Documenta Praehistorica XXXIV (2007)
Why were the Neolithic landscapes of Bela krajina and
Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia so dissimilar!
Maja Andrič
Institute of Archaeology, ZRC SAZU, SI
maja.andric@zrc-sazu.si
ABSTRACT - This paper compares the development of Holocene vegetation in Bela krajina and Ljub-
ljana Marshes (Ljubljansko barje) regions of Slovenia. The results of pollen analysis suggest that in
Bela krajina the human impact on the environment (forest clearance and burning) was very inten-
sive throughout the Holocene and led to changes in forest composition, increased biodiversity, and
the formation of a mosaic landscape. In the Ljubljana Marshes, forest burning and clearance seem
less intensive, although changes in forest composition and 'anthropogenic indicator' pollen types
were detected. These differences between study regions are presumably a consequence of various cli-
mates, hydrology, bedrock and land-use in the past.
IZVLEČEK - V članku je predstavljena primerjava razvoja holocenske vegetacije v Beli krajini in na
Ljubljanskem barju. Rezultati pelodne analize kažejo, da je bil človekov vpliv na okolje (sekanje in
požiganje gozda) v Beli krajini zelo intenziven, kar je povzročilo povečanje biodiverzitete in spre-
membe v sestavi gozda, oblikovala se je mozaična pokrajina. Na Ljubljanskem barju je sekanje in
požiganje gozda sicer res videti nekoliko manj intenzivno, kljub temu pa na pelodnem diagramu lah-
ko opazimo spremembe v sestavi gozda in pojav 'antropogenih indikatorjev'. Te razlike med regija-
ma so verjetno posledica različne klime, hidrologije, geološke podlage in različne izrabe pokrajine v
preteklosti.
KEY WORDS - palynology; Neolithic archaeology; Bela krajina; Ljubljana Marshes
Introduction
This paper aims to address the question of the diver-
sity of the environment of the first farming commu-
nities in the region of Bela krajina and the Ljublja-
na Marshes area of Slovenia (Fig. 1). Differences in
the composition of vegetation detected in the pollen
record will be analysed in order to estimate whether
they were a consequence of specific natural charac-
teristics of the regions studied, dissimilar land-use in
the past, or the size of the study sites.
In recent decades an extensive pollen analysis of se-
dimentary cores and samples collected during archa-
eological excavations was carried out on Ljubljana
Marshes, so the general development of vegetation
in the area is very well known (e.g. Culiberg 1991;
Sercelj 1996 and references cited there, Gardner
1999a; 1999b) and the results presented in this
study (a pollen analysis of 'Na mahu 1' core) accord
with previous research. The question of past hydro-
logical conditions in the area was also addressed by
several researchers using sedimentological, geomor-
phological, archaeological and multidisciplinary pa-
laeoecological data (e.g. Melik 1946; Sercelj 1966;
Sifrer 1984; Budja 1995; Velušček 2005; Gaspari
and Erič 2006; Verbič 2006; Mlekuž et al. 2006; An-
drič et al. in prep., and many others). This led to
various interpretations of the complex hydrological
conditions in the basin (most complex in the Neoli-
thic; many researchers would probably agree that in
the early Holocene the area was covered by a fresh-
water lake, whereas later it became a floodplain and
in some parts a peat bog). In contrast to Ljubljana
Copyright by Department of Archaeology, Faculty of arts, University of Ljubljana.
177
Marshes palynological, research
in Bela krajina was less exten-
sive, and both palynologically in-
vestigated sites in the area (Mla-
ka and Griblje, Andrič 2001; An-
drič in press) are presented in
this paper. To date, no studies of
past hydrology have been carried
out in the area. Therefore, since
hydrological conditions on Ljub-
ljana Marshes were very complex,
whereas (presumably much sim-
pler) hydrological conditions in
Bela krajina have not been inves-
tigated at all, more (detailed) re-
search is needed in both regions
in the future. Palynological rese-
arch was much more intensive,
and for that reason this paper
will focus on only one aspect of
both Neolithic landscapes: the
composition of vegetation as re-
vealed by palynological studies.
The main reasons for the variety
of flora in Slovenia include its
geographical position, diverse cli-
mate, relief and bedrock (Wraber
1969; Kladnik 1996; Ogrin 1996;
Perko 1998). The distinctive vegetation of Slovenia's
phyto-geographic regions became apparent after c.
