmom, vestnostjo in državljanskimi vrlinami akademikov v poslovnih šolah. Zakljucek: Raziskava pojasnjuje dinamiko PJ in POS v smeri OCB v okolju poslovnih šol. Akademsko okolje te štu­dije omogoca vecji vpogled v odnose in vpogled v krepitev organizacijskega obnašanja akademikov pri izboljšanju izobraževalnih rezultatov. Poleg tega prispeva tudi k obstojecemu razumevanju teorije organizacijskega vedenja. Kljucne besede: Organizacijsko državljansko vedenje, Zaznana organizacijska podpora, Proceduralna pravicnost, Poslovna šola, Indija Appendix A: Items used in the questionnaire Construct Item Code Items Adapted From Procedural Justice (PJ) PJ1 PJ2 PJ3 PJ4 PJ5 My immediate supervisor makes sure that all employ­ee concerns are heard before job decisions are made. To make job decisions, my immediate supervisor col­lects accurate and complete information. My immediate supervisor clarifies decisions and pro­vides additional information when requested by em­ployees. All job decisions are applied consistently across all af­fected employees Employees are allowed to challenge or appeal job de­cisions made by the immediate supervisor Niehoff & Moorman (1993) Perceived Organisational Support (POS) POS 1 POS 2 POS 3 POS 4 POS 5 POS 6 POS 7 POS 8 POS 9 The organisation values my contribution to its well-being. The organisation strongly considers my goals and values. Help is available from the organisation when I have a problem. The organisation cares about my well-being. The organisation is willing to help me when I need a special favor. The organisation cares about my general satisfaction at work. The organisation cares about my opinions. The organisation takes pride in my accomplishments at work. The organisation tries to make my job as interesting as possible. Eisenberger, Hunting­don, Hutchinson and Sowa (1986) Altruism ALT 1 ALT 2 ALT 3 ALT 4 ALT 5 I help others who have been absent I help others who have heavy work loads. I help orient new people even though it is not re­quired of me to do that. I willingly help others who have work related prob­lems. I am always ready to lend a helping hand to those around me. Podsakoff, MacKen­zie, Moorman and Fetter (1990) Conscientiousness C 1 C 2 C 3 I obey company rules and regulations even when no one is watching. I am one of the most conscientious (showing great care and attention when carrying out a task) employ­ees of this organisation. I believe in giving an honest day’s work for an honest day’s pay. Podsakoff, MacKen­zie, Moorman and Fetter (1990) Sportsmanship S 1 S 2 S 3 S 4 I always focus on what’s wrong, rather than positive side*. I tend to make ‘mountains out of molehills’ (making problems bigger than they are)*. I always find fault with what the organisation is do­ing*. I am the classic ‘squeaky wheel’ (one who complains) that always needs greasing*. Podsakoff, MacKen­zie, Moorman and Fetter (1990) Courtesy CY 1 CY 2 CY 3 CY 4 CY 5 I take steps to try to prevent problems with other workers. I am mindful of how my behaviour affects other peo­ple’s jobs. I do not abuse the rights of others. I try to avoid creating problems for coworkers. I consider the impact of my actions on coworkers. Podsakoff, MacKen­zie, Moorman and Fetter (1990) Civic Virtue CV 1 CV 2 CV 3 CV 4 I attend meetings that are not mandatory (compul­sory), but are considered important. I attend functions that are not required, but helps the organisation’s image. I keep myself up - to - date regarding the changes in the organisation. I read and keep up with organisation announce­ments, memos, circulars and so on. Podsakoff, MacKen­zie, Moorman and Fetter (1990) *Reverse Coded Items DOI: 10.2478/orga-2021-0014 Effect of Implicit Voice Theories on Employee Constructive Voice and Defensive Silence: A Study in Education and Health Sector Safiye SAHIN1, Bilal ÇANKIR2, Bahar SEREZ ARSLAN3 1 Istanbul Medeniyet University, Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Healthcare Management, Istanbul, Tur­key, safiye.sahin@medeniyet.edu.tr 2 Istanbul Medeniyet University, Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Healthcare Management, Istanbul, Tur­key, bilal.cankir@medeniyet.edu.tr 3 Kirklareli University, Healthcare Services Vocational School, Kirklareli, Turkey, bahar.serezarslan@klu.edu.tr Background and Purpose: Implicit voice theories are the beliefs that are related to employee silence. This study aims to examine the implicit voice theories (don’t embarrass the boss in public, negative career consequences of voice) as predictors of employee defensive silence and employee constructive voice. Methodology: This study is a cross-sectional and an analytical study. The sample of this study consisted of 494 participants working in the healthcare sector (n = 277) and education sector (n = 217) in Turkey. We performed linear regression analyses to test our hypotheses. Results: We found that power distance and negative career consequences of voice predicted employee defensive silence while proactive personality and the belief of “don’t embarrass the boss in public” predicted employee con­structive voice. These results confirm the effect of implicit voice theories on employee silence and voice. Conclusions: Employees holding the belief of “don’t embarrass the boss in public” and “negative career conse­quences of voice” tend to remain silent or prefer to speak with their managers privately, which prevent sharing ideas in group interactions in organization. Therefore, managers must combat the belief that speaking up is risky. In order to change these beliefs in a positive way, they should make their subordinates feel that speaking up is a valuable behavior in organization. Keywords: Implicit voice theories, Employee defensive silence, Employee constructive voice, Power distance, Pro­active personality, Healthcare sector, Education sector 1 Introduction In today’s rapidly increasing competitive conditions, the need for employees who are committed to the organi­zation and who show high performance is increasing. The way for businesses to cope with increasing competition will be possible if their employees are responsible, innova­tive and they constantly improve their work. For this, em­ployees should participate in the decision-making mech­anisms, express their suggestions that will improve their work, and report the mistakes to the management. How­ever, studies have shown that employees sometimes prefer to remain silent to speak up due to individual and organ­izational reasons (e.g., Chou and Chang, 2020; Takhsha, Barahimi, Adelpanah, and Salehzadeh, 2020). This situa­tion that causes organizational silence and ways to prevent organizational silence are important issues for researchers and managers. This is because organizational silence has both negative effects on employees’ work outcomes and also negatively affects organizational performance. There are many studies on the negative impact of organizational silence on employees. These studies confirm that organiza­tional silence decreases employee commitment (Bayramo­glu and Cetinkanat, 2020), creativity (Sadeghi and Razavi, 2020) and work engagement (Pirzada, Mirani, Phulpoto, Dogar, and Mahar, 2020; Singh, Singh, Ahmad, Singh, and Kaur, 2020). In addition, organizational silence has a neg­ative impact on organizational performance as it reduces creativity and prevents employees’ feedback on the benefit of the organization (Sadeghi and Razavi, 2020). Many reasons for organizational silence, which has significant negative consequences for businesses and em­ployees, have been documented in the previous literature. According to Chou and Chang (2020) and Zhan (2020), these are individual, interpersonal/interactional and organ­izational reasons. For individual reasons of organizational silence, lower conscientiousness trait, higher agreeable personality, and being introvert were found to be related to employee silence behavior (Lee, Diefendorff, Kim, and Bian 2014). On the contrary, being extravert, open to new experience, imaginative, proactive, and having creative personality traits are positively associated with employ­ee voice behavior (Chou and Chang, 2020). For inter­personal/ interactional reasons, researchers focus on the interaction of employees with co-workers and managers. Employees may prefer to remain silent in order to prevent their relationships with colleagues to deteriorate. Takhsha, Barahimi, Adelpanah, and Salehzadeh (2020) indicated that employees could opt to remain silent due to employ­ees’ fear of being ostracized by their colleagues. Besides, Breevaart, Bohle, Pletzer, and Medina (2019) explain employee silence via COR (Conservation of Resources) theory. According to them, employees may prefer silence to voice in order to protect their personal resources, such as keeping good relationship with their colleagues. The other reason for interpersonal/interactional silence is lead­er-member interaction (Zhan, 2020). Previous studies have shown that poor relationship between employee and su­pervisor leads to employee silence (e.g. Ergül and Söyük, 2020; Xu, Zhao, Xi, and Li, 2020). Lastly, organizational climate, organizational culture, hierarchical structure of organization, level of centralization, and organizational policies are among the organizational reasons of employee silence (Chou and Chang, 2020). Previous studies have gathered serious evidence about the individual, interpersonal / interactional, and organ­izational antecedents of organizational silence (e.g., De­tert and Burris, 2007; LePine and Dyne, 2001). However, some other studies have focused on beliefs causing em­ployee silence. Moreover, these researchers claim that these beliefs can prevent employee voice regardless of the presence of positive voice climate (Detert and Edmonson, 2011). Therefore, it is important to investigate these beliefs called implicit voice theories. Implicit voice theories are learned during ordinary life experiences, for example, at home and in hierarchical institutions such as schools and sports teams when responding to authorities such as par­ents, teachers, and coaches (Starbuck, 2016). Detert and Edmondson (2011, p.462) define implicit voice theories as “that largely taken-for-granted beliefs about the risk or inappropriateness of speaking up in hierarchical organiza­tions”. Employees perceive speaking up as risky due to im­plicit voice theories, even though their organization and managers encourage them to speak up (Knoll, Neves, Schyns, and Meyer, 2020). Despite the importance of im­plicit voice theories in organizational silence literature, the studies about the effect of implicit voice theories on employee silence and voice are very limited. Therefore, this study aims to examine the effect of implicit voice the­ories on employee silence and employee voice in Turkish context. This study is expected to contribute literature in sever­al ways. First, we test the effect of implicit voice theories on employee defensive silence and employee constructive voice. Employee silence and employee voice are different constructs, which have been shown by previous literature (Dyne, Ang, and Botero, 2003; Sherf, Parke, and Isaakyan, 2020). The current study examines both employee silence and employee voice in order to conduct a comprehensive study on implicit voice theories and organizational silence literature. As mentioned before, there is a scarcity of stud­ies about implicit voice theories. Therefore, this study is expected to contribute to the implicit voice theories by testing their effects on employee voice and employee si­lence in another country setting and other occupations such as healthcare and educational professionals. 2 Background 2.1 Employee Defensive silence Employee silence has been defined as the employees’ not expressing their opinions about organizational and job related issues intentionally (Morrison and Milliken, 2000). Employee silence is an intentional behavior in which in­dividuals keep silence by not sharing their real thoughts about organizational issues with people who have the abil­ity to make changes and corrections at the organizational level (Pinder and Harlos, 2001). Employees remain silent, believing that it is not worth talking about the problems within the organization or that expressing their opinions will endanger them (Under and Gerede, 2021). Fear of receiving negative feedback from managers and avoiding opposing situations cause them to remain silent (Morrison and Milliken, 2000). This situation also causes employees not to share their ideas, opinions and information deliberately and can cause serious harm to them along with the organization. At the same time, em­ployee silence leads to a decrease in the performance and efficiency of the organization. Dyne, Ang, and Botero (2003) suggested that not all silence behaviors are passive behaviors and that employee silence should not be considered the opposite of employee voice. In addition, they stated that employee silence is a purposeful, motivated, active and conscious structure and therefore is of great importance. Based on this, they clas­sified silence into three groups as “acquiescent silence”, “defensive silence” and “prosocial silence” (Dyne, Ang, and Botero, 2003). In this study, only defensive silence will be examined. Dyne, Ang, and Botero (2003, p. 1367) defined defensive silence as “withholding relevant ideas, information, or opinions as a form of self-protection, based on fear”. Employees who remain silent for defensive pur­poses actually do not always consider organizational ac­tivities appropriate. However, they do not express their views, believing that it would be unnecessary or harmful to their own interests (Pinder and Harlos, 2001). 2.2 2.2 Employee Constructive Voice Employee Constructive Voice Employee voice is defined as the voluntary communi­cation of ideas, suggestions, concerns and thoughts about work-related issues by employees in order to improve the functions of an organization or unit (Chamberlin, New­ton, and Lepine, 2017; Morrison, 2014). Employee voice should be related to the working environment and con­veyed to someone within the organization. Employee voice is not only verbal, but can also be delivered via e-mail and other communication channels (Cheng, Nudelman, Otto, and Ma, 2020). A supervisor, a colleague or someone out­side of the organization can be the target or receipt of the employee voice (Morrison, 2014). In the current study, we focused on upward and internal voice. Researchers have made different classifications by stating that employee voice is a multidimensional con­struct (e.g. Liang, Farh, and Farh, 2012; Maynes and Pod­sakoff, 2014). We draw on classification of Maynes and Podsakoff (2014). According to Maynes and Podsakoff (2014), voice behavior has two main sub-dimensions as positive and negative voice. Positive voice refers to ex­pressing innovative ideas for change and developing rec­ommendations for standard processes even if others do not agree. Positive voice includes: (a) employees making rec­ommendations about policies, programs, goals, processes relevant to their job; (b) defending the institution against unfounded criticism, (c) developing constructive sugges­tions for the growth of the institution and its activities to be carried out more effectively and efficiently; (d) volun­tarily sharing these views with colleagues and managers through various communication channels (Çankir, 2016; Maynes and Podsakoff, 2014). Positive voice behavior has two sub-dimensions as supportive and constructive voice. Within the scope of this study, only constructive voice will be examined. Constructive voice is the voluntary expression of thoughts, knowledge or opinions focused on organiza­tional functional change and affecting the work (Maynes and Podsakoff, 2014). Suggestions for improvement in the employee’s standard work processes and suggesting ideas for new or more effective work methods can be given as examples of constructive voice (Maynes and Podsakoff, 2014). 