D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 TEMATSKI SKLOP / THEMATIC SEC TION MIGRACIJE DELOVNE SILE V UKRAJINI IN NA OBMOČJU NEKDANJE SOVJETSKE ZVEZE L A B O R M I G R AT I O N I N U K R A I N E A N D T H E P O S T - S O V I E T S PAC E Z h a n n a B o l a t I ntroduc t ion: Labor M igrat ion in Uk raine and the Post-Soviet Space Te t i a n a M a r u s i a k , O k s a n a K hy m ov yc h , Vo l o d y my r H o b l y k , Va s y l P i g o s h , U l i a n a Ro s o l a M igrat ion Abroad as a Socia l Consequence of Transformations of the I nst i tute of Educat ion in Modern Uk raine A k m a n a t A b u ova , N u r l a n B a i g a by l ov, M u k h t a r A b d i ka k i m ov, S a l t a n a t A u b a k i r ova , G u l n a r A s s y l k h a n ova Socia l -Economic I ntegrat ion of K azak h M igrants in Turkey Z hu l d y z I m a s h e va Explor ing Ethnic Entrepreneurship: Family Business of Taj ik M igrants O l e g Ya r o s h e n ko, Vo l o d y my r H a ra s h c h u k , O l e n a M o s ka l e n ko, G a l i n a Ya kov l e va , Vi t a l i i Sv i t l yc h ny i A Comparat ive Analys is of Forced M igrants’ R ights Abroad and in Uk raine and Control O ver Their Obser vance Under Condit ions of Mar t ia l Law A i g e r i m Ad i l g a z i n ova , Lya i l ya B a l a ka ye va , M a ra G u b a i d u l l i n a M igrant Issues in Contemporar y Japan G u l s a ra Ka p p a s s ova , M e i ra m g u l A l t y b a s s a r ova , G a n i Ye l m u ra t ov, M a d i n a Ra k h i m b a e va , B o r i s Po l o m a r c h u k M igrat ion Processes in the Republ ic of K azak hstan: Regular i t ies, Problems, and Prospec ts ČL ANKI / ARTICLES Lo r e d a n a Pa n a r i t i A H istor ical Analys is of Lef t-Wing Trade Union Posit ions Regarding Bangladeshi Workers in Monfalcone ( I ta ly) and Bosnian Workers in S lovenia V l a d i m i r I ve t a , M a r i j e t a Ra j kov i ć I ve t a M igrat ions, C i t izenships, and the R ight and Choice to Play for a Nat ional Footbal l Team with a Focus on the Croat ian Nat ional Team M a r j e t a Vr b i n c, D o n n a M . T. C r. Fa r i n a , A l e n ka Vr b i n c Or is s lovar jev in pr i ročnikov za učenje angleščine s lovensk ih izsel jencev v ZDA v obdobju 1895–1919 Ro k S m r d e l j Communicat ion Relat ions on Twitter Dur ing the M igrant “Cr is is” in S lovenia Ka t j a Ko b o l t Postmigraci jsk a estet ik a : Avtof ikc i jsko narat ivno delovanje v pisanju Di jane M atković in v izualnem ust var janju Anne Ehrenstein 592 0 2 4 9 7 7 0 3 5 3 6 7 7 0 1 3 ISSN 0353-6777 ISSN 1581-1212 59 2 0 2 4 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 DD 59 ovitek final hrbet 15 roza pastel.indd 1-3 6. 02. 2024 13:29:31 Glavni urednici / Editors-in-Chief Kristina Toplak, Marijanca Ajša Vižintin Odgovorna urednica / Editor-in-Charge Marina Lukšič Hacin Tehnični urednik / Technical Editor Tadej Turnšek Mednarodni uredniški odbor / International Editorial Board Synnove Bendixsen, Ulf Brunnbauer, Aleš Bučar Ručman, Martin Butler, Daniela l. Caglioti, Jasna Čapo, Donna Gabaccia, Jure Gombač, Ketil Fred Hansen, Damir Josipovič, Aleksej Kalc, Jernej Mlekuž, Claudia Morsut, Ikhlas Nouh Osman, Nils Olav Østrem, Lydia Potts, Maya Povrzanović Frykman, Francesco Della Puppa, Jaka Repič, Rudi Rizman, Matteo Sanfilippo, Annemarie Steidl, Urška Strle, Adam Walaszek, Rolf Wörsdörfer, Simona Zavratnik, Janja Žitnik Serafin Lektoriranje in korektura / Copyediting and proofreading Jana Renée Wilcoxen (angleški jezik / English) Tadej Turnšek (slovenski jezik / Slovenian) Oblikovanje / Design Anja Žabkar Prelom / Typesetting Inadvertising d. o. o. Založila / Published by ZRC SAZU, Založba ZRC Izdal / Issued by ZRC SAZU, Inštitut za slovensko izseljenstvo in migracije / ZRC SAZU, Slovenian Migration Institute, Založba ZRC Tisk / Printed by Tisk Žnidarič, d. o. o. Naklada / Printum 150 Naslov uredništva / Editorial Office Address INŠTITUT ZA SLOVENSKO IZSELJENSTVO IN MIGRACIJE ZRC SAZU p. p. 306, SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenija Tel.: +386 (0)1 4706 485; Fax +386 (0)1 4257 802 E-naslov: dd-th@zrc-sazu.si Spletna stran / Website: https://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/twohomelands Revija izhaja s pomočjo Javne agencije za znanstvenoraziskovalno in inovacijsko dejavnost Republike Slovenije in Urada Vlade Republike Slovenije za Slovence v zamejstvu in po svetu / Financial support: Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency and Government Office for Slovenians Abroad ISSN 0353-6777 ISSN 1581-1212 DD 59 ovitek final hrbet 15 roza pastel.indd 4-6 6. 02. 2024 13:29:31 107 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 3 9 8 6 / 2 0 2 4 . 1 . 0 7 I PhD in political sciences; Toraighyrov University, Department of Social Sciences, Jour- nalism and Information, Pavlodar; gulsara.kappassova@gmail.com; ORCID https://orcid. org/0000-0002-4656-1861 II PhD in political sciences; Toraighyrov University, Department of Social Sciences, Journal- ism and Information, Pavlodar; meiramgul.altybassarova@proton.me; ORCID https://orcid. org/0000-0003-0415-339X III PhD in political sciences; Toraighyrov University, Department of Social Sciences, Journal- ism and Information, Pavlodar; gani.yelmuratov@protonmail.com; ORCID https://orcid. org/0000-0003-0958-9387 IV Master in political sciences; Toraighyrov University, Department of Social Sciences, Jour- nalism and Information, Pavlodar; madina.rakhimbaeva@proton.me; ORCID https://orcid. org/0009-0005-6102-7762 V Master in political sciences; Toraighyrov University, Department of Social Sciences, Journal- ism and Information, Pavlodar; boris.polomarchuk@protonmail.com; ORCID https://orcid. org/0000-0003-3301-5965 @language: sl, en @trans-language: sl, en @publisher-id: id @doi: 10.3986/2024.1.07 @article-type: 1.01 @article-category: S 180 @pages: 107–130 @history-received: 6. 2. 2023 @history-accepted: 18. 9. 2023 * * * Ž u r n a l m e t a * * * @issue: 59 @volume: 2024 @pub-year: 2024 @pub-date: 15. 2. 2024 * * * O p r e m a * * * @avtorji: Kappassova, Altybassarova, Yelmuratov, Rakhimbaeva, Polomarchuk @running-header: Migration Processes in the Republic of Kazakhstan MIGRATION PROCESSES IN THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN: REGULARITIES, PROBLEMS, AND PROSPECTS Gulsara Kappassova,I Meiramgul Altybassarova,II Gani Yelmuratov,III Madina Rakhimbaeva,IV Boris PolomarchukV COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT Migration Processes in the Republic of Kazakhstan: Regularities, Problems, and Prospects The study’s relevance lies in the ongoing phenomenon of mass migration, which significantly impacts society, economy, and politics worldwide. The purpose is to consider the features of the current situation in the migration field in Kazakhstan and assess the possibilities for public policy development. In this study, the problem-thematic method and the method of policy analysis were used. The study emphasizes the role of migration trends in Kazakhstan and the impact on its socioeconomic, demographic, cultural, and political development. Special attention is paid to integrating global trends and socioeconomic prerequisites for the reception of migrants. KEYWORDS: globalization trends, migration risks, migration policy, migration factors, migration potential IZVLEČEK Migracijski procesi v Republiki Kazahstan: značilnosti, problemi in perspektive Prispevek je pomemben zaradi sodobnega pojava množičnih migracij, ki pomembno vplivajo na družbo, gospodarstvo in politiko po vsem svetu. Namen študije je preučiti značilnosti trenutnega stanja na področju migracij v Kazahstanu ter oceniti možnosti za razvoj javnih politike na tem področju. Avtorji so pri tem uporabili problemsko- tematsko metodo in metodo analize politik. Izpostavljajo vlogo migracijskih trendov v Kazahstanu in njihov vpliv na družbenoekonomski, demografski, kulturni in politični razvoj države. Posebno pozornost namenjajo prilagajanju globalnim trendom in družbenoekonomskim predpogojem za sprejem migrantov. KLJUČNE BESEDE: globalizacijski trendi, migracijska tveganja, migracijska politika, dejavniki migracij, migracijski potencial 108 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 5 9 • 2 