POZNOANTIČNA POSELITEV SLOVENIJE PET E R PETRÜ N a ro d n i m u ze j, L ju b lja n a D a ra z u m e m o k a sn o a n tič n o to p o g ra fijo S lovenije, m o ra m o u p o šte v a ti geo­ g ra fsk e d a n o s ti n a š e g a p ro s to ra , za sn o v e p o se litv e iz z g o d n je a n tik e in, k o n čn o , širše v o jn o -p o litič n e d o g o d k e 4.— 6. s to le tja . G eo g rafsk e d a n o s ti S lo v en ije se v z g o d n je rim sk e m č a su k až ejo v p o litič n i lu či k o t m e jn o p o d ro č je in v n a se litv e n e m p o g le d u k o t p r o s to r m n o g ih več ali m a n j za k o lo n iz ira n je u g o d n ih d o lin o z iro m a p re d e lo v .1 Z g o d n je a n tič n a m e jn a p o z ic ija n a š ih k ra je v n a re k u je v o k u p a c ijs k i fazi — do u re d itv e u rb a n iz a c ije s sa m o u p ra v o v m e s tih — iz g ra d n jo u tr d b za v o ja šk e g a rn iz ije z je d ro m in p re z i­ m o v ališči v le g ijsk ih ta b o rih E m o n e in P o eto v ije. V o k u p a c ijs k i fazi se z a ra d i sta ln ih v o ja š k ih p o sa d k in n jih o v ih sp re m lje v a lc e v — o d d ru ž in do ra z n ih p r e ­ k u p čev alcev — iz re d n o p o v eča p o v p ra še v a n je in s te m zv iša p ro iz v o d n ja in n a ­ r a s te trg o v in a . V o jsk a je to re j p o s re d n i ek o n o m sk i fa k to r. D ire k tn o je v o ja štv o o m e n je n o p r i T a c itu , A n n a le s 1, 20 : » In te re a m a n ip u li, a n te c o e p ta m seditio- n em N a u p o r tu m m is s i o b itin e r a e t p o n te s e t a lio s u s u s ...« O dločilno je p r i­ sp ev alo k v e č ji m e n ja v i b la g a in p o sta v ilo h k r a ti z m rež o c e s t te m e lje za n a ­ d a ljn jo k o lo n iz a c ijo p o k ra jin e .2 V rh te g a so le g ijsk i ta b o ri v L ju b lja n i in v P tu ju o sn o v a za razv o j tu k a jš n jih n a se lb in .3 Iz g ra d n ji E m o n e z o b zid jem in š tirid e s e t sta n o v a n jsk im i in z u la m i te r z re g u la c ijo L ju b lja n ic e je n u jn o sle d ila p o se lite v okolice. To iz h a ja tu d i iz d e jstv a , d a n e k a te ri n a g ro b n ik i spri- č u je jo v e te ra n e le g ije XV. A p o llin a r is , k i so po o d slu ž e n ju v o ja šk e g a ro k a d o ­ b ili v o k o lic i sv o je p o se stv o , v eliko 700 X 700 m in s ta n o v a n jsk o sta v b o v m e ­ stu .4 P o d o b n o je p o te k a la n a se lite v v e te ra n o v tu d i po d ru g ih p o s to ja n k a h in v p liv a la n a p o k ra jin o . Ob ta k ih to č k a h so s k rč e n je m in tre b lje n je m širili o b d e ­ lo v aln e p o v ršin e , h k r a ti p a je p rite g n il ta k zaselek o z iro m a v as še o b rtn ik e o d lo n č a rje v d o kovačev. V ečinom a so n a s ta ja li ti c e n tri o b n o v ih c e sta h , v e n d a r v b liž in i p ra z g o d o v in sk ih p o s to ja n k , k a k o r je to raz v id n o vzdolž ce ste E m o n a — S iscia ali n a p r o s to r u m ed K a m n ik o m in K ra n je m .5 N a s p ro tn o te m u p a je z iz g ra d n jo d rž a v n ih c e st p o v se m n a novo civ iliziran sv e t T rn o v sk eg a gozda, K ršk o p o lje in p re d e li v o b ro b ju S lo v e n sk ih goric, k a k o r n a z o rn o govore ze m ­ lje v id i v A N SI.6 Z ek o n o m sk eg a v id ik a ra z u m ljiv a je te ž n ja p o o p u šč a n ju p r a ­ zg o d o v in sk ih g ra d išč in n a selitev v d o lin i vzdolž n o v o z g ra je n ih cest. T ako je le m alo z g o d n je a n tič n ih p o sto ja n k n a h rib ih o ziro m a n a v rh o v ih gričev, pač p a je iz ra zita n a se lite v rav n in sk e g a sveta, k a r je zn a čiln o st te dobe. Svet, ki je b il k u ltiv ira n v te j dobi, je n a se lje n tu d i v k asn i an tik i, k a r d o k azu je v rsta n a jd išč n a o m e n je n ih p o d ro čjih . A naliza n ep o sre d n e okolice N evioduna kaže, d a so n a K ršk e m p o lju iz treb ili gozd v z g o d n jerim sk i d o b i in ta k o p rip rav ili večje p o v ršin e za p o lje d elstv o . S to p n je m a so te p o v ršin e n a ra šč a le zarad i pove­ č a n ja njiv, v in o g rad o v in pašnikov. N am vsem je p o znan p o d a te k , d a je cesar P rob v sre d in i 3. s to le tja dovolil g o je n je tr te o ziro m a d al iz k rč iti v P an o n iji gozdove, da b i d o b il nove p o v ršin e za n a sad itev tr t. K asn e jših posegov v p o k ra ­ jin sk o p o d o b o n a K ršk e m p o lju z a rh e o lo šk im i dokazi ne m o re m o p o trd iti, ven­ d a r so o b d elan o p o d ro č je g o sp o d a rsk o izkoriščali tu d i v 4. sto le tju , sodeč po n a jd išč ih V eliko in M alo M raševo, G orica, P odlog in V elika vas.7 V elike sp re ­ m em be v n ase litv e n i p o d o b i in h isto rič n i to p o g