31
1 Biotehnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, 
Jamnikarjeva ulica 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
2 Urban Planning Institute of the Republic of 
Slovenia, Trnovski pristan 2, 1000 Ljubljana 
3 DivjaLabs d.o.o., Stegne 21c, 1000 Ljubljana, 
Slovenia
* Corresponding author:  
E-mail address: irena.kavcic@bf.uni-lj.si
Citation: Kavčič, I., Dremel, M., Majić Skrbinšek, 
A., (2025). Recognising the benefits of large 
carnivore presence in Slovenia: A focus group 
study. Acta Biologica Slovenica 68 (4)
Received: 05.05.2025 / Accepted: 25.07.2025 / 
Published: 01.08.2025
https://doi.org/10.14720/abs.68.4.22661
This article is an open access article distributed 
under the terms and conditions of the Creative 
Commons Attribution (CC BY SA) license
Original Research
Recognising the benefits  
of large carnivore  
presence in Slovenia:  
A focus group study
Irena Kavčič
 1,
*
, Manca Dremel
 2
, Aleksandra Majić Skrbinšek
 1,3
Abstract
In recent decades, populations of the brown bear, grey wolf, and Eurasian lynx in 
Europe have made a significant recovery. This success is largely attributable to 
effective legislation, an increase in prey species, and the expansion of forested 
areas. As a result, large carnivores are gradually returning to regions from which 
they had long been absent. However, the return of these predators also brings 
challenges for local communities. While much research emphasises conflicts 
and damages, this study focuses on the often-overlooked positive perspectives 
held by key stakeholder groups in Slovenia. Through focus group interviews with 
hunters, farmers, tourism professionals, and artists, the study explores the benefits 
of large carnivore presence using the framework of Cultural Ecosystem Services 
(CES), based on the CICES classification. Present research has found that tourism 
professionals perceive the presence of large carnivores as a key advantage for 
the development of tourism. For hunters, encounters with these animals provide 
opportunities to deepen their ecological knowledge, develop tracking skills, and 
share this expertise with pride within their communities. Some farmers, despite 
experiencing livestock losses, acknowledge the role of predators in regulating 
populations of wild herbivores. Artists experience large carnivores as a source of 
inspiration and as an opportunity to foster better interpersonal relationships and 
social dialogue. Recognising the benefits and values that different stakeholder 
groups attribute to large carnivores can support the development of more 
inclusive conservation strategies, strengthen dialogue with stakeholders, and 
shift the focus from conflict mitigation toward fostering coexistence.
Keywords
Large carnivores; coexistence; cultural ecosystem services; benefits.

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 68 (4)
Prepoznavanje koristi prisotnosti velikih zveri v Sloveniji z metodo fokusnih skupin
Izvleček
V zadnjih desetletjih so si populacije rjavega medveda, volka in evrazijskega risa v Evropi občutno opomogle. Ta 
uspeh gre pripisati učinkoviti zakonodaji, porastu številčnosti plenskih vrst in povečanju gozdnih površin. Velike zveri 
se tako ponovno vračajo na območja, kjer so bile dolgo časa odsotne. Vrnitev velikih zveri pa hkrati prinaša tudi izzive 
za lokalno prebivalstvo. Medtem ko večina dosedanjih raziskav poudarja predvsem konflikte med ljudmi in velikimi 
zvermi, se pričujoča študija osredotoča na pogosto prezrte pozitivne perspektive ključnih deležnikov v Sloveniji. S 
pomočjo fokusnih skupin z lovci, kmeti, turističnimi delavci in umetniki smo raziskali koristi prisotnosti velikih zveri v 
okviru kulturnih ekosistemskih storitev, na podlagi mednarodne klasifikacije CICES. Turistični delavci prisotnost velikih 
zveri vidijo kot ključno prednost za razvoj turizma. Lovcem srečanja z velikimi zvermi omogočajo pridobivanje znanja 
o ekologiji vrst, razvijanje veščin sledenja, svoje znanje pa pogosto delijo znotraj širše skupnosti. Nekateri kmetje, 
kljub izgubi pašnih živali, prepoznavajo vlogo plenilcev pri uravnavanju številčnosti prakljarjev v naravi. Umetniki 
velike zveri doživljajo kot vir navdiha in priložnost za izboljšanje medsebojnih odnosov in družbenega dialoga. 
Študija razkriva bogato paleto vrednot, ki jih različne deležniške skupine pripisujejo velikim zverem. Razumevanje 
teh raznolikih perspektiv lahko prispeva k oblikovanju bolj vključujočih naravovarstvenih strategij, krepitvi dialoga z 
deležniki ter preusmeritvi pozornosti od konflikta k iskanju trajnostnih oblik sobivanja.
Ključne besede 
velike zveri; sobivanje; kulturne ekosistemske storitve, koristi.
Introduction
Large carnivores are returning to many parts of Europe from 
which they were previously eradicated due to human per-
secution. This conservation success story, driven by legal 
protection, rewilding efforts, and changing socio-political 
landscapes, is accompanied by growing societal tensions. 
As people hold divergent views on how large carnivore 
populations should be managed, their return often leads 
to polarisation and conflict (Redpath et al., 2017; Lute et al., 
2018; Lute et al., 2020). Humans often determine where 
large carnivores will exist, and our ability to conserve them 
in the long term will ultimately depend upon our tolerance 
for their existence (Bruskotter and Wilson, 2014). 