2.3 Implicit Voice Theories Yeager and Dweck (2012, p. 303) define implicit the­ories as “core assumptions about the malleability of per­sonal attributes. They are called ‘implicit’ because they are rarely made explicit, and they are called ‘theories’ because like a scientific theory, they create a framework for making for prediction and judging the meaning of events in one’s world.” In other words, ‘implicit’ means that individuals do not need to test the accuracy of the information they ob­tain through social learning. ‘Theory’ means understand­ing the functioning of the social world in an abstract way. Implicit theories are knowledge structures that individuals use to adapt to their environment and understand the be­havior of others (Knoll, Neves, Schyns, and Meyer, 2020). In addition, these knowledge structures have an effect on the actions of individuals. Thanks to this information, in­dividuals give quick and relatively ready answers to the events. Implicit theories can also be used to explain social relationships (Engle and Lord, 1997). For example, Engle and Lord (1997) examined the leader-member exchange by using implicit theories. Similarly, Detert and Edmond­son (2011) used implicit theories to explain the organi­zational silence. In their study, they stated that they were invited to explore the antecedents of employee silence by a high technology company. They conducted four studies to investigate the causes of employee silence. As a result of these studies, the implicit voice theories scale consisting of 5 sub-dimensions has developed (presumed target iden­tification, need solid data or solutions to speak up, don’t bypass the boss upward, don’t embarrass the boss in pub­lic, and negative career consequences of voice) (Detert and Edmondson, 2011). Within the scope of this study, only the subscales of ‘don’t embarrass the boss in public’ and ‘neg­ative career consequences of voice’ were included. Don’t embarrass the boss in public: This sub-dimen­sion refers to employees avoiding sharing their criticism, suggestions or ideas with their managers in front of the group and voicing them when they are alone with their managers. This sub-dimension means that employees be­lieve that voicing their opinions within the group will em­barrass their managers in front of the group or challenge their managers. Employees who think and believe in this way avoid expressing their opinions to their managers within the group. They think that they need to inform their managers about this issue beforehand in order to talk to their managers in the group, or if they have not had the opportunity to talk before, they believe that they should talk to their managers privately after the group meeting. The reason for this is that when they express their opin­ions directly within the group, they assume that their man­agers will not like this situation. However, this situation harms organizational learning in two ways. The first is to express their opinions within the group, allowing other group members to contribute on the subject. Second, if a decision needs to be made during the group meeting, the employee’s retention of his/her opinion for later comment prevents his/her participation in the decision (Detert and Edmondson, 2011). Employees holding the belief of don’t embarrass the boss in public will not be inclined to voice their suggestions and opinions in meetings or in front of the group (Detert and Edmondson, 2011). The belief of don’t embarrass the boss in public is rooted in the fear of showing disloyalty to the manager (Isaakyan, 2018). This belief also includes the assumption that voicing ideas or suggestion by employees means that managers are not capable of thinking or seeing these ideas or solutions about work. Therefore, employees having this belief presume that if they voice their sugges­tions or ideas about work to their managers, their managers feel themselves inadequate which turns into embarrass­ment for the managers. As a result of these assumptions, the belief of don’t embarrass the boss in public leads to an increase in employee defensive silence while a decrease in employee constructive voice. Therefore, we set the hy­pothesis 1 and 2 as following: H1: Employees with the belief of don’t embarrass the boss in public will be more likely to choose defensive si­lence in order to avoid embarrassing their boss in front of others. H2: Employees with the belief of don’t embarrass the boss in public who think that raising voice might embar­rass the boss in public will less often raise their voice on organizational issues in a constructive manner. Negative career consequences of voice: This sub-di­mension refers that employees believe that when they voice their thoughts, suggestions, or criticisms about the job or their organization, managers will not like it and will retaliate against them. In response to their criticism, employees believe that their managers may score low per­formance or they can prevent them from benefiting from promotions and awards by developing a negative attitude towards them. In addition, employees believe that voicing their criticism for the benefit of the organization will not be of any benefit to them and will have negative effects on their careers (Detert and Edmondson, 2011). For example, in Detert and Edmondson’s (2011, p. 468) study, employ­ees expressed their thoughts as follows: “What good is it going to do me to stand up and have a legitimate question or maybe challenge them about some­thing? Nothing but put me lower in the basement.” “My manager determines my destiny at this company, therefore I dare not challenge him and what he’s telling me to do. So, in a sense, it’s not safe to speak up.” “If I disagree, they would maybe hold that grudge against me—like our end-of-year review, they might be nit-picky.” In order to explain the consequences of expressing their job-related suggestions and criticisms, employees refer to their beliefs that they have gained through social learning (Glassenberg, 2012). These beliefs that speaking is risky may not always reflect the real situation. When Detert and Edmondson (2011) asked participants who believed that speaking was risky, whether they had experienced such a situation before, the participants stated that they mostly did not. On the contrary, some participants stated that their managers gave positive reactions when they expressed their criticism and suggestions. Despite this, it was found that their beliefs that speaking was risky did not change. This ultimately shows that these beliefs are difficult to change (Willemsma, 2014). Employees may be aware of their beliefs that speaking is risky, but may not be aware of the impact of these beliefs on their actions (Knoll et al., 2020). Therefore, employees who believe that speaking up is risky and leads negative career consequences are not ea­ger to suggest new or challenging ideas to their managers. From this point, the hypothesis 3 and 4 are determined as following: H3: Employees holding the belief of negative career consequences of voice will be more likely to remain silent in order to avoid the risks of speaking up, such as lower performance appraisal, promotion issues, etc. H4: Employees who believe the negative career conse­quences of voice will be less likely to speak up construc­tively for development of their work and organization in order to protect themselves against the danger of speaking up. 3 Methods 3.1 Sample and Procedure The sample of the study was composed of healthcare personnel and teachers in Turkey. The data were collected by survey method between May 1 and June 30, 2018. After receiving the necessary institutional permissions from the hospitals and schools in Edirne province, the respondents who accepted to participate in this research were given questionnaire forms. One week later, the questionnaire forms were collected. Two or three follow-up visits were made. A total of 503 questionnaires were returned. After the incomplete questionnaires were eliminated, 494 ques­tionnaires were included in the study. In order to reach the ideal sample size, a sample size of 10-20 times the total scale items is calculated (Kline, 2016). There is a total of 35 items in the scale. The ideal sample size is determined to be at least 350-700. Therefore, the sample size of 494 participants is within ideal limits. The sample consisted of a total of 494 participants working in the education sector (n=217) and healthcare professionals working in hospitals (n=277) in Edirne in Turkey. The characteristics of the sample are given in Ta­ble 1. 3.2 Data collection tool The first part of the questionnaire includes socio-de­mographic questions for the participants. The other parts of questionnaire form consist of scales validated by pre­vious studies. Information about the scales are given be­low. All of these scales are 5-point Likert type scales (1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree). 3.2.1 Independent variables Implicit voice theories scale: The implicit voice theo­ries scale, which was developed by Detert and Edmond­son (2011) and adapted to Turkish within the scope of this study, was used to study its validity and reliability. This scale consists of five dimensions (presumed target iden­tification, need solid data or solutions to speak up, don’t bypass the boss upward, don’t embarrass the boss in pub­lic, and negative career consequences of voice) and a total of 20 items. Each dimension consists of 4 items. This is a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = Definitely disagree to 5 = Definitely agree) originally. Detert and Edmondson (2011) tested the validity of the scale with the structural equation program. As a result of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), they found the fit indices of the five-factor scale were within acceptable limits (RMSEA = .05, CFI = .97, NNFI = .96, in Study 3, p.473). Cronbach Alpha coeffi­cients of the scale were reported to be greater than 0.70 (Detert and Edmondson, 2011). A translation and back-translation procedure was used to adapt this scale to Turkish (Brislin, 1970). First, the scale was translated into Turkish by two researchers with a PhD in Business Management and Organization. It was checked by a professional translator. Then it was checked again by a faculty member who is an Associate Professor in the field of Organizational Behavior. The scale translat­ed in Turkish was translated back from Turkish to English by another translator. The new translation was checked by comparing the original of the scale. It was checked in terms of grammar by a lecturer with a PhD in Turkish Lan­guage and Literature. Finally, a pilot study was conducted with 30 participants. As a result of the pilot study, only the first item of the “ don’t embarrass the boss in public” sub-dimension was revised and a pilot study was made with 10 participants again. As a result of pilot studies, it was determined that there was no unclear item in the scale. The first questionnaire form consisted of 5 sub-di­mensions and 20 items of implicit voice theories and 27 items of other variables (proactive personality: 10 items, power distance: 7 items, employee defensive silence: 5 items, and employee voice: 5 items). When the surveys were distributed, we received feedback from respondents that the survey form was too long. They stated that they had difficulty answering the items of implicit voice the­ories and demanded that the number of items be reduced. In the first polls returned, it was noticed that the implicit voice theories items were left blank. For this reason, only two dimensions of the implicit voice theories scale (don’t embarrass the boss in public and negative career conse­quences of voice) were included in the study. Don’t embarrass the boss in public: According to this sub-dimension, employees believe that expressing their ideas, suggestions or criticism about the job or organiza­tion during meetings or group dialogues will put the man­ager in a difficult situation (Detert and Edmondson, 2011). This sub-dimension consists of 4 questions. One of the sample items in this sub-scale is “Pointing out problems or inefficiencies in front of others is likely to embarrass the boss”. Cronbach Alpha coefficient was reported as 0.76 (Detert and Edmondson, 2011). Negative career consequences of voice: In this sub-di­mension, employees believe that when they voice a job-re­lated suggestion or criticism, they will be exposed to a negative reaction from their managers. Therefore, they think that their careers will be negatively affected (Detert and Edmondson, 2011). An example item is “Pointing out problems, errors, or inefficiencies might very well result in lowered job evaluations”. The Cronbach Alpha coefficient of this sub-dimension consisting of 4 questions was report­ed as 0.76 (Detert and Edmondson, 2011). 3.2.2 Dependent variables Employee constructive voice: The constructive voice subscale developed by Maynes and Podsakoff (2014) was used. This subscale was adapted to Turkish by Çankir (2016). It consists of 5 items. Maynes and Podsakoff (2014) reported the Cronbach Alpha coefficient of this sub-dimension as 0.95. Çankir (2016) stated that the Cron­bach Alpha coefficient of this sub-dimension is greater than 0.70. “Frequently makes suggestions about how to improve work methods or practices” is one of the sample items in this scale. Employee defensive silence: Defensive silence sub-di­mension consisting of 5 questions was used in the scale developed by Dyne, Ang and Botero (2003) and adapted to Turkish by Erdogan (2011). Erdogan (2011) stated that the Cronbach Alpha coefficient of this sub-dimension is 0.853. A sample item is “This employee avoids expressing ideas for improvements, due to self-protection”. 3.2.3 Control variables Proactive personality: Proactive personality refers to the individual’s ability to initiate the change he / she deems necessary without any demand (Bolino, Valcea, and Harvey, 2010). Proactive individuals take the opportunity, take initiative, take action and persistently make an effort until meaningful change is achieved (Bateman and Crant, 1993). Individuals who create a positive change in their environment without being affected by the obstacles in the environment are called proactive persons (Seibert et al., 2001). It is also one of the most important predictors of proactive behavior (Crant, 2000). Employee construc­tive voice is also defined as a part of proactive behavior (e.g. Morrison, 2014; Liang, Farh, and Farh, 2012). Both concepts include challenging the status quo (Crant, 2000). Therefore, proactive employees whose nature is to chal­lenge the status quo will be less likely to remain silent in discussing organizational issues and will be more likely to engage in constructive speaking up activities, such as coming up with a new idea or suggestions related to devel­opment of their work or organization. In previous studies, proactive personality has been determined as a control var­iable for employee voice (Detert and Edmondson, 2011). A unidimensional scale consisting of 10 questions developed by Bateman and Crant (1993) and adapted to Turkish by Akin and Arici (2015) was used to measure proactive personality. “I am constantly looking out for new ways to improve my life” is one of the sample items in this scale. In the reliability analysis of the scale, the Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient was found to be 0.86 (Akin and Arici, 2015). Power distance: Power distance is a cultural sub-di­mension that deals with the fact that all individuals in the society are not equal and explains the attitude towards these power inequalities. Power distance is defined as the less powerful members of institutions and organizations in a country expecting and accepting the unequal distri­bution of power. It shows that inequality in a society is approved by followers as well as leaders (Hofstede, 1983). High power distance causes high and rigid hierarchy with­in the organization and reduces upward communication. This communication problem prevents employees from expressing their views and opinions about opportunities, problems and concerns (Morrison and Rothman, 2009). Employees perceiving high power distance in their organi­zations will be more likely to remain silent and will be less likely to speak up in a constructive manner in the organiza­tions with high power distance that causes communication problems. A uni-dimensional scale consisting of 7 questions de­veloped by Arikan (2011) was used to measure power dis­tance. A sample item is “Speaking up with high-status peo­ple in this workplace is not easy”. Arikan (2011) reported the reliability coefficient of the scale as 0.85. Demographics and occupational variables: Sector, gender, age, organizational tenure, and managerial posi­tion were determined as control variables. These variables were converted into dummy codes (e.g., sector: 1=health­care, 0= education; gender: 1=male, 0=female). All dum­my codes are shown in Table 4. According to the previous studies, these variables have significant effects on employ­ee silence and employee voice (Detert and Burris 2007; Morrison, 2014). For example, employees having a longer tenure, may feel more organization-based self-esteem which leads to more speaking up than new recruits (Pierce and Gardner, 2004). Similarly, age is also related with employee voice (Cooper, 2018). According to Detert and Burris (2007), women are more inclined than men to sup­press their feelings. Harmanci-Seren et al. (2018) found that the managerial position was significantly related with employee silence. 3.3 Data Analysis SPSS 22 and LISREL 8.80 programs were used to an­alyse the data. First of all, skewness and kurtosis values were examined from the descriptive data of the scale av­erages to determine the normal distribution. According to Kline (2016), the skewness value should not be over ± 3 and the kurtosis value should not be over ± 10, as an in­dicator of the normal distribution. It was determined that the data were normally distributed and therefore suitable for parametric analyses. The convergent validity and dis­criminant validity of the scales were analysed by Con­firmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Predictive validity was tested by linear regression analyses. To report the model fit, X˛/df (Chi-square /degree of freedom), RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation), NFI (Normed Fit Index), NNFI (Non-normed Fit Index), CFI (Comparative Fit Index) GFI (Goodness-of-fit Index) were used. Table 2 shows the range of values for these indexes which indicate a good fit (Hair et al., 2010; Kline, 2016). In order to test the effect of independent variables on dependent variables, linear regression analysis was per­formed. Before performing the regression analyses, mul­ticollinearity was checked by examining the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) which is one of the indicators of multicollinearity (Yoo et al, 2014). VIF should be less than 10 (Yoo et al, 2014). In the current study, we found that VIF values were within the range of 1.069-1.274. There­fore, we can infer that multicollinearity does not exist in our study. Then we controlled the sector, age, gender, or­ganizational tenure, and managerial position. 4 Results 4.1 Results of the Validity and Reliability Analysis of the Scales Validity analysis of the scales was analysed with the LISREL 8.80 program. As a result of the first CFA, items with very low factor loadings (<0.50) were deleted in order to increase the goodness of fit of the model. The deleted items are as follows: three items from proactive personal­ity, three items from power distance, two items from em­ployee constructive voice, one item from don’t embarrass the boss in public, one item from negative career conse­quences of voice, and one item from employee defensive silence. As a result of the CFA analysis repeated after the items with low factor loadings were deleted, the measure­ment model showed good fit with the data (Table 2). According to Hair et al. (2010), in order to analyze the convergent validity of the scales, firstly all factor loads should be statistically significant and the standardized pa­rameter estimates of the factor load should be above 0.50 (> 0.70 is ideal). Second criterion of convergent validity is the composite reliability (CR) of variables> 0.60 (Ba­con, Sauer, and Young, 1995). Finally, average variance extracted (AVE) value should be higher than 0.50. AVE refers to the mean variance extracted for the items loading on a construct (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Table 3 shows the standardized loadings, composite reliability, and AVE values of study variables. Composite reliability and AVE values were found to be higher than 0.70 which indicates having convergent valid­ity for all variables except proactive personality and pow­er distance. Proactive personality and power distance had AVE values lower than 0.50. Fornell and Larcker (1981) suggest that AVE value lower than 0.50 can be acceptable if the CR value is higher than 0.70. Therefore, we can in­fer that all scales of this study have convergent validity. Then we checked the discriminant validity of scales. To do this, we analyzed the correlation coefficients of vari­ables, which should be lower than 0.85 (Kline, 2016). In Table 4, the significant correlation coefficients (r) were be­tween 0.172 and 0.510. Therefore, this result shows that the scales in the study have discriminant validity. In addition, in Table 3, Cronbach alpha values of all scales were found to be higher than 0.70 indicating all scales have high internal consistency (Cronbach, 1951). For example, Cronbach alpha’s value was found to be 0.79 for don’t embarrass the boss in public while it was found to be 0.80 for negative career consequences. 