https://doi.org/10.31449/inf.v45i6.3327 Informatica 45 (2021) 131–141 131
An Enhanced Online Learning Environment in the Time of COVID-
19
Shimaa Ouf
Faculty of Commerce and Business Administration
Business Information Systems Department, Helwan University, Egypt
E-mail: shimaaouf@yahoo.com
Keywords: Covid-19, learning process, blockchain, semantic web, digital certificate, ontologies
Received: October 6, 2020
The coronavirus has forced educational institutions and universities all around the world to close their
doors. There are about 1.2 billion learners outside of educational institutions in 191 nations around the
world. To ensure the safety of workers, learners, and educators, the world is currently converting training,
learning, and work online to reduce total disease mortality and flatten the infection curve. This paper
examines the problems of the existing learning environment and proposes a framework to address them
to make the transition to online learning simple, manageable, secure, and effective. Securing private data,
forged certifications, payment systems, tracking student behavior, low quality of the learning process, and
centralization of authority are all issues that learning environments confront. Educational institutions
must build efficient, effective, transparent, immutable, and secure learning environments. We give a
comprehensive analysis that introduces research papers that address learning-related concerns. Most of
this research has focused on leveraging blockchain technology to improve the learning process while
ignoring other crucial technologies such as the semantic web. The semantic web and blockchain will be
combined to form a semantic blockchain. The semantic web is being utilized to improve the representation
of learning processes based on blockchain, such as annotations, and to enable reasoning, inferences, and
queries using SPARQL. In the event of a COVID-19 pandemic, the semantic blockchain will aid
educational institutions in improving their learning processes. It is seen as a critical component of the
next generation of e-learning systems. The proposed framework for improving the learning process via a
semantic blockchain is presented in this paper
Povzetek: V času kovida je pogosto učenje na daljavo in prispevek skuša opisati varno okolje s pomočjo
semantičnih verižnih tehnologij.
1 Introduction
The World Health Organization has declared a worldwide
flare-up of covid-19; as a result, people across the world
are confronting a huge issue. Coronavirus harms our
lifestyles and proclivities, as well as our ability to adapt
and be resilient. The countries most affected by the
coronavirus pandemic are experiencing a severe public
health crisis, which will have a long-term impact on their
economic and social structures. Respect for the
appropriation of social distancing and lockdown is
required by the new regulations to combat this sickness
and limit its spread. This changes the way learning objects,
learning activities, and teaching methods are fulfilled and
delivered [1-2].
In the time of COVID-19 and to slow and limit the
spread of the Coronavirus, online learning becomes a
necessity; it is no more an option. Such online learning is
required in this deadly virus where video conferencing is
possible with learners, discussions with learners can be
available, lectures can be accessed on mobile phones as
well and not just laptops, the ability to view lectures
already recorded. Hence, this paper focuses on analysing
the challenges within the online learning environment and
gives an arrangement to these challenges.
The existing learning environment faces numerous
issues [3], including trouble verifying certifications due to
the addition of unearned qualifications and the theft of
student data, and the centralized learning process. In
addition, LinkedIn's online learning site Lynda was
hacked in December 2016. The data of the students was
obtained by an unauthorized third party. As a result of the
centralized storage of the Lynda platform, which gives
single attack points and access to all stored data, the 9.5
million learner accounts are affected. Recently, the
University of California–Berkeley, Wisconsin–
Milwaukee, Ohio State University, and University of
Kirkwood Community College have been hacked. The
University of Indiana kept crucial information on an open
website. Data was saved on tapes or computers at well-
known universities such as Stanford University, Miami
University, and Utah Hospitals and Clinics, which were
later hacked [4]. There is a need to improve data
interoperability by increasing the representation
capabilities of learning process-based blockchain
132 Informatica 45 (2021) 131–141 S. Ouf
knowledge that is obtained from many sources by
annotating its concepts, sub-concepts, and relationships
with semantically rich languages. Combining blockchain
technology with learning environments is thought to have
a high level of security. Data protection, privacy, integrity,
and creating trust between all parties involved in the
network are all aspects of security. Blockchain is based on
a peer-to-peer network in which diverse participants,
assets, and transactions are linked. It allows for more
control over how and by whom learners' data is accessible
[5].
Semantic web standards are employed in this paper to
introduce common data formats for a learning process-
based blockchain that allows data to be shared and reused
[6].