ra fiji n aših k ra je v so se začele po v d o ru K vadov in M arkom anov.8 Do ta k ra t so lju d je o č itn o slepo zau p ali v geslo p a x R o m a n a — m ir v m e ja h im p e rija . B a rb a rsk i v d o r z m nožico p obitih, zasu žn jen ih , n a en i stra n i, in u n ič en im i ali požganim i n aselji, po sestv i, im etji, sk lad išči itd., n a d ru g i, k a k o r da je stre z n il p reb iv alstv o in rim sk o u p rav o .9 U re­ dili so p o se b n o o b ra m b n o č rto im en o v an o p r a e te n tu r a Ita lia e e t A lp iu m , od k a­ te re je za n esljiv o d o lo čljiv a le L očica k o t p o sto ja n k a in leg ijsk o ta b o rišče .1 0 K a­ k o r k ažejo d o se d a n je n a js ta re jš e a n tič n e n a jd b e n a R ifn ik u ,1 1 n a V ra n ju p ri Sevnici1 2 in M a rtin j h rib u ,1 3 segajo z a m e tk i te h u trje n ih p rib e ž a lišč v pozno 2. sto le tje o ziro m a v čas po m a rk o m a n sk ih v o jn a h in so ta k o so č asn i s p o d atk o m o p re te n tu ri. T o p a h k ra ti d o k azu je, d a je b ila n jih o v a o k o lic a o b d elan a in da je d a ja la m o ž n o st za p rež iv lja n je. S o d eč po zobeh p reb iv alcev je b ila poglavit­ n a p re h ra n a m le k o in m lečni izdelki te r m eso, k a r kaže, d a so m o ra li o b sta ja ti v okolici sa m ih tr d n ja v obsežni p a š n ik i in p rim e rn a lovišča.1 4 P ašn ik e so do­ bili tu d i s k rč e n je m gozda okoli trd n ja v e , saj je m o ra l b iti p r o s to r p re d obzid­ je m v širin i n a jm a n j 100 m in n ajv e č 300 m čistin a , da je onem ogočal sovraž­ nik u k r itje za d re v e si in d ru g im i o v iram i, h k ra ti p a om ogočal lo k o stre lce m in v o jak o m s p u šč ic a m i, b a lista m i in k a ta p u lti o b stre lje v a ti n a sp ro tn ik a . N e k a tere k a s n o a n tič n e trd n ja v e ali obzidane p o sto ja n k e z izred n o veliko p o v ršin o so o č itn o služile tu d i za v a rn o sp ra v lja n je živine o ziro m a drobnice. T ako si n a V elik ih M alen cah 1 5 z iz m eram i trd n ja v e 440 X 300 m n e m o rem o za­ m išlja ti, da b i v sa p o v ršin a služila za sta n o v a n jsk o p o slo p je, m a rv e č m oram o p re d p o sta v lja ti o b o re in hleve za živino. O te m n as p re p rič u je tlo ris 700 X100 do 200 m velike u tr d b e Sv. Pavel n a d V rto v in o m ,1 6 ki im a p re č n o obzidje, s k a ­ te rim je ločen se v e rn i sta n o v a n jsk i d el (v k a te re m sm o n ašli tu d i te m elje stavb) od m nogo v ečjeg a p a š n ik a o ziro m a o b o ra . T em velikim u tr d b a m lah k o p rik lju ­ čim o še ra z isk o v a ln o ko m aj n ač ete re fu g ije od P odzem lja, Sv. A m broža, Kek- ca-S iliganum a n a d N ovo G orico, A jd n e n a d P otoki, A jdovskega g rad c a v B ohi­ n ju , P ivke p ri N ak le m , K ra n ja , P o lh o g ra jsk e gore, Sv. G ore v Z asavju, O rehka, Z idanega G ab ra, T in ja p ri Je lšah do P uščave n a d S ta rim trg o m p ri Slovenj- g rad c u ,1 7 ki b i jih p o p o v ršin i la h k o m e d seb o jn o v zp o rejali. O b te j raz u m ­ ljivi želji po v e č a n ju svoje ek o n o m sk e ozirom a živ lje n jsk e n eo d v isn o sti p a se po jav i novo v p ra š a n je , k ako so m ogli n a n a š te tih trd n ja v a h b ra n iti včasih tu d i do 1500 m dolgo o b z id je n p r. n a V elikih M alencah. Iz v o ja šk ih vidikov je smi- se ln ejša zasn o v a u tr d b n a R ifniku, V ra n ju , A jdovskem g ra d c u v B ohinju, P ol­ h o g ra jsk i gori ali Sv. A m brožu n a K ra su , k je r je o b zid je dolgo o d 210 do 300 m. N ajdišča iz časa pozne antike. —■ A rchaeological site s fr o m th e late A n tiq u ity Če p re d p o sta v lja m o , d a je v teh re fu g ijih živelo le sto ali n a jv e č tristo lju d i, je to p o m e n ilo le n e k a j d esetin za o b ra m b o sp o so b n ih b ran ilcev . T ako zija p re ­ p a d m e d šte v ilo m vojak o v in v e lik o stjo o b zid ja p r i velikih trd n ja v a h . S o m er­ n a z m o ž n o stjo o b ra m b e p a je v e lik o st u trje n ih vil n p r. S ta ri trg p ri Ložu. N a ta p ro b le m je o p o zo ril že p ro fe so r G ra fe n au e r p ri o b ra v n a v a n ju vzhodnogot- sk ih e n o t v n a š ih k ra jih in v elik o sti p o sa d k v P a le rm u o ziro m a T icinu — ki so štele n ajv eč š tirid e s e t lju d i.1 8 G lede n a p o m a n jk a n je vojakov je b ila o b ra m b a velikih m e st, k o t so b ila Poe- toviona, C eleja, E m o n a, N ev io d u n u m , C a stra itd., po ra z su lu lim esa in v o ja­ šk ih en o t k o n ec 4. sto le tja sk o raj n e re šljiv a naloga. O bzidja te h trd n ja v d o d atn o u tr je n a še z v r a ti in sto lp i, b i p o tre b o v a la večje p o sad k e, k i p a jih od 