Despite the growing attention towards the socio-eco-
logical aspects of human-carnivore relationships in 
recent decades, the existing literature is skewed and 
predominantly centred on conflicts rather than on ecosys-
tem services (Rode et al., 2021; Giergiczny et al., 2022; 
Palacios-Pacheco et al., 2024). Conflicts related to the 
presence of large carnivores attract media and fuel heated 
debates, especially in human-dominated landscapes 
of Europe. Even academic literature is biased towards 
investigations of negative economic impacts and public 
safety issues, while the positive impact of large carnivore 
presence and broader socio-economic impacts are often 
underrepresented (Rode et al., 2021). Moreover, recent 
research highlights that people's tolerance is also shaped 
by their perception of the benefits these species provide 
(Bruskotter and Wilson, 2014).
To fill this gap, our investigation engaged with diverse 
stakeholder groups to reflect upon benefits and opportuni-
ties arising from the presence of large carnivores. We can 
expect that different groups of people will have different 
views on these benefits, and it is important to communicate 
these diverse local perspectives around the presence of 
large carnivores in shared landscapes (Linnell and Immer-
zeel, 2023). Broad, generalised messaging often fails—or 
even backfires—when it clashes with group-specific 
norms and values (Toomey et al., 2023). Therefore, we 
looked into benefits as seen by four stakeholder groups: 
farmers, hunters, tourism professionals, and artists. These 
groups were chosen based on their distinct relationships 
with large carnivores, which we expected would reveal a 
diverse range of practical and symbolic benefits associated 
with carnivore presence.

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 68 (4)
To investigate the benefits provided by large carnivore 
presence in Slovenia, we have used the Cultural ecosystem 
services (CES) framework provided by the International 
Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES), which offers 
several categories and supports a comprehensive capture 
of benefits (Daněk et al., 2023). CES are primarily regarded 
as "the physical settings, locations or situations that give 
rise to changes in the physical or mental states of people, 
and whose character is fundamentally dependent on 
living processes" (Haines-Young and Potschin, 2013). They 
are somewhat unique as these are regarded as entirely 
linked to human societies and to a human' appreciation' of 
biodiversity (Horgan et al., 2021). Although often intangible 
and hard to measure (Slovák et al., 2023), there has been 
a growing recognition of the value of cultural services in 
driving actions and determining the success or failure of 
conservation programs (Horgan et al., 2021).
We have used the focus group method, which has 
proven effective for exploring CES, to gather in-depth 
insights from the selected stakeholders (Slovák et al., 
2023). In this article, we present the benefits of large car-
nivore presence as perceived by each stakeholder group 
investigated. Our findings underscore the importance of 
recognising a broader set of motivations behind tolerance 
and conservation support. Identified benefits can help to 
support the development of more targeted communication 
strategies that foster coexistence and broaden public sup-
port for conservation. 
Materials and Methods
Conceptual framing
To frame the identified benefits provided by large car-
nivores, we used the CICES framework (Haines-Young 
and Potschin, 2018)   as it offers several categories and 
supports a comprehensive capture of benefits from large 
sets of qualitative data (Daněk et al., 2023). Moreover, 
CICES also allows translation between different ecosystem 
service classification systems, such as those used by the 
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) and The Econom-
ics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB). 11 categories 
from CICES version 4.3 were used: experiential use, physi-
cal use, scientific, educational, heritage/cultural, aesthetic, 
entertainment, symbolic, sacred and/or religious, existence 
and bequest (Table 1).
Data collection
In this study, we employed the focus group methodology, 
augmented with a structured protocol designed to eluci-
date benefits in the frame of CES as a potent tool for uncov-
ering the positive facets of large carnivore coexistence. 
Unlike quantitatively driven surveys, this approach allows 
for a nuanced exploration of the values and relationships 
between local communities and their ecosystems.
In the first phase, we prepared a protocol for conduct-
ing focus groups to identify and document the range of 
different CES provided by large carnivores (Table S1). We 
modelled our approach after the elicitation method for 
nonmaterial values described by Gould et al. (2014), which 
combines various qualitative data collection techniques. 
In the protocol, we defined themes based on the classes 
of the CES outline in the CICES. A set of questions was 
developed to encourage participants in all focus groups 
to express their opinions, feelings, and values, covering 
11 classes of CES presented in Table 1. Based on their 
responses, we asked additional customised sub-ques-
tions during the interviews. We did not use the term "cul-
tural ecosystem services" during the interviews. Instead, 
we addressed questions related to the topics associated 
with large carnivores: personal experiences with large 
carnivores, benefits, and disservices of large carnivores 
for people, ecotourism, recreation and hunting, spiritual, 
artistic value, heritage, local and traditional knowledge, 
educational value, and intergenerational value. To stimu-
late the sharing of thoughts and feelings, we also showed 
participants 14 photographs of large carnivores in differ-
ent situations (in their natural habitat, causing damage, 
interacting with people). We designed the protocol to 
obtain as many diverse benefits of large carnivores and 
their significance for the participants themselves and the 
society they live in as possible. We encouraged interac-
tion among participants and a free flow of thoughts while 
also allowing for real-time clarification of the researcher's 
understanding.