In a summary, one of the major design ideas of the
Semantic Web is that data can be published anywhere on
the internet by anybody and that it should be easy to query
and incorporate that data without having to aggregate it all
in one location. Semantic blockchain introduces the
decentralized, transparent, and available architecture of
the learning process. Decentralization means there are no
central attack points, and each node has an independent
copy of the blockchain and verifies it against all others.
Transparency means that each participant can track the
transaction data recorded in the blockchain network and
check the data changes. Availability means that a
distributed system is stored on different devices and
continues to run even if some systems become unavailable
[7-9]. In this paper, semantic blockchain facilitates tracing
and tracking all the activities in the learning process which
include learners' achievements due to authenticating
learners’ identities, their payment data, online exams,
digital certificates, digital courses, open badges, learning
activities, and teaching methods. The legalized
educational institution and the learners are permitted to
access and edit the stored data in the semantic blockchain
under some restricted rules and conditions as shown in
figure1.
The research community shows that online learning
has been existed to increase information retention, and
save time, meaning the changes covid-19 has caused
might be here to stay.
2 Literature review
The current research studies that preview the essential role
that blockchain plays in the learning environment are
presented in this part.
The authors of this paper reveal that China and Italy
were among the first countries to be hit by the COVID-19
pandemic. It focuses on learners' and educators' needs to
modify their lifestyles and routines, and it pushes them
toward online learning [1]. It covers the difficulties that
exist in today's online learning environment. The authors
of this article used the blockchain to create and
democratise educational reputation.
The blockchain technology is used to hold secure and
immutable educational achievement records, such as
degrees, certificates, and educational attainment, that are
accessible and distributed across several institutions. The
digital certificate is also added to the blockchain by the
awarding institution. The certificate can be accessed via a
link from an online CV or shared with employers [9].
Authors in this paper integrate the Internet of Things (IoT)
with blockchain to create smart and trustworthy
environments. In an intelligent educational system, IoT
facilitates data exchange by using connected objects and
sensors through smart devices [10].
In this paper and based on the European Credit
Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS), the authors
Figure 1: An excerpt of student transactions within semantic blockchain.
An Enhanced Online Learning Environment in the Time of COVID-19 Informatica 45 (2021) 131–141 133
utilize blockchain technology to show a worldwide stage
of higher education credit, named EduCTX. The proposed
stage presented a universally permanent, trusted,
straightforward decentralized credit and grading system
that can present a globally unified viewpoint for learners
and higher education institutions, as well as for other
potential participants such as companies, institutions, and
organizations [12].
Blockchain is being used to improve the performance
of virtual learning environments. This paper introduces
the challenges of the current competition models. These
models have the issues of untrustworthy information,
unscientific competition, and unauthorized assessment
that make learners and teachers much less enthusiastic.
Blockchain is used to increase competition, assessment to
enhance performance, transparency, and credibility.
Besides, in this paper blockchain is used to avoid the
problem of opaque and falsification messages, provide
unchangeable digital certification of academic
achievement [13]. Blockchain technology is considered
one of the most revolutionary emerging hotspot
technologies in different sectors. Due to its important
features like distribution, decentralization, and tamper-
resistant features. Authors in this paper integrate IoT and
blockchain technologies to introduce a reliable and secure
model to eliminate the need for the third part while
providing trusted and secured transactions. The proposed
system is applied to an environment containing several
connected sensors and uses blockchain technology, to
develop a secure and distributed learning environment that
checks the provenance data from the connected objects
and ensures secure educational services [14].
Because of issues with digital rights management
systems in an online learning environment, such as digital
copyrights, infringement of multimedia courses, and
counterfeit digital certificates. The authors of this study
present a digital rights management system based on
blockchain for securing content in an online learning
environment via digital certificates validation [15].
The authors look at research publications that use
blockchain technology in a classroom setting. They divide
these publications into two categories. 1) An approach that
is focused on the institution, and 2) an approach that is
focused on the learner. Learner-centric blockchain enables
the certification of a learner's credentials without the need
for an intermediary (university) and secures digital
certificates. Institution-centric solutions primarily manage
university-related tasks such as payment processing and
the storage of immutable student achievement data. The
papers reviewed demonstrate the benefits of implementing
blockchain technology in an educational setting to provide
transparency, immutability, and trust [16].