8800 calBP, whereas the onset of an intensive, large-
scale forest clearance, burning and the formation of
the present-day landscape is dated between late
prehistory and the medieval period (c. 3000 calBP -
1000 calBP). Palynological research also suggests
that the human impact on the vegetation was impor-
tant and contributed to increasing biodiversity (An-
drič and Willis 2003). Neolithic/Eneolithic farming
communities (c. 7000-5000 calBP) lived in an envi-
ronment where differences between regions had al-
ready become apparent, but large-scale forest clea-
rances had not yet occurred. In such environments
it is very difficult to distinguish the natural from the
anthropogenic causes of environmental change. The-
refore, in order to better understand the human im-
pact on the vegetation, the vegetation history in the
vicinity of archaeological sites was studied in detail.
Sedimentary cores for pollen analysis (Fig. 1) were
collected at Mlaka (Bela krajina) and 'Na mahu 1'
(Ljubljana Marshes) coring locations in order to esti-
mate the similarity/dissimilarity of vegetation deve-
lopment during the Holocene in both study regions.
In addition to this, the vegetation history at Griblje
Fig. 1. Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes study regions and the po-
sition of palynological cores.
was investigated and compared with Mlaka to assess
also the intra-regional variability of Bela krajina ve-
getation.
The Bela krajina study area
Bela krajina (Fig. 1) is located in south-eastern Slo-
venia, between high Dinaric Plateaus in the west
and the Kolpa River and Pannonian Plain in the east.
More than half of its territory lies below 400 m a.s.l.,
on predominantly Mesozoic limestone and dolomite
bedrock {Gams 1961; 1984; Buser 1984). The cli-
mate of Bela krajina is moderate continental-sub-Pan-
nonian, with a sub-Mediterranean precipitation re-
gime (primary precipitation is highest in autumn),
and hot, dry summers. The annual amount of preci-
pitation is between 1200 and 1300 mm in western
parts. The average temperatures of the warmest
month are between 15 °C and 20 °C, and of the col-
dest month, between -3 °C and 0 °C (Bernot 1984;
Ogrin 1996; Plut 1985).
The composition of Bela krajina forests varies accor-
ding to altitude, land-use and soil type. Predomi-
nantly beech forests are characteristic of higher alti-
tudes, whereas patchy oak-hornbeam forests grow
in the lowlands (Miklavžič 1965; Wraber 1956; Ma-
rinček and Čarni 2002; Čarni et al. 2003). Mea-
dows, fields, pastures and human-managed birch
(Betula pendula) forests ('steljniki'), which were
originally used as spring/summer grazing areas,
spread into the lowlands due to intensive human im-
pact in the last centuries.
Both palaeo-ecological study sites presented in this
study (Mlaka and Griblje) are small lowland marshy
areas with diameters of c. 30 m and without inflo-
wing/outflowing streams (Fig. 1). Numerous archaeo-
logical sites, including Neolithic/Eneolithic settle-
ments, are located close to Mlaka and Griblje (e.g.
Pusti Gradac and Griblje, Arheološka najdišča Slo-
venije 1975; Dular 1985; Mason 2001; Phil Mason,
personal communication 2005).
The Ljubljana Marshes study area
Ljubljana Marshes lies in central Slovenia (Fig. 1) at
about 289 m a.s.l., on predominantly carbonate bed-
rock, with Triassic and Jurassic limestones and dolo-
mites in southern and western parts of the basin,
whereas Palaeozoic sandstones, conglomerates, sha-
les and limestones prevail in the north and east
(Mencej 1989). The bottom of the basin is covered by
thick layers of Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial and
lacustrine sediments (Mencej 1989; Grimšičar and
Ocepek 1967; Tancik 1965; Šercelj 1965; 1967).
The climate on Ljubljana Marshes is temperate-conti-
nental, with a sub- continental precipitation regime
(precipitation highest in the summer) and annual
precipitation between 1000 and 1300 mm. The ave-
rage temperatures of the coldest month are between
-3 °C and 0 °C, and in the warmest month the ave-
rage is between 15 °C and 20 °C (Ogrin 1996).