5. sto le tja d alje n i bilo. R azum ljivo, d a so sp rič o ta k e g a s ta n ja lju d je o p u šč ali velika m e­ s ta in se selili v b o lj v a rn e n ara v n o b ra n je n e refu g ije, k a k o r je p o k azal J. š a še l v K ro n ik i.1 9 Iz g ra d n ja o z iro m a o b n o v a p rib e ž a lišč sovpada z v d o ri b a rb a ro v p rek o Do­ nave, in je zelo v e rje tn o tu d i v zvezi s p o raz o m p ri H a d ria n o p o lisu le ta 378, ko so g o tsk e in a la n sk e čete p o d A lateje m in S afra k o m p ro d rle vse do P tu ja in S trid o n a. Iz sv o jih novih biv ališč v P a n o n iji so o čitn o o g ro žale p ra v n aše k ra ­ je , k a jti velik d el izk o p an in n a o m e n je n ih p o sto ja n k a h je iz p o zn eg a 4. sto letja. T ak a n a k le p a n ja b i p o d p iralo p o m o je m tu d i n ek o doslej n e p o u d a rje n o d ej­ stvo. V m islih im a m p ro c e n tu a ln i o d n o s m ed n a jd b a m i v v e lik ih m estih . M ed­ te m ko je za N ev io d u n u m p ra v z n a č iln a velika m n o žin a k riž n ih fibul, stilusov, k o šč en ih igel, črn iln ik o v in d ru g ih p re d m e to v iz 4. sto le tja , la h k o 5. sto le tju p rip iše m o m e d ta m k a jš n jim g rad iv o m le fibulo v obliki c ik a d e in nož z nare- b re n im b ra n ik o m ; d o m nevno bi v za č e te k teg a sto le tja la h k o p rid a li še fibulo s k risto g ra m o m in ta k o im enovani g ro b z ru g ijsk im p rs ta n o m s k ačam i. G ovor­ je n o sta tistič n o b i la h k o dejali, d a im a m o 1500 izk o p an in iz 1.— 4. s to le tja (od k a te rih je 300 p rim e rk o v gotovo iz 4. sto le tja ) in le dvoje o z iro m a tro je p re d m e ­ to v iz 5. s to le tja te r nob en e n a jd b e iz 6. sto le tja .2 0 P o d obno slik o d a je tu d i g ra­ divo iz C eleje in E m one, le d a je v te h m e stih o p aziti n e k v iše k g rad b e n ih del s s ta ro k ršč a n sk im i b azilik am i iz k o n c a 4. sto letja. S trn je n o b i la h k o povzeli, da se so časn o z u p a d a n je m m a te ria ln ih pričev an j v n iž in sk ih n a s e ljih in m e stih p o ja v lja gradivo in dru g i d o k az i živ lje n ja n a za­ vetno ležečih re fu g ijih (gl. zem ljev id n a jd iš č k asn e a n tik e in p rese lje v an ja ). K ar se tič e lege p rib ež ališč o p ažam o , d a so iz b ra li ro m a n iz ira n i sta ro selc i do tlej le m a lo n a s e lje n e p red e le G o rjan cev , o b m o čje ta k o im en o v an eg a p ra ­ gozda m ed V o g lajn o , S avinjo in S avo, G o rn jesav sk o dolino z o sam elci n a A jdni te r za tišn ih p o s to ja n k a h B leda in B o h in ja — to re j p red e le, k i so o d m a k n jen i o d glavnih r im s k ih p ro m e tn ih vezi. V en d a r p a so p ri te m sk rb e li, d a so videli so se d n je p o s to ja n k e in se m ogli v p rim e rih n e v a rn o sti o b v ešča ti. T ako je sp let zato čišč in u tr d b tv o ril o b ra m b n i sis te m v sm islu sam o zaščite, h k ra ti p a je bil važen člen v o b ra m b i iliro -italsk ih v ra t. P ro d ira jo č o m n o žico lju d ste v v času selitv e n a ro d o v so cepili in slabili že v te m p re d p ro s to ru in u s tv a rja li po g o je za u sp e šn o o b ra m b n o stra te g ijo b o č n ih nap ad o v , zased in o b k o lje v a ln ih m anevrov glavnine re d n e v o jsk e n a k ra šk ih za p o ra h . Z ato so ti re fu g iji im eli v ek o n o m ­ sk em p o g led u sk ro m n o vlogo, sa j so p rid elo v ali le za svoj la stn i o b sto j ob trd n ja v a h . P re laz i v zah o d n i S lo v en iji so k o t n a jb o lj zn a čilen vojaško-geograf- ski d ejav n ik p o sta li v 4. sto le tju iz re d n o p o m em b n i. P re g ra d a V zhodnih Alp je m o g o čn a p o s le d n ja s te n a m e d c e sa rstv o m vzh o d a in z a h o d a te r b ra n ik p re d b a rb a ri. Z ato so R im lja n i te n a ra v n e o v ire o k re p ili z lin ijsk o zasn o v an im za­ p o rn im o b z id je m o d R eke do Z iljsk e doline. Z am etk i o b ra m b e segajo v D io­ k lecijan o v o d o b o , d o g ra je v a li p a so jih skozi 4. in del 5. s to le tja . Z n aselitv e­ nega v id ik a so z a p o re zanim ive, k e r p o te k a jo p o p o d ro č ju , k i d ru g ač e n i bilo p o se lje n o . P re d p o sta v lja li b i, d a b o z iz g ra d n jo o b z id ja n a s to p ila p o sp e šen a k o lo n iz ac ija in g o sp o d a rsk a iz ra b a b liž n jih m a n jš ih rav n ic , tra v n ik o v in goz­ dov. V e n d a r p a n e z n a tn e n a jd b e iz te g a p o d ro č ja govore n a s p ro tn o . O čitno so p ra v n e p rim e rn e živ lje n jsk e m o ž n o sti v p o d ro č ju , k i je b re z v o d e in n a d višino, do k a te re u s p e v a jo žitaric e, sp o d b u d ile stra te g