0 2 4Kappassova, Altybassarova, Yelmuratov, Rakhimbaeva, Polomarchuk INTRODUCTION The world’s current situation shows that migration processes have acquired an unprecedented scale. Having become a leading factor in social processes, migration is largely linked to global economic, political, and technological transformations. As globalization processes have deepened, these transformations, on the one hand, have reduced distance through the spread of information technology and, on the other hand, have created a state of geopolitical uncertainty. Humanity is familiar with the mass resettlement of people caused by historical, economic, and mili- tary-political events that change the world’s national, religious, and demographic situations. For example, the Spanish Reconquista, the development of American lands, the Russian Revolution, and World War II. The tense situations in the Middle East, Asia, and Africa in the twenty-first century triggered a European migration crisis, which brought social and economic instability to many states (Ntshangase & Msosa, 2022). For a long time, European countries solved their problems through migration (demographic, natural aging, human resources, and others). However, recently, many politicians have character- ized these problems (illegal migrants, demographic distortion, the labor market, criminal structures, destabilization of society, and the deterioration of the sanitary and epidemiological situation) “as the beginning of the decline of Europe.” If migra- tion to Western European countries is caused by the desire to increase the material and economic status, population movements in Eastern European countries are mainly temporary movements of the labor force from one region to another to earn money (Miethlich, 2022). In Russia, migration is estimated to be caused by a natural decrease in population, labor shortages, uneven economic development of the regions, and state participation in integration alliances in the post-Soviet space (Schensnovich, 2021; Palmer & Drbohlav, 2022). The expansion of international migration is evidenced by statistics related to the 272 million international migrants worldwide. According to the United Nations, almost 75% of the world’s 202 million migrants were between twenty and sixty- four years of age in mid-2021. There are 38 million people under twenty years of age, or 14% of the total number of migrants. The Republic of Kazakhstan (RK) has established a visa-free regime with seventy-three countries, of which fifty-four coun- tries have been granted a visa-free regime unilaterally, and nineteen countries have concluded bilateral agreements (Kappassova, 2018; Figure 1). 109 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 Migration Processes in the Republic of Kazakhstan Figure 1: A map of Kazakhstan’s visa policy (source: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan, 2023). To date, Kazakhstan has received 3.7 million international migrants, ranking sixteenth in the world. Based on the strategic vision of the role of migration processes, as well as taking into account both Kazakhstan’s experience and international experience in managing migration processes and guided by the objectives of ensuring national interests in conjunction with the development opportunities in various social areas, the Government of Kazakhstan has approved the Concept of Migration Policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2022–2026 (Amerkhanova et al., 2021). The new policy aims to improve the system of ethnic migration management, pay attention to the employment of kandas and their integration into local communities, and more actively work with special support funds to disseminate information about the resettlement program to Kazakhstan in Kazakh communities in various countries. The new migration policy does not imply bureaucratic bans on Kazakhs traveling abroad to work. The policy aims to regulate migration processes more effectively and considers the interests of the state, society, and migrants. In assessing major trends and patterns of the studied industry over the last century, experts discuss the level of border control and the effectiveness of migration management. Contemporary debates on the migration of the lower-class workforce and asylum seekers are often the problem of a clear failure to “curb immigration” and improve migration policy effectiveness (De Haas et al., 2019). This article aims to identify the specifics of the current migration situation and assess the prospects for developing state policy on managing migration processes in the context of globalization and the expansion of international migration. To solve this research problem, it is necessary to update the issue of the formation of 110 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 5 9 • 2 0 2 4Kappassova, Altybassarova, Yelmuratov, Rakhimbaeva, Polomarchuk migration policy in the Republic of Kazakhstan in the context of globalization of trends, problems, and prospects for international migration. MATERIALS AND METHODS The basis of the study was the general scientific methodology, providing for struc- tural functionalism combined with an integrated humanitarian interdisciplinary and culturological approach to the analysis of global and national migration processes. The object of this study was the regularities, problems, and prospects of migra- tion processes in the Republic of Kazakhstan. The specific nature of the object and subject matter of the research and the nature of the research questions determined the choice of methods—problem-thematic and applied political analysis. As a result, it is understood that competent political decision-making is impossible without two other essential components—the analysis of the political situation in the field of migration processes and the formation of assumptions about their development. The objective basis for applying the problem-thematic analysis method focused on identifying the sustainable parameters of migration processes, which had previ- ously been reproduced in scientific-theoretical research by scientists in the field. The study was structured according to the conclusions of A. Leiserson (1953), who, in assessing the problems of the methodology of political research, writes that there are no hidden sources of truth, respectively, cognition of the world of politics should be based on the verification of statements. Thus, logical consistency and adequacy of evidence are important. The political world is ordered, and processes are char- acterized by regularity, enabling knowledge accumulation and transfer. Research distortions can be limited and enhanced through immersion in a specific political context and its verification. The above methods were used in the studies of M. V. Kulaga (2021). Thanks to their use, it was possible to analyze rather complex processes in the field of poli- tics while considering many aspects of the development of society and the political process in countries. His analysis was based on principles allowing for revealing aspects of historicism and cultural and political continuity. At the first stage of the research, the information base was studied. Thus, the analytical studies and developments of international organizations, scientific teams, and state bodies of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2018–2021 used in this article include the European Commission (2022), the World Bank (2022); the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2022); the Institute of World Econ- omy and International Relations (2022); the International Organization for Migration (2022); and the Statistical Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2022). In the second stage, the statistics were analyzed using problem-based thematic and applied policy analysis. The mentioned research methods allowed for identifying 111 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 Migration Processes in the Republic of Kazakhstan regularities, problems, and prospects of migration processes of the Republic of Kazakhstan, which were not previously reproduced in scientific-theoretical studies by scientists in the field. In order to investigate