The authors of this research looked at difficulties that
educational institutions face, such as the possibility of
manipulation and the difficulty of verifying and
transmitting educational data between institutions. They
propose a thorough literature study that highlights the
importance of incorporating blockchain's benefits such as
decentralization, traceability, and consensus mechanism
into educational institutions' challenges. The blockchain
technology allows for the decentralized and interoperable
maintenance of learners' records [17].
Universities have recently received funding to
establish campuses in many cities and nations. As a result,
safeguarding online learning transactions such as learner
profiles and certifications is becoming a top priority for
security professionals. As a result, the purpose of this
study is to highlight studies that use blockchain in a
higher-inculcation context. The findings of these research
demonstrate the advantages of implementing blockchain
technology in higher education. The transaction data
pertaining to certificates and money transfers, learner
profiles and records, digital badges, publications, and
human resources is secured by blockchain [18].
Authors in this paper mentioned that the blockchain
consensus algorithm is used to bring many benefits such
as consistent data with reduced errors, which solve trust
and security problems by tracking sensor data
measurements. They propose an intelligent educational
system that can transfer and exchange data securely via a
blockchain without the need for a third party to guarantee
trust. A smart contract is used to ensure data integrity in
peer-to-peer networks. As a result, the deployment costs
of all components of the intelligent educational system can
be reduced. The system is evaluated based on a set of
criteria, such as integrity, confidentiality, and availability
to confirm that the entire transaction is done without any
alteration. Confidentiality enables the authorized peers to
access the messages and finally, the availability
guarantees that the services and data are available
anywhere anytime. This evaluation reflects that our
blockchain-based decentralized intelligent system
introduces a marginal increase in transaction processing
[19].
The authors propose a blockchain-based framework
consists of three layers, which are the data layer, logic
layer, and application layer. These layers represent the
educational process and the evaluation process of smart
education. Blockchain is used for storing achievements,
credits, certificates, and grades and improve the safety and
security of the education system [20].
The authors implement an Education-Industry
cooperative system predicated on blockchain technology.
Hyperledger framework is utilized to offer transparency
and non-tampering features to the Certificate Ascendancy
accommodation and transactions. It simulates the roles of
companies and universities in the system and enables them
to apportion information transparently, which achieves
information symmetry among learner adeptness and
cognizance information, the ordinant dictations of a
company's recruitment, and current market trends [21].
The authors propose an educational framework
predicated on a globally trusted blockchain. The global
network includes many participants like universities,
companies, and other higher scholastic institutions. It will
work in a homogeneous environment where all
participants collaborate and interact. The proposed
framework enables an ecumenical view of a learner's
performance. It secures the cognition objects and issues
digital certificates for a registered learner which can be
digitally transferred among other organizations [22].
134 Informatica 45 (2021) 131–141 S. Ouf
Open badges are a way to store formal and informal
learning accreditation and assessment to provide a
verifiable digital recognition of learning. Blockchain is
utilized to secure immutable records of open badges. In
this paper, the authors apply blockchain. It can fortify
learners who want to advance their vocations in data
science, by introducing them to recommended learning
materials predicated on their achievements. Blockchain
ameliorates data science accreditation and enables
learners to benefit from an open and transparent
accreditation system, as well as their vocations progress
and receiving job recommendations that match their
achievements. The authors use blockchain technology to
develop a new environment of lifelong learning.
Blockchain technology is used to manage learning objects;
the way learners register and pay for them, as well as the
accredited for their learning achievements. A new
environment enables the learners to control their
associated data at places them at the center of the learning
process [23].
Higher education faces many challenges like no
automated and centralization which means full control
over the learners' knowledge. Blockchain plays an
important role to solve these challenges. In this paper, the
authors use blockchain to develop a decentralized
education system that has many advantages like
immutability, anonymity, integrity, credibility, and
independence. There is no central authority and learners
have complete control over their data. The proposed
framework-based- blockchain has immutable records of
official documents and certificates with complete
confidence [24].