a , d a je ta m p o sta v il obzidje. V o jn o -o b ra m b n e p re d n o s ti o b m o č ja so b ile v n je g o v i sla b i p o se lje n o sti in kra- šk em sv e tu b re z v o d e in h ra n e , s č im e r je b il so v raž n ik o b so je n n a la k o to in žejo. G lede n a to je sk o ra j iz k lju č en o , d a b i b il g o ra ti sv et o d H ru šic e do Snež­ n ik a zanim iv za n a se lite v k o lo n isto v v k a s n o rim sk e m o b d o b ju . O b slo v a n sk o -av a rsk e m v d o ru so se šk o fje s sk u p in a m i v e rn ik o v iz o b m o č ja P tu ja , C elja in L ju b lja n e u m a k n ili in n ase lili d el za h o d n e Is tr e . To se je zgo­ dilo p re d v se m p o la n g o b a rd sk e m o d h o d u v B e n eč ijo le ta 568. V te h d e s e tle tjih so z a p u stili sv o ja v e rsk a sre d iš č a šk o fje P oetovione, C eleje, V iru n a, E m o n e, A gunta in c e rk v e n i v o d ite lji d ru g ih m a n jš ih sre d išč v V zh o d n ih A lpah.2 1 Z n jim i je o d še l iz n a š ih k ra je v d el p reb iv a lce v , m nogi p a so o s ta li n a zem lji sv o jih p red n ik o v , k a k o r d o k a z u je jo izsle d k i a rh e o lo šk ih iz k o p a v a n j, štu d ij k asn o an - tič n ih p a tro c in ije v in n a jb o lj n e p o s re d n o im e n sk i re lik ti. V o d ro č n ih p re d e lih so se o h ra n ili sta ro s e lc i v s trn je n ih sk u p in a h , k a k o r d o k a z u je slo v a n sk a o zn ak a Lah o ziro m a V la h za ro m a n iz ira n e g a Iliro -K e lta v im e n ih L ahovče, L aško, L a­ šk a vas, B a šelj, B e lšin ja vas itd . D elno g o vore o te m tu d i im e n a k ra je v k o t S ta ­ ra vas, S ta ro selo o ziro m a S ta ri tr g in p o sre d n o im e n a A jd o v ščin a, A jdovski g rad eč, M irje, G ra d ec te r iz p e lja n k e iz te h oznak. S ta ro se lc i so p reživ eli tu d i v v e č jih k ra jih , sa j so p o sred o v a li slo v a n sk im p rišle k o m im e n a re k (D rava, Sava, K rk a , K o lp a, Soča), g eo g ra fsk e p o jm e (K ras, K ra n js k a , P o d ju n a , J u lij­ ske A lpe, K a ra v a n k e ) in m n o g a im e n a m e s t (P tu j, C elje, T ro ja n e , T re b n je , B e­ lja k , K ra n j, L o g atec, K o p er, P ira n , T r s t itd .). A n tičn a d e d išč in a se je o h ra n ila ta k o s p o s re d n iš tv o m sta ro selc ev še v slo v a n sk o d o b o .2 2 N a k o n cu la h k o glede h isto rič n e to p o g ra fije u g o to v im o , d a je po zgodnjean- tič n em p re h o d u s p raz g o d o v in sk ih s re d iš č k p o s ta ja m in n a s e lje m ob novo tr a ­ sira n ih c e sta h v a n tič n o p o se lite v S lo v en ije in v u s tro j p re b iv a lstv a , zarezal naj glo b o k e j šo sle d v d o r K vadov in M ark o m an o v . A n tič n a p o p u la c ija S lo v en ije se n e o b n o v i v eč v p re jš n je m o b seg u , k rč e n ja in p r id o b iv a n ja nov ih le d in n e za zn a m u je m o . V eč ji poseg v p o k ra jin o je šele iz g ra d n ja z a p o rn ih zidov v 4. s to ­ le tju n a p re j n e o b lju d e n e m k ra šk e m sv e tu v o b m o č ju S n ežn ik a, N o tra n jsk e in o b ro b ja L ju b lja n s k e k o tlin e. Iz v o jn o -stra te šk ih razlogov je p o tre b n o p re d p o ­ sta v iti povezavo m e d p o sa m ez n im i o d se k i, v e n d a r p a po d o sle j zn a n ih p o d a tk ih do širš e k o lo n iz a c ije vzdolž te č rte n i p rišlo . D rug v širo k e m sm islu važen p o li­ tič n i d o g o d ek je o p u stite v m e je n a D o n av i k o n ec 4. s to le tja . L ju d stv a z d ru g eg a b reg a re k e im a jo p o sle j o d p rt d o sto p v p lo d n o P an o n ijo , z železom b o g ati N o rik in m ik a v n o Ita lijo . V te m č a su z g ra d ijo p rib e ž a lišč a n a s k r itih v z p e tin a h in o sa­ m elcih, p ri č e m e r iz b ira jo o b ič a jn o že p r e j delno iz k rč e n e g riče. N a sled n je o b ­ d o b je s to p e td e s e tih le t z a z n a m u je jo šte v iln i v o ja šk o -p o litič n i dogodki, p le n je ­ n ja in p o žig an ja , ra z se lje v a n ja in u m ik a n ja , la k o te in b o lezn i. K lju b vse te ž jim ž iv lje n jsk im m o ž n o stim so ro m a n iz ira n i iliro -k eltsk i sta ro se lc i v o d ro čn ih p re ­ d elih — p ro č o d cest, po k a te rih so se valile tru m e ro p a jo č ih p lem en — še n a ­ p re j o b delovali sv o je njive, o h ra n ja li p lo d n e p o v ršin e in p a šn ik e , sk rb eli za svoj v sa k d a n ji k r u h in p re n a ša li ta k o d e l sta ro d a v n e k u ltu re tu d i n a slovanske p ri­ šleke. 1 S. Petru, N ekaj antičnih zem ljepis­ nih pojm ov o naših krajih, A rh eo lo ški ve stn ik 19 (1968) 375. 