In the next phase, we defined stakeholder groups 
that we wanted to interview. Following Litosseliti's (2003) 
guideline that focus groups typically include 4 to 6 par-
ticipants to ensure diverse perspectives without limiting 
individual contributions, our focus groups were composed 
of participants from the same interest groups who shared 
relevant experiences with the studied topic. Stakeholders 
associated with large carnivores are usually individuals 

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 68 (4)
influenced by their presence, individuals who can influ-
ence their population or have other interests in large 
carnivores and their populations (Linnell, 2013; Grossmann 
et al., 2020). We have chosen four stakeholder groups: 
farmers (beekeepers, livestock breeders from large 
carnivore area), hunters from two hunting families active 
in the large carnivore area and involved in bear viewing 
activities, tourism professionals engaged in wildlife tour-
ism and artists. Artists participated in a lynx-themed art 
residency organised by the LIFE Lynx project (LIFE16 NAT/
SI/000634), where they engaged with lynx conservation 
topics through presentations and field trips, and created 
lynx-related artworks during the residency. Farmers were 
selected because of the impacts large carnivore presence 
has on their livelihoods, hunters are an important stake-
holder group because they can influence large carnivore 
populations, while tourism professionals and artists were 
selected due to their interest in large carnivore popula-
tions. We initially contacted stakeholders based on our 
previous cooperation with them through other projects 
related to large carnivores in Slovenia. After that, we fol-
lowed a snowballing process to identify additional relevant 
people for our focus group interviews.  
Focus groups were conducted between October and 
December 2019. They lasted between 2 and 4 hours 
and took place in the local setting of the focus groups: 
for farmers at the tourist farm, for hunters at the hunting 
lodge, for artists at the place of their art residency and for 
tourism professionals at the tourism centre. Altogether, we 
interviewed 29 participants (five farmers, eight hunters, 
nine tourism workers and seven artists). Each focus group 
was internally homogeneous in terms of participants' pro-
fessional or interest background, consisting exclusively of 
farmers, hunters, tourism professionals, or artists. Group 
sizes were intentionally kept small to facilitate open discus-
sion and ensure that diverse individual perspectives could 
be expressed. The final number of participants in each 
group was also influenced by participants' availability and 
willingness to engage in the study.
Sessions were led by a facilitator who used a semi-struc-
tured interview approach that relies on participants' 
responses (Gould et al., 2014; Table S1). The aim for the 
discussions was that they were enjoyable, without partic-
ipants feeling pressured to speak or seek consensus, but 
rather to feel encouraged to express different viewpoints. 
The focus groups were recorded on a voice recorder (dict-
aphone) with the consent of the stakeholders.
Data analysis and interpretation
Digital recordings were manually transcribed for analysis. 
From each transcript, we extracted statements (sentences 
or coherent sequences of sentences) related to the CES of 
large carnivores and entered them into a spreadsheet. Each 
statement was placed in its own row, and the speakers of 
the statements remained anonymous. For each recorded 
statement, we also noted the corresponding stakeholder 
group (farmers, hunters, tourism professionals, or artists). 
We collected all statements reflecting participants' sub-
jective attitudes or personal experiences regarding large 
carnivores, whether positive or negative. We assigned 
nominal variables to each analysed statement: the type of 
large carnivore the statement referred to (bear, wolf, lynx, 
or all three large carnivores) and one of the 11 classes of 
CES according to CICES (experiential use, physical use, 
scientific, educational, heritage-cultural, entertainment, 
aesthetic, symbolic, sacred and/or religious, existence, and 
bequest). The category "other" was used when we were 
unable to fit the statement into the existing categories. 
Many times, statements were difficult to categorise within 
the CICES framework, and the categorisation process is 
subjective. For that reason, the statements were reviewed 
by two researchers to minimise the degree of subjectivity.
Next, the collected statements were categorised 
according to the framework proposed by Rode et al. 
(2021), which defines specific large carnivore-related 
impacts within three overarching categories: economic 
impacts, health and well-being impacts, and social and 
cultural impacts. Each of these categories includes both 
positive and negative impacts. Following this structure, we 
assigned each statement in our dataset to the appropriate 
positive impact category, enabling us to identify and extract 
statements referring specifically to the positive contribu-
tions, benefits, and cultural ecosystem services associated 
with the presence of large carnivores.
Results
In all focus groups combined, we identified a total of 
476 statements that discuss the positive contributions or 
benefits of large carnivores for individuals and society. The 
number of statements related to a specific class of CES for 
each interest group is presented in Fig. 1. Most statements 
were classified as having experiential or educational value.

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 68 (4)
Class Description and example of goods or benefits
Experiential use In situ, large carnivore watching and recreation are in the area of large carnivore presence.
Physical use Hunting of large carnivores.
Scientific Large carnivores are a subject matter for research both on location and via other media, and knowledge 
about large carnivores and their habitat is important.
Educational Large carnivores are a subject matter of education, both on location and via other media, and they 
provide skills and knowledge about large carnivore management and their habitat.
Heritage, cultural Large carnivore resonance in culture or heritage, history, local identity, historic records of a place, and 
preserved cultural heritage.
Aesthetic Large carnivores and their environment are a source of artistic inspiration and representation, aesthetic 
experiences, appreciation of the beauty of large carnivores, and a sense of place.
Entertainment Ex situ experience large carnivores and their environment via different media.
Symbolic Symbolic meaning of large carnivores, large carnivores as emblems, signifiers.
Sacred and/or religious Large carnivores as a spiritual or ritual identity, holy places, and sacred animals.