Table 1 shows the components of the learning process
that were introduced in the literature review studies. In
addition, we listed the components that authors discussed
in their publications. We noted that none of the articles
used blockchain technology to represent all aspects of the
learning process (learner profile, learning objects, learning
activities, teaching methods, evaluation system, payment
system, digital certificate, and digital badge). They
concentrated solely on one or more of the components. All
Digital Badge
Digital
certificate
Payment
system
Evaluation
system
Teaching
methods
Learning
activities
Learning
objects
Learner profile
Author/Learning Process Components
√ √ × × × × × √ Sharples and Domingue 2016
× × × × × × × √ Bdiwi, De Runz et al. 2017
× × × × × × √ √ Duan, Zhong et al. 2017
× √ √ × × × × √ Turkanović, Hölbl et al. 2018
× √ × √ × × × √ Wu and Li 2018
× × × × × × × √ (Bdiwi, De Runz et al. 2018)
× √ × √ × × √ √ Gong, Liu et al
× √ × × × × × √ Liu, Guan et al. 2018
× √ √ × × × √ √ Srivastava, Bhattacharya et al. 2018
√ × × × × × × √ Mikroyannidis, Domingue et al. 2018
√ × × × × × √ √ Mikroyannidis, Domingue et al. 2018
× √ × × × × √ √ Juričić, Radošević et al. 2019
× × × × × × × √ Bdiwi, de Runz et al. 2019
× √ × × × × √ √ Guo, Li et al. 2019
× √ × × × × × √ Al Harthy, Al Shuhaimi et al. 2019
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Our Proposed Framework
Table 1: The components of the learning process.
An Enhanced Online Learning Environment in the Time of COVID-19 Informatica 45 (2021) 131–141 135
aspects of the learning process will be represented using
semantic blockchain in this paper.
Table 2 summarizes the technologies used by
researchers to improve the learning process. We noticed
that some studies used blockchain technology, others
integrate IoT with blockchain, but all the studies ignored
integrating blockchain with semantic web technology to
enhance the quality of the learning process and make
educational institutions achieve competitive advantages.
3 Methodology
This paper was performed based on searching for
important articles. Electronic databases are a critical
source of scientific research. The most comprehensive
electronic databases, such as ScienceDirect, IEEE, and
Springer, were searched to find relevant publications for
our paper. The three databases are known for indexing
high quality and high impact articles within the computer
science field. The following keywords were used in the
search: “Covid-19 AND Online Learning”, “Blockchain
AND Education”, “Blockchain AND e-learning system”,
“Blockchain AND online learning”, “Blockchain AND
learning environment”. The articles, which were related to
our paper, are getting to be examined. All the retrieved
articles were surveyed whereby unimportant papers and
papers are not in English were excluded followed by
selections by abstract and conclusion and finally based on
the full-text reading. Results a total of 365 articles were
found from the three scientific databases. After that,
irrelevant articles were checked and excluded based on
title and Abstract, has resulted in a left of 320 articles. The
screening process continued during the full-text reading
articles that resulting in 25 are excluded. Finally, 20
selected papers were used for this review paper as shown
in figure 2.
3.1 Classification by scientific databases
Classification of articles by scientific databases was
presented in Figure 2 IEEE introduces more than 50% (12
out of 20 research papers or 60%), Springer Link
represents (7 out of 20 research papers, or 35%), and
ScienceDirect (1 out of 20 research, or 5%) of the total
number of articles. The retrieved articles reflecting the
importance of using blockchain technology in the learning
environment.
All articles represent the crucial rule of using
semantic web blockchain technology to develop a new
ecosystem of the learning environment.
4 A proposed framework of learning
process based on semantic
blockchain (LSSB)
The proposed framework integrates the semantic web with
blockchain to enhance the effectiveness and efficiencies
of the learning process. The semantic web is used to
promote data interoperability by improving the
representation capability of the learning process-based
blockchain components by annotating them with
semantically rich languages. The semantic web and
blockchain are complementary technologies. Blockchain
is being utilized to address some of the semantic web's
open concerns, such as trust and identity management.
The semantic web is used to improve the blockchain
representation like annotations and data integration. These
technologies are considered the backbone of the learning
environments. The semantic blockchain introduces
distributed, secure, transparent, real-time, immutable, and
tamper-proof records of the learning process transactions.
The proposed framework consists of three layers and is
used to represent all components of the learning process
as shown in figure 3.
4.1 Layer 1: Uniform Resource Identifier
(URI)
The semantic web employs URIs to represent resources
and assign a unique identification to each one. It is a
globally unique identifier that is used to consolidate all
data associated with a specific resource, making it easier
to combine data sources that were developed
Semantic Web Blockchian IoT Author/Technology
× √ × (Sharples and Domingue 2016)
× √ √ (Bdiwi, De Runz et al. 2017)
× √ × (Duan, Zhong et al. 2017)
× √ × (Turkanović, Hölbl et al. 2018)
× √ × (Wu and Li 2018)
× √ √ (Bdiwi, De Runz et al. 2018)
× √ × (Gong, Liu et al.)