2 B. Saria, D oneski k vojaški zgodo­ vini naših krajev v rim ski dobi, G lasnik M uzejskega d ru štv a za S lo ven ijo 20 (1939) 115 ssl. I. Curk, R im lja n i na S lo v en sk em (Ljubljana 1976). P. Petru, Tiberijev p o r­ tre t iz Emone, A d ria tica p raehistorica e t antiqua, M iscellanea G. Novak dicata (Zagreb 1970) 657. 3 I. in J. Curk, P tuj, K ulturni in n a­ ravni spom eniki Slovenije 4 (1970). 4 J. Šašel, Em ona, R E , suppl. XI (1971) 540. 5 M. Kos, Z g o d o vin a Slovencev (Ljub­ ljana 1955) 35. S. Pahič, N o v seznam no- riško-panonskih gom il, Razprave L razr. SAZU 7 (1972) priloga 2. 6 A rh eo lo ška n a jd išča Slo ven ije (Ljub­ ljana 1975) s priloženim i zemljevidi. 7 P. Petrù, Evidenca najdišč. V a rstvo sp o m en iko v 5 (1962) 52 ssl. 8 P. Petru, R im sko podeželje na Do­ lenjskem v luči najdb na avtom obilski cesti, D o len jski zb o rn ik 1 (1961) 211. 9 C laustra A lp iu m Iid ia ru m I, K ata­ logi in m onografije 5 (1971). 1 0 P. Petrù, N ajnovija istraživanja klauzura Julijskih Alpa, O siječki zb o rn ik 12 (1962) 5 ssl. Idem , Novejše arheološke raziskave C laustra Alpium Iuliarum in kasnoantičnih u trd b v Sloveniji, A rh eo ­ lo ški v e stn ik 23 (1972) 343 ssl. R. M atej- čić, Sedam godina rada u istraživanju Liburnijskog lim esa, O siječki zb o rn ik 12 (1969) 24 ssl. J. šašel, Über Umfang und D auer der M ilitärzone P raetentura Ita- liae et alpium , A cta o f th e fifth E pigra- p h ic C ongress 1967 (1970) 317. 1 1 L. Bolta, Poznoantično grobišče na Rifniku pri Š en tju rju , A rheološki v e s t­ n ik 21—22 (1970-71) 127. 1 2 P. Petru, T. U lbert, V ra n je p ri S e v ­ nici, Katalogi in m onografije 12 (1975). 1 3 F. Leben, G radišče pri M artinj h ri­ bu, V a rstvo s p o m e n ik o v 9 (1963-64) 192. 1 4 V. Krušič, K aries na zobnem g ra­ divu z V ranja in njegovo vrednotenje, K atalogi in m o n o g ra fije 12 (1975) 123 ssl. 1 5 B. Saria, Die vorgeschichtlichen Ringwallsystem e in Slowenien, Sü d o st- F orschungen 15 (1956) 41 ssl. 1 6 D. Svoljšak, Zgodnjeantična nasel­ bina na Sv. Pavlu nad Vrtovinom, A rheo­ lo ški v e stn ik 19 (1968) 422. 1 7 S. Pahič, O rim ski cesti pod Uršljo goro in še kaj, K o r o šk i fu žin a r 16, št. 10 —12 (1965) 38. A. Valič, Po zgodovinskih poteh v okolici Jesenic, Jeklo in ljudje, Jesen iški zb o rn ik 1 (1964) 476; A. Valič, A rheološki sp o m e n ik i G orenjske, Kul­ turni in naravni spom eniki Slovenije 76 (1977) 11. J. Dular, Podzem elj-Kučar, sta­ rokrščanska cerkev, A rh eo lo ški pregled 17 (1975) 121. P. P etrù, Zgodnjesrednje- veška naselbina n a Polhograjski gori, A rheološki v e stn ik 18 (1967) 435 ssl. D. Vuga, Sveta gora v Zasavju (Rovišče), A rheološki ve stn ik 25 (1974 ) 424. Za Ob- soteljsko Sv. Goro glej J. Korošec ml., Dodatno poročilo o raziskavah zgodnje- srednjeveške gradbene dejavnosti na Sve­ tih gorah nad Sotlo, A rh eo lo ški ve stn ik 25 (1974) 518 z literatu ro . P. Petrù, Ob­ novljena antika v Ajdovščini, V arstvo sp o m en iko v 10 (1965) 131 ssl.; P. Petrù, Ajdovščina: neue A usgrabungsresultate, R o m a n F rontier S tu d ie s 1969 (Cardiff 1974) 178 ssl. S. Gabrovec, Latensko ob­ dobje na G orenjskem , A rheološki ve stn ik 17 (1966) 243 s sliko 1 in 2 (Ajdovski gra­ deč v Bohinju). S. P etrù, Nekaj zgodnje- srednjeveških najdb iz Gorjancev, A rheo­ lo ški v e stn ik 18 (1967) 435 ssl. J. Kastelic, Slo va n ska n ekro p o la na B ledu, Dela 1. razr. SAZU 13 (1960). D. Svoljšak, T. Kni­ fic, S re d n jev ešk e n a jd b e V ipavske doli­ ne, Situla 17 (1976). 1 8 B. G rafenauer, Zgodovina S loven­ cev I (Ljubljana 1966). V. B ierbrauer, Die o stgotischen Grab- u n d S ch a tzfu n d e in Italien, Centro Italiano di Studi sull’ Alto Medioevo, Biblioteca studi medievali VII (Spoleto 1975) 35. 1 9 J. šašel, Problem naseljevanja vzhodnoalpskih Slovanov, K ro n ika 20 (1972) 3 ssl. 2 0 S. in P. Petrù, N e v io d u n u m (D rnovo p ri K rškem ), Katalogi in m onografije 15 (1978) . 2 1 J. Rus, Joannes, prvi škof istrske in zadnji panonske Em one, G lasnik M uzej­ skega d ru štva za S lo v en ijo 20 (1939) 147. 