Existence Non-utilitarian qualities of the presence of large carnivores, such as the enjoyment/philosophical 
perspective provided by the knowledge of their existence.
Bequest Moral/ethical perspective or belief regarding large carnivores, willingness to preserve large carnivore and 
their environment for the experience and use of future generations.
Table 1. Categories of CES from CICES version 4.3 and their descriptions were adapted to the purpose of the present research.
Tabela 1. Kategorije kulturnih ekosistemskih storitev glede na CICES različico 4.3 in njihovi opisi prilagojeni glede na namen te raziskave.
Figure 1. The number of statements related to a specific class of CES for each interest group.
Slika 1. Število izjav v posamezni kategoriji kulturnih ekosistemskih storitev za vsako interesno skupino.

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 68 (4)
Table 2 displays various keywords and terms that we 
identified in the statements from focus groups. We do not 
evaluate them by importance, as it is impossible to do so 
solely based on the transcript analysis. Keywords from 
CES classes are listed below in order to reflect the number 
of statements we have placed in each class. There were 
no statements within the sacred/religious class; therefore, 
only 10 CES classes are shown. Class Other was estab-
lished for statements that couldn't be attributed to any of 
the CES classes.
Below, we present all CICES categories, listed in order 
based on the number of statements attributed to each cate-
gory (Fig. 1). For each CICES category, we provide narrative 
examples drawn from stakeholder group discussions.
Experiential values
The experiential class of Cultural Ecosystem Services 
(CES) encompasses non-intrusive, sensory and emotional 
engagements with land- and seascapes, such as wildlife 
observation, that provide personal enrichment and enjoy-
ment (Czúcz et al., 2018). Respondents most often mention 
direct observations of animals, but also express enjoyment 
when encountering their signs of presence, or because of 
the mere awareness of the existence of these animals.
Among focus group participants, especially tourism 
professionals and hunters, watching/encountering large 
carnivores and related activities are a benefit. Observing the 
animals in the sense of organised guiding mainly referred to 
bears. Participants noted that this tourism, in turn, stimulates 
the local economy, with ancillary benefits to hospitality, 
retail, and other service sectors: "Those who come to see 
the bears also go to restaurants, accommodation providers, 
shops and other tourist attractions." They recognise the 
value of bears and, to a lesser extent, the value of wolves 
and lynx in increasing the attractiveness of the local area and 
transforming previously overlooked areas into destinations 
with distinctive appeal: "What was previously 'no name’ has 
now become ‘The land of bears’". Hunters within our focus 
group highlighted the economic benefits of wildlife tourism, 
particularly bear watching, which they increasingly view as 
an important supplementary source of income alongside 
traditional hunting activities. As one participant noted: "We 
didn't hunt in the summer, because photographic tourism 
is our main source of income." Beside direct observation, 
the benefits of the sole presence of large carnivores in the 
Class Keywords and terms
Experiential encounters with large carnivores, photo hunt, photo tourism, socialising, tourism, watching animals
Educational Bear-friendly label, best practice farm, better coexistence, interpretation centre, interpretation, learning 
for life, learning through the media, museum, natural science centre, natural science day in school, nature 
trail, self-upbringing/ education, tourism, understanding nature
Heritage, cultural cultural landscape, folk tradition, hunting tradition, interpretation of cultural heritage, literature, metaphors, 
monuments, proper names, toponyms, tourism, tradition of coexistence, traditional methods of protection 
against damage
Aesthetic aesthetic experiences, beauty, creation, imagination, inspiration, photos, the spirit of space
Existence autochthony, diversity, inspiration and ideas, interest, part of the culture and system, rejection to shoot, 
respect, tolerance, understanding nature
Bequest economic benefit, emotional and social enrichment, ethics and morals, national interest, organisations for 
the conservation and growth of the population, population management, species conservation projects
Symbolic authenticity, autochthony, coat-of-arms, logos, metaphors, personification of species, proverbs, 
recognisability, symbol of preserved nature
Physical use hunting equipment, hunting tourism, hunting, population management, sale of (bear) meat and fur, stuffed 
animals, trophies
Scientific better coexistence and management, lynx reintroduction, photo traps, recording tracks, research, 
technology development, telemetry collars
Other agreement, balance, partnership
Table 2. Generated keywords and terms mentioned during focus groups, classified for different CES classes.
Tabela 2. Ključne besede in izrazi, omenjeni med fokusnimi skupinami, razvrščeni po različnih razredih kulturnih ekosistemskih storitev.

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 68 (4)
area was recognised as well: "An Englishman once told 
me that they don't need to see the bear, just show them a 
footprint. You must tell a story. And then you win." Others 
described deep emotional and even spiritual connections 
formed through rare, unpredictable wildlife encounters: 
"Even though you know they are there, you cannot predict 
the meeting. And that's always a fantastic moment because 
it's unexpected." Some statements reflect the awe-inspiring 
nature of large carnivores, suggesting that their presence 
limits human overuse of natural areas: "If it weren't for the 
large carnivores in our forests, people would walk all over 
these areas, everywhere". Finally, the bear also emerged 
as a socialising factor for locals and tourists alike, bringing 
people together through shared experiences like group 
hikes due to safety concerns: "The bear has become a 
socialising moment, because those of us who are regular 
hikers don't go alone, we go together." 