4.2 Descriptive Data of Variables, Relationships Between Variables and Coefficients of Cronbach Alphas According to Table 4, dimension of don’t embarrass the boss in public was significantly and positively corre­lated with the dimension of negative career consequences (r=0.172, p<0,01), proactive personality (r=0.254, p<0,01), power distance (r=0.195, p<0,01), employee constructive voice (r=0.209, p<0,01), and employee defensive silence (r=0.187, p<0,01). However, the dimension of negative ca­reer consequences of voice was significantly and positive­ly correlated with power distance (r=0.369, p<0,01) and employee defensive silence (r=0.510, p<0,01). While pro­active personality was significantly and positively corre­lated with employee constructive voice (r=0.351, p<0,01), power distance was significantly and positively correlated with employee defensive silence (r=0.431, p<0,01). The average mean of power distance, don’t embarrass the boss in public, negative career consequences of voice and defensive silence behavior were found to be signif­icantly higher in healthcare sector than in the education sector (p<0,05). While the average of proactive personality was significantly higher in the education sector than the healthcare sector (p<0,05), the average of the voice be­havior did not differ significantly compared to the sector (p>0,05). 4.3 Results of regression analyses Table 5 demonstrates the results of linear regression analyses. The effect of control variables on employee de­fensive silence and employee constructive voice is given in Model 1. According to the Model 1, employee defensive silence was predicted by sector (ß=0.25, p<0.01) and pow­er distance (ß=0.35, p<0.01) positively and significantly. 24% of the variance of employee defensive silence was explained by the sector and power distance (R˛=0.24). Meanwhile, only proactive personality (ß=0.34, p<0.01) predicted the employee constructive voice positively and significantly. Proactive personality explained the 13% of the variance of employee constructive voice (R˛=0.13). Model 2 shows the effect of implicit voice theories (don’t embarrass the boss in public- DEB and negative career consequences of voice- NCCV), proactive person­ality, and power distance on employee defensive silence and employee constructive voice, as well as control var­iables. Employee defensive silence was predicted signif­icantly and positively by sector (ß=0.24, p<0.01), power distance (ß=0.19, p<0.01), DEB (ß=0.08, p<0.01), and NCCV (ß=0.39, p<0.01). While these predictors explained the 38% of the variance of employee defensive silence (R˛=0,38), only DEB and NCCV explained the 14% of the variance of employee defensive silence (.R˛=0.14). Therefore, H1 and H3 were supported. Employee con­structive voice was predicted by proactive personality (ß=0.31, p<0.01) and DEB (ß=0.12, p<0.01) significantly and positively. We found that DEB explained only %2 of the variance of employee constructive voice (.R˛=0.02). While H2 was rejected, we found support for opposite of our assumption, which indicates DEB has positive effect on employee constructive voice. NCCV had no significant effect on employee constructive voice (p>0.05). Therefore, H4 was rejected. The summary of hypotheses is given in Table 6. 5 Discussion Organizations are well aware that employee participa­tion is critical for organizational development. Employees can promote their organizations by suggesting new ideas or sharing their opinions. Thus, managers make efforts to create an environment that encourages employee voice. However, Detert and Edmondson (2011) have shown that employees may remain silent despite the presence of encouraging voice environment due to their beliefs that speaking is risky. These beliefs called implicit voice the­ories are the one of predictors of employee silence. How­ever, there is a scarcity of studies investigating the role of implicit voice theories in employee silence and employee voice. Therefore, first contribution of this study is to pro­vide empirical evidence about the implicit voice theories with employee silence and employee voice literature by testing the effect of implicit voice theories on employee de­fensive silence and employee constructive voice in Turk­ish sample consisting of two different sectors’ employees. This study has also replicated the Detert and Edmondson’s (2011) study and has confirmed their results in a different country whose culture is slightly different from USA. The second contribution of this study is to examine the effect of two sub dimensions of implicit voice theories on employee silence and employee voice, which enables to extend the literature by examining both constructs as de­pendent variables. Our results have shown that the effect of each sub dimension of implicit voice theories can differ according to the employee voice behaviour or employee silence. In our study, don’t embarrass the boss in public had significant and positive effect on employee construc­tive voice and on employee defensive silence. While neg­ative career consequences of voice had significant and negative effect on employee defensive silence, it did not have significant effect on employee voice. These results may provide more empirical evidence that employee voice and employee silence are separate constructs and their pre­dictors can be different. Therefore, managers and future researchers should investigate the factors related to em­ployee silence and employee voice separately. From this point, not only managers should attempt to eliminate the factors causing employee silence in organizations, such as high level of power distance, but they should also create an organizational climate that encourages employees to speak up. Future researchers are encouraged to investigate which sub-dimension of implicit voice theories has significant ef­fect on employee silence and employee voice separately. Third, we controlled the effect of personal and organi­zational factors, as well as demographic and occupational features to test our research model. Controlling variables affecting employee voice and silence enables us to improve predicting the roles of implicit voice theories on employee defensive silence and employee constructive voice. Pre­vious studies also suggest to consider power distance and proactive personality as control variables for employee voice and employee silence (Amah and Oyetuunde, 2020; Tedone and Bruk-Lee, 2021). Thus, our study responded the call of these studies. Another contribution of this study is to test the validity and reliability analysis of two sub-di­mensions of implicit voice theories scale (“don’t embar­rass the boss in public” and “negative career consequences of voice”) which was developed by Detert and Edmondson (2011) in the context of Turkey. Thus, one of the anteced­ents of organizational silence can be examined in Turkey via this scale. In the current study, we found that sector, power dis­tance, don’t embarrass the boss in public, and negative ca­reer consequences of voice predicted employee defensive silence significantly. However, don’t embarrass the boss in public had positive and significant effect on employee defensive silence, its standardized ß coefficient was 0.08, which indicates a minimum effect. Previous studies also have found the belief of don’t embarrass the boss in pub­lic and negative career consequences of voice as a predic­tor of employee silence. For example, Under and Gerede, (2021) and Milliken et al. (2003) stated that fear is one of the most important factors in employee silence. According to the qualitative study conducted with forty employees by Milliken et al. (2003), the main reasons why the employ­ees avoid expressing their opinions about the problems are their fear and their beliefs based on these fears. It is stated that employees are generally not willing to share informa­tion that can be perceived as a threat or negativity by the managers. Therefore, employees keep silent in order to avoid being known as the person who creates problems or constantly complains (Milliken et al., 2003). Bowen and Blackmon (2003) also reported that em­ployees could remain silent about the issues that their man­agers would not want to hear due to fear of punishment or reprisals. In line with these studies, Harmanci Seren et al, (2018), Alparslan, Cem, and Erdem, (2015), Ajay (2015) reported that participants opted to remain silent, because they believed that if they spoke up, they would find them­selves in difficult situation such as working overload or night shifts, the possibility to be sent to another unit, loss of job, and getting unfair performance appraisal. Detert and Edmondson (2011), in a study conducted with 231 participants in Northeast America, concluded that implicit voice theories predicted employee silence. This result indicates that employees holding implicit voice theories tend to avoid speaking against a leader. It is log­ical for employees to think that criticizing their manager within the group would endanger their career. Hence, they put themselves in a passive and silent position. In addition, Pinder and Harlos (2001) stated that the in­dividuals deliberately choose to remain silent because they are afraid of the possible consequences of voice. It can be asserted that employees who remain silent for defensive purposes do not actually accept organizational decisions as they are, but think that it will be unnecessary or harmful for their own interests to declare their opinions. Therefore, our result that the belief of the negative career consequenc­es of voice predicted the employee defensive silence is in line with the previous literature. Another result of this study is that power distance has a significant effect on employee defensive silence. This re­sult is also supported by previous studies. For example, Huang et al. (2005), in a study conducted with 421 com­panies operating in 24 countries, found that the employee constructive voice and employee silence differed signifi­cantly according to the cultural perception of the countries. In their study, power distance was evaluated according to countries and it was determined that participants in coun­tries with lower power distances expressed the problems more. In countries with a high power distance, it was stated that employees could remain silent to protect themselves (Huang et al.2005). Therefore, our results regarding power distance support previous literature. Another dependent variable of this research, employee constructive voice is predicted significantly and positively by proactive personality and the belief of don’t embarrass the boss in public. The result about belief of don’t embar­rass the boss in public is opposite of our hypothesis (H2) which indicated negative effect of this belief on employ­ee constructive voice. Employees holding the belief of don’t embarrass the boss in public believe that it should be privately communicated to the manager before voicing an idea in front of the group. In this way, they will avoid challenging the manager (Detert and Edmondson, 2011). Therefore, these employees may avoid speaking up about their suggestions with their manager in the meetings or in front of other employees. However, they may choose to speak up with their managers privately (Isaakyan, 2018). According to Isaakyan (2018), when employees speak up with their managers privately, they can inform their man­agers about their thoughts. By doing so, they may prove their loyalty to their managers and avoid negative career consequences of public voice. Isaakyan (2018) found sup­porting results that implicit voice theories had negative ef­fect on public voice while these beliefs had positive effect on private voice. However, implicit public voice theories did not have significant effect on voice frequency in her study (Isaakyan, 2018). In our study, the scale of construc­tive voice behavior was used (Maynes and Podsakoff, 2014). Items in this scale do not contain information about speaking with the manager in a group or in private. There­fore, based on this unexpected result, we can assume that employees might have expressed their opinions to their managers in more private environments. For future stud­ies, it is also recommended to examine the effect of implic­it voice theories on the type of voice (private or public). Also, the proactive personality is found to be one of the significant predictors of employee voice. This result is also in line with previous studies. In a study conducted in Indonesia by Wijaya (2019), two surveys of approximate­ly 12,000 university graduates were conducted at 4-month intervals. The results of this research reveal the positive relationships between proactive personality and employ­ee voice. Proactive individuals are already active, lively and energetic people. These people, who reflect their ener­gies, criticism, reaction and other negative developments as well as their positive emotions, become more success­ful in their careers (Seibert et al., 1999). According to the research conducted by Bakker, Tims, and Derks (2012), employees with proactive personality can increase the re­sources that will motivate them by shaping their own work environment and can set new challenging goals for them­selves. In order to achieve these goals, they will prefer to speak out regarding organizational policies. Our results support these studies. As a result of this study, employees are less likely to speak up with their managers for suggesting new ideas or voicing their opinions which can improve the organi­zational process due to their fear of negative career con­sequences of voice and embarrassing their boss in front of others. Therefore, managers should be aware of their subordinates’ fear about speaking up. Employees can be encouraged by rewarding when they come out with new ideas, suggestions or concerns. Especially, these rewards may be psychological support or constructive feedback to employees’ voicing (). Managers should create encour­aging voice climate in their organizations by making sure employees’ speaking up is a desirable behavior and has positive outcomes in the organization. With this study, we expect to contribute to the exist­ing literature regarding implicit voice theories, employ­ee silence and employee voice. However, this study has also some limitations. First limitation of the study is its cross-sectional design. In studies with cross-sectional design, the ability to make inferences about causality be­tween the independent and dependent variables may be limited due to collecting data at one point. This is because it is not possible to measure the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable over time, and therefore causality cannot be determined with certainty (Antonakis et al., 2010). Therefore, future researchers are recommend­ed to examine the predictor role of implicit voice theories on employee silence and voice based on longitudinal data. Second limitation is the common method problem, which occurs when the data for independent and depend­ent variables are gathered from the same source and at the same time point. In the current study, data were only col­lected from employees. This situation may cause the auto­correlation problem which indicates there is a significant relationship between the variables even if the significant relationship does not exist due to the respondent’s tenden­cy to rate the items of scales the same (Podsakoff et al., 2003). It was not possible to eliminate negative effect of common method bias completely, however, the effect of common method variance was minimized by the rigorous procedural and statistical methodologies that we used in our study. To eliminate this problem, future researchers are recommended to obtain data from different sources such as employees, supervisors, customers, organizational sources, as it will reduce the common method variance. For example, while implicit voice theories are asked to the employees, their voicing or silence behaviors can be asked to their managers or coworkers. Another limitation of this study is that we only exam­ined the two sub-dimensions of implicit voice theories, constructive employee voice and defensive employee si­lence to avoid the long survey format. We collected data at one-point time and therefore, participants were not eager to reply a survey with many items. We had to exclude the items of three sub-dimensions of implicit voice theories. We also could not include the other sub-dimensions of employee voice and employee silence. We recommend to future researchers to examine the implicit voice theo­ries, employee voice and employee silence with their all sub-dimensions, which will enable them to analyze these constructs in a more comprehensive way. Finally, conven­ience sampling method was used to collect data. Future researchers are also recommended to replicate this study using randomize sampling methods. 