2 2 P. Petrù, Z a to n a n tik e v S loveniji (Ljubljana 1976). S u m m a r y I w as given th e taks of speaking a t th is colloquium organised by the Archaeologi­ cal Society of Slovenia on the historical topography of Slovenia in th e late Rom an period, on aspects of chronology and settlem ent. This is not a n easy task, although docum entation has now been collected an d is presented cartographically in the book A rheološka n a jd išča S lo v en ije (Archaeological sites in Slovenia). It is thus necessary only to call atten tio n to general aim s ra th e r than to go into details. Irena Sivec and M arijan Slabè will also autline m any topographical details fo r this period, w hich alleviates m y task. The key to an understanding of the late Rom an topography of Slovenia is to be found in the geographical features of o u r country, in the distrib u tio n of settlem ents and how they w ere set up in early R om an tim es and finally in the general m ilitary and political events of the 4th to 6th centuries. During the early R om an period the geographical features of Slovenia can be seen politically as a b o rd e r region, and fro m a settlem ent point o f view as a region of m any valleys an d pockets of land m ore o r less suitable for colonising. The early Ro­ m an bord er position of Slovenia m eant th a t during th e occupation period — up to the establishm ent of autonom ous tow ns — m ilitary garrison fo rts w ere built, w ith th eir centre an d w in ter q u arte rs at the legionary head q u arters of Em ona and Poeto- vio. A ccording to Tacitus, Annals I, 20, th e arm y was in terea m a n ip u li an te co ep ta m se d itio n e m N a u p o r tu m m issi ob itin era et p o n te s et alios u s u s . . . and thus contri­ buted to increased trade; a t the sam e tim e, through th e building of a netw ork of roads the arm y laid the foundations fo r the fu rth e r colonisation of the region. M ore­ over th e legionary cam ps a t L jubljana and Ptuj form ed the basis for later develop­ m ent of settlem ents there, especially a t Em ona, w here the building of a tow n w ith surrounding w alls and 40 dwelling insulae and the regulation o f th e river L jubljanica becam e the focus fo r the ocupation of the surrounding area. Several grave stones testify th at veteran s of the XVth A pollinaris legion, having served out their m ilitary term s, w ere g ran te d th eir agraria m issio in the surrounding area. The veterans w ere also given lan d n ea r o th e r m ilitary posts, w ith equal advantages, w hich indirectly had a significant influence on the occupation of the country. At such places forest areas w ere cleared for arable land w hile a t the sam e tim e grow ing needs drew artisans, from p o tte rs to sm iths, to the little settlem ents o r villages. U sually such centres grew up around new roads, not far from preh isto ric sites, as is evident along the Em ona— Siscia road o r in the regions betw een K am nik and K ranj. The opposite of this occurs when arterial ro ad s w ere built in new ly-settled areas such as the forest of Trnovski gozd, the K rka p lain and the foothills of Slovenske gorice, as is clearly evidenced by m aps in the book A rh eo lo ška n a jd išča S lo v en ije (ANSI). For econom ic reasons there w as a tendency to leave prehistoric sites on the hills and settle in the valleys along the new ly-built roads. The are a w hich w as cultivated during this period w as still inhabited in th e late Rom an era, as is proved by a num ber of sites in the above-men­ tioned places. G radually the cultivated areas increased by th e grow th of fields, vine­ yards and p astu res. In the m iddle of the 3r< J century the em p ero r Probus gave p er­ m ission for th e cultivation of vines an d this led to fu rth e r clearance of w oodland areas. A great change in th e settlem ent p a tte rn and historical topography of Slovenia cam e after th e incursion of th e Quadi and M arcom anni. U ntil th a t tim e people had evidently blindly tru ste d in the w atchw ard p a x R o m a n a — - piece w ithin the borders of the em pire. A b arb a ric invasion resulting in a m ajority of the people being killed or enslaved on th e one hand and villages, farm s, barns and goods being destroyed on the o th er seem ed to sober b o th population and the R om an adm inistration alike. A special defence line called the p ra e ten tu ra Ita lia e e t A lp iu m w as set up of w hich only th e post a t Ločica, a legionary fortress, can today be reliably positioned. As show n by th e earliest R om an finds from Rifnik, V ranje p ri Sevnici and M artinj hrib, the origins of these th ree fortified refuges reach back to the late 2nd century and th e period afte r the M arcom annic w ars and are thus contem porary w ith the setting up of th e p ra eten tu ra . At the sam e tim e this proves th a t the area surrounding these posts w as cultivated and capable of supporting life. An analysis of the teeth of the inhabitants of these refuges show s th a t the basis of their diet w ere milk, m ilk products and m eat, w hich shows th a t th ere m ust have been extensive pastures and good hunting grounds around the fortresses themselves. Some late R om an forts o r walled strongholds obviously also served as safe quar­ tering for livestock, judging by their exceptional size. Thus at