Ljubljana Marsh is currently covered by meadows,
fields and patchy woodlands of pine (Pinus), birch
(Betula), alder (Alnus) and oak (Quercus robur).
Only very small peat-bogs with ombrotrophic spe-
cies have remained (Martinčič 1987). Predominantly
beech (Fagus) forests grow on the hills surrounding
the area (Čarni et al. 2003). In the 18th century it was
much wetter than today, and mostly covered by peat-
bogs, smaller 'puddles' and springs (Melik 1927) and
drier heather lands, with spruce (Picea), pine, alder
and birch trees. However, in the second half of the
18th century, the first drainage works in the area
started, and by the end of 19th century almost all the
peat had been burnt or cut in order to obtain dry
land needed for agriculture (Melik 1927).
The sedimentary core presented in this study ('Na
mahu 1') was collected in the eastern part of the Lju-
bljana Marsh basin (Fig. 1). Archaeological sites, mo-
stly dated to the 7th and 6th millennium calBP, were
discovered in the vicinity of the coring location (e.g.
Resnikov prekop and Maharski prekop, Dimitrijević
1997; Budja 1995; Čufar and Korenčič 2006; Ve-
lušček 2006; Čufar and Velušček 2004; Bregant
1974; 1975)
Methodology
The pollen record of three study sites, Mlaka and
Griblje (G3) in Bela krajina, and 'Na mahu 1' in Lju-
bljana Marshes (Fig. 1) is presented and compared
in this study. The detailed methodology and results
for individual study sites have been published (for
Mlaka and Griblje see Andrič in press) or are cur-
rently in preparation ('Na mahu 1', Andrič et al. in
prep.), therefore only selected data will be presen-
ted in this paper.
All sedimentary sequences were collected by Living-
stone piston corer, and standard laboratory proce-
dures (Bennett and Willis 2002) were used for pol-
len analysis. The age was determined by AMS radio-
carbon dating of organic carbon extracted from the
sediment. The radiocarbon dates at Mlaka and Grib-
lje were calibrated by the BCal program (hosted by
the Department of Probability and Statistics at the
University of Sheffield, Buck et al. on-line), which
incorporates the IntCal 04 calibration dataset (Rei-
mer et al. 2004), and these results were used for
age-depth modelling in PSIMPOLL (general linear
line-fitting by singular value decomposition for Grib-
lje, and a combination of general linear line-fitting
by singular value decomposition and linear interpo-
lation for Mlaka). The conventional radiocarbon
dates used for age-depth modelling are marked on
each diagram. The age-depth modelling for 'Na ma-
hu 1' core was a linear interpolation between the
median values of 14C dates (the lower two dates
were excluded from the age-depth modelling due to
an error, presumably caused by the reservoir effect).
The percentage pollen diagrams of selected taxa
were plotted by PSIMPOLL 3.00, 4.25 and PSCOMB
3.01, C programs (Bennett 1998; Bennett on-line).
They were divided into zones using binary splitting
by sum of squares, and the number of significant zo-
nes was determined by the broken-stick model (Ben-
nett 1996; 1998). Dots on the pollen diagram indi-
cate values lower than 0.5 %. Palynological richness
(rarefraction analysis) was also calculated by PSIM-
POLL. Microscopic charcoal (in two size classes:
<40 ^m and >40 ^m) was counted with the pollen
('Na mahu 1' and Griblje cores) and, in addition to
this, the concentration of microscopic charcoal was
determined according to Clark's (1982) point count
method at both Mlaka and Griblje.
Results
The results are presented on percentage pollen dia-
grams of selected taxa (Fig. 2) and compared in Ta-
ble 1. Landscape openness, the microcharcoal record
and palynological richness of all three study sites are
also compared (Fig. 3). More detailed results are be-
ing published in separate publications (Andrič in
press, Andrič et al. in prep.). The mismatch of Mlaka
and Griblje pollen diagrams (compare Fagus curves)
for levels older than c. 6000 calBP are most proba-
bly a consequence of problematic radiocarbon dating
at Griblje, where levels between 50 and 61 cm seem
to be up to c. 900 years 'too old' (Andrič in press).