Educational values
Educational class refers to the contributions of living systems 
to education, training, and the development of skills and 
knowledge (Potschin and Haines-Young, 2018). Large car-
nivores, as keystone species, offer powerful opportunities 
for learning. Their presence can serve as a focal point for 
understanding ecological relationships, the importance of 
biodiversity, and the interconnectedness of natural systems. 
In our study, hunters most frequently highlighted the 
educational value of large carnivores. They described a 
deep observational engagement with these animals, often 
inspired by admiration for their behaviour and hunting abil-
ities: "I have seen wolves chasing a deer, how they ambush 
it. A couple of them go ahead, some are behind… how they 
intercept it. I analysed how they caught a deer." Some are 
challenged by their secretive nature: "To see a lynx, you 
had to be able to move properly, know the location, its 
specific behaviour." Through these encounters, they learn 
about their basic ecology, gain tracking skills and recognise 
their value for obtaining a healthy forest ecosystem. They 
want to pass on their knowledge and respectful attitude 
to the younger generation by designing nature education 
visitor centres and trails. Additionally, they work with older 
members of the community through creative programs 
such as art workshops: "We talk while we create, we bring 
books about nature, and we try to eradicate stereotypes 
about the wolf in the minds of the older people who have 
formed stereotypes about the wolf." 
Though more reserved in their expressions, farmers 
show their understanding of natural processes and pred-
ator-prey relationships. They recognised the role of large 
carnivores in maintaining a healthy forest ecosystem: "If 
large carnivores were not in our environment, we would be 
worse off as far as fields are concerned. The wolf and the 
bear are also scavengers, and they also maintain the deer." 
Artists conveyed additional, more indirect educational 
values, as people gain awareness and interconnectedness 
of nature and their own behaviour and develop ethical 
values and empathy: "The presence of large carnivores can 
also build a relationship with our fellow man. Just as we 
behave towards animals, we can behave towards humans." 
Their presence provoked reflection on human actions: 
»We can slaughter an animal and it's OK. If a wolf eats the 
animal, it is horrible. The outcome is the same."
Although tourism professionals discussed educational 
value to a lesser extent, they recognise the opportunity 
of their presence for interpretation and interpretation of 
nature in different ways. They offer guided tours where 
they teach visitors about the biology of large carnivores 
and the nature of the area through interpretation and the 
search for animal tracks, often including cultural heritage in 
the interpretation.
Heritage, cultural values
Heritage/cultural class refers to elements of nature that 
hold cultural or historical significance, helping people iden-
tify with the history or culture of where they live or come 
from (Potschin and Haines-Young, 2018). 
Among all stakeholder groups, tourism professionals 
most strongly emphasised the cultural importance of large 
carnivores. For them, these animals are integral to the 
region's identity: "Bears and other large carnivores are part 
of our culture, part of our system. If they disappeared now, 
we would become very poor and empty". Several partici-
pants reflected on historical practices like shepherding and 
protection of livestock, underscoring the effort required in 
preventing conflicts with large carnivores and preserving 
traditional ways of life: "In our youth, there were no sheep 
slaughtered by wolves ... No livestock was left outside, 
there was always a shepherd present, and there were a 
couple of hundred sheep in the flock." Hunters expressed 
sense of pride in local efforts to live harmoniously with large 
carnivores: "Large carnivores give a good picture of Slove-
nia ... In the museum in Paris, our place was presented as 

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 68 (4)
an example of good practice of coexistence between bears 
and humans." Same sense of pride is mentioned by artists, 
seeing the presence of large carnivores as a conservation 
success: "For us, the presence of large carnivores means 
the conservation of the species and an opportunity to show 
that coexistence is possible, which is also of interest to other 
countries". Farmers mostly mentioned different surnames, 
names of villages that are derived from animal names or 
associated with large carnivores, reflecting a long-standing 
cultural imprint of large carnivores on everyday life.
Aesthetic value
Aesthetic classes are elements of nature that enable 
aesthetic experiences and are appreciated for their beauty, 
which can become a source of artistic inspiration (Potschin 
and Haines-Young, 2018).
In this context, artists most vividly expressed the 
aesthetic and inspirational power of these animals: "Large 
carnivores are an immense source of ideas and inspiration 
for creation, for enriching life, including spiritual life. They 
do not have a concrete impact on us, but an indirect one. 
It is almost impossible to live without it." Hunters described 
visual encounters with large carnivores as special, unique, 
unforgettable aesthetic experiences that have an enduring 
value in shaping personal memories and contributing to 
the overall aesthetic appreciation of nature: "I saw lynx 
when it was just walking along nicely in the shade. It was a 
full moon... It was a picture you never forget." Even farmers 
acknowledged their beauty, but with a sense of caution due 
to the potential impacts on their livelihoods:" A picture of a 
wolf and her cubs is beautiful, idyllic, cute, as long as they 
are in their natural habitat, as long as they are not under my 
feet, or doing harm."
Existence value
The existence value refers to the intrinsic worth of these 
species simply by virtue of their presence in nature—
independent of any direct human use (Potschin and 
Haines-Young, 2018). Mostly the value was recognised by 
artists, who emphasised that the mere presence of large 
carnivores contributes to overall diversity: "Our country is 
more colourful, more diverse and more fulfilled because of 
the large carnivores". This value was also clearly articulated 
by hunters who emphasized the importance of large car-
nivores simply being part of the landscape, regardless of 
direct human benefit: "Every animal, every individual has its 
function in nature." Participants from various interest groups 
expressed their deep appreciation for the untamed nature 
of large carnivores, reminding us that some things in nature 
still operate beyond our influence." The wolf pack expresses 
something primal, wild; they have a life of their own".