6 Conclusion In social life, individuals will constantly perceive their environment, form beliefs, and react to their environment in the light of these beliefs. Under the influence of the be­liefs formed by the information they have obtained, they will form a common attitude. Employees’ beliefs about the conditions of their organization greatly affect their attitude towards the organization. If employees share negative be­liefs and attitudes towards speaking up, organizational per­formance will be greatly affected because many employees in the organization may choose to remain silent due to the fear of social exclusion, punishment or retaliation. This situation prevents the employees from expressing their ideas openly and honestly. Despite their self-confidence, employees consider it risky to participate in discussions, to speak openly, and to express opinions and views on is­sues related to the organization. Therefore, it is important to examine these beliefs, which are one of the reasons for organizational silence. Acknowledgement This study has been developed by training and activi­ties organized within the scope of TUBITAK 4005 project numbered 118B056. Compliance with Ethical Standards Ethical approval for this study was obtained to Ethical Committee of Medeniyet University (Date: 03 April 2018, Number: 14725836-050.04.04-E.5379). Literature 1Received: 30th April 2020; revised: 27th June 2021; accepted: 30th July 2021 Table 1: Socio-demographic features of sample   Healthcare professionals Education professionals Variables N M SD N M SD Gender (1=Male) 272 0.32 0.47 217 0.48 0.50 Marital status (1=Single) 272 0.53 0.50 217 0.71 0.45 Managerial position (1=Manager) 270 0.11 0.31 217 0.10 0.30 Age 272 32.17 8.10 217 35.53 9.18 Organizational tenure 270 6.77 6.29 215 4.84 4.44 Note: N: Number; M: Mean; SD: Standard Deviation. Table 2: Fit indexes of the measurement model as a result of the CFA Fit Indices Measurement model Good Fit Acceptable Fit X˛/df 1.83 0-2 2.0-5.0 RMSEA 0.04 0-0.05 0.05-0.08 NFI 0.95 0.95-1 0.90-0.95 NNFI 0.97 0.97-1 0.95-0.97 CFI 0.97 0.97-1 0.95-.97 GFI 0.93 0.95-1 0.90-0.95 Note: X˛/df (Chi-square /degree of freedom), RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation), NFI (Normed Fit Index), NNFI (Non-normed Fit Index), CFI (Comparative Fit Index) GFI (Goodness-of-fit Index) Table 3: Standardized Loadings, CR and AVE Coefficients of the Measurement Model Variables Standardized Load­ings* Error Composite Reli­ability (CR) Square of Standardized Loadings Average Variance Extracted (AVE) Proactive personality 0.60 0.65 0.841 0.36 0.43 0.57 0.67 0.32 0.55 0.69 0.30 0.68 0.55 0.46 0.54 0.71 0.29 0.58 0.67 0.34 0.62 0.62   0.38   Power distance 0.72 0.47 0.792 0.52 0.49 0.69 0.52 0.48 0.72 0.47 0.52 0.65 0.57   0.42   Don’t embarrass the boss in public 0.66 0.56 0.789 0.44 0.56 0.82 0.33 0.67 0.75 0.44   0.56   Negative career conse­quences of voice 0.74 0.45 0.810 0.55 0.59 0.82 0.33 0.67 0.74 0.45   0.55   Employee defensive silence 0.77 0.41 0.850 0.59 0.58 0.65 0.58 0.42 0.83 0.32 0.69 0.80 0.36   0.64   Employee constructive voice 0.8 0.35 0.878 0.64 0.71 0.86 0.27 0.74 0.86 0.26   0.74   Note: *All item loadings were found to be significant Table 4: Means, Standard Deviations, Coefficients Alphas, and Correlations Between Study Variables   Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 Sector (1=healthcare) 0.56 0.50 2 Gender (1=male) 0.39 0.49 -.163** 3 Age 33.77 8.63 -.191** .159** 4 Organizational tenure 5.91 5.61 .171** -0.01 .531** 5 Managerial position (1=manager) 0.11 0.31 .02 .090* .095* .090* 6 Don’t embar­rass the boss in public 3.43 .90 .091* -.02 -.02 .022 .002 (.79) 7 Negative career consequences of voice 2.78 1.01 .152** -.01 -0.03 .049 .088 .172** (.80) 8 Proactive personality 3.84 0.58 -.095* .03 0.06 -0.06 .05 .254** .04 (.79) 9 Power distance 2.76 1.14 .378** -.137** -.055 .123** .063 .195** .369** .022 (.76) 10 Employee constructive voice 3.46 0.83 -.025 .02 .03 -0.03 .091* .209** .031 .351** .007 (.88) 11 Employee de­fensive silence 2.44 0.92 .348** -.018 .014 .108* .116* .187** .510** -.02 .431** -.035 (.84) * p < .05. ** p < .01. Coefficients alphas are along the diagonal in the parenthesis. Table 5: Results of the regression analysis about the effect of implicit voice theories on employee constructive voice and em­ployee defensive silence   Model 1 Model 2 Variables Defensive silence Constructive Voice Defensive silence Constructive Voice Sector (1=healthcare) .25** .03 .24** .03 Gender (1=male) .048 .003 .030 .005 Age .082 .030 .098 .015 Organizational tenure -.026 -.036 -.034 -.047 Managerial position (1=manager) .077 .095 .057 .100 Proactive personality -.011 0.34** -.056 .31** Power distance .35** -.014 .19** -.041 Implicit voice theories Don’t embarrass the boss in public (DEB) .08* .12** Negative career consequences of voice (NCCV) .39** .003 R˛ 0.24 0.13 0.38 0.15 .R˛     0.14 0.02 Note: Standardized regression coefficients are reported. 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A study of effects of multicollinear­ity in the multivariable analysis. International Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 4(5), 9-19. Re­trieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/arti­ cles/PMC4318006/#__ffn_sectitle Zhan, M. (2020). When to speak up at work: a review of employee voice and silence behavior using a prospect approach. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 28(5), 273-288. https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2020.1720682 Safiye Sahin is currently working at Department of Health Management in Istanbul Medeniyet University as an Assistant Professor. She completed her Ph.D. at the Department of Management and Organization in Marmara University in 2016. Her research areas are healthcare management and organizational behavior, especially employee silence and voice, work-family issues, work engagement, and job performance. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1734-9586 Bilal Çankir, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor at Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Health Management in Istanbul Medeniyet University, Turkey. His research interest mostly concentrates on organizational behavior, strategic management and human resources management. He has many national and international publications in these fields. http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5126-8769 Bahar Serez Arslan, M.Sc., is working as a lecturer in Health Sciences Vocational School at Kirklareli University. She is teaching courses of medical documentation and secretary at undergraduate level. Her research areas are public management and healthcare management. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3863-0190 Vpliv implicitnih govornih teorij na konstruktivni glas in obrambni molk zaposlenih: analiza na podrocju izobraževanja in zdravstva Ozadje in namen: implicitne glasovne teorije so prepricanja, povezana z molkom zaposlenih. Namen te študije je preuciti vpliv implicitne glasovne teorije (ne sramotite šefa v javnosti, negativne posledice kariere glasu) kot napove­dovalce obrambnega molka zaposlenih in konstruktivnega glasu zaposlenih. Metodologija: Raziskava je presecna in analiticna študija. Vzorec do bili anketiranci v zdravstvenem sektorju (n = 277) in izobraževalnem sektorju (n = 217) v Turciji. Za preverjanje hipotez smo uporabili linearno regresijsko analizo. Rezultati: Ugotovili smo, da razdalja moci in negativne karierne posledice glasu napovedujejo obrambno tišino za­poslenih, medtem ko proaktivna osebnost in prepricanje »ne osramoti šefa v javnosti«, napovedujejo konstruktiven glas zaposlenih. Ti rezultati potrjujejo ucinek implicitnih govornih teorij na organizacijski molk in glas zaposlenih. Zakljucki: Zaposleni, ki verjamejo v »ne osramoti šefa v javnosti« in v »negativne posledice kariere zaradi glasu«, ponavadi molcijo ali se raje zasebno pogovarjajo s svojimi vodji, kar preprecuje izmenjavo idej pri skupinskih inte­rakcijah v organizaciji. Zato se morajo menedžerji boriti proti prepricanju, da je govorjenje tvegano. Da bi spremenili ta prepricanja na pozitiven nacin, morajo podrejenim dati obcutek, da je govor dragoceno vedenje v organizaciji. Kljucne besede: Implicitne glasovne teorije, Obrambni molk zaposlenih, Konstruktiven glas zaposlenih, Razdalja moci, Proaktivna osebnost, Zdravstveni sektor, Izobraževalni sektor DOI: 10.2478/orga-2021-0015 Relationships between Work-Family Balance, Job Satisfaction, Life Satisfaction and Work Engagement among Higher Education Lecturers Jasmina ŽNIDARŠIC, Miha MARIC Faculty of Organizational Sciences, University of Maribor, Kidriceva cesta 55a, 4000 Kranj, Slovenia, jasmina.znidarsic@um.si, miha.maric@um.si Background and Purpose: Our research examines the impact of work-life balance on work engagement, both di­rect impact as well as through job and life satisfaction. The main aim of our research is to empirically test relations between work-life balance, job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and work engagement among higher education lectur­ers from Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Serbia, and Slovenia. Methods: Using validated questionnaires, we collected data on work-life balance, job satisfaction, life satisfaction and their work engagement. The quantitative data for our analysis were collected through a survey of 164 online participants. Based on an extensive literature review, we have formulated five hypotheses, which we tested in one structural model by using structural equation modelling (SEM). Results: Our findings show that an increase in work-life balance positively relates to life and work satisfaction and that life satisfaction leads to an increase in work engagement. Conclusion: The knowledge of important impact of work-life balance, together with the understanding of the rela­tions between the researched constructs of work-life balance, life satisfaction, job satisfaction and work engage­ment, can strengthen teachers’ work engagement by respecting employees as actors in other roles and supporting work-family balance in the form of family-friendly policies and practices, and thereby contributes to the area of em­ployee’s behaviour and improves the teacher’s productivity. Keywords: Work-life balance, Job satisfaction, Life satisfaction, Work engagement, SEM 1 Introduction Problems related to work-family balance affect every­one, regardless of gender, age, job, education, and the like (Rahman, Ali, Jantan, Mansor & Rahaman, 2020), but to a different extent and with different outcomes. The suc­cess of work-family balance is influenced by many factors, both at the individual, organization and state levels. These factors are often interrelated because, for example, without the support of the state, in the form of appropriate labour law, organizations will not introduce and implement fami­ly-friendly measures. Organizations strive to increase the work engagement of their employees, as engaged employees are more pro­ductive employees, but often neglect the significant effects of work-family balance as well as job and life satisfaction on work engagement (Rahman, Abdul, Ali, Uddin & Rah­man, 2017). A healthy working environment in which in­dividuals feel well and respected, as employee as well as person with a private life, contribute to greater job and life satisfaction (Lee, Grace, Sirgy, Singhapakdi & Lucianetti, 2018). Previous researches has also found an important re­lationship between job satisfaction and work engagement (Taghipour & Dezfuli, 2013) as well as life satisfaction and work engagement (Mache, Vitzthum, Klapp & Dan­zer, 2014). As educational institutions and lecturers have a major contribution of nurturing, educating and developing new generations, their working life and job environment represent strategic issues in reaching teachers’ excellence (Singh & Singh, 2015). Numerous studies confirm the importance of work-family balance, job satisfaction, life satisfaction and work engagement, but there is lack of research that ex­plores the relationship between the all four concepts. This contribution covers this gap. Central research objectives of the study were the empirical examination of the relation­ships between the construct of work-life balance in terms of life satisfaction, job satisfaction and work engagement among higher education lecturers - by empirically testing a structural model that connects these four constructs and determines the relationships. The results of the study are discussed. The theoretical contribution of this study is to the exist­ing research of work-life balance in relation to job and life satisfactions as well as to work engagement in the aspect of advancing previous research by empirically examining the relations between them. The practical contribution is in the presented results that the relations are also present in the case of higher education lecturers, which can be useful for decision makers and human resource managers in high­er education institutions when developing human resource politics. The paper is structured as follows: firstly, the idea of work-life balance along with its relation to the satisfaction and work engagement have been presented. Then, intro­ductory information about research has been provided. Then, the discussion of the results has been given, fol­lowed by the final conclusion. 2 Theoretical framework In the following, the concepts used will be defined based on the analysis of previous literature and the con­ducted research, which will serve as a basis for hypothesis setting and further research work. 2.1 Work-life balance Work-family balance is a broad concept and consists of three components: “work”, “family” and “balance”. “Work” is defined in the context of work-family balance as paid work or more specifically, “as a dedicated human ac­tivity aimed at satisfying human needs and desires” (Yadav & Dabhade, 2014). It is more difficult to define a family because today, because of different forms of living, we can no longer talk about one form of family. Thus, more and more questions have arisen lately regarding what a family is and what is not, who are members or whether there is only one definition of family or there are more. For our research, we will use a statistical definition which states that “we define a family in the narrow sense as a core family, that is, two or more persons living in a com­mon household and related to one another by marriage, cohabitation or parental relationship” (Keilman, 2003). The term “balance” has also many meanings and there is a lack of consensus on how work-family balance should be defined, measured and researched. Generally, work-family balance can be described as satisfactory in­clusion or “adjustment” among multiple roles in an indi­vidual’s life (Bedarkar & Pandita, 2014). In connection with the field of work-family balance, different authors mainly report three types of experience that individuals face in balancing different roles. These are work-family conflict (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985), sat­isfaction with work-family balance (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011), and the third experience is work-family enrichment (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). In the following, we will de­scribe in more detail the first experience, that is, the con­flict between work and family, which is the most explored of all three, as it is the main antecedent of work-family balance. Work-family balance is influenced by factors at three levels, namely the individual, the work organization and the state. In the past, most of the research has focused on the impact of the organization or various family-friendly measures on work-family balance (Rahman & Ali, 2021). But more recently there is increasing research on the im­pact of an individual, his or her personality traits and the individual’s family background (partner support, chil­dren…) on work-family balance (Turliuc & Buliga, 2014). To explain, pressure on employees is not only created by the organization and work requirements, but pressure can also be created by the employee himself in the desire to fulfil his own goals, both in the field of work and family life (Khallash & Kruse, 2012). A large, if not the largest, influence on work-family balance has a work organization. The literature review has shown that most often exposed among employees are flexible working hours, overtime work, part-time work, “tight” workweek, flexible work time, work from home, leave (Matilla-Santander, Lidón-Moyano, Gonzáles-Mar­rón, Bunch, Martin-Sanchez et al., 2019), organizational culture and leadership support in work-family balance (Li, McCauley & Shaffer, 2017). Apart from the individual and the organization, the state is also an important factor (Borgmann, Kroll, Müters, Rattay & Lampert, 2019). The state, through its policies and measures, creates more or less favourable conditions for work-family balance. The country’s main initiatives are focused primarily on the area of childcare, leave, care for dependent family members, flexible forms of work and equal opportunities for women and men. A balanced work and family life have many positive consequences for both the individual and the organiza­tion. From an individual’s perspective, work-life balance is important because it reduces stress and has a positive impact on the health and overall well-being of the em­ployee (Frone, 2003). From an organizational perspective, however, it is important because it affects job satisfaction, organizational commitment, productivity, performance, efficiency, and retention of existing employees (Kaur & Kumar, 2014). 