GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK Akademije za glasbo v Ljubljani THE JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION of the Academy of Music in Ljubljana ZVEZEK / VOLUME 30 LJUBLJANA 2019 Univerza v Ljubljani Akademija za glasbo GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK Akademije za glasbo v Ljubljani THE JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION of the Academy of Music in Ljubljana Izdala in zaloila / Published by: Akademija za glasbo Univerze v Ljubljani, Oddelek za glasbeno pedagogiko Zanjo: Marko Vatovec Stari trg 34, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija Telefon: 00386 1 242 73 05 Fax: 00386 1 242 73 20 E-pošta: dekanat@ag.uni-lj.si Uredniški odbor / Editorial Board: Michele Biasutti, FISPPA Department, University of Padova (IT) Tina Bohak Adam, Univerza v Ljubljani, Akademija za glasbo (SI) Bogdana Borota, Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta (SI) Snjeana Dobrota, Sveuèilište u Splitu, Filozofski fakultet u Splitu, (HR) Rvta Girdzijauskienf, Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre (LT) Sanja Kiš uvela, Univerza u Zagrebu, MUZA (HR) Darja Koter, Univerza v Ljubljani, Akademija za glasbo (SI) Gabrijela Karin Konkol, The Stanis³aw Moniuszko Academy of Music in Gdansk (PL) Andrej Misson, Univerza v Ljubljani, Akademija za glasbo (SI) Nicole Molumby, Boise State University (USA) Branka Rotar Pance, Univerza v Ljubljani, Akademija za glasbo (SI) Sabina Vidulin, Sveuèilište Jurja Dobrile u Puli, Muzièka akademija u Puli (HR) Katarina Zadnik, Univerza v Ljubljani, Akademija za glasbo (SI) Urednica zvezka / Edited by: Katarina Habe Oblikovanje in tehnièna ureditev / Design and typesetting: Darko Simèiè Tisk / Printed by: Sonènica, d.d.o Naklada 100 izvodov / Printed in 100 copies Èlanke je recenziral uredniški odbor. Za znanstveno vsebino èlankov in lekturo odgovarjajo avtorji. GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK Akademije za glasbo v Ljubljani / THE JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION of the Academy of Music in Ljubljana je indeksiran v mednarodnih bibliografskih bazah Abstracts of Music Literature RILM, ProQuest, EBSCO ISSN 1318-6876 VSEBINA Contents Ana Kavèiè Pucihar: Uèiteljeve strategije pouèevanja pri individualnem inštrumentalnem pouku flavte v glasbenih šolah Teaching strategies in individual instrumental flute instruction in music schools ......... 5 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ: Ocena akreditiranega profesionalnega programa usposabljanja na podroèju solfeggio v Srbiji 2011 - 2019 Evaluation of the accredited professional training program in the field of solfeggio in Serbia 2011 - 2019 ........................................................................................................ 31 Milena Petroviæ: Skupinsko petje in kolektivna identiteta Group singing and collective identity ........................................................................... 57 Alja Lapuh: Usvajanje glasbenega znanja in vešèin pri otrocih z Aspergerjevim sindromom Adoption of musical knowledge and skills in children with Asperger’s syndrome ....... 73 Zdravko Drenjanèeviæ: Elementi ljudske glasbe Slavonije v delih skladateljev umetniške glasbe 20. stoletja (povzetek doktorske disertacije) The elements of traditional Slavonian music in pieces of the 20 th century art music composers (abstract of the doctoral thesis) .................................................................. 93 Ana Kavèiè Pucihar: Teaching strategies in individual instrumental flute instruction in music schools (povzetek doktorske disertacije) Teaching strategies in individual instrumental flute instruction in music schools (abstract of the doctoral thesis) .................................................................................... 97 Karolina Šantl Zupan: Interakcija med umetniškim in pedagoškim izobraevanjem bodoèih uèiteljev pihalnih instrumentov (povzetek doktorske disertacije) Interaction between artistic and pedagogical training for future teachers of wind instruments (abstract of the doctoral thesis) ............................................................... 103 3 4 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Ana Kavèiè Pucihar Glasbena šola Glasbénium UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM INŠTRUMENTALNEM POUKU FLAVTE V SLOVENSKIH GLASBENIH ŠOLAH Izvleèek V prispevku ugotavljamo zastopanost literature pri individualnem inštrumentalnem pouku flavte v slovenskih glasbenih šolah. Uèitelji morajo pri pouku slediti smernicam uènega naèrta za flavto, med katerimi je med operativnimi cilji navedena tudi priporoèena literatura, z navodilom, naj le-ta ne slui kot toga obveznost, temveè kot usmeritev. Med uèitelji flavte slovenskih glasbenih šol (N=78) smo raziskali zastopanost priporoèene in izbirne literature od 1. do 8. razreda. Rezultati so pokazali statistièno znaèilne razlike v pogostosti uporabe priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta za flavto tako med posameznimi razredi kot tudi v pogostosti uporabe izbirne literature po izboru uèiteljev. Ugotavljamo, da na podroèju uporabe stilno raznolike literature obstaja podroèje za izboljšanje, s katerim bi se še bolj pribliali izpolnjevanju temeljnje naloge glasbenega izobraevanja – vzbujanju ljubezni do glasbe in muziciranja. Kljuène besede: flavta, glasbena šola, individualni pouk, uèitelji flavte, uèni naèrt, literatura FLUTE REPERTOIRE USE IN THE INDIVIDUAL INSTRUMENTAL FLUTE INSTRUCTION IN SLOVENIAN MUSIC SCHOOLS Abstract In the following paper the use of flute repertoire in Slovenian Music Schools is being examined. Slovenian flute teachers must follow the Slovenian State Flute Curriculum guidelines. These also include recommended graded flute repertoire. Teachers are encouraged to use these recommendations as guidance not as a rigid obligation. We researched the use of recommended and elective flute repertoire between 1 st and 8 th grade among Slovenian Music School flute teachers (N=78). The results revealed statistically significant differences in the frequency of the recommended repertoire use among the grades. Statistically significant differences in the frequency of the elective repertoire use also emerged. We find an area for improvement in the stylistic variability of the flute repertoire used in Slovenian Music Schools. Increased variability of musical styles could contribute towards reaching the fundamental goal of music education – kindling the love of music and musicianship. Key words: flute, music school, individual instruction, flute teachers, music school curriculum, flute repertoire Uvod Pouk flavte v slovenskih glasbenih šolah poteka v okviru programa Glasba in sicer v individualni uèni obliki (Zakon o glasbenih šolah, 2000). Na osnovni ravni glasbenega izobraevanja pouk flavte poteka na niji in višji stopnji. Nija stopnja stopnja traja šest let in se deli na dve obdobji: prvo obdobje traja dve leti, drugo pa štiri leta. Višja stopnja traja Ana Kavèiè Pucihar, UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... 5 dve leti. Skupno torej izobraevanja traja osem let ( Dopolnjeni predmetnik. Glasba. 2010). V prvem izobraevalnem obdobju uèenci flavte iz prvega v drugi razred napredujejo ne glede na