the structural and dynamic characteristics of the historical representation of migration processes, general studies, general fundamental works, special monographic studies, scientific articles, scientific conference materials, reviews, and archival and published documents reconstructing migration processes over the last five years were analyzed. The research was conducted in accordance with the principle of scientific objectivity, which required the authors to overcome subjective errors and the influence of interests. Such research is relevant today as it contains concrete historical material, and the results and conclusions contained therein can be used in the development of courses on political science. RESULTS An understanding of the conceptual framework is important in defining the objec- tives of migration regulation. According to the International Organization for Migration (2022), a migrant is a person who has revealed a desire to move or has already done so by way of an international border or within the country in which he is located, has left his place of residence, regardless of his legal status, the nature of the movement, its reason and duration. The UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs conducts a study on the numbers and patterns of international migrants at regular intervals. According to United Nations methodology, population census data and nationally representative surveys are used in determining the number of such migrants. International migrants in some countries include those citizens who have never lived abroad but acquired foreign citizenship because of the citizenship of their parents. On the contrary, in some states, having been born abroad and then returning and acquiring citizenship at home does not make a person a migrant. However, despite these differences, the UN uses the country of citizenship as the basis for determining migrant status. Accordingly, without information on the coun- try of birth, a nationality other than the country of permanent residence is used to identify migrants (Table 1). By examining the patterns of contemporary migration processes, it is concluded that they are conditioned by the course of humanity’s historical development and its location across countries and continents. 112 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 5 9 • 2 0 2 4Kappassova, Altybassarova, Yelmuratov, Rakhimbaeva, Polomarchuk Migration periods Period Consequence Value First period The era of the Great Migration of Peoples at the end of the ancient era and the beginning of the early Middle Ages the settlement of Germanic peoples in Central and Northern Europe; the spread of Slavic peoples across Eastern Europe, their settlement of the Balkan Peninsula; the settlement of Turkic peoples in Central Asia and Asia Minor; the resettlement of Magyars (Hungari- ans) from the Southern Urals to the area of the Middle Danube; the spread of Arabs to the coun- tries of the Middle East and North Africa; Mongol-Tatar campaigns to Asian countries and Eastern Europe, the appearance of the Tatar population in the Volga region; the settlement of Bantu tribes from western Equatorial Africa into South Africa and other migrations. Has had a signif- icant impact on the origins of many peoples in Europe and Asia Second period The Age of Discovery in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries Spanish and Portuguese migration to Central and South America; migration to North America by the English, French, Irish, Scots, and others; in the second half of the eigh- teenth century, about one million people moved over the ocean from Europe, two-thirds of whom were natives of Great Britain; the removal of millions of black slaves from Africa to the Americas by colonizers (wars and the slave trade led to a decline in Africa’s population in the eighteenth century); the strengthening of the Moscow state led to the expansion of its borders, with Russians advancing into the Volga region, the Urals, and Siberia. Gave a start- ing point for the point of major inter- and intra-continental migrations 113 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 Migration Processes in the Republic of Kazakhstan Third period Late nineteenth and early twen- ty-first centuries emigration from Europe to America of between 200,000 and 400,000 people a year; emigration from Europe to Austra- lia and New Zealand, mainly from the British Isles; emigration from Europe to South Africa led to the displacement of the indigenous population: the Hottentots, the Bushmen, the Bantu; European settlement in North Africa: to Algeria by the French; to Tunisia by the Italians and French; to Morocco by the French and Spanish; population migration from China to Southeast Asia (hundreds of thousands per year); from Japan to the Hawaiian Islands; from India to Sri Lanka, Burma, Malaysia, and other countries. A modern geography of inter-continental migration has developed Table 1: Historical matrix of migration periods It should be noted that the rapid growth of the world’s population in the twentieth century, from just over one to six billion people by the end of the century, led to significant migration patterns. In addition, two world wars had an impact on migra- tion processes. For example, World War I caused civilians to flee from war zones, followed by the formation of new states and the relocation of minorities from one country to another (for example, some 200,000 Turks from Bulgaria and Yugoslavia). At the same time, overseas emigration from Europe intensified at the rate of about 600,000 people a year. For political reasons, emigration from countries with a fascist regime increased in the 1930s. Some nine million people left Europe for the Amer- icas in the period between 1918 and 1939; about 300,000 Jews went to Palestine under British rule. Already in the late 1930s, inter-continental migrations gave way to intra-continental ones. The direction of migrations went from economically under- developed countries to developed countries, mainly France, Great Britain, Belgium, Switzerland, and the United States. In the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), migration was directed toward Siberia, the Far East, and Central Asia (Nurtazina & Toktushakov, 2017). World War II brought about a significant change in population distribution. Following the Potsdam Conference, about 700,000 Germans were displaced from 114 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 5 9 • 2 0 2 4Kappassova, Altybassarova, Yelmuratov, Rakhimbaeva, Polomarchuk countries in Eastern Europe; of the 12 million who had lived there before the war, about 700,000 remained. At the same time, 1.5 million people who had been forci- bly deported to Germany from countries that had been subject to Nazi occupation returned to their homeland or moved to other states. After the war, similar border settlements also led to relocations of national minorities. According to the Interna- tional Organization for Migration, for example, the number of Jewish refugees in Palestine by 1947 was 700,000. After the UN decision to create two independent states in Palestine, Jewish and Arab, 900,000 Jews moved to Israel in 1947–1957, and 740,000 Arabs left Israel. The repatriation of 200,000 Armenians from Europe and the Middle East took place in the USSR. As a migratory consequence of the defeat of Japan in World War II, 6 million Japanese, mostly from China and Korea, were displaced. Subsequently, the forma- tion of the states of India and Pakistan led to 7 million refugees fleeing to Pakistan and 8.5 million to India. At the same time, there was an increase in emigration to Australia and New Zealand; from 1946 to 1957, the number of migrants to these countries totaled 1.02 million. The analysis of statistical data from international orga- nizations allows for the identification of distinguishing features that have developed in immigration and emigration countries and that contribute to the global growth of migration processes. In countries of immigration, some characteristic features include relatively low population density, availability of large natural resources such as land and minerals, a relatively high