2.2 Job and life satisfaction Job satisfaction is defined as the individual’s positive mindset, which is reflected in the employee’s opinion of the work or atmosphere at work (Mincu, 2015). The main three relationships that affect an individual’s job satisfac­tion are the employee-organization relationship, the em­ployee-leader relationship, and the employee-employee relationship (Tang, Siu & Cheung, 2014). Research also showed that occupational stress, behav­ioural symptoms and emotional symptoms of burnout, as well as age, have a significant impact on employees’ job satisfaction (Rožman, Grinkevich & Tominc, 2019). Job satisfaction is often related to demographic characteristic such as age and gender (Al-Haroon & Al-Qahtani, 2019). Increased job satisfaction is undoubtedly influenced by the work environment. Individuals who work in an en­vironment where they feel well, are respected and valued will also be more satisfied with the work (Dimec, Mah­nic, Marinšek, Masten & Tušak, 2008). Besides, the leader also influences the nature of work, fair pay, complexity, and meaningfulness of work tasks, as well as relationships among colleagues and other important factors that affect job satisfaction (Lumley, Coetzee, Tladinyane, & Ferrei­ra, 2011). Factors related to job status and relationships (Hajdukova, Klementova & Klementova, 2015) as well as strategic human resource management and leadership sup­port (Adiguzel, Faruk Ozcinar & Karadal, 2020) are also important for job satisfaction. Employees’ perception of workload balance significantly influences job satisfaction (Inegbedion, Inegbedion, Peter & Harry, 2020). Life satisfaction is a cognitive component of subjective well-being, i.e. the individual’s assessment of his or her well-being, health, friendship and partnership and satis­faction with himself or herself (Dimec, Mahnic, Marinšek, Masten & Tušak, 2008). Life satisfaction, however, is more general and is understood as a universal feeling and attitude towards life at some point, ranging from the nega­tive to the positive (Kashyap, Joseph & Deshmukh, 2016). It involves satisfaction with the past, with the future, and with significant other views of the individual’s life (Di­ener, 1984). Diener (1984) lists three main determinants of life satisfaction. The first determinant is that satisfaction is subjective, which means that experiencing satisfaction is an individual’s perception. Another determinant is that subjective satisfaction has positive criteria. And the third clause states that subjective satisfaction contains a com­plete assessment of all the parameters of an individual’s life. Although life satisfaction is relatively stable at all times, various stressful life events (e.g. loss of or change of job, divorce or marriage, etc.) can have a profound impact on the long-term level of subjective well-being (Lucas, Clark, Georgellis & Diener, 2004). 2.3 Work engagement Work engagement involves an emotional and psycho­logical relationship between employees and their organi­zation, which can translate into negative or positive behav­iours that employees display in their workplace (Andrew & Sofian, 2012). Work engagement is one of the important topics in human resource management today, among the rest because it is strongly linked to organizational produc­tivity. Christian, Garza, and Slaughter (2011), based on an analysis of the literature, defined work engagement as a relatively lasting state of mind, related to the simultane­ous investment of personal energy into work experience or performance. An individual is engaged when he or she feels valued and involved in the organization (Taghipour & Dezfuli, 2013). Gallup (2006) divides employees into three types: committed, unengaged and actively unengaged. Com­mitted employees work with passion and feel a deep con­nection to their organization. They drive innovation and move the organization forward. Unattached employees are essentially “disconnected”. They spend time at work passively, devoting time to work, not energy or passion. Active unengaged employees are not only dissatisfied with the workplace but even create that dissatisfaction. These workers undermine what their engaged employees create. Several factors affect work engagement. Based on the literature review, Christian, Garza, and Slaughter (2011) summarized the antecedents of work engagement into three main factors, namely job characteristics, support for the social environment, and physical demands; the second factor is leadership, which is supposed to be crucial in how an individual views their work, and the third factor is dis­positional characteristics (employee personality). Work engagement has many positives outcomes. Work engagement thus plays an important role in promoting work performance or productivity and improved work outcomes (Andrew & Sofian, 2012). A survey (Mache, Vitzthum, Klapp & Danzer, 2014) also found that work engagement also has positive effects on an individual’s job satisfaction and as well as quality of life and is an im­portant indicator of occupational well-being, both for the individual and the organization. Work engagement has a significant positive relationship with the work outcomes (Gemeda & Lee, 2020). 2.4 The relations between work-life balance, satisfaction and work engagement On the one hand, the roles of the individual are often excluded, as more involvement in one area or role may reduce attention in other areas and, if one spends more time in one area, leaves him less in the other (Adkins & Premeaux, 2012). On the other hand, the roles are inter­connected and interdependent. Research also shows that, for example, work-family balance can be achieved by the same factors as job satisfaction (Yadav & Dabhade, 2014). Research also shows links between our concepts stud­ied. Research thus shows that those individuals who are more satisfied with life are also more satisfied with work and conversely, those who are more satisfied with work are also more satisfied with life in general (Rus & Tos, 2005). Also, work-life balance affects both job satisfaction and life satisfaction (Kashyap, Joseph & Deshmukh, 2016). The success of work-family balance also influences work engagement of employees’ (Bedarkar & Pandita, 2014). Namely, an organization’s support in work-family balance is related to the individual’s sense of being val­ued and respected in the organization, which contributes to making the individual more engaged. Besides, research (Mache, Vitzthum, Klapp & Danzer, 2014; Taghipour & Dezfuli, 2013) also confirms that family-friendly meas­ures of an organization have the effect of increasing work engagement. Kar and Misra (2013) emphasizes that those employees who receive the support of the employer in work-family balance are more satisfied at work and more belonging. Due to all the positive outcomes, work engagement is important for both, employers and individuals. Previous researches has found an important relationship between job and life satisfaction and work engagement. Research has also confirmed the relationship between work-life balance and job and life satisfaction. But, there is a lack of research examining the relationship between work-life balance and work engagement, and there is no research ex­amining all four concepts, i.e. work-life balance, job and life satisfaction, and work commitment, in one research. Therefore, we decided to examine these relationships and fill the research gap. 3 Research 3.1 Hypotheses Based on written above we formulated five hypotheses to determine relations between work-life balance, job sat­isfaction, life satisfaction, and work engagement. We pro­pose that work-life balance positively effects job satisfac­tion, life satisfaction, and work engagement and that life satisfaction positively effects work engagement. Proposed hypotheses were tested in the proposed model (Figure 1) as follows. Previous research (Kashyap, Joseph & Deshmukh, 2016) confirm that work-life balance has a positive effect on job and life satisfaction as well as quality of work and family performance. The absence of conflict between work and family contributes to greater satisfaction at work and also in family life, which means that the individual is more generally satisfied with his life. Based on studied literature and previous research we have formulated hypotheses 1 and 2: H1: Work-life balance is positively related to job sat­isfaction. H2: Work-life balance is positively related to life sat­isfaction. A study examining the direct impact of the work-life balance of an individual on his work engagement has not yet been conducted, but the results of the Kar & Misra (2013) survey confirmed that those employees who re­ceive employer support in coordinating work and fami­ly are more satisfied at work and more engaged. At the same time, research has also shown that family-friendly organizational measures influence an individual’s greater work engagement (Mache, Vitzthum, Klapp & Danzer, 2014; Taghipour & Dezfuli, 2013). Based on this previous knowledge we formulated Hypothesis 3. H3: Work-life balance is positively related to work en­gagement. Employee job satisfaction is reflected in work be­haviour, for example, low job satisfaction is reflected in reduced discipline, responsibility, lower workforce and affiliation and vice versa (Hajdukova, Klementova & Kle­mentova, 2015), satisfied employees are also more pro­ductive (Saari & Judge, 2014). Research (Taghipour & Dezfuli, 2013) has already confirmed that work motiva­tion and job satisfaction affect work engagement. Research (Mache, Vitzthum, Klapp & Danzer, 2014) has shown that work engagement and individual satisfaction at work and with life are positively related. Also, a study of Innanen, Tolvanen and Salmela-Aro (2014) found that engaged em­ployees are more relaxed and generally more satisfied with life. Based on previous research we have formulated hy­pothesis 4 and hypothesis 5. H4: Job satisfaction is positively related to work en­gagement. H5: Life satisfaction is positively related to work en­gagement. 3.2 Instruments Work-life balance was measured by using a four item scale developed by Brough, Timms, O’Driscoll, Kalliath, Siu, Sit, and Lo (2014). The response scale was a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). The coefficient of reliability (Cron­bach’s alpha) was 0.402, respectively. Cronbach’s alpha on the work-life balance scale was low, which was surprising as a higher value was expect­ed. The questionnaire of the authors Brought et al. (2014) was validated and used in several papers and research pro­jects (e.g. Chan, Kalliath, Brough, Siu et al., 2016; Casper, Vaziri, Wayne, DeHauw & Greenhaus, 2018; and others), so the assumption is, that the questionnaire is nevertheless reliable and that such a small Cronbach alpha is most like­ly due to small sample size (n = 164). Job satisfaction was measured by using a thirty-six item scale developed by Spector (1997). The response scale was a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (com­pletely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). The coefficient of reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) was 0.612, respectively. Life satisfaction was measured on a five-item scale de­veloped by Diener, Emmons, Larsen and Griffin (1985). The response scale was a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). The coefficient of reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) was 0.870, re­spectively. Work engagement was measured on a nine-item scale based on Schaufeli and Bakker’s UWES (2004). The re­sponse scale was a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). The coeffi­cient of reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) was 0.864, respec­tively. To obtain data, we designed an online questionnaire, which was sent via e-mail in spring 2019. We have used convenience sampling, where people who were higher ed­ucation lecturers from Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Serbia, and Slovenia were invited via e-mail and social media to participate in our survey. After conducting online research, primary data was controlled and edited. For processing and analysing data, we have used IBM SPSS Statistics 24 and Lisrel 8.80. Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1. 3.3 Research setting and participants The full set of questionnaires was completed by a to­tal of 164 higher education lecturers (21 from Austria, 31 from Croatia, 13 form Czech Republic, two from Germa­ny, 42 from Serbia, 46 from Slovenia and 9 did not an­swer), which represent our sample, of whom 63 (38.4%) were men and 95 (57.9%) were women and 6 (3.7) did not answer this question. According to the marital status of respondents: 96 (58.5%) were married, 4 (2.4%) were en­gaged 9 (5.5%) were divorced, 70 (36.8%) were 14 (8.5%) were single, 35 (21.3%) were in a committed relationship and 6 (3.7) did not answer this question. We have also asked about the number of children (under the age of 18), where 106 (64.6%) had none, 24 (14.6%) had one child, 17 (10.4%) had two children, 6 (3.7%) had three children, 2 (1.2%) had four children and nine did not respond. According to the educational level of respondents: 6 (3.7%) had a B.Sc. or B.A., 30 (18.3%) had a M.Sc. or MBA, and 121 (73.8%) had a Ph.D. (seven did not re­spond). According to their academic ranks 27 (16.5%) were teaching assistants, 16 (9.8%) were research assis­tants, 57 (34.8%) were assistant professors, 33 (20.1%) were associate professors, 24 (14.6%) were full professors and seven did not respond. According to work status, 140 (85.4%) had full time employment, 8 (4.9%) had part time employment, 8 (4.9%) worked per contract, one was self-employed and seven did not answer. The average age of respondents was 38.62 years for the 158 who responded to this question. The average years of work experience in higher education was 15.09 and the average years of work experience over­all was 18.68. 3.4 Results We analysed the data collected through our survey by applying structural equation modelling (SEM) in Lisrel 8.80 software package, which allows the testing of mul­tiple structural relations at once (Prajogo & McDermott 2005). The standardized solutions and t-values for the hy­potheses tested in the model are presented in Figure 1. Standardised solution weights between work-life bal­ance, job satisfaction, life satisfaction and work engage­ment and between job satisfaction and work engagement and between life satisfaction and work engagement are presented in the model in Figure 1. We can therefore with the use of structural equation modelling based on the standardized solution confirm positive and statistically significant relations between work-life balance and job satisfaction, between work-life balance and life satisfac­tion and between life satisfaction and work engagement, whereas the relations between work-life balance and work engagement and between job satisfaction and work en­gagement are not statistically significant. Based on the standardized solutions we found (that ex­cept in H3 and H4, where the relations are not statistically significant and we can therefore neither confirm nor refute these hypotheses), that the other three relations are positive and statistically significant and we can therefore confirm H1, H2 and H5. Fit indices for the model are as follows: .2/df=2.678, RMSEA=0.101, NFI=0.686, NNFI=0.782, CFI=0.791, IFI=0.793, SRMR=0.125. The whole model has a statistical significance of P-value=0.00000. The value of parameters directs that the model ought to have better indices. One explanation can be its simple structure, as we kept only two major variables, despite the results of previous research that identify various other fac­tors that could be included. On the other hand, we intend­ed to focus only on higher education lecturers and main components of work-life balance that are recognized in the literature (job satisfaction, life satisfaction and work en­gagement), which is why we decided to use the presented construct, and not some more comprehensive. 4 Discussion and conclusion Modern business environment is highly competitive and frequently demands constant participation of em­ployees in the business tasks despite their official work­ing hours or formal job descriptions. This practice did not avoid the employees in education (Devonport, Biscomb & Lane, 2008), although they are generally satisfied with their jobs (Jordan, Miglic, Todorovic, & Maric, 2017). A healthy working environment in which the individual feels comfortable and is respected, both as an employee and as a person with a private life that is important for individual satisfaction. As being lecturers and researchers employed in higher education institutions, we wanted to examine the work-life balance among our colleagues. With our research, which was based upon previous re­search and in-depth study of relevant literature, we have tested the relations between work-life balance, job satis­faction, life satisfaction and work engagement that have been missing and are highlighted in this research based on empirical evidence. Results of our research show that higher levels of work-life balance have a positive effect on job satisfaction (H1) and life satisfaction (H2), whereas only life satisfaction (H5) has a positive effect on work en­gagement among higher education lecturers. Although we have hypothesised in H3, that there should be a direct rela­tion, we have found positive relations in H2 and H5, which leads to the conclusion, that life satisfaction is a mediator between work-life balance and work engagement, where we also see, that we can nor confirm, nor refute the third hypothesis of a direct and statistically significant positive relation between work-life balance and work engagement as hypothesised in H3. We also cannot confirm, that job satisfaction is a moderator between work-life balance and work engagement, since the relation hypothesised in H4 is not statistically significant. The whole research was focused mostly on four con­structs, namely work-life balance, job satisfaction, life satisfaction and work engagement, whereas other deter­minants, such as for example demographic variables were not considered and is investigated on a sample. For further research, we suggest investigating the effects of the deter­minants not included in our study and in different settings. These determinants could be divided into those influenc­ing the constructs researched in our study, such as situa­tional and other attributive determinants. Research contributes to the existing research of work-life balance, job satisfaction, life satisfaction and work engagement in the aspect of advancing previous research by empirically examining the relations and the mediating effect between them. Besides, we see an important scientif­ic contribution to the fact that the research is international and conducted among higher education teachers. Important from a practical point of view is the con­firmed relationship between job satisfaction and work en­gagement. Most research in working organizations focuses on measuring job satisfaction, but not on life satisfaction in general. Likewise, most scientific research highlights a healthy work environment and job satisfaction as an im­portant factor influencing work engagement (e.g. Saari & Judge, 2014; Taghipour & Dezfuli, 2013). The results of our research, however, confirm the important impact of life satisfaction on work engagement. Therefore, it is impor­tant that organizations operate with a sense of what their employees need not only in the work environment but it is necessary that companies also take care of employee satis­faction in general. One of the ways to increase life satisfac­tion is to help balance work and family, because according to the results of the research, work-family balance has a significant impact on life satisfaction. The practical