Velike Malence, where the stronghold m easures 440 X300 m etres, it is hardly likely th a t the whole area would have been used for hum an living quarters; we m ust ra th e r im agine pens and sheds for cattle. A good exam ple of th is is the fort a t Sveti Pavel nad Vrtovinom w ith a plan of 700 X100—200 m etres. A considerable am ount of the surrounding wall is still extant an d shows the n orthern section partitioned off fo r living quarters (we also found the foundations of buildings here) from the m uch larg er pasture o r en­ closure. To these large forts the following sites can be added, w here excavations have ju st begun: Podzem elj, Sveti Ambrož, K ekec (Siliganum ) above Nova Gorica, Ajdna nad Potoki, Ajdovski Gradec a t Bohinj, Pivka near Naklo, K ranj, Polhograjska Gora, Svete Gore v Zasavju, Orehek, Zidani Gaber, Tinje near Jelše and Puščava above Stari Trg pri Slovenj Gradcu which all have com parable areas. This understandable wish by these fo rts to im prove their econom ic independence raises a new question: how w ere the in h ab itan ts able to defend the walls of these forts, som etim es as m uch as 1500 m etres round, e. g. a t Velike M alence, even w ith reinforcem ents of people from the surrounding area? From a m ilitary standpoint a m ore sensible basis for a fort can be seen a t Rifnik, V ranje, Ajdovski Gradec a t Bohinj, Polhograjska Gora or Sveti Ambrož n a K rasu, w here the w alls are 200—300 m etres long and the rest are natural defences. If we suppose that only one or at the m ost th ree hundred people lived in these refuges, then only a few score able-bodied m en w ould be available for defence. This m eant a yawning gap in the big fortresses betw een the lenght of the walls and the n u m b er of available w arriors. Fortified villas, such as Stari trg near Lož, had a m uch b e tte r proportion betw een their size and possibilities of defence. Prof. G rafenauer drew attention to th is problem w ith regard to O strogothic units on Slovene territory. The lack of soldiers after the dissolution of the lim es and m ilitary units a t the end of th e 4th cen tu ry m eant th a t th e defence of the large cities such as Poetovio, Celeia, Em ona, N auportus, C astra etc. represented an alm ost insoluble problem . The walls of these cities w ere additionally fortified w ith gates an d tow ers and these dem anded m any m ore troops, which w ere no longer available from 5th century onwards. It is n o t surprising th a t the answ er to such a state of affairs was to leave the big towns an d settle in safer, naturally defended refuges, as J. šašel pointed out in "K ronika”. The building o r renovation of the sanctuaries coincides w ith incursion by b ar­ barians over the Danube; the m ost probable reason w as the defeat a t H adrianopolis in 378 A. D. w hen Gothic and Alanic bands under Alateus and S hafrak broke through as far as Ptuj an d Stridon. From th e ir new territory in Pannonia they threatened Slovenia, and th u s triggered off the building of refuges, as a large proportion of finds excavated at these posts dating from the late 4th century testifies. In sum m ary, the decline in finds from low lying settlem ents an d tow ns coincides w ith the appearance of m aterial finds and other proofs of life in refuges lying in secluded position (see m ap of late R om an and early m ediaeval sites). When choosing sites for their refuges it can be seen th a t throughout the whole era the Rom anised population chose only sparsely inhabited areas of the Gorjanci hills, the virgin forest area between the rivers Voglajna, Savinja an d Sava, the upper Sava valley and isolated hills on Ajdna an d sheltered spots at Bled and Bohinj, areas lying back from th e m ain Rom an road links. At the sam e time, they m ade sure th at individual posts could be seen one from another so th a t they could inform each other in tim es danger. Thus the netw ork of refuges on the fortified hills form ed a defence system , in the sense of self-defence, while a t the sam e tim e it was an im por­ tant factor in the defence of the Illyro-Italic gateway. The invading m asses of people during the tim e of the G reat M igrations w ere split up and w eakened already a t this threshold area an d this created conditions for an effective defence system of flank attacks, am bushes an d encircling m anoeuvres by the m ain body of the regular arm y in the K arst blockades. So from an econom ic point of view these refuges played only a sm all role, as they produced only enough for their own existence. Passes in w estern Slovenia took on a special significance in the 4th century as an im portant m ilitary/geographical