level of development of productive forces, the ability of states to provide employment to migrants and increase their standard of living, and assistance in adaptation to new conditions. These factors can attract migrants to move to these countries. At the same time, countries of emigration were characterized by high popula- tion density with limited economic opportunities for countries to efficiently use their able-bodied population and the existence of permanent migration relations with the countries of immigration. Thus, by the twentieth century, certain regularities of the world migration processes have been formed: migration in its usual meaning was replaced by international migration of labor force, which was connected with uneven economic development of countries, dependence of economies of countries of immigration on the use of migrant labor; increase in the scale of world migration, involvement of all countries in the world migration process; qualitative changes in the composition of migrants, increase in the proportion of those with high level of education and professional training, according to the International Labour Organi- zation (Tomashevski & Yaroshenko, 2020). The total number of migrants in the world in mid-2021 rose markedly to 272 million from 153 million in 1990, according to the United Nations. International migrants accounted for 3.5% of the world’s population that year. Women are slightly less likely than men to be migrants globally. In the year, the 2021 “female” share was 47.9%. Half of all international migrants are from twenty countries worldwide (Whyte, 2022). India is recorded as having the highest number of migrants, with 115 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 Migration Processes in the Republic of Kazakhstan 17.5 million of its citizens scattered around the world. Mexico takes second place, with 11.8 million migrants claiming it as their country of origin. China is the original home to 10.7 million migrants. Russians moved slightly less—nearly 10.5 million of its citizens live worldwide. In fifth place is Syria, with about 8.2 million of its citizens having departed. Table 2 presents the destination countries of the European conti- nent most attractive for migrants. Place by number of migrants Country Number of migrants (million people) Percentage of the total population 1 Germany 12.0 14.5 2 Russia 11.6 14.9 3 United Kingdom 8.2 13.5 4 France 7.8 12.1 5 Spain 5.8 12.7 6 Italy 5.7 9.7 7 Ukraine 4.8 9.8 8 Kazakhstan 3.7 20.0 9 Sweden 1.6 16.8 10 Belgium 1.4 16.3 11 Greece 1.2 11.3 12 Belarus 1.0 11.0 Table 2: Matrix for the distribution of migrants in selected countries of the European conti- nent in 2018 By the end of the twentieth century, Western Europe had become a new labor desti- nation, welcoming migrants from developing countries. In France, Switzerland, Sweden, and Germany, foreigners worked in labor-intensive industries. The “vogue in Europe” is gradually fading: the labor market is oversaturated, and migrants pose a serious problem. Relatively new destinations for labor migration are Israel, oil-pro- ducing countries in the Middle East, and some rapidly developing Asian countries. The trend in recent years is a gradual change in the structure of migration. More people from neighboring Uzbekistan are starting to come to the country. Accord- ing to the Bureau of National Statistics of the Agency for Strategic Planning and Reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan, in 2018, Uzbekistan led in the number of incoming migrants—4,400 people, followed by representatives of the Russian Federation—3,900. Also, China, Turkmenistan, and Kyrgyzstan were in the top five countries of migration last year. Meanwhile, in the overall structure of accumulated migration, Russia prevails. The international political climate exerts a significant role in shaping the migra- tion structures of Kazakhstan. Diplomatic relations, bilateral agreements, and 116 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 5 9 • 2 0 2 4Kappassova, Altybassarova, Yelmuratov, Rakhimbaeva, Polomarchuk international cooperation frameworks impact migration policies, while geopolitical factors, economic opportunities, and security considerations influence migration preferences and trends. The safety and security situation in neighboring regions, along with global human rights agendas and engagement with international orga- nizations, also play a crucial role in determining how Kazakhstan manages migrant protection, labor conditions, and integration (De Sherbinin, 2022). Additionally, the response to international crises and conflicts, as well as shifts in diplomatic relations, can lead to adjustments in migration policies and border controls, highlighting the intricate interplay between global politics and migration dynamics in Kazakhstan. Globally, around 4 million people from Kazakhstan had international migrant status by the middle of 2021. Almost 64% of all migrants went to neighboring Russia (almost 2.6 million people). Among other countries chosen by migrants were Germany (940,300), Ukraine (224,000), and Belarus (69,000). One of the attractive destinations for migrants from Kazakhstan was the United States, where 31,200 people went. Greece, Turkmenistan, Israel, Canada, and Uzbekistan were among the ten countries with the highest number of migrants from the country. In 2021, according to the Bureau of National Statistics of the Agency for Strategic Planning and Reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan, three times as many people left the country than arrived in the same period—41,900 people. Of them, 36,800 people left for Russia, 2,700 for Germany, 343 for Belarus, 338 for the United States, and 245 for Uzbekistan. Kazakhstan’s international migration balance has been negative for almost twenty years—minus 300,000 people. Most UN member states, including Kazakhstan, approved a Global Compact for Safe, Orderly, and Regular Migration (United Nations, 2018). The document aims to strengthen international coopera- tion on migration, enhancing the contribution of migrants and the process itself to sustainable development. In contrast to the earlier migrations that were examined, modern migration processes are characterized by the following: 1. An increase in the number of skilled workers and professionals moving away, a “brain drain.” 2. Whereas mass migrations in the past were caused by various political or natural cataclysms and were spontaneous, today, they are an ongoing process that tends to increase. 3. Repatriation processes (if a person has foreign roots, they may consider emigra- tion by nationality to a very limited number of countries). For this reason, one can move to Israel and Germany, which have developed special programs for the resettlement of compatriots in their states. 4. The emergence of a large number of irregular migrants (who have become not only a cheap labor resource but also a factor increasing crime rates and trigger- ing mass disturbances and social tensions (a characteristic of many states). Migration processes in Kazakhstan exhibit diverse impacts across various regions. Notably, the Almaty region and city emerged as significant destinations for migrant 117 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 Migration Processes in the Republic of Kazakhstan workers, attracting individuals primarily from neighboring countries. The Mangystau region stands out due to its association with the oil and gas industry, drawing migrant workers seeking opportunities in this sector. Border regions, notably those adjoining Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and China, are notably affected by migration due to Kazakhstan’s role as a transit country and host for refugees (De Sherbinin, 2022). Additionally, urban centers such as Almaty and Astana attract migrants in pursuit of enhanced job prospects and improved living standards. Acknowledging these region-specific dynamics is crucial for shaping effective policies that manage migra- tion patterns and address associated challenges in Kazakhstan. According to the definition of the International Organization for Migration (2022), illegal