contribution of the research is also an in-depth insight into the relationships between the studied constructs. The paper has practical implications for both HR professionals and heads of work organizations, as it confirms the important impact of work-family balance on the satisfaction of employees, both at work and in gener­al. Policies and practices for work-family balance create a so-called “win-win” situation for both employees and the organization. A key issue for organizations, therefore, should be how to promote the improvement of employ­ee performance in individual roles, thus avoiding conflict between roles. Less conflict means healthier and more sat­isfied employees, and thus more engaged and productive employees. The broad scientific and profession interest in the con­structs regarding work-life balance, job satisfaction, life satisfaction and work engagement are increasing as the global competition rapidly grows and management ex­presses the need for such research; and our research can add to these studies. An important contribution of the research is the con­firmed positive correlation between life satisfaction and work engagement among higher education lecturers. Most scientific research, as well as research among employees in organizations, focuses on the study of job satisfaction, but the importance of life satisfaction is forgotten, also in relation to work engagement. Our research confirms the assumptions that employees who are more satisfied with life are also more engaged employees. In practice, both scientific research and organizations should focus on activ­ities that support general life satisfaction, but also on im­proving the work-life balance, which is one of the impor­tant factors for both life satisfaction and work engagement. This article provides general conclusions based on the analysis of the whole sample, without the differentiation between certain demographic aspects, due to the sam­ple size. Nevertheless, further research should definitely include such clustering, as previous research shows the influence of various demographic variables on work-life balance. For example, many authors (Roeters, 2011; Stier, Lewin-Epstein & Braun, 2012) point that women in man­agement and education are found to have a lower work-life balance satisfaction than their male counterparts. Marital status and parenthood can also impact work-life balance among lecturers (Atteh, Martin, Oduro, Men­sah, & Gyamfi, 2020). This is particularly important if the employees perceive family responsibility discrimina­tion from their supervisor, as they experience increased emotional exhaustion and work–life balance in such cas­es (Trzebiatowski & del Carmen Triana, 2020). Aligning work and private life is a significant challenge for young academics because of demanding working conditions, and it is particularly strong for young female academics due to growing family responsibilities (Dorenkamp & Süß, 2017). Considering the data we collected, we can also test the influence of the position in the academic hierarchy and title on the results generated by our model. Finally, another direction for further research can also be a cross cultural analysis. In this paper main limitation for such study was the size of our sample, despite having respondents from six countries. Although we did not see significant differences among participants from different countries, the sample was too small to provide valid con­clusion in that area, so this topic should definitely be ad­ditionally investigated, as some previous research already point to potential dissimilarities (Bayraktaroglu, Atay, Il­han & Mustafayeva, 2019). 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She is author of several original scientific articles, papers at scientific conferences and author of professional articles. Miha Maric, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the field of leadership, management and organizational sciences at the University of Maribor’s Faculty of Organizational Sciences. He holds a Ph.D. from the Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana. His research interests are power, leadership, organizational behavior, human resource management, organization and management. He is the author of numerous original scientific articles, professional articles, papers at scientific conferences, scientific monographs, and was an editor and reviewer. He also participates in research projects and consulting work. Odnos med ravnovesjem poklicnega in zasebnega življenja, zadovoljstvom z delom, zadovoljstvom z življe­njem in zavzetostjo pri delu visokošolskih uciteljev Ozadje in namen prispevka: Naša raziskava preucuje vpliv ravnovesja med poklicnim in zasebnim življenjem na delovno zavzetost, tako neposredni vpliv kot tudi prek zadovoljstvo pri delu in življenju. Glavni cilj naše raziskave je empiricno preizkusiti povezave med ravnotežjem poklicnega in zasebnega življenja, zadovoljstvom z delom, zado­voljstvom z življenjem in delovno zavzetostjo med visokošolskimi ucitelji iz Avstrije, Hrvaške, Ceške, Nemcije, Srbije in Slovenije. Metode: Z validiranimi vprašalniki smo zbrali podatke o ravnovesju med poklicnim in zasebnim življenjem, zado­voljstvom z delom, zadovoljstvom z življenjem in njihovo delovno zavzetost. Kvantitativni podatki za našo analizo so bili zbrani z anketo med 164 spletnimi udeleženci. Na podlagi obsežnega pregleda literature smo oblikovali pet hipotez, ki smo jih preizkusili v enem strukturnem modelu z uporabo modeliranja strukturnih enacb (SEM). Rezultati: Naše ugotovitve kažejo, da povecanje ravnovesja med poklicnim in zasebnim življenjem pozitivno vpliva na zadovoljstvo z življenjem in zadovoljstvo z delom ter da zadovoljstvo z življenjem vodi v povecanje delovne zav­zetosti. Zakljucek: Poznavanje pomembnega vpliva ravnovesja med poklicnim in zasebnim življenjem, skupaj z razumeva­njem odnosov med raziskanimi konstrukti, to so ravnovesje med poklicnim in zasebnim življenjem, zadovoljstvo z življenjem, zadovoljstvo pri delu in zavzetost pri delu, lahko okrepi delovno zavzetost visokošolskih uciteljev s spo­štovanjem zaposlenih kot akterjev v razlicnih vlogah in v ta namen podpira ravnovesje med poklicnim in zasebnim življenjem v obliki družinam prijaznih politik in praks ter s tem prispeva na podrocju vedenja zaposlenih in izboljšuje produktivnost visokošolskih uciteljev. Kljucne besede: Ravnotežje med poklicnim in zasebnim življenjem, Zadovoljstvo pri delu, Zadovoljstvo z življenjem, Zavzetost pri delu, SEM DOI: 10.2478/orga-2021-0016 The Role of Workload, Nepotism, Job Satisfaction, and Organizational Politics on Turnover Intention: A Conservation of Resources Perspective Zuhair ABBAS1, Junaid ANSARI2, Saba GULZAR2, Unzila ZAMEER2, Kanwal HUSSAIN2 1 Tomas Bata University in Zlin, Department of Business Administration at Faculty of Management and Economics, Zlin, Czech Republic, abbas@utb.cz 2 Institute of Business Management (IoBM), Department of HRM and Management, Karachi, Pakistan, Junaid.ansari@iobm.edu.pk, saba.gulzar@iobm.edu.pk, Std_23801@iobm.edu.pk, Kanwal.hussain@iobm.edu.pk Background: Despite extensive research on employee turnover intention in the existing literature. Previous studies have paid rare attention to the role of workload (WL), nepotism (N), job satisfaction (JS), and organization politics (OP) on turnover intention, especially, mediating the effect of harassment between WL, N, JS and OP on turnover intention in the Pakistani context. This study is using Hobfoll’s conservation of resources (COR) theory. Methods: Data were collected from 189 female employees (doctors and nurses) working in public and private hos­pitals in the province of Sindh, Pakistan, by adopting a purposive sampling technique. SmartPLS and SPPS were used to analyze the data. Results: The results demonstrated that workload and job satisfaction are positively related to harassment. At the same time, harassment has a direct effect on turnover intention. More importantly, harassment partially mediated the effect between workload and job satisfaction on turnover intention. In contrast, nepotism and organizational poli­tics did not observe any significant relationship with harassment. However, it also did not have any mediating impact of harassment between nepotism and organizational politics on turnover intention. Conclusion: There is a lack of research on the antecedents of turnover intention in the existing literature especially in the developing country context (Pakistan). Furthermore, this study examined the mediation mechanism of ha­rassment on turnover intention. In this way, this is an original contribution to the body of knowledge. Finally, COR theory has been utilized to explain how antecedents of turnover intention play their role along with harassment at the workplace. This study also advances the existing literature on human resource management. The current study provides insightful guidelines to policymakers, managers, and HRM practitioners for devising employee-friendly policies at the workplace. Keywords: Workload, Nepotism, Job satisfaction, Organizational politics, Harassment, Turnover intention, Healthcare 1 Introduction Employee retention remains a critical issue for or­ganizations. Besides the in-depth and numerous studies on employee turnover issues, it is still a challenge for be­havioural sciences researchers and industry practitioners (Hom et al., 2017). Moreover, earlier studies indicated due to turnover intention, companies suffer from losses, and it ranges from 90 to 200% of annual salary, talent acquisi­tion, and talent management expenses (Reina et al., 2017). However, the turnover of the experienced workforce ad­versely affects the organizational environment and morale of retained employees and consequently, decreases the productivity and efficiency of an organization (Holtom & Burch, 2016; Price, 2001). It remains to be the most sub­stantial challenge for an organization to retain a skilled and knowledgeable workforce. As per a study conducted by the US Bureau of Labour Statistics (BLS, 2020), there are about 3.5 million peo­ple reported who have quit their jobs. Similarly, in Asian context, employee turnover has also drastically increased. The turnover problem has been widely studied for many decades. It has been found that employee turnover is an expense for organizations, and it not only affects produc­tivity but also has devastating effects on effectiveness (Zheng and Lamond, 2010). Previous research shows that employees’ performance and competitiveness has triggered scholars’ interest to highlight issues through research in the service or non-ser­vice sector (Hussain et al. 2020). In light of this, this study tries to examine the effects of workload, nepotism, job sat­isfaction, and organizational politics on turnover intention. The increased workload amongst nurses has shown to neg­atively impact wellbeing and turnover intentions (Jourdain & Chenęvert, 2010). Previous evidence revealed nepotism is a negative aspect that influences workers’ performance appraisal, specifically performance evaluation, payments, and job satisfaction (Arasli and Tumer, 2008). There is also sufficient literature available on the relationship between politics and organizational consequences, and scholars have had the interest to explore this relationship further (Drory & Vigodagadot, 2010). Researchers have integrat­ed politics with the most investigative job outcomes to analyze the intention to quit and its effect on organizational policies and the researcher has put efforts to investigate it further (Saad & Elshaer, 2017). Most of the studies on this issue have been carried out in Western countries (Holtom et al. 2008). There are rare studies conducted in a non-Western context (Chen and Francesco, 2000; Pomaki et al., 2010). Moreover, Holtom et al. (2008) highlighted that there is a need to explore the turnover intentions of employees across cultures. There­fore, in this study, the focus is to explore the factors that lead to turnover intentions in the Pakistani context (Ma­jeed & Jamshed, 202 1). This research aims to identify the underpinning areas of turnover intention in Pakistan. Pa­kistan is an emerging economy and companies around the world are interested in investing and getting skilled labour. It is also different culturally from the western cultural con­text, specifically in power distance. This study attempts to address the research gap in sev­eral ways with the existing literature. Firstly, this study is novel in the sense that it explored the factors that affect turnover intention, which is neglected in the context of Pa­kistan. Secondly, this study tries to examine the main prob­lem of harassment in the workplace for female employees, especially nurses in the hospital working environment. This study examined harassment as a mediator between workload, nepotism, job satisfaction, and organizational politics. To date, few studies focused on the mediating ef­fect of harassment, but similar constructs like cynicism, bullying, mobbing were used as mediating variables (See Laeeque et al., 2018; Liu & Lo, 2018). Finally, this study tested COR theory to know the effect of antecedents of turnover intention via harassment in the power distant cul­ture in Pakistan. 2 Literature Review 2.1 Conservation of resources (COR) theory Employees who quit their present employment are likely to need to spend significant resources (cognitive, emotional, and physical) or not just seeking new employ­ment but also adapting to the new environment, according to the COR hypothesis (Hobfoll,1989). Importantly, the COR model suggests three distinct ways in which employ­ees’ desire to leave is influenced by workload, nepotism, job satisfaction, organizational politics, and harassment. When a worker perceives a danger to his or her valuable resources, he or she expects a probable loss in the first sce­nario. The second scenario is when the worker has already used all of his or her resources (e.g., trust from co-workers, confidence in the job, or valued window office due to re­organization).The third scenario occurs when a worker is unable to acquire a substantial quantity of resources after investing them (e.g., no promotion despite updated educa­tional credentials). Harassment is the fourth circumstance, and it leads to a good desire to leave. Any one of these four scenarios may cause employees to get burnt out and even­tually quit since the pace at which job demands deplete hu­man resources is usually faster than the pace at which re­sources are repaired or replaced (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993). 2.2 Workload According to previous evidence, workload widely af­fects turnover intention (Liu & Lo, 2018). More impor­tantly, workload can have a positive or negative impact on a doctor’s performance. If the impact is long term, nurses and doctors intend to leave the organization, and this also results in mental and physical health problems, weak fam­ily relations, job stress, and increasing divorce rates. H1: Workload will be positively associated with har­assment 2.3 Nepotism The word nepotism has a negative connotation. It refers to giving an advantage to a cousin or relative in an organi­zation based on kinship rather than the individual’s talents, competencies, experience, or skills for the position. A prior study conducted by Kerse & Babadag (2018), investigated the effect of nepotism/favouritism on turnover intention of hotel workers. Their study found nepotism to have a positive result on turnover intentions. An employee who is facing nepotism may have a negative attitude towards the organization’s atmosphere, and this results in turnover intention. Although, when skilful employees know about nepotism, they feel demotivated, they do not perform up to their mark, and most employees leave their jobs and due to this the turnover ratio of these organizations is exception­ally high (Aldossari & Bourne, 2016). H2: Nepotism will be positively associated with har­assment 2.4 Job Satisfaction According to the available literature, job satisfaction has the most significant impact on turnover intention (Tre­vor, 2001) and it is a key predictor to determine the reasons of turnover intention (Yanchus et al., 2017). Job satisfac­tion is reinforced employee perception about organization­al change and management and its effect on job attitudes and turnover intentions (Armenakis & Bedeian 1999). A prior study explored job satisfaction as a potential mod­erator between organizational support, perceived alterna­tive job opportunity and organizational commitment with turnover intention (Albalawi et al., 2019). Additionally previous research also revealed that job satisfaction and turnover intention had a weak relationship (Porter & Steers 1973). It is also important to mention that prior studies have focused on the turnover intentions of nurses in the Western context (Quek et al., 2021). H3: Job satisfaction will be negatively associated with harassment 2.5 Organization Politics Organization politics plays a vital role in the perfor­mance of employees at workplace. Employees prefer to leave the organization but do not engage themselves in organizational politics (Labrague et al., 2017). In the cur­rent literature review, two types of removal behaviours were exercised by Hulin (1991), one was psychological removal and the other physical removal. Withdrawal from any situation due to psychological factor makes a worker physically present but mentally absent / disengaged from the workplace. Physical absence from the workplace is the real outcome of the downfall of an organization, and this physical absence can be found in the context of organiza­tional politics. However, Labrague et al., (2017) found that the great­er the perception of organizational politics, the greater the rate of turnover intention at an individual level, and this makes them leave the organization. Leaving an organiza­tion, especially in the private sector, is substantially high and still, this price is not intolerable by the management. According to Vigoda (2000), when the employees in the tested private organizations were exposed to the political scenario, they chose to be withdrawn psychologically rath­er than leaving the organization. From culture to culture across different organizations, there was a strong link be­tween perceptions of org: politics and employee Turnover Intention. Due to organizational politics, employees who work hard have job stress