× √ × (Liu, Guan et al. 2018)
× √ × (Srivastava, Bhattacharya et al. 2018)
× √ × (Mikroyannidis, Domingue et al. 2018)
× √ × (Mikroyannidis, Domingue et al. 2018)
× √ × (Juričić, Radošević et al. 2019)
× √ √ (Bdiwi, de Runz et al. 2019)
× √ × (Guo, Li et al. 2019)
× √ × (Al Harthy, Al Shuhaimi et al. 2019)
√ √ √ Our Proposed Framework
Table 2: Key technologies used to improve the learning process.
136 Informatica 45 (2021) 131–141 S. Ouf
independently. While URI is very valuable, it has some
inherent challenges such as centralization. Generating the
URI depends on the centralized Domain Name System
(DNS) that forms a single point of attack or failure.
Blockchain provides a decentralized authority to control
identifier creation and prevent the existence of a single
point of attack or failure. URI identifies the knowledge
representation of the educational domain-based
blockchain, including concepts, sub-concepts, properties,
and individuals.
4.2 Layer 2: semantic blockchain
It was difficult for participants to trace transactions on the
blockchain, the formal representation of the learning
process-based blockchain improves analysis capabilities
and transparency. This layer introduces the semantic
representations of whole components, relationships, and
transactions of the learning process-based blockchain.
Ontology is used to introduce a shared and reused
understanding of the concepts and sub-concepts of the
learning process based on a blockchain [23-24]. It
facilitates interlinking with other Linked data to perform
formal reasoning and inferences. The knowledge related
to the educational domain-based blockchain is represented
by web ontology language (OWL). It contains
participants, their roles, and the way they interact and
communicate in the whole learning process transactions.
These transactions include protecting learning objects,
learning activities, teaching methods, course registration,
payment system, evaluation system, and issue digital
certificates or digital badges. This layer consists of
learning process components, consensus techniques,
transactions, blocks, and smart contracts.
4.2.1 The learning process components
Semantic blockchain plays an important role to store
immutable and accurate records about the learning process
components, which include the following:
1. Learner's records and profiles: educational
institutions store learner data in a centralized
database, which enables hackers to edit the grades
and fake certifications. Blockchain technology
introduces unique advantages containing
decentralization, reliability, security, and data
integrity. It enables educational institutions to store a
real copy of the degree with a virtual copy.
2. Learning object, Learning Activities, and Teaching
Methods: the semantic blockchain is used to protect
learning objects, learning activities, and teaching
methods acquired from professors or learners.
3. Evaluation System: (allows assessing the degree of
achievement of the learning goal).
4. Certificates: The certificate is strong evidence for the
learner that completes the course successfully. It is
issued on paper includes all the details about the
participants and educational institutions. It is then
saved without being shared with others. The
semantic blockchain is used to implement a new
environment for these certificates, by issuing the
certificates in digital format. All the identities of
certification are stored in the semantic blockchain
[16]. The semantic blockchain makes the
authenticity of certifications is more easily verified.
Once the professor stores a certificate in the semantic
blockchain, the details become publicly available,
immutable, permanent, and separated from the
issuing establishment. It facilitates for employers to
reference the online record to verify a potential
learning achievement.
5. Payment System: the learning process with the
blockchain is a secure and trustworthy place where
Figure 2: Articles from the most popular scientific databases.
An Enhanced Online Learning Environment in the Time of COVID-19 Informatica 45 (2021) 131–141 137
educational institutions do not need a third party to
manage the transfer of credits.
6. Digital Badges: A digital badge is defined as a
powerful tool to validate the learners' skills,
achievements, and knowledge because of completing
the course and passing a quiz.
7. Publications: these are relevant to academic
institution research.
All these data are stored within a chain of a sequence
of blocks, where each new block is connected to the
previous block to store data related to the learning process.
For Example, A learner block contains his personal data
like Name, Address, Email, and date of birth [8].
4.2.2 Consensus technique
First, we must identify the participants in the learning
process. They include learners, educational institutions,
professors, employees, and employers.