migration is defined as the avoidance of registration by the author- ities of the country of residence, violation of the legal terms of stay, or crossing the border by illegal means. In order to properly assess the migration situation in states, the UN offers more precise counting schemes. For example, Figure 2 shows how the population’s international migration and temporary mobility are linked to the processes of demographic change in a state. Figure 2: Conceptual framework for international mobility according to the UN Economic and Social Council In Figure 2, the resident population consists of those who have lived in the coun- try of reference for either (a) most of the previous twelve months (or intend/are allowed to live in the country for at least six months and one day) or (b) at least the previous twelve months (or intend/are allowed to live in the country for at least twelve months), not counting temporary absence on leave or work. The term “temporary population” refers to all persons present in a country at a given time who are not residents. In addition to governmental and international organizations dealing with migration issues, one should not forget the work of non-governmental organi- zations (NGOs) in this field. In Kazakhstan, there are the UNHCR National Office, Project HOPE, and the Otandastar Foundation. NGOs play a significant role in migra- tion management in Kazakhstan. NGOs advocate for the rights of migrants and raise awareness of migration issues in Kazakhstan. They also provide information and support to migrants, including legal assistance and access to services. NGOs 118 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 5 9 • 2 0 2 4Kappassova, Altybassarova, Yelmuratov, Rakhimbaeva, Polomarchuk build the capacity of state authorities and other stakeholders to manage migration processes effectively. Through various surveys, NGOs assist policymakers in develop- ing evidence-based policies and programs to manage migration. NGOs also provide services to migrants, such as language courses, job training, and social support. Figure 3 illustrates an ideal and recommended situation in which the permanent population is disaggregated by place of birth and citizenship and the corresponding immigration and emigration. Figure 3: Patterns of international migration and the correlation between migration direc- tions and numbers according to the UN Economic and Social Council This conceptual framework is used as a basis for recommendations for collecting and disseminating data on international migration and migrants. As before, Figure 3 shows the correlation between directions and numbers. The directions determine changes in the size and structure of the total number of migrants. The scheme also includes a change in status from foreign national to national. Citizenship can be acquired by birth or by naturalization, whether through application, marriage, or other means provided for by national legislation, and can be lost through revocation or renunciation. The problem of social disorganization has implications for migration in Kazakh- stan. Economic instability during crises can lead to outmigration. A positive migration balance suggests a stable environment, attracting migrants (Malikov, 2021). State-supported ethnic repatriation initiatives influence migration, especially among ethnic Kazakhs. Underdeveloped migratory legal frameworks may create uncertainty for migrants. Concentrations of migrant workers in certain regions can highlight social and working condition challenges, affecting migration dynamics. The relationship between social disorganization, economic factors, legal frame- works, and state initiatives collectively shapes migration patterns in Kazakhstan (International Organization for Migration, 2023). Amidst the backdrop of globalization and the escalating intricacies of inter- national migration, Kazakhstan is confronted with a myriad of challenges in its endeavor to proficiently manage migration processes. The array of migration patterns, encompassing labor migration, refugee influxes, and irregular migration, 119 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 Migration Processes in the Republic of Kazakhstan necessitates nuanced strategies tailored to the unique characteristics of each migration type. The delicate task of harmonizing foreign labor requirements with opportunities for local workers amidst the dynamic shifts in the global labor land- scape demands meticulous consideration (Dalelkhan et al., 2018). The imperative of ensuring successful integration and nurturing social cohesion within a society enriched by diverse cultural backgrounds gains prominence, given the convergence of individuals from varied origins through international migration. Kazakhstan endeavors to find an equilibrium between retaining its homegrown talent and beck- oning skilled migrants, deftly navigating the intricate interplay of the brain drain and gain phenomena. The escalating instances of irregular migration, human trafficking, and smuggling underscore the significance of fortified border control mechanisms and a comprehensive legal framework aligned with global standards. DISCUSSION In order to understand migration processes, it is necessary to consider such concepts as the “short-term” and “long-term” migration processes. L. Fiorio et al. (2021) suggested that short-term and long-term migration processes can be distin- guished based on the duration of the migration. Short-term migration is defined as a migration that lasts less than one year and can be for work, study, or tourism purposes. It often involves returning to the country of origin after migration and can be measured using digital trace data. Long-term migration, on the other hand, is defined as a migration that lasts more than one year and can be for work, study, family reunification, or other reasons. It often involves settling in the destination country and can be measured using digital trace data (Rampazzo et al., 2022). It is important to note that short-term and long-term migration processes are not mutually exclu- sive, and some migrants may engage in both types of migration. The distinction between short-term and long-term migration can be nuanced, and understanding the differences between them can help policymakers develop appropriate policies to manage migration. K. Schurer (2022) points out that population migration in a historical context is of particular interest. For example, it is generally accepted that English society was highly mobile in the past. However, studies of “turnover”—linking residents of a given locality in one year with those who lived in the same locality in the following years—indicate high levels of migration in the nineteenth, eighteenth, and seven- teenth centuries in both urban and rural areas. The study suggests that the rate of population turnover during the medieval period may well correspond to that of the seventeenth century. Examining this historical period, he concludes that young, unmarried adults and adolescents largely dominated this migration. In a study on the nature of migration and population mobility, I.D. Whyte (2022) notes that in the past, its aspects have been studied at different scales: local, regional, and sometimes 120 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 5 9 • 2 0 2 4Kappassova, Altybassarova, Yelmuratov, Rakhimbaeva, Polomarchuk national, but only rarely have comparisons been made between countries with different social and economic characteristics. However, precisely, this approach reveals differences in the scale, structure, causes, and consequences of migration, as well as in the underlying structures that have influenced it. S. Rother (2022), in his own works, mentions that as a result of the pandemic, specialized ways of managing unilateral policies have been developed, such as in the areas of border management and their mobility, as well as migration policy in general; but in doing so, the scholar also highlights the need and importance of global cooperation. The author points out that for global governance in this area to be effective, it must include multilateral aspects, that is, not only countries and