and thus, they do not want to be a part of that organization and all that is causing a distrac­tion for them; all of these are the reasons that employee turnover intention is too high (Labrague et al., 2017). H4: Organizational Politics will be positively associ­ated with harassment 2.6 The mediating effect of harassment There are few studies where harassment has been con­sidered as a mediating variable, but similar constructs like cynicism, bullying, and mobbing were used as a mediating variable. The results concluded that nepotism has a positive impact on cynicism and work withdrawal, and cynicism mediates between nepotism and withdrawal. Furthermore, the study also revealed that the effects of Employee Cyni­cism on withdrawal were more on females (6.7 times) and the impact of nepotism on Work Withdrawal were more on Males (2.1 times) and outlined the strategies that should be followed to keep employees more productive (Abubakar et al. 2017). As a mediating variable, Workplace Bullying was used that affects Organizational Politics. This analysis revealed that organization, politics, and conflicts have a positive impact on Workplace Bullying among nurses. The study also showed that workplace bullying increases con­flict between groups (Hong et al. 2019). According to Deery, et al., (2011) found the difficulties of harassment that nurses have to face from the patients, their colleagues, and the top management of the hospital. It also indicates that despite the existence of zero-tolerance policy on harassment in the hospital, the reports suggest that nurses are harassed due to which the turnover ratio is too high. According to past literature, we found that sex­ual harassment may have a different meaning from males’ and females’ perspective. Normally, females are more receptive to sexual attitudes than males (Geer & Robert­son, 2005). Females also find themselves uneasy due to workplace romance. According to Baumeister & Twenge (2002) research, this can be explained by the western culture where harassment of females at the workplace is given more hype and male harassment is left relatively unnoticed. This results in females’ severe behavioural in­tentions for quitting the job. Similarly, Fredrickson et al., (1998) revealed that women usually are exposed to sexual harassment, which is linked to their disrespect and being emotionally blackmailed. Prevailing sexual harassment at the workplace may influence women’s job attitudes and give rise to their nervousness at work. As the authority of the organization is mostly in the hands of males. Hence, every situation that has to happen at the workplace neg­atively hits females’ job performance and causes adverse feelings in females leading to increased turnover intention (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975). H5. Harassment is positively associated with turnover intention. H6. Harassment will mediate the relationship between workload and turnover intention. H7. Harassment will mediate the relationship between nepotism and turnover intention. H8. Harassment will mediate the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intention. H9. Harassment will mediate the relationship between organizational politics and turnover intention (See Figure.1) 3 3 Method 3.1 Sample and Procedure To obtain accurate measurements, we have conducted a statistical analysis for which we have used a quantitative approach because the nature of our study is deductive. The tools we have used in this research to conduct statistical analysis include IBM SPSS 21 and Smart PLS 3.0. For the collection of data, we have distributed the questionnaire and used descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze the data. The population for this research includes all female doctors and nurses of Pakistan, who are working in private and public sector hospitals. The total number of Doctors/Dental Surgeons in Pakistan is 136292 who have done bachelors and 26134 are those who have done speciali­zation. There are 60330 registered Nurses, out of which 11912. We have calculated the sample by the product of 30 respondents and the number of constructs, i.e., 30 x 6 = 180 respondents. As our research contains a complex mod­el, and it is necessary to obtain accurate results to interpret our findings. We have collected 189 responses by using a purposive sampling technique. 3.2 Measurement Scale For data collection, the five-point Likert scale has been used to measure the items, ranging from strongly agree (1) to strongly disagree (5). The adopted questionnaire has a total of 36 questions, all of which have been adopted from previous studies. It is based on six variables, five of which are independent. The independent variables include Nep­otism, Organization, Politics, workplace harassment, and workload. Whereas, the dependent variables are employee turnover intention and job satisfaction. The questionnaire was circulated online via Google Docs as well as physical­ly. The construct workplace Harassment and its items were adapted from Savicki et al., (2003), the construct Organi­zation Politics and its items were revised from Kacmar & Ferris, (1991), This eight-item construct of nepotism was adopted from the previous study of Arsali et al., (2006), The seven-item construct of Workload was adapted from Zahra et al. (2018), the construct Job Satisfaction was modified from the previous study by Macdonald & Ma­clntyre (1997) and this seven-item construct of Turnover Intention was adapted and (Arasli, Bavik, & Ekiz, 2006). All these constructs have already established reliability, i.e., CA>0.7. According to Cronbach (1951), the ques­tionnaire is reliable as all values of Cronbach’s alpha are greater than 0.7. 3.3 Analyses 3.3.1 Demographic Profile Our sample consists of 189 responses out of which 118 respondents (62%), the majority are between the age of 21 and 30, and 3 respondents (2%) belong to the age group above 50 years. Majority of the respondents were those with a bachelor’s degree, i.e., 117 (64%), and 5 re­spondents (3%) have completed their MPhil/PhD degree. Majority of the respondents, i.e., 87 (45%), are receiving their salary between 25,000 PKR and 50,000 PKR, and 9 respondents (5%) are receiving their salaries less than 25,000 PKR. Moreover, 37 (19%) respondents are getting their salaries between 50,000 PKR and 75,000 PKR. The majority of the respondents, i.e., 99 (52%), are experi­enced from 1 year to 5 years, and 9 respondents (5%) are experienced more than 10 years. Moreover, 44 (23%) of the respondents are experiencing less than 1 year that is also a significant proportion representing young female healthcare practitioners. 3.3.2 Descriptive Analysis To check the normality of the data, descriptive statis­tics have been performed. It is used to test the univariate validity. The skewness and kurtosis within a range of ±3 represent that the data is normally distributed. The tool which we have used to perform descriptive statistics was IBM SPSS21. The results are shown in Table 1. If the data is not normally distributed, regression anal­ysis cannot be conducted. After confirming the normal dis­tribution of data using the conditions. It was identified that the data fulfils the normal distribution conditions, i.e., the values of skewness and kurtosis are within the range of ±3 as depicted in Table 1. 3.3.3 Reliability of the Construct The values of Cronbach’s alpha and composite relia­bility are greater than 0.7, which means all constructs are reliable. With the current responses, we have reestablished the reliabilities, which are shown in Table 2. The above table shows that all variables have values of Composite Reliability and Cronbach’s alpha higher than 0.7. Thus, it fulfils the criteria of not less than 0.6 validity. 3.3.4 Correlation analysis Correlation is used to check and measure the relation­ship between the variables. It is the prerequisite of regres­sion and used to check the existence of multi-collinearity. The acceptable range of correlation should be between 0.2-0.9. If the correlation is less than 0.2, then that item should be dropped and, in the case where the correlation is greater than 0.9, then it should be dropped or merged. The results are shown in Table 3. The above table shows that all variables have a sig­nificant relation among one another, i.e., greater than 0.2 .Therefore, all were valid for the regression analysis. 3.3.5 Discriminant Validity Discriminant validity were calculated to ascertain the uniqueness and distinctiveness of predictors (Hair et al., 2010). According to Henseler et al., (2015), the square root of the variant explained should be greater than the square of each pair of correlations. Since all variables were de­veloped in different geographical areas, so it is necessary to check the validity according to our current data. Dis­criminant validity are the tools that are used to determine the validity of constructs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Table 2 shows that the cumulative factor for all constructs was also above the threshold of 0.5 or 50%. Therefore, the con­vergent validity of the current set of data is established. Therefore, this data set fulfilled the requirement of discri­minant validity presented in Table 4. The result shows that the square root of the total vari­ance explained by every construct is greater than the cor­relation values of all other constructs, which means that each construct is behaving uniquely to all other factors. The outcomes represent that the data fulfils the discrimi­nant validity criteria (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). According to Henseler et al., (2015), discriminant va­lidity was also confirmed through the Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio (HTMT). Each HTMT ratio, as mentioned in Table 5, was less than the restraining threshold of 1.0. 3.3.6 Common method bias Harmon’s Single Factor test is used as this is a cross-sectional data. This test recommended that a sin­gle factor should explain more than 40% of the variance that reduced the chances of common method bias (CMB). Therefore, this study fulfils the requirement of CMB. Thus, the common method bias was not a problem in the present study (Podsakoff et al., 2012). 4 SEM Results PLS Structural Equation Modelling technique was used in this research to ascertain the results of the hypoth­eses. This approach was selected because it is applicable to a small dataset and is considered as the best approach for hypothesis testing (Hair et. al., 2017). PLS Algorithm technique was used to calculate the SEM results and the bootstrapping test was used to calculate the significance of hypotheses for direct and indirect effects (Hair et al., 2017). Confirmatory Factor Analysis in PLS SEM ap­proach is conducted by testing the measurement model and hypotheses are tested using the bootstrapping test (Streu­kens & Werelds, 2016). 4.1 Direct effect Our results demonstrate that Workload (WL), job sat­isfaction (JS) have a significant positive relationship with harassment (H). Thus, the regression coefficients and t-values showing; WL (ß =0.275, t=2.662, JS (ß =--0.199, t=3.578). Whereas the nepotism (N) and organizational politics (OP) hypotheses are rejected (see Table 5). Figure 2 depicts the structural model of the direct effects. 4.2 Indirect effect The structural model further shows an indirect effect as per our analysis; the results show that harassment (H) has a positive impact on turnover intention through a me­diating variable; Harassment (ß = 0.821, t =21.507), at the same time workload (WL) and job satisfaction (JS) have a significant impact on turnover intention via a mediating variable; TMC with an estimation of WL (ß =0.224, t = 2.609) and JS (ß =-0.163, t=3.538) 4.3 Coefficient of determination (R2) The coefficient indicates the percentage of variation in the Dependent Variable that has been explained by the pre­dictor (independent) variable. On the other hand, the Ad­justed R2 shows the amount of variance in the endogenous construct defined by the exogenous constructs. From Table 5, the estimated R2 of H (0.349) indicates the combined effect of the constructs, which explains some 34% of the variation in the H: WL, N, JS, and OP (as independent var­iables). Again, the R2 of turnover intention (0.667) shows some 66% variation in the construct: the construct explains turnover intention: H and this could be traced in Table 6 and Figure 2 Table 6 summarized that harassment could be consid­ered as a Mediation Variable between 1) Job Satisfaction and Turnover Intentions and 2) Workload and Turnover In­tention. Mediating test is an analysis undertaken by using a bootstrapping test. The Bootstrapping method with 2000 subsamples was used in this research. All construct is reliable, that is Cronbach’s alpha high­er than 0.7, and valid that its cumulative factor is greater than 0.5 or 50%. The result shows (See Table. 7) the NFI of 0.90. which is closer to 1. According to the set criteria, it should be greater than or equal to 0.9. On the other hand, the SRMR is 0.07, which is less than 0.08, and according to (Asparouhov & Muthen, 2014), the SRMR should be less than or equal to 0.08. On the basis, it shows that our model is fit. 5 Discussion The purpose of this study was to test the direct and in­direct effects of workload, nepotism, job satisfaction, and organizational politics on the turnover intention of female employees working in public and private hospitals in Paki­stan, considering harassment as a mediating variable. The problem of harassment is usually faced by female doctors and nurses working in hospitals as they have to work in night shifts as well. The responses were collected from fe­male staff in hospitals to evaluate the conceptual model developed in this study. This study confirms that (H1) workload is positive­ly associated with harassment. This finding is consistent with previous research (Lewis et al., 2017). Harassment can also be caused by a heavy workload. Heavy workloads burdened the employees that lead to frustration, which contributes to employees’ dissatisfaction (Hoel and Coop­er, 2000). A brief period required to overcome confronta­tions which may exacerbate into harassment is such ex­planation for the link between workload and harassment. Interestingly, the current study found that H2 nepotism did not observe any statistically significant association with harassment. In contrast, our finding is contradicting with a prior research (Abubakar et al., 2017). Employees who are facing nepotism may have a negative attitude to­ward the organization atmosphere (Arasli et al., 2019). The results related to the hypothesis, i.e., H3: job sat­isfaction is negatively associated with harassment. The result is consistent with previous research (Alrawadieh et al., 2021). The results of this study suggest that economic incentives may drive hospitals to change their work envi­ronment considering the workloads, commandment, style of management, and using abstract communication tools. The result related to hypothesis H4: organizational politics is positively associated with harassment, did not observe any statistically significant association. This result is not aligned with the results of prior research (Walsh et al., 2013). Prior study suggests the finding that organisational politics is a strong predictor of workplace harassment that could be explained by a poor system of exploring, alle­viating, and safeguarding possible victims (Farooq et al., 2021). However, the nonsignificant result shows that the organization’s politics do not play a significant role in the harassment of female staff of the hospital. The result related to hypothesis H5: harassment is positively associated with turnover intention, has been substantiated. This research offers practical policy recom­mendations in response to turnover issues. Professional organisations have recently begun to pay more attention to workplace harassment, particularly regarding senior em­ployees’ careless therapy of their subordinates. Because of the wider accessibility of records proving harassment, or­ganizations can now penalise senior staff who harass their subordinates. Organizations define methods for dealing with common workplace harassment situations, allowing employees to easily counter these kinds of circumstances. The results are consistent with prior studies on harassment and turnover intention (Deery et al., 2011; Laeeque et al., 2018). The result related to the hypothesis H6: harassment mediated between workload and turnover intention, which has been substantiated in this study. The results are simi­lar to prior studies on harassment as a mediator between workload and turnover intention (Laeeque et al., 2018; Liu & Lo, 2018). The result related to the hypothesis H7: harassment mediated between nepotism and turnover intention, which has been rejected in this study. Nepotism and organization­al politics did not observe any statistically significant as­sociation considering the mediating effect of harassment. As far as doctors are concerned, these people are skilled people. Therefore, nepotism may exist but not in such a way that may supersede other factors. The results related to the hypothesis H8: Harassment mediates between job satisfaction and turnover intention, which has been substantiated in this study. The relation­ship between job satisfaction and turnover intention is well supported in the literature (Spector et al., 2007). The result related to hypothesis H9: Harassment mediates between organizational politics and turnover intention, which has been rejected in this study. Due to organizational politics, employees who work hard have job stress, they do not want to be the part of the organization’s politics and all that causes a distraction to them. These reasons may lead to high employees’ turnover intention. The reason of the nonsignificant effect may include the skilled expertise of doctors and nurses who are less involved in the adminis­tration-related work. This study contributes to the literature in several ways. To date, few studies have been found on employees’ work­load, nepotism, job satisfaction, and organizational politics due to their attitudinal and behavioural outcomes towards turnover intention. The present study enhances the impor­tance of employee turnover intention and its determinants. Notably, by individually examining the factors (workload, nepotism, job satisfaction, and organizational politics), this study is also contributing to extend the literature. This study also confirms the significance of harassment as a mediator between workload, nepotism, job satisfaction, organizational politics, and turnover intention. Important­ly, few studies have investigated the mediating role of har­assment towards turnover intention (Laeeque et al., 2018; Elçi et al., 2014). This study also broadens the existing lit­erature by introducing the mediating effect of harassment among employees at the workplace. In this way, it is an original contribution to the body of knowledge. Moreover, this study takes its roots from the conservation of resourc­es theory, this theory plays a crucial role in increasing the satisfaction and performance of employees. The mediating effect of harassment is rarely studied in the context of Pakistani. This research helps managers and human resource practitioners to enhance organizational performance. Training should be given to managers and su­pervisors on how to avoid organizational politics and nep­otism. The community should be built in an organization where female employees can discuss harassment-related issues openly with the management. We also recommend the hospital’s administration to give special attention to work environment conditions, language use, favouritism, employee commitment, organization politics, and gender differentiation. Additionally, if such an incident occurs, a precedent must be set for the rest of employees. Managers and policymaker should devise employee-friendly poli­cies, specifically for female employees working in hospi­tals that include nurses and doctors. 