Early Holocene
At the beginning of the Holocene (between c. 11 500
and 9000-8750 calBP) an open, predominantly broad-
leaved woodland with oak (Quercus), hazel (Cory-
lus), lime (Tilia), elm (Ulmus), pine (Pinus), birch
(Betula) and spruce (Picea mostly around Ljubljana
Marshes) was growing in both study regions (Fig. 2,
Tab. 1). The increased concentration of microscopic
charcoal suggests that forest fires were common, pro-
bably due to the arid early Holocene climate (e.g.
Kutzbach and Guetter 1986; COHMAP Members
1988).
Later (at c. 9000 - 8750 calBP) the forest composi-
tion suddenly changed, and thick, mostly beech (Fa-
gus) forest started to grow in Bela krajina and Lju-
bljana Marshes (Fig. 2, Tab. 1). In Ljubljana Marshes
this beech forest persisted until c. 6750 calBP, whe-
reas in Bela krajina the development was much more
dynamic. Slight fluctuations in beech pollen curves
(some of them coincide with charcoal peaks and even
with Cerealia-type pollen grain at Griblje) suggest
that the forest in Bela krajina was less dense than in
the Ljubljana Marshes region, and occasional small-
scale landscape fires probably caused minor open-
ings in the canopy. After c. 7800 calBP beech (Fagus)
at the Mlaka site started to decline, and by c. 7300
calBP the percentage of tree pollen had significantly
declined (with the exception of lime (Tilia), which
increased), whereas herbs and monolete fern spores
(Filicales) increased, suggesting the opening of the
landscape (Fig. 2a). A similar change in vegetation
was also detected at Griblje (Fig. 2b), where beech
forest was replaced by a more open landscape, with
higher percentages of pine (Pinus) and Trilete spo-
res than at Mlaka. In contrast to Bela krajina, the hills
surrounding Ljubljana Marshes basin remained very
much forested with beech (Fagus), and after 7600
calBP also fir (Abies) (Fig. 2c). No such increase in
fir (Abies) was detected in Bela krajina, although the
forest started to regenerate at the beginning of the
7th millennium calBP.
After c. 7000 calBP, hazel (Corylus) and oak (Quer-
cus) at Mlaka, increased and between c. 6700-6100
calBP hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) woodland was
growing around the coring location. The Griblje fo-
rest also regenerated, and beech (Fagus), alder (Al-
nus) and hazel (Corylus) started to increase again,
but in contrast to Mlaka, there was no hornbeam
(Carpinus b.) phase. The human impact on the envi-
ronment around both study sites was significant and
can be associated with the Neolithic/Eneolithic sites
at Pusti gradac and Griblje. Small-scale forest burning
(increased micro-charcoal concentration), agriculture
and grazing (anthropogenic indicator taxa: Cerealia-
type, Centaurea, Plantago l., Chenopodiaceae, Arte-
misia, Compositae lig. and Compositae tub.) was
most intensive at c. 6100 calBP (Fig. 2a, 2b).
What happened at the same time on Ljubljana Mar-
shes? A major change in the composition of vegeta-
tion occurred between 6750 and 5600 calBP (roug-
hly at the same time as Carpinus b. phase at Mlaka),
when beech (Fagus) and fir (Abies) declined, whe-
reas oak (Quercus), alder (Alnus) and hazel (Cory-
lus) increased (Fig. 2c), but an increase in hornbeam
(Carpinus betulus, best seen at Podpesko jezero,
Gardner 1999b) was less significant than at Mlaka.
An increased percentage of herb pollen after 6600
calBP and anthropogenic/grazing indicators (Plan-
tago l.) suggest that the landscape became slightly
more open, which can be associated with human ac-
tivity at the Resnikov prekop settlement, located c.
1.5 km south of the coring location.
Middle Holocene
In the second half of the Holocene, shade-tolerant
tree taxa started to increase in both study regions.