Bequest value
Bequest value expresses the willingness of individuals to 
preserve animals and ecosystems to ensure that future 
generations can also enjoy and benefit from the resource 
(Potschin and Haines-Y oung, 2018). The desire to conserve 
large carnivore populations for present and future genera-
tions was highlighted in all focus groups.
Artists expressed their concern for the potential ecolog-
ical consequences of the absence of large carnivores: "The 
absence of large carnivores would be the bleakest progno-
sis for life because if it started with the umbrella species, it 
could lead to the decline of bees, and that is the worst stage 
of the apocalypse, affecting all of us, even if we don't have 
a personal connection to these animals or their habitats." 
Participants of the focus groups advocate for the conser-
vation of the population on ethical and moral grounds, as 
well as the economic benefits that large carnivores bring to 
the area through tourism and other activities. They oppose 
unplanned and inappropriate culling and stress that the 
long-term conservation of large carnivores also requires 
appropriate management in several areas. Hunters and 
farmers are mentioning appropriate management in terms 
of population size: "The aim is to conserve large carnivores, 
but only in certain numbers." Farmers specifically acknowl-
edged their interconnection with nature, and the well-being 
of the environment: "Farmers are connected to nature, and 
we do not want to kill or destroy a population", they believe 
large carnivores belong to Slovenia: "Large carnivores are 
autochthonous to Slovenia and should therefore be pre-
served, while foreign species that lack natural predators 
(e.g., jackals) should not be introduced."
Entertainment
Entertainment class includes characteristics or qualities 
of species or ecosystems that provide material or subject 
matter that can be communicated to others via different 
media. (e.g. films or books) (Potschin and Haines-Young, 
2018). Several statements recall childhood memories that 

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 68 (4)
involve stories and folklore from that time, including fairy 
tales and folktales like Red Riding Hood and popular movies.
In modern times, social media has changed the way the 
public receives and transmits news, where sensationalistic 
reports receive a higher number of shares than reports 
presenting facts more objectively, which can generate 
unwarranted fear and prejudice against predators (Nanni et 
al., 2020). Some participants in our focus groups mention 
that large carnivores are a useful topic for sensationalist 
media and are used to further polarise society:" I would add 
that this is a media campaign. These are presentations of 
catastrophic situations as if politics is bloodthirsty. Before it 
was migrants, they needed this victim."
Symbolic 
Symbolic class includes elements of nature that hold sym-
bolic meaning, help shape a sense of place, and serve as 
emblems of identity, character, or meaning (Potschin and 
Haines-Young, 2018).
Participants' statements reflect a complex and diverse 
set of symbolic values associated with large carnivores, 
ranging from their role in local identity and authenticity to 
their portrayal in stories: "Large carnivores are part of the 
authenticity of these places." The presence of a bear in the 
municipal emblem signifies its significance as a symbol of 
the area's identity and values.
Participants also projected human-like qualities onto 
these species. One hunter regards bears "as another 
human being"; this suggests a deep connection and 
perhaps a sense of kinship with bears. Another statement 
portrayed the wolf as "professors who study and observe 
humans", adding depth to their symbolism, while the lynx 
is portrayed as "a princely figure" because of its unique 
behaviours, such as covering its prey with leaves: "The lynx 
is a prince to me because it covers its prey with leaves and 
returns to eat". For tourism professionals' large carnivores 
are not only subjects of ecological interest, but integral to 
their personal identity: "For me as interpreter of nature, my 
personal life would change a lot in the absence of large 
carnivores, because I don't know what I would be looking 
at in the puddles, whose footprints I would be following…"
Physical use
Physical use of large carnivores refers mainly to hunting 
and related activities; therefore, it was mostly recognised 
by hunters: "Deer hunting or wolf hunting is indeed hunt-
ing. It takes hours and hours. Yes, I hunt. That is why I am 
a hunter. I hunt."
Scientific value
The scientific class includes elements of living systems that 
enable scientific investigation or the creation of traditional 
ecological knowledge. Focus group respondents rec-
ognised the importance of scientists and experts research-
ing these animals, especially for better coexistence and 
management:" When defining the acceptable number of 
large carnivores in Slovenia, the experts must take into 
account the results of technology (cameras, collars), where 
and how many animals are currently present."
Other
Some statements could not be classified into any of the 
classes, but nevertheless, they express the important 
opportunities offered by the presence of large carnivores, 
mostly related to recognising and respecting diverse 
perspectives and opportunities for mutual agreements 
and partnerships. An artist shared the following statement, 
reflecting the viewpoints of people directly affected by 
large carnivore presence: "Personally, I think there are too 
many large carnivores in many areas of Slovenia. Farmers 
say that three wolf packs would be enough for Slovenia, 
and around 200–500 bears at most. That's the number, 
according to those who live with nature, that would be 
sustainable for a small country like Slovenia."