6 Conclusion This study aimed to examine the impact of workload, nepotism, job satisfaction, and organization politics on turnover intention. The mediating role of harassment in or­ganizational politics, nepotism, workload, job satisfaction, and turnover intention was also assessed. A sample size of 189 female healthcare service providers and medical workers were selected for this study. In developing nations such as Pakistan, women face many hardships and challenges in achieving their goals. It is a predominant social set-up where females experience harassment at some stage in their lives at workplace. In this male-dominant culture, they tend to stay silent, avoid talking to their female colleagues, and, consequently, take no action against anyone because of the fear of society. The results of this study confirm that female healthcare practitioners experience these issues in hospitals. Harassment at the workplace is increasing exponen­tially, and there have been no efforts made to subdue it. Therefore, this study tested the relationships defined in the literature and confirms the association between workload, job satisfaction, and turnover intention. This study further provides guidelines to managers and HRM practitioners with regards to devising employee policies at an organi­zational level. 6.1 Limitations and Future Research This study has a few limitations; firstly, this study is limited in geographical concern (Pakistan) which has a dominant power culture. The specific focus of the research was to collect responses from the metropolitan city areas where females usually work. Harassment is a practical is­sue for female employees at the workplace in the prevail­ing power society. Other urban areas and small towns were ignored in this study. Future research will cover this limi­tation and other researchers may also replicate our model in other cultural settings. Secondly, our research provides an avenue for further research by evaluating other factors in determining turnover intentions like job stress, work-life conflict, work engagement, compensation satisfaction, and job security. These factors may be selected in future research to provide further analysis related to the work issues females have to face at workplace. Thirdly, future research looks at the interaction effect of abusive super­vision on turnover intention and psychological wellbeing. Finally, the psychographics and demographics of the fe­male participants were not used in the model for analysis because of the limited scope of this research. In the future, psychographics and demographics of the females may also be selected for further analysis. Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to the Internal Grant Agen­cy of FaME TBU No. IGA/FaME/2020/010, project title: “The Measurement of Performance in Selected Sectors with The Emphasis on Human Resources Indicators” for providing financial support to carry out this research. Literature 1Received: 30th October 2020; revised: 11th March 2021; accepted: 9th July 2021 Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Table 1: Descriptive Analysis Constructs Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis Harassment (H) 3.55 1.48 -0.69 -0.96 Turnover Intention (TOI) 3.50 1.42 -0.55 -1.03 Organizational Politics (OP) 4.28 1.13 -1.78 2.34 Nepotism (N) 4.30 1.14 -1.88 2.66 Workload (WL) 4.31 1.13 -1.97 2.98 Job Satisfaction (JS) 3.37 1.19 -0.55 -0.63 Table 2: Measurement Model and Reliability and Validity Analysis Constructs Indicator Factor Loading Average Variance Extracted (AVE) rho_A Composite Reliability Cronbach’s Alpha Workload (WL) WL1 0.958 WL2 0.941 WL3 0.974 WL4 0.974 0.924 0.985 0.987 0.984 WL5 0.957 WL6 0.963 Nepotism (N) N1 0.974 N2 0.966 N3 0.967 N4 0.972 N5 0.975 0.941 0.991 0.992 0.991 N6 0.969 N7 0.972 N8 0.963 Job Satisfaction (JS) JS1 0.760 JS2 0.752 0.586 0.972 0.850 0.839 JS3 0.765 JS4 0.784 Organizational Politics (OP) OP1 0.913 OP2 0.971 0.909 0.963 0.968 0.950 OP3 0.975 Harassment (H) H1 0.957 H2 0.958 0.898 0.982 0.984 0.981 H3 0.914 H4 0.907 H5 0.961 H6 0.966 H7 0.971 Turnover Intention (TOI) TOI1 0.959 TOI2 0.965 TOI3 0.975 0.926 0.985 0.987 0.984 TOI4 0.965 TOI5 0.935 TOI6 0.975 Table 3: Correlation Analysis Constructs Harassment Job Satisfaction Nepotism Organizational Politics Turnover Intention Work­load Harassment (H) 1 Job Satisfaction (JS) -0.336 1 Nepotism (N) 0.518 -0.235 1 Organizational Politics (OP) 0.510 -0.231 0.945 1 Turnover Intention (TOI) 0.817 -0.247 0.478 0.47 1 Work load (WL) 0.532 -0.275 0.768 0.766 0.487 1 Table 4 Discriminant Validity Harassment Job Satisfaction Nepotism Organizational Politics Turnover Intention Work­load Harassment (H) 0.948 Job Satisfaction (JS) -0.336 0.766 Nepotism (N) 0.518 -0.235 0.970 Organizational Politics (OP) 0.510 -0.231 0.945 0.953 Turnover Intention (TOI) 0.817 -0.247 0.478 0.470 0.962 Workload (WL) 0.532 -0.275 0.768 0.766 0.487 0.961 Notes. Square root of AVE (in bold on the diagonal). Table 5: Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) Harassment Job Satisfaction Nepotism Organizational Politics Turnover Intention Work­load Harassment (H) Job Satisfaction (JS) 0.265 Nepotism (N) 0.524 0.139 Organizational Politics (OP) 0.524 0.143 0.972 Turnover Intention (TOI) 0.831 0.167 0.484 0.484 Workload (WL) 0.540 0.180 0.777 0.791 0.494 Figure 2: Structural Model (Extracted from SmartPLS 3.0) Table 6: Path coefficient direct and indirect relationship Hypothesis Hypothetical Path Coefficient (ß) Mean Standard Dev t-value p-value Remarks Direct Effect H1 WL . H 0.275 0.271 0.103 2.662 0.008 Supported H2 N . H 0.196 0.177 0.183 1.070 0.285 Rejected H3 JS . H -0.199 -0.211 0.056 3.578 0.000 Supported H4 OP . H 0.068 0.086 0.161 0.419 0.675 Rejected H5 H .TOI 0.817 0.817 0.040 20.532 0.000 Supported Indirect Effect H6 WL . H . TOI 0.224 0.222 0.086 2.609 0.000 Supported H7 N . H . TOI 0.160 0.144 0.149 1.076 0.282 Rejected H8 JS . H . TOI -0.163 -0.172 0.046 3.538 0.000 Supported H9 OP . H . TOI 0.224 0.222 0.086 0.419 0.675 Rejected Dependent Variable: Coefficient of determination (R2) Harassment 0.335 Turnover Intention 0.665 Table 7: Model fit Saturated Model Estimated Model SRMR 0.077 0.078 d_ULS 3.502 3.819 d_G 1.988 1.990 Chi-Square 1769 1772 NFI 0.900 0.862 Abubakar, A. M., Namin, B. H., Harazneh, I., Arasli, H., & Tunç, T. (2017). Does gender moderate the re­lationship between favoritism/nepotism, supervisor incivility, cynicism, and workplace withdrawal: A neural network and SEM approach. Tourism Man­agement Perspectives, 23(2017), 129-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.06.001 Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1975). A Bayesian analysis of attribution processes. Psychological Bulletin, 82(2), 261. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076477 Albalawi, A. S., Naughton, S., Elayan, M. B., & Sleimi, M. T. (2019). 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Organisational de­terminants of employee turnover for multinational companies in Asia. Asia Pacific Journal of Manage­ment, 27(3), 423-443. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-009-9159-y Zuhair Abbas is a Ph.D. Candidate of FAME at Tomas Bata University in Zlin, Czech Republic, Europe. His main research on green human resource management, abusive supervision, psychological contract breach, turnover intention, knowledge hiding, employee wellbeing, and corporate sustainability. He has several publications in peer-reviewed scientific journals. Besides, he frequently attends and presents his research at several international conferences of well-known stature. He is also a reviewer in peer-reviewed journals. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2242-2848 Junaid Ansari holds Ph.D. in Business Management from the Institute of Business Management (IoBM). He is working as Assistant Professor at IoBM. Prior to joining academia, Dr. Ansari had served the IT sector for 11 years as an Entrepreneur and Head of Software Division in a private company. As a researcher, his several research papers have been published in recognized journals. He possesses a good knowledge of both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1603-7038 Saba Gulzar is a Senior Lecturer at the Institute of Business Management (IoBM), Karachi, Pakistan. She has more than 13 years of teaching experience. Her main focus: employee wellbeing, psychological contracts, employee competencies, and abusive supervision. She is a reviewer for a few research journals. She is also a PhD Scholar and she participated in several international conferences. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0639-6475 Unzila Zameer is a Bio-Medical Engineer from Sir Syed University of Engineering & Technology. She holds her Masters of Business Administration in Marketing from Institute of Business Management (IoBM), Pakistan. Her main research focuses on turnover intention, harassment, and sustainable performance. She had one year of corporate experience as Marketing Executive. Kanwal Hussain is a Research Associate and Ph.D. Candidate at the Institute of Business Management (IoBM), Karachi, Pakistan. Her research focuses on abusive supervision, turnover intention, green human resource management, knowledge hiding, unethical behaviours, and psychological wellbeing. Moreover, she presented her research at international conferences. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1232-8412 Vpliv delovne obremenitve, nepotizma, zadovoljstva z delom in organizacijske politike na namen zamenjati zaposlitev iz perspektive ohranjanja kadrovskih virov Ozadje: Raziskave o nameri fluktuacije zaposlenih so redko namenile pozornost vlogi delovne obremenitve (WL), nepotizmu (N), zadovoljstvu z delom (JS) in organizacijski politiki (OP) pri nameri menjave zaposlitve, še zlasti niso namenile pozornosti posrednemu ucinku nadlegovanja, med WL, N, JS in OP o nameri zamenjave zaposlitve. Naša študija izhaja iz Hobfoll-ove teorije ohranjanja virov (COR). Metode: Podatke smo zbrali pri 189 zaposlenih ženskah (zdravnicah in medicinskih sestrah), ki delajo v javnih in zasebnih bolnišnicah v provinci Sindh v Pakistanu z namensko tehniko vzorcenja. Za analizo podatkov smo uporabili SmartPLS in SPPS. Rezultati: Delovna obremenitev in zadovoljstvo pri delu pozitivno povezana z nadlegovanjem. Hkrati ima nadlego­vanje neposreden vpliv na namen zamenjave zaposlitve. Še pomembneje je, da ima nadlegovanje delno posredni ucinek med obremenitvijo in zadovoljstvom z delom na namero o menjavi zaposlitve. Nasprotno pa nepotizem in organizacijska politika nista pokazala pomembne povezave z nadlegovanjem. Tudi nismo ugotovili nobenega posre­dnega vpliva nadlegovanja na namen zamenjave zaposlitve med nepotizmom in organizacijsko politiko. Zakljucek: Izvirni prispevek te študije je preucevanje posredovalni vpliva nadlegovanja na namen zamenjave za­poslitve. COR uporabljena za razlago, kako predpostavke namena menjave zaposlitve vplivajo skupaj z nadlego­vanjem na delovnem mestu. Študija daje oblikovalcem politik, menedžerjem in kadrovskim delavcem vpogled v smernice za oblikovanje zaposlovanju prijaznih politik na delovnem mestu. Kljucne besede: Delovna obremenitev, Nepotizem, Zadovoljstvo z delom, Organizacijska politika AUTHOR GUIDELINES / NAVODILA AVTORJEM Manuscripts considered for publication in Organ­izacija (organizacija@um.si) are those which: • Contain original work – which is not published elsewhere in any medium by the authors or anyone else and is not under consideration for publication in any other medium. The author(s) is/are also responsible for any violations of the copyright regulations. • Are focused on the core aims and scope of the journal: Organizacija is an interdisciplinary peer reviewed journal that seeks both theoretically and practically oriented research papers from the area of organizational science, business information systems and human resources management. • Are clearly and correctly written – should contain all essential features of a complete scientific paper, should be written in a clear, easy to understand manner and be readable for a wide audience. • Are written in English – should be clearly and grammatically written, in an easily readable style. 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Besedilu so lahko priložene slike in/ali ta­bele na papirju v obliki pripravljeni za preslikavo. V tem primeru naj bo vsaka slika na posebnem listu, oštevilcene naj bodo z arabskimi številkami, v bese­dilu naj bo oznaceno, kam približno je treba uvrstiti sliko: na tem mestu naj bo številka slike/tabele in njen podnapis. Slike bomo praviloma pomanjšali in jih vstavili v clanek. Upoštevajte, da morajo biti oznake in besedila na vseh slikah dovolj velika, da bodo citljiva tudi pri velikosti slike, kot bo obja­vljena v reviji. Vse slike naj bodo crno-bele z be­lim ozadjem; barvnih slik v tiskani verziji revije ne moremo objaviti, barve so vidne le v spletni verziji. Clanki morajo biti pred objavo v Organizaciji lekto­rirani. Koncno verzijo mora lektorirati naravni go­vorec oz. lektor s primerljivim znanjem anglešcine. Podrobna navodila avtorjem za pisanje in oblikova­nje clankov so na https://sciendo.com/journal/orga - for Authors. Predložene prispevke pregledata in ocenita najmanj dva recenzenta. Na osnovi mnenj in predlogov re­cenzentov uredniški odbor ali urednik sprejmejo prispevek, zahtevajo manjše ali vecje popravke in dopolnitve ali ga zavrnejo. Ce urednik oziroma re­cenzenti predlagajo vecje popravke, se dopolnjeni prispevek praviloma pošlje v ponovno recenzijo. Clanke za objavo lahko predložite preko spletnega mesta http://organizacija.fov.uni-mb.si. Za nadalj­nje informacije in pojasnila se lahko obrnete na ure­dništvo Organizacije (organizacija@um.si ali joze.zupancic@um.si). Naslov uredništva: Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za organizacijske vede Kidriceva cesta 55a 4000 Kranj Faks: 04-2374-299 Tel.: 04-2374-245 Prva slovenska revija za organizacijska in kadrovska raziskovanja in prakso. Revijo sofinancira Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije. Ponatis in razmnoževanje deloma ali v celoti brez pisnega dovoljenja nista dovoljena. Izdajatelj: Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za organizacijske vede Kranj, Založba MODERNA ORGANIZACIJA, Kidriceva cesta 55a, KRANJ, telefon: 04 23 74 200, telefax: 04 23 74 299, E-pošta: organizaija@um.si. Uredništvo revije: Kidriceva cesta 55a, 4000 Kranj, narocniški oddelek: 04 23 74 295. Letna narocnina: za pravne osebe za prvi naroceni izvod 51,47 EUR, drugi naroceni izvod 41,38 EUR, vsak nadaljnji 36,33 EUR, za posameznike 25,23 EUR. Cena posamezne številke je 9,08 EUR. Na leto izidejo 4 številke. Tisk: Tiskarna Koštomaj d.o.o. Naklada 200 izvodov. Organizacija is covered by the following services: Cabell’s Directory, CEJSH (The Central European Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities), Celdes, Clarivate Analytics - Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI), CNPIEC, Die Elektronische Zeitschriftenbibliothek, DOAJ, EBSCO - TOC Premier, EBSCO Discovery Service, ECONIS, Ergonomics Abstracts, ERIH PLUS, Google Scholar, Inspec, International Abstracts in Operations Research, J-Gate, Microsoft Academic Search, Naviga (Softweco), Primo Central (ExLibris), ProQuest - Advanced Polymers Abstracts, ProQuest - Aluminium Industry Abstracts, ProQuest - Ceramic Abstracts/World Ceramics Abstracts, ProQuest - Composites Industry Abstracts, ProQuest - Computer and Information Systems Abstracts, ProQuest - Corrosion Abstracts, ProQuest - Electronics and Communications Abstracts, ProQuest - Engineered Materials Abstracts, ProQuest - Mechanical & Transportation Engineering Abstracts, ProQuest - METADEX (Metals Abstracts), ProQuest - Sociological Abstracts, ProQuest - Solid State and Superconductivity Abstracts, Research Papers in Economics (RePEc), SCOPUS, Summon (Serials Solutions/ProQuest), TDOne (TDNet), TEMA Technik und Management, WorldCat (OCLC) CONTENTS - 3/2021 180 193 210 227 238 Kristijan BREZNIK, Kris LAW, Mitja GORENAK Hotel Branding Exposed: a Content Analysis of Related Organisational Values Elizabeth DOMINIC, Vijay VICTOR, Robert Jeyakumar NATHAN, Swetha LOGANATHAN Procedural Justice, Perceived Organisational Support, and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour in Business School Safiye SAHIN, Bilal ÇANKIR, Bahar SEREZ ARSLAN Effect of Implicit Voice Theories on Employee Voice and Silence: A Study in Education and Health Sector Jasmina ŽNIDARŠIC, Miha MARIC Relationships between Work-Family Balance, Job Satisfaction, Life Satisfaction and Work Engagement among Higher Education Lecturers Zuhair ABBAS, Junaid ANSARI, Saba GULZAR, Unzila ZAMEER, Kanwal HUSSAIN The Role of Workload, Nepotism, Job Satisfaction, and Organizational Politics on Turnover Intention: A Conservation of Resources Perspective