inter- national institutions but also other stakeholders. For example, in the global compact for safe, orderly, and regular migration, special attention is given to groups of people directly affected by global politics, i.e., migrants and their organizations (Grega & Nečas, 2022). The basis of the study by J. Raymer and J. O’Donnell is a multi-regional demographic focus model; it links populations through migratory patterns between destinations (Raymer & O’Donnell, 2021). To provide a framework for this model, the authors present a study of the role of internal migration in regional population changes in the Australian state of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Terri- tory from 1981 to 2011. Through this model, many aspects are revealed, such as the composition of age and gender and further demographic processes, such as fertility, aging, and further internal or international migration. Assessing the ideas of liberalism as one of the most important phenomena of global political development that originated in the West, A.A. Vladimirov (2021) conducts a retrospective analysis of the changes that modern Western liberalism undergoes. The researcher notes that the study of this phenomenon in its historical and socio-political meaning takes an important place in modern science, which is due to the logic of the development of liberal thought in the West. Liberal ideology in modern Western countries is one of the most important factors in their domestic political development. Using the history of Spanish migration policy as an example, it shows how modern Western liberalism, in the course of historical development, is transformed into post-liberalism, in which the value of individual freedom acquires absolute importance in comparison with the secondary values and ideas of liberal- ism. The study notes that the development of post-liberalism in Spain in the field of migration policy leads to the prioritization of the protection of the rights and free- doms of a social minority (immigrants) over the rights and freedoms of the social majority (Harguindéguy & Cervi, 2022). A study conducted by J. J. Azose and A. E. Raftery (Azose & Raftery, 2019) at the Department of Sociology of the University of Washington notes that estimates of migration patterns between countries are still inaccurate; accordingly, they suggest keeping records at five-year intervals, revealing patterns that were not visible using previous methods of assessment (for example, estimates show large bidirectional movements in all regions of the world, with about a quarter of migration events 121 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 Migration Processes in the Republic of Kazakhstan accounted for by people returning to their country of birth). Experts agree that one in seven people in the world is a migrant and that the total turnover of migrant remittances reached about US $350 billion. Statistical data analysis reveals that among 140 million international migrants in the North, 61% were migrants from the South. Of the 103 million migrants from the South, only 13% were born in the North. In this case, it indicates the existence of a major channel for international migra- tion directed from developing countries (South) to developed countries (North). L. Demery (2019) presents migration as a unique historical phenomenon and assesses the prevailing labor migration policies in the Middle East from the perspective of Asian labor-sending countries. For instance, more than 12 million people emigrated from the Syrian Arab Republic during the period of civil war between 2011 and 2015. At the same time, countries such as the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Leba- non, and Oman remain the world’s top receiving countries. The study points to the growing influence of Arab diasporas on the socioeconomic and political develop- ment of many European countries. It is worth mentioning the importance of analyzing legislation in the field of migration, as this is a direct mechanism for regulating these processes in Kazakh- stan; authors such as I.K.  Amerkhanova et al. (2021) note the urgent need for its improvement. Considering the migration situation in Kazakhstan, they note the areas needing improvement: creating favorable conditions for ethnic repatriates; building an effective system of external labor migration focused on the needs of Kazakhstan’s economy; expanding the legal framework for the regulation of migra- tion processes taking into account best international practices and suppressing illegal migration. Similar trends in improving the migration legislation of the Republic of Kazakh- stan were also noted by G. M. Duysen and D. A. Aitzhanova (Duysen & Aitzhanova, 2018) in the context of considering the migration policy problems of Kazakhstan and Central Asian countries. Because certain collisions of the national migration strategy were identified and an analysis of the problems of the state in the field of migration was carried out, as well as the possibilities and prospects for improving this branch of public policy, the authors could identify prospects for improvement, taking into account many factors in the development of the demographic, economic and social plan, and integration processes. According to the positions of researchers, Kazakh- stan’s entry into the ranks of thirty developed countries of the world should be based on the new challenges of our time. In particular, the authors point to the need to develop active migration forecasts and realistic scenarios for the future socioeco- nomic development of each state, taking into account migration factors. Assessing the diversity of theoretical approaches to understanding migration, M. Bell et al. (2020) argue that micro and macro approaches provide a complementary understanding of migratory behavior and processes and help assess the macro-level perspective of cross-national differences in migration. Outlining the conceptual framework in the study, they suggest interpreting three aspects of migration: the 122 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 5 9 • 2 0 2 4Kappassova, Altybassarova, Yelmuratov, Rakhimbaeva, Polomarchuk intensity of migration with national economic development; the age profile of migra- tion with life transitions; and the direction of migration on the evolution of settlement patterns. In the study, they conclude that applying this schema to several countries will give a more accurate picture of the specific combination of forces determining the evolution of different aspects of migration in each national context. M.V. Kulaga (2021), exploring the problem of the regulation of migration in the European Union, notes that it becomes more intractable and complex every year (“the migration policy of Western European countries has undergone quite a metamor- phosis over the last five years”). The study notes that internal resistance—revealed in political initiatives and protests—arises and contributes to the radicalization of soci- ety due to the divergence of the internal interests of individual countries, the vector of common European policy, and the complexity of the distribution of migrants across member states. In Western European countries, this is particularly noticeable in the most economically advanced and progressive countries, which have taken in most of the legal migrant arrivals (Miethlich et al., 2022). However, since the start of the migration crisis in 2015, there has been a significant tightening and strengthen- ing of regulatory measures regarding the situation of migrants within the countries. The author notes that it is rather difficult to determine what impact migrants have on the economies of states in the context of the global COVID-19 pandemic. In their research, C. Hedberg and I. Olofsson (Hedberg & Olofsson, 2022) point out that Western societies have long been permeated by processes of neo-liber- alization, including a general orientation toward neoliberal migration regimes. By examining neo-liberalization as a historical and spatially contingent process, they arrive at different phases of intertwined policymaking and the functioning of migra- tion policy. By