Discussion
Public attitude studies in Slovenia indicate that people gen-
erally support the conservation of large carnivores (Majić 
Skrbinšek et al., 2019; Bele et al., 2022; Krofel et al., 2025), 
with the presence of bears perceived as beneficial for local 
communities (Kavčič and Majić Skrbinšek, 2023). How-
ever, the fact that humans were once able to significantly 
reduce or eliminate carnivore populations suggests that 
successful conservation requires a deeper understanding 
of the factors driving human tolerance towards these spe-
cies (Bruskotter and Wilson, 2014). Previous studies have 
identified knowledge of species biology and behaviour as 
a key determinant of attitudes and conservation beliefs 

40
Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 68 (4)
(Majić Skrbinšek et al., 2019; Oražem at. al, 2019; Oražem 
et al., 2021). In addition, tolerance towards large carnivores 
is also influenced by people's perception of the benefits 
these species provide (Slagle et al., 2013; Bruskotter and 
Wilson, 2014). Bruskotter and Wilson (2014) argue that com-
munication should not only address risks but also highlight 
benefits and provide guidance for mitigating potential 
conflicts. Marino et al. (2020) found a significant positive 
relationship between perceptions of intangible benefits 
and tolerance towards bears and wolves, suggesting that 
enhancing recognition of these intangible benefits could 
serve as an important management tool to foster tolerance. 
A recent review of the academic literature identified a clear 
research gap regarding the positive, especially non-ma-
terial, impacts of large carnivores (Rode et al., 2021). Our 
study sought to address this gap by applying the cultural 
ecosystem services framework to identify and explore the 
benefits associated with large carnivore presence in Slove-
nia. Through focus groups conducted with four stakeholder 
groups, farmers, hunters, tourism professionals and artists, 
we provide insights into both the evident and less obvious 
benefits linked to large carnivores.
Tourism professionals emphasised both economic 
and cultural benefits of large carnivores. This is reflected 
in the way large carnivores are used to design tourism 
programmes, while cultural heritage arising from the long 
tradition of coexistence is used as part of storytelling. 
They also noted that the presence of these animals stim-
ulates the local economy and supports a wide range of 
businesses, generating indirect but meaningful economic 
benefits across the community. However, the value of large 
carnivores extends beyond economics. For some tourism 
professionals, these animals have become a defining 
element of personal identity, contributing directly to their 
well-being and sense of purpose. As Buijs et al. (2020) 
note, happiness generated through the positive emotions 
induced by wildlife encounters can foster greater empathy 
and increase tolerance toward controversial species like 
large carnivores. Marino et al. (2020) similarly reported that 
perceptions of benefits, combined with exposure to positive 
meaningful experiences, like unexpected encounters that 
elicit positive emotions, can enhance tolerance towards 
bears and wolves in the Abruzzo region in Italy. They sug-
gest that organised wildlife viewing could generate similar 
emotional benefits across the wider community. Likewise, 
Oražem et al. (2022) highlighted that direct experiences with 
animals serve as effective precursors of positive attitudes. 
While our study did not directly assess tourists' emotional 
responses, the insights from tourism professionals suggest 
that positive emotional connections with large carnivores—
whether experienced by visitors engaged in wildlife tourism 
or by professionals themselves—represent a potential 
for promoting tolerance. These could be extended to the 
wider community through organised nature treks (Marino 
et al., 2020) or educational encounters in informal learning 
settings, like zoos (Oražem et al., 2022).
Hunters offered a different perspective grounded in 
personal experience, ecological knowledge, and their role 
in wildlife management. They expressed deep interest in the 
biology and behaviour of large carnivores. Particularly capti-
vated by the animals' secretive nature, they are challenged 
to gain the ability to track or hunt them. They most often 
encounter large carnivores in the wild, and their encounters 
are described as unique, special, and unforgettable. These 
immersive experiences with wildlife may contribute to long-
term well-being (Buijs et al., 2020). Slovenian hunters are 
often involved in wildlife monitoring; they provide hunting 
bag data and collect biological samples. Their voluntary 
engagement in wildlife management suggests that such 
activities may be emotionally rewarding and reinforce 
stewardship practices (Buijs et al., 2020). Their statements 
show that they are feeling proud of their contributions; 
similar narratives were collected in other participatory pro-
cesses where hunters wanted to be respected as legitimate 
managers and stewards of their land (Salvatori et al., 2021). 
Hunters also play an active role in community education, 
engaging with children and the elderly, organising guided 
walks, and designing educational trails and visitor centres. 
They often express pride in local efforts to live harmoniously 
with large carnivores, which is recognised internationally. 
Some mentioned the economic benefits of bear watching, 
saying that a bear is worth more alive than dead. In certain 
instances, they adapted hunting practices to accommodate 
photo tourism by avoiding hunting in specific areas.
In contrast to hunters and tourism professionals, farm-
ers offered a more cautious and critical view, shaped by 
the direct impacts of large carnivore presence. Farmers 
found it hardest to articulate the benefits associated with 
large carnivores, as their experiences are often shaped 
by livestock losses and threats to livelihoods. For farmers, 
large carnivores are not only an economic threat but also a 
challenge to values closely tied to their way of life (Larsson 
et al., 2022). Research among Slovenian vocational stu-
dents revealed that those in agricultural programmes held 

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 68 (4)
more negative attitudes and had less knowledge about 
large carnivores compared to their peers in environmental 
and veterinary programmes, highlighting the influence of 
early informal learning experiences on attitude formation 
(Oražem and Tomažič, 2018).  Nevertheless, even farmers 
in our focus group showed their understanding of natural 
processes and predator-prey relations, but they believe that 
wolves have an important ecological role and regulate prey 
populations. This aligns with findings from Sweden, where 
farmers cited wolves' regulatory role in prey populations as 
a rationale for their conservation (Karlsson and Sjöström, 
2008). Despite concerns, farmers in our study expressed a 
strong connection to nature and emphasised the need to 
balance conservation goals with viable farming. They sup-
ported keeping carnivore numbers at "reasonable" levels, 
as defined by experts, that would still allow sustainable 
livestock production. This perspective reflects the findings 
of Piscopo et al. (2021), who stressed that successful 
coexistence depends on collaboration between scientists, 
farmers, and policymakers. 