The process starts as soon as a learner participates in
a course. After he completes the course, a new block is
created, which contains the learners' results, the course
information, and the time when the course was finished.
The result could also be a certificate if the course was
completed successfully. When a new block is created, all
nodes in the network will receive this new block.
Consensus protocol (Proof-of-Work) enables
participants in semantic, blockchain to agree to add a new
block to the chain. It enables them to validate the
correctness of the new block to confirm that it has not been
modified and then add this block to their blockchain and
the tampered blocks will be rejected.
4.2.3 Smart Contracts
A smart contract is used to manage the relationships
between participants in the semantic blockchain network
and determine the role of each participant. It is considered
the main component in the semantic blockchain. It is a
computer program, which consists of lines of code to
digitally facilitate, verify, and enforce some type of
agreement. It is executed independently and automatically
when predetermined conditions and terms are met without
an intermediary’s involvement. A smart contract is used to
secure learners' academic records, manage the process of
registration, payments, and evaluations. It is used to
validate whether a learner has finished the requirements
for acquiring the required certificate. The smart contracts
cannot be altered or controlled once it is deployed. This
supports developing a trusted learning process [27]. All
these components are represented using Web Ontology
Language (OWL) as shown in the following section.
5 Implementation
Here we implement a small prototype of the proposed
Framework (Learning Process Based on Semantic
Blockchain (LSSB)) which is developed from scratch
using protégé 5. All the required concepts and sub-
concepts, data properties, object properties, and the
relations between concepts and sub-concepts and the
properties of these relations related to the learning
process-based blockchain domain are represented in
figures 4 and 5.
The learning process-based semantic blockchain is
created as mentioned in the following steps:
STEP-I: Figure 4 depicts all concepts and sub-
concepts connected to the learning process-based
blockchain domain. All the concepts and sub-concepts are
mainly focused on representing knowledge related to the
whole components of the learning process. The OWL code
below is an example of how all the concepts and sub-
concepts are represented using OWL language.
STEP-II: Represents object properties of the learning
process based semantic blockchain. Describing the object
properties is based on the relationship, which we want to
add between concepts and sub-concepts of the learning
process as shown in figure 5. As seen in the following
example, these relationships are represented using domain
and range in OWL:
STEP-III: is used to create data type properties of the
ontology, the data type properties are used to define the
relationship between an individual and a primitive data
type. This relationship is represented using domain and
STEP-I
This OWL concept hierarchy shows that Transaction
concept (which considered unionOf Asset,
TransactionName, TransactionValidation) is subClassOf
SemanticBlockchainLearningProcess concept.
This OWL concept hierarchy shows that Asset concept
(which considered unionOf Certificate, Exam,
Fees&Credit, LearningObject, TeachingMethod,
LearningActivities, Publication) is subClassOf
SemanticBlockchainLearningProcess concept.
138 Informatica 45 (2021) 131–141 S. Ouf
range using OWL as shown in the following: The
following OWL represents an excerpt from the Block data
such as BlockID, Name, Hash, PreviousHash,
TimeStamp, Transaction, and Validation and their data
values. OWL-VIZ is used to visualize the learning
process-based blockchain as shown in figure 6.
6 Conclusion
E-learning settings have evolved considerably, and there
is a need to educate learners about the relevance of online
teaching and learning, as well as connect learners and
educators who were previously separated. The demand for
digital transformation in educational institutions has risen
to unprecedented levels in the time of COVID – 19.
Literature review mentioned that many educational
institutions improve their learning process by using IoT
and blockchain ignored the integration of semantic web
technology. This paper focused on representing the
leading role of integrating the two technologies, which are
considered crucial to assure an effective and efficient
learning process. The proposed system makes use of
blockchain and the semantic web to provide immutable
distributed storage for tracing and tracking all transactions
that comprise the learning process. The semantic web is
used to promote information interoperability by
improving the representation capability of the learning
process and blockchain components by annotating them
with semantically rich languages. Extra research will
implement the full layers of the proposed framework and
applying Semantic Web Rule Language (SWRL) to infer
the new knowledge.
Acknowledgment
The author declares that she has no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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The OWL object property hasAsset represents the
relationship between the unionOf of
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Process concepts, which represent the domain, and the
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The OWL object property
hasDecentralizedLedger represents the
relationship between the
SemanticBlockchainLearningProcess
concept, which represents the domain, and the
DecentralizedLedger concept, which represents
the range.
STEP-III
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