In Bela krajina, beech (Fagus) forest spread again
after 5700 calBP, but forest composition changed at
c. 4800 calBP, when beech was replaced by fir (Abies)
(Fig. 2a). Similarly, an increase in beech on Ljublja-
na Marshes is dated after c. 6000 calBP, but this was
very soon replaced by fir, which remained the most
important tree taxon until c. 4500 calBP, when spruce
(Picea) and alder (Alnus) increased (Fig. 2c). The de-
Age (calBP) Bela krajina (Ljubljansko barje)	Vegetation development in Bela krajina (Mlaka, Criblje)	Vegetation development in Ljubljansko barje ('na mahu 1')	Archaeological sites in the vicinity of coring locations and their impact on the vegetation
Middle Holocene			
c. 4800-4500 cal BP	Forest composition changes: beech (Fagus) declines and fir (Abies) increases at Mlaka	Fir (Abies) remains high and only declines after c. 4500 calBP, when spruce (Picea) and alder (Alnus) increase	?
c. 5700-4800 calBP	Beech (Fagus) forest and decreased human impact on the environment	Fir (Abies) increases Human impact continues, but without large-scale forest clearance	Bela krajina: Neolithic/Eneolithic sites near Mlaka (Pusti Gradac) and Criblje ? small scale forest clearance/burning, agriculture and grazing Ljubljansko barje: Maharski prekop (c. 5500-5000 calBP?) small-scale forest clearance, agriculture and grazing
Early Holocene			
c. 6700-5700 calBP	Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) phase at Mlaka Human impact on environment (small-scale forest burning, agriculture and grazing), most intensive at c. 6100 calBP, when hornbeam woodland was burnt/cut.	Fir (Abies) and beech (Fagus) decline, whereas oak (Quercus), alder (Alnus) and hazel (Corylus) increase at 6750 calBP, Human impact (agriculture and grazing) Beech (Fagus) increases again after c. 6000 calBP	Bela krajina: Neolithic/Eneolithic sites near Mlaka (Pusti Gradac) and Griblje, small scale forest clearance/burning, coppicing, agriculture and grazing Ljubljansko barje: Resnikov prekop (c. 6600-6500 calBP), small- scale forest clearance, agriculture and grazing
c. 7000-6700 cal BP	Forest regrowth through a phase of hazel (Corylus) and oak (Quercus)	Beech-fir (Fagus-Abies) forest	Bela krajina: Neolithic/Eneolithic sites near Mlaka (Pusti Gradac) and Griblje?
c. 7500-7000 calBP	Beech (Fagus) decline and more open landscape at Mlaka and Criblje (with slight differences between study sites)		?
c. 9000 (8750) - 7500 (7600) cal BP	Predominantly beech (Fagus) forest (with occasional small-scale openings ofthe canopy due to burning), gradually opening up, first 'Ceraealia-type' pollen grain occurs at Criblje	Beech (Fagus) forest, fir (Abies) starts to increase after 7600 calBP	?
before c. 9000 (8750) calBP	Woodland with lime (Tilia), oak (Quercus), elm (Ulmus), hazel (Corylus), spruce (Picea), increased microcharcoal concentration, more pine (Pinus) and birch (Betula) at Criblje than at Mlaka	Woodland with spruce (Picea), elm (Ulmus), lime (Tilia), oak (Quercus) and hazel (Corylus), increased microcharcoal concentration	?
Tab. 1. Comparison of vegetation development in Bela krajina and Ljubljana Marshes regions of Slovenia.
Figs. 2a and 2b (on previous page) and 2c (up). Mlaka, Griblje (G3) and 'Na mahu 1' percentage pollen
diagrams of selected taxa. * hiatus due to peat cutting/burning on Ljubljansko barje.
velopment of vegetation on Ljubljana Marshes in sub-
sequent millennia cannot be reconstructed, since the
younger sediment was destroyed by peat cutting and
burning in the 18th/19th century.
Discussion
The human impact on the environment
After comparing the pollen record from both study
regions, it appears that the intensity of human im-
pact on the environment in Bela krajina was very
considerable. Constant small-scale forest burning
and cutting associated with the appearance of an-
thropogenic indicator taxa and increased biodiver-
sity (palynological richness, Fig. 3) was detected from
at least c. 6000 calBP, which led to changes in forest
composition, increasing differences between the Mla-
ka and Griblje study sites and the formation of mo-
saic landscape (Andric in press).