Stakeholders most directly affected by large carnivores, 
like farmers and hunters, tend to hold the most negative 
attitudes (Dressel et al., 2014; Franchini et al., 2021). Con-
sidering that negative perceptions often outweigh positive 
ones in shaping attitudes (Kansky et al., 2014), we cannot 
expect communication alone to change their views. How-
ever, engagement with these groups remains essential, 
as it can help anticipate potential areas of social conflict 
over species protection (Lischka et al., 2019). It is essential 
to approach communication strategies with stakeholder 
groups like farmers and hunters with sensitivity and a rec-
ognition of the complexities involved. Acknowledging the 
additional efforts these stakeholders have made to protect 
their livelihoods (farmers) or to contribute to large carnivore 
research (hunters) can foster a more constructive dialogue 
and minimise tensions.
Together, the perspectives of tourism professionals, 
hunters, and farmers illustrate the wide range of tangible 
and intangible benefits and challenges associated with 
large carnivores. A group of artists offered a distinct view-
point, describing these animals as a source of inspiration 
and appreciating their aesthetic value. They also conveyed 
additional, less obvious benefits, believing that the presence 
of large carnivores teaches us about respect and patience, 
enables us to build a better relationship with other people 
and promotes mutual understanding. Large-carnivore con-
flicts may, in fact, represent an opportunity for wider social 
learning and for improved stakeholder relationships (Hov-
ardas, 2020), leading to better mutual understanding and 
collaboration among stakeholders. Participatory processes 
over large carnivore management are being used increas-
ingly to share different views and increase knowledge of 
other points of view and recognition of the legitimacy of 
stakeholder positions (Salvatori et al., 2021).
To promote coexistence between large carnivores and 
humans in Europe, greater attention must be paid to under-
standing how specific stakeholder groups perceive not 
only the detrimental but also the beneficial aspects of living 
alongside these species (Marino et al., 2020; Palacios-Pa-
checo et al., 2024). Recognising and highlighting the ben-
efits of local practices aimed at fostering coexistence may 
help reduce conflict (Salvatori et al., 2021; Pettersson et 
al., 2022). Emerging communication models should focus 
on creating spaces for dialogue and debate, engaging 
emotions, and embracing diverse perspectives (Toomey, 
2023). Additionally, promoting direct experiences, such as 
observing animals (Oražem et al., 2021, 2022), as well as 
increasing positive experiences and implementing damage 
prevention measures (Marino et al., 2020), can help shift 
attitudes. Communication strategies should also place 
greater emphasis on the benefits large carnivores provide 
(Bruskotter and Wilson, 2014; Rode et al., 2021). Integrating 
these stakeholder perspectives into policy design could 
support more inclusive and adaptive management strate-
gies, tailored to the diverse values and experiences across 
affected communities. Within this study, we applied the 
cultural ecosystem services lens to identify a wide range 
of benefits, as perceived by key stakeholder groups in Slo-
venia. Our findings contribute to the growing recognition 
that intangible benefits are important drivers of tolerance 
towards large carnivores and should be more prominently 
integrated into conservation strategies. 
Conclusions
Our engagement with stakeholders through focused dia-
logue sessions facilitated the discovery of diverse benefits 
and a multitude of values associated with large carnivores, 
each varying across stakeholder groups. Recognising and 
understanding different social groups' values and attitudes 
relating to wildlife is important for fostering trust and facili-
tating fruitful dialogue and communication. Our study pro-
vides insights that illuminate the origins of both opposition 

42
Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 68 (4)
and agreement concerning large carnivore management, 
making one step forward in navigating the complex world 
of the plurality of values.
Supplementary Materials
Table S1. Interview protocol
Author Contributions
Conceptualisation, I.K. and A.M.S.; methodology, I.K. and 
A.M.S.; formal analysis, M.D. and I.K.; investigation, I.K., 
M.D. and A. M. S.; writing—original draft preparation, I.K.; 
writing—review and editing, I.K., M.D., A.M.S. All authors 
have read and agreed to the published version of the man-
uscript. 
Acknowledgement
We express our sincere appreciation to all participants 
who generously contributed their time, experiences, and 
insights to this study. We thank the LIFE Lynx project for 
enabling access to focus group participants, including 
artists involved in its lynx-themed residency. The authors 
acknowledge the AI language model ChatGPT (OpenAI) 
was used in order to improve text (language). After using 
this tool, we reviewed and edited the content and take full 
responsibility for the content of the publication.
Funding
We acknowledge financial support provided by Interreg VA 
Slovenia-Croatia programme. The research was conducted 
as part of the CARNIVORA DINARICA project. The authors 
acknowledge the project Thinking Animals, J6 3129, finan-
cially supported by the Slovenian Research Agency for 
writing of the manuscript. 
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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