factor. The b arrier of the E astern Alps w as a final wall betw een th e ea st and w est of th e em pire and a bulw ark against the barbarians. The R om ans th erefo re strenghtened these n atural b a rriers w ith blockade walls stretching in a line from R ijeka to the Gail valley. The origins of this kind of de­ fence reach b ack to the age of D iocletian w hile additions w ere m ade throughout the 4th and in to th e 5th centuries. These b arriers are interesting from the point of view of the settlem en t of the area as they ran through regions w hich otherw ise w ere not inhabited. lit could be postulated th a t building the defence w alls would lead to a m ore rapid colonisation and agricultural exploitation of the sm all plains, m eadows and w oods nearby. However, th e insignificant finds from this region contradict this idea. Obviously the unfavourable living conditions in a region w hich was w ithout w ater and a t an altitu d e too high fo r the cultivation of cereals inspired the stra t­ egists to chose this site for th e ir defence walls. The advantages fo r the m ilitary de­ fence of the region lay in its sparse population and K arst landscape w ithout w ater or food so th a t the enem y w ould be condem ned to hunger an d th u rst. The m ount­ ainous region from H rušica to Snežnik w as therefore of very little interest to co­ lonists of the la te R om an period. At th e tim e of the Slovene/Avar invasion a num ber of bishops and groups of C hristians fro m the region around P tu j, Celje and L ju b ljan a retrea te d from this area an d settled in a p a rt of w estern Istria. The Lom bards m oved out of Slovenia on to V enetia in 568 an d during the next few decades th e bishops of Poetovio, Celeia, V irunum , E m ona an d Aguntum left th e ir bishoprics as did church dignitaries from other, sm aller centres in the E astern Alps. P art of the population left w ith them b u t m any stayed in the land of th eir forefathers, as is proved by th e Slavonic term Lah o r Vlah, referrin g to the R om anised Illyro-Celts, in nam es such as Lahovče, Laško, Laška Vas, B ašelj, B elšinja Vas etc. F u rth e r evidence lies in place nam es such as S tara vas, S taro selo o r S tari trg an d indirectly in the nam es Ajdovščina, Ajdovski Gradec, M irje, G radec and derivatives of these. The original settlers lived on in larger areas as well, an d handed dow n riv er nam es to the Slavonic new com ers (Drava, Sava, K rka, S oča), geographical term s (K ras-K arst, K ra n jska-Carnia, Podjuna-Juan valley, Julijske Alpe-Julian Alps, K aravanke-K araw anken m ountains) and m any town nam es (Ptuj, Celje, Trojane, Trebnje, Beljak-Villach, K ranj, Logatec, Koper-Capo- distria, Piran-Pirano, Trst-Trieste etc.). So the R om an heritage passed on to the Slavonic area via th e indigenous population. We can conclude from the historical topography o f R om an Slovenia th a t after the early m igration from prehistoric sites to villages an d settlem ents along the newly constructed roads the incursion of Q uadi and M arcom anni u p set this organisation. The R om an pop u latio n of Slovenia never recovered to its fo rm er extent and there is no fu rth e r evidence of clearing new land fo r agriculture. Only the building of the defence w alls in the 4th century rep resen ts any significant encroachm ent into the country, in the previously uninhabited K arst region around Snežnik, N otranjska and the edge of th e L ju b ljan a basin. F or strategic reasons links betw een individual sec­ tions m ust have existed, b u t presently available data indicate th a t there w as never any w ider colonisation along this line. A fu rth e r im p o rtan t political event w as the abandonm ent of th e bord er along th e D anube at the end of the 4th century. From th a t tim e on trib es from the o th er side of the river had free access to fertile Panno- nia, to N oricum rich in iron an d to the attractio n s of Italy. To this period belongs the building of the refuges on secluded uplands and isolated hills, for which already partly cleared hills w ere the p referre d choice. The follow ing period of 150 years m arks a tim e of num erous m ilitary an d political events, plundering and burning, displacem ent an d retreat, hunger an d disease. In spite of the increasing troubles and disasters th e R om anised Illyro-Celtic population, fa r from the roads along which poured hordes of plundering tribes, continued to w ork their fields, look after wood­ land an d p astu res an d see to th eir daily w ants and th u s h and dow n a p art of their ancient culture, m aterial trad itio n an d cultivated soil to th e ir Slavonic successors.