analyzing the migration industries and pointing out neo-liberalization as a spatial and temporal process, C. Hedberg and I. Olofsson show, using Sweden as an example, how the role of forest berry migration intermediaries has been recon- structed so that the neoliberal regime allows a previously unregulated industry to be controlled. In their opinion, there are strong conditional links between neolib- eral political economy, regimes, and industries in the field of migration. Changes in asylum conditions due to the socio-political context of the COVID-19 crisis and the management of the emergency caused by the pandemic have been quite often discussed by academics in the scientific press (Nguyen et al., 2022). Recent academic papers have explored how the pandemic has a major impact on people, as revealed in their rethinking of many concepts such as citizenship, membership, affiliation, human rights, essential workers, and services, along with cross-cutting perspectives including ethnicity, gender, and race (Turlybekova & Shamshudinova, 2021). C. Brell et al. (2020), presenting their review of the integration of refugees into labor markets in a number of high-income countries, note that a factor and indi- cator of migration movements is the individual’s desire to find better paying work and improve their socioeconomic situation. There is considerable heterogeneity between receiving countries, but overall, refugees consistently fare worse than other 123 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 Migration Processes in the Republic of Kazakhstan migrants. A. Kaya’s analysis of Turkish migration policy concludes that the European- isation of policy, and hence of migration and asylum laws, is consistent with the internalization of migration and asylum policy on a national and local cultural and religious level (Kaya, 2021). For example, the Justice and Development Party has successfully accepted Syrian refugees based on religious rhetoric called “Ansar spirit.” In assessing the effectiveness of migration policies, H. De Haas et al. (2019) built their study on assessing complex interrelationships between policies and trends to identify policy effects from structural determinants. Their study casts doubt on two main assumptions underpinning the idea that constraints have failed to curb the process. First, the levels of global migration after World War II remained relatively stable, while most of the changes in the models studied were directional. Secondly, migration policy after World War II was liberalized regardless of political rhetoric. These implications reveal major policy dilemmas and appreciate the importance of understanding the various trends shaping migration in sometimes counterintuitive but powerful ways that are largely beyond the industry’s reach. Assessing the impact of general trends of globalization that link societies and promote convergence of national patterns of multicultural integration, R. Bauböck (1998) examines the impact of international migration on political boundaries in contemporary highly industrialized societies. It is noted that international migration makes both sending and receiving societies translational, extending the respective forms of membership beyond territories and citizenship. The current Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 477-IV, “On the migration of population” (About population migration, 2023), has several objectives. One is the return of ethnic Kazakhs to their places of origin. By controlling the movement of its citizens outside the country, the state provides everything necessary for those who come to the Republic of Kazakhstan. For example, health authorities are responsible for providing medical care to immigrants; educational structures provide grants and educational materials. Local bodies monitor the work of all controlled structures in the territory. According to the experts of the round table in Astana, organized by the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of Population of the Republic of Kazakh- stan, the Concept of Migration Policy of the RK for 2022–2026 and the Action Plan to implement the Concept of Migration Policy of the RK for 2022–2026, important steps were made to provide the national economy with qualified international special- ists and to improve the current migration system in general. However, for certain reasons, the January 2022 crisis in Kazakhstan is clearly a reinforcement of migration sentiments. According to the Bureau of National Statistics of the Agency for Strate- gic Planning and Reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan, a record 48,600 Russians left Kazakhstan in 2021. According to various estimates, approximately 3.5 million Russians, or 18.4% of the total population, now live in Kazakhstan. Online surveys in recent months about intentions to leave Kazakhstan confirmed migration moods in—62.9% of respondents and doubts in—21.4%. As noted before, the increasing globalization processes in the world and the current situation between the Russian 124 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 5 9 • 2 0 2 4Kappassova, Altybassarova, Yelmuratov, Rakhimbaeva, Polomarchuk Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan, operating within a single economic space, require the unification of joint migration policies (Kappassova, 2018). Skeptics of immigration control argue that this process is internationally driven by structural factors in the economic and political realms, such as income inequal- ity, labor market demands, and conflicts in countries of origin, while networks of migrants, employers, and other intermediaries create social structures that give impetus to these movements (Triandafyllidou, 2022; Akhmetzhanova et al., 2023). Researchers who criticize this position hold the opposite view, arguing that there is no serious crisis in migration management (Raymer & O’Donnell, 2021). In their research, they support their argument by pointing out that the ability of countries of a technological and institutional nature to detect unauthorized migrants has increased, and poor people face increasing difficulties in migrating to rich countries due to immigration restrictions. Meanwhile, most movement worldwide occurs through legal channels, even though media coverage of migrants who cross deserts and seas may suggest otherwise (Schurer, 2022). In analyzing the role of civil society in global migration governance, individ- ual authors argue that the pandemic of recent years has strengthened the “input” dimension for migrant civil society in global governance. While offering indicators that COVID-19 has impacted some aspects of the measurement of migration policy outcomes (Rother, 2022), it is generally too early to assess whether this will have a long-term impact on policy on the ground. Thus, the academic debate questions the two main assumptions underlying the popular idea that migration restrictions have failed to curb migration. Thus, it is worth noting that global migration after World War II remained very stable even though there were many directions in the changes in the patterns of this process. Further, it should be mentioned that the migration policy after World War II was generally liberalized despite political rhetoric. It must be said that the “substitution effect” can limit the efficiency or even make it counterpro- ductive, caused by interrupted circulation, geographical deviations, unauthorized migration, or bursts of it. The authors note that, as a result, they expose underly- ing policy dilemmas and emphasize the importance of understanding the various trends that provide the opportunity to shape migration in highly counterintuitive ways that are largely beyond the reach of this policy branch (De Haas et al., 2019). The war in Ukraine has led to significant migration processes in 2022–2023, with many people fleeing the conflict and seeking refuge in neighboring countries such as Poland and Germany (Kulu et al., 2023). Poland has played a significant role in receiving war refugees from Ukraine, with around 3.5 million persons arriving in Poland between February 24, 2022, and mid-May 2022. The European Union has responded