The human impact on the environment on Ljubljana
Marshes seems much less intensive; here, thick beech
and beech-fir forest persisted until c. 6750 calBP. At
c. 6600 calBP a minor forest clearance (Fig. 2c, 3)
and anthropogenic indicator taxa were detected, but
the landscape remained very much forested (as al-
ready demonstrated by previous research, Gardner
1999a; 1999b) and the development of vegetation
much less dynamic than in Bela krajina. Does this
mean that in Bela krajina, Neolithic/Eneolithic settle-
ments were more numerous and farming activities
more intensive (or earlier) than on Ljubljana Mar-
shes? Not necessarily. The differences between Bela
krajina and Ljubljana Marshes could be a conse-
quence of the natural features of the study sites (Fig.
1). Both sites in Bela krajina, Mlaka and Griblje, are
small basins with diameters of c. 30 m and without
inflowing or outflowing streams. In such small ba-
sins, which receive pollen deriving mainly from lo-
cal vegetation, small-scale local changes in vegetation
are very visible (Jacobson and Bradshaw 1981). In
bigger basins with complex hydrology, such as Ljub-
ljana Marshes, regional pollen prevails (Jacobson
and Bradshaw 1981), so local, small-scale forest
clearance is less visible in the pollen record. Consi-
dering palynological theory, therefore, these results
were expected.
Despite all these differences between Bela krajina and
Ljubljana Marshes, there is one similarity: an increase
Fig. 3. Landscape openness, microcharcoal record and palynological richness at Mlaka, Griblje (G3) and
'Na mahu 1' study sites. * hiatus due to peat cutting/burning on Ljubljana Marshes.
in biodiversity (palynological richness, Fig. 3) at the
beginning of the 7th millennium calBP (c. 7000 calBP
at Mlaka and 6700 calBP at 'Na mahu 1' core), al-
though no major landscape forest clearance has been
detected on pollen diagrams. This could probably be
associated with small-scale forest clearance and the
activities of early farming communities.
Human impact versus climate
Changes in forest composition and differences be-
tween the study regions can be a consequence of cli-
matic fluctuations and/or human impact. Today, sum-
mers in Bela krajina are warmer and drier than on
Ljubljana Marshes, and it is possible that a similar
contrast existed in the past. Therefore, less fir (Abies),
which needs a humid climate (Ellenberg 1988) was
growing in Bela krajina than on Ljubljana Marshes.
However, fir is susceptible to fire (Tinner et al. 1999),
and it is possible that in Bela krajina it was suppres-
sed by anthropogenic burning of the landscape. The
charcoal record suggests that the vegetation around
Ljubljana Marshes was not burnt so often. Why not -
because the lake/marshy landscape of Ljubljana Mar-
shes was more difficult to burn, and this landscape
was used instead for hunting, fishing and gathering?
Due to the complex hydrological conditions, more
open land probably already existed (or was regu-
larly formed) near the edge of the lake and/or along
floodplains, and very extensive forest clearance for
agriculture was not needed (Willis 1995)?
Palynological research also demonstrated that diffe-
rences in the composition of vegetation occurred not
only between the phytogeographic regions of Slove-
nia, but also within each individual region. This can
best be demonstrated by the differences between
Mlaka and Griblje, where, although the study sites
are located only c. 10 km apart, the vegetation his-
tory was very dissimilar. While at Mlaka (located on
predominantly limestone bedrock) human pressure
on the environment was intensive throughout the
Holocene, and the present-day open landscape had
formed by the medieval period at c. 1000 calBP, the
landscape at Griblje (on sand and clay) remained
predominantly forested up to the present. This sug-
gests that areas more suitable for agriculture were
probably most intensively used.
Climate
To date no studies of local (regional) climate have
been carried out, therefore changes in vegetation
(e.g. forest composition) can be only compared with
the global (Northern Hemisphere) climate. In both
study regions beech (Fagus) establishment at the be-
ginning of the 9th millennium calBP was presumably
associated with climatic change - an increase in pre-
cipitation. A similar increase in shade-tolerant tree
taxa also occurred in other regions of Slovenia (An-
drič and Willis 2003) and neighbouring countries
(Abies expansion in the lowlands of the southern
Alps, Tinner et al. 1999; Gobet et al. 2000; Tinner
and Lotter 2006; and Fagus increase in Dalmatia,
Schmidt et al. 2000) and it seems that this palaeo-
environmental change was of regional extent. It was
limited to the areas south of the Alps, where a conti-
nental climate regime had already been replaced by
an Atlantic climate regime at about 9100 calBP, whe-
reas north of the Alps, the Atlantic climate is associa-
ted with the 8.2 ky BP event (Tinner and Ammann
2001).
At the beginning of the 8th millennium calBP, beech
(Fagus) in Bela krajina started to decline, and by c.
7300 calBP, the beech forest had been replaced by
a more open landscape. Fagus decline is limited only
to Bela krajina (the Ljubljana Marshes region remai-
ned very much forested), so it seems unlikely that it
would have been triggered by cold global climatic
fluctuations, such as the 8.2 ky BP event (Alley et al.
1993; Meese et al. 1994; Stager and Mayewski 1997;
Haas et al. 1998; Alley and Agüstsdottir 2005). How-
ever, the impact of precipitation fluctuations might
have been more important than the temperature, es-
pecially since the 8.2 ky event is assumed to have
been dry in the lowlands (Haas et al. 1998), with lo-
wer lake levels north and south of 50°N and 43°N
respectively (Magny and Begeot 2004). It is possible
that in the 8th millennium calBP climatic differences
between Bela krajina and the Ljubljana Marshes were
more pronounced than today, and forest composition
in Bela krajina was affected by warm and dry sum-
mers, whereas at the same time no major change in
forest composition took place on the Ljubljana Mar-
shes.
Is it possible that Fagus decline was caused by the
impact of hunter-gatherers and/or farmers on the
landscape? Yes. Admittedly, no archaeological sites
reliably dated before c. 7000 calBP have been disco-
vered in Bela krajina, but this option cannot be com-
pletely ruled out, and further archaeological and
multi-proxy palaeo-ecological research of the regio-
nal climate is needed.
After c. 6700 calBP, the percentage of beech (Fagus)
and fir (Abies) was low in both study regions. This
is most probably a consequence of significant human
impact (forest clearance and burning), and coincides
with a major climatic reversal after 8.2 ka calBP (Sta-
ger and Mayewski 1997; Alley and Agüstsdottir
2005), when the oceanic early Holocene climate with
enhanced westerly airflow was presumably replaced
by a more meridional flow pattern, with anti-cyclonic
summer conditions, and thus a dry climate and lo-
wer lake levels in the period between c. 6800-
5700 calBP (Seppä and Birks 2001).
After c. 6000-5700 calBP, beech (Fagus), and later
also fir (Abies), increase in both regions, with a sli-
ghtly decreased human impact on the environment.
This could have been associated with the cold and
wet climate in the 6th millennium calBP (Mayewski
et al. 2004; Haas et al. 1998; Magny 2004; Magny
and Haas 2004; Denton and Karlen 1973; Seppä
and Birks 2001; O'Brien et al. 1995; Bond et al.
1997).
Conclusions
The above described differences between Bela kraji-
na and the Ljubljana Marshes are presumably a con-
sequence of different climates (wetter/colder in the
Ljubljana Marshes region?), hydrology, topography
and bedrock, as well as archaeological settlement
patterns and land-use (more frequent landscape bur-
ning in Bela krajina) in the past. However, different
natural characteristics and thus the pollen source
area of individual study sites should not be ignored.
While at Bela krajina, where all the study sites are
small marshes without inflowing/outflowing streams,
the local Neolithic impact on the landscape is very
visible, the Ljubljana Marshes study site is much big-
ger and has a more complex and changeable hydro-
logy, which affected the pollen source area. Here, a
weak local human impact on the vegetation is more
difficult to detect.
How to proceed: more archaeological research is ne-
eded in both regions in order to better understand
the economy of past societies and their impact on
the vegetation. Especially in Bela krajina, where na-
tural conditions are not very favourable for the pre-
servation of archaeological sites or animal and plant
remains, more information about archaeological set-
tlement patterns and the economy during the transi-
tion from hunting-gathering to the first farming com-
munities would be very valuable. More multi-proxy
palaeo-ecological (palaeo-climatological and palaeo-
hydrological) research is also needed, since the im-
pact of climate fluctuations on the vegetation and
hydrology was significant.
-ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS-
This research was funded by the Slovenian Research
Agency, project no. Z6-4074-0618-03.1am very gra-
teful to Mateja Belak, who prepared the figures.
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