by providing humanitarian aid, emergency civil protection assistance, and support at the border, as well as granting protection to those fleeing the war and entering the EU. The EU Migration Preparedness and Crisis Blueprint provides an operational framework to ensure situational awareness, better preparedness, effec- tive governance, and timely response (European Commission, 2023). The recent 125 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 Migration Processes in the Republic of Kazakhstan arrival of Ukrainians fleeing the war zones to Poland is an unprecedented event that raises questions about future developments and challenges related to the pres- ence of Ukrainian citizens in Poland. The impact of the war on Ukraine’s population has been analyzed, including the effect on demographic processes such as births, deaths, and migration (Andrews et al., 2023). Overall, the war in Ukraine has had a significant impact on migration processes in the region, with many people forced to flee their homes and seek refuge in neighboring countries. CONCLUSIONS The article presents significant findings derived from recent scientific publica- tions and original research materials, shedding light on the migration trends in the Republic of Kazakhstan. These findings underscore the crucial role of migration in the country’s socioeconomic, demographic, cultural, and political development. The assessment of migration policy prospects reveals the shaping influence of global, regional, and national factors. On a global scale, two primary migration patterns emerge. Firstly, intensified competition for qualified and skilled human resources is evident among both devel- oped and rapidly growing nations. Secondly, educational migration is on the rise, contributing to the enhancement of countries’ competitiveness and the development of human capital. Regionally, labor migration within the Eurasian system is notable, accompanied by challenges such as the attrition of domestic qualified personnel and a decline in the overall quality of human capital. Nationally, a negative external migra- tion balance is observed, driven by increasing disparities in population distribution. The main migration patterns are concentrated in cities like Astana and Almaty, with a rising influx of labor immigrants from the Eurasian Economic Union and neighboring countries, often accompanied by limited control over illegal migration. The article identifies key vectors for Kazakhstan’s contemporary migration strategy, including the integration of global trends into social and economic devel- opment programs, the establishment of socioeconomic prerequisites for successful migrant reception, the promotion of seamless integration through monitoring social programs, legislative optimization, and the creation of information resources facilitating cultural adaptation. Sociocultural adaptation within the context of Kazakhstan’s migration concept relies on the resources of culture and education, contributing to the formation of the Kazakh identity. The article emphasizes the need for legal, organizational, and economic measures to address the multifaceted impacts of migration on social harmony, economic and demographic aspects, and overall national security. 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Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003172918 130 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 5 9 • 2 0 2 4Kappassova, Altybassarova, Yelmuratov, Rakhimbaeva, Polomarchuk POVZETEK MIGRACIJSKI PROCESI V REPUBLIKI KAZAHSTAN: ZNAČILNOSTI, PROBLEMI IN PERSPEKTIVE Gulsara Kappassova, Meiramgul Altybassarova, Gani Yelmuratov, Madina Rakhimbaeva, Boris Polomarchuk Avtorji v prispevku obravnavajo sodobne migracijske trende in politike v Kazahstanu v kontekstu globalizacije in vse množičnejših mednarodnih migracij po svetu. Predstavijo glavna zgodovinska obdobja in vzorce migracij v Kazahstanu in na svetovni ravni. Glavni trendi na globalni ravni v zadnjih letih so naraščajoče migracije na področju izobraževanja in delovne sile ter s tem povezano okrepljeno tekmovanje med državami za kvalificiran človeški kapital. Kazahstan beleži negativno migracij- sko bilanco, pri čemer največ migracij poteka v smeri večjih mest, kot sta Astana in Almaty. Med migranti je vse več delovnih priseljencev iz sosednjih držav in širše evrazijske regije. V prispevku so analizirani znatni vplivi te migracijske dinamike na socialno-ekonomski, demografski, kulturni in politični razvoj Kazahstana. Migracije lahko pozitivno vplivajo na človeški kapital in gospodarsko rast, vendar pa je treba nasloviti tudi s tem povezana tveganja, kot so nezakonite migracije. Cilj kazahstan- ske migracijske politike je boljše upravljanje tega procesa, da bi zadostili potrebam gospodarstva, spodbujali preseljevanje in vključevanje etničnih Kazahstancev ter zajezili nezakonite migracije. Med prednostne naloge politik sodijo prilagajanje svetovnim trendom, vzpostavitev pogojev za podporo priseljencem, krepitev soci- alnih programov za prilagajanje ter izboljšanje zakonodaje na tem področju. Vendar pa so za učinkovito upravljanje mnogovrstnih vplivov migracij potrebni celoviti pravni, organizacijski in gospodarski ukrepi, osredotočeni na ohranjanje družbene harmonije, koristi za gospodarsko in demografsko področje ter nacionalne varnosti. Avtorji izpostavljajo ključno vlogo migracij v razvoju Kazahstana ter potrebo po stra- teškem upravljanju migracijskih procesov na različnih področjih razvoja države. D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 TEMATSKI SKLOP / THEMATIC SEC TION MIGRACIJE DELOVNE SILE V UKRAJINI IN NA OBMOČJU NEKDANJE SOVJETSKE ZVEZE L A B O R M I G R AT I O N I N U K R A I N E A N D T H E P O S T - S O V I E T S PAC E Z h a n n a B o l a t I ntroduc t ion: Labor M igrat ion in Uk raine and the Post-Soviet Space Te t i a n a M a r u s i a k , O k s a n a K hy m ov yc h , Vo l o d y my r H o b l y k , Va s y l P i g o s h , U l i a n a Ro s o l a M igrat ion Abroad as a Socia l Consequence of Transformations of the I nst i tute of Educat ion in Modern Uk raine A k m a n a t A b u ova , N u r l a n B a i g a by l ov, M u k h t a r A b d i ka k i m ov, S a l t a n a t A u b a k i r ova , G u l n a r A s s y l k h a n ova Socia l -Economic I ntegrat ion of K azak h M igrants in Turkey Z hu l d y z I m a s h e va Explor ing Ethnic Entrepreneurship: Family Business of Taj ik M igrants O l e g Ya r o s h e n ko, Vo l o d y my r H a ra s h c hu k , O l e n a M o s ka l e n ko, G a l i n a Ya kov l e va , Vi t a l i i Sv i t l yc h ny i A Comparat ive Analys is of Forced M igrants’ R ights Abroad and in Uk raine and Control O ver Their Obser vance Under Condit ions of Mar t ia l Law A i g e r i m Ad i l g a z i n ova , Lya i l ya B a l a ka ye va , M a ra G u b a i d u l l i n a M igrant Issues in Contemporar y Japan G u l s a ra Ka p p a s s ova , M e i ra m g u l A l t y b a s s a r ova , G a n i Ye l mu ra t ov, M a d i n a Ra k h i m b a e va , B o r i s Po l o m a r c hu k M igrat ion Processes in the Republ ic of K azak hstan: Regular i t ies, Problems, and Prospec ts ČL ANKI / ARTICLES Lo r e d a n a Pa n a r i t i A H istor ical Analys is of Lef t-Wing Trade Union Posit ions Regarding Bangladeshi Workers in Monfalcone ( I ta ly) and Bosnian Workers in S lovenia V l a d i m i r I ve t a , M a r i j e t a Ra j kov i ć I ve t a M igrat ions, C i t izenships, and the R ight and Choice to Play for a Nat ional Footbal l Team with a Focus on the Croat ian Nat ional Team M a r j e t a Vr b i n c, D o n n a M . T. C r. Fa r i n a , A l e n ka Vr b i n c Or is s lovar jev in pr i ročnikov za učenje angleščine s lovensk ih izsel jencev v ZDA v obdobju 1895–1919 Ro k S m r d e l j Communicat ion Relat ions on Twitter Dur ing the M igrant “Cr is is” in S lovenia Ka t j a Ko b o l t Postmigraci jsk a estet ik a : Avtof ikc i jsko narat ivno delovanje v pisanju Di jane Matković in v izualnem ust var janju Anne Ehrenstein 592 0 2 4 9 7 7 0 3 5 3 6 7 7 0 1 3 ISSN 0353-6777 ISSN 1581-1212 59 2 0 2 4 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S 5 9 • 2 0 2 4 DD 59 ovitek final hrbet 15 roza pastel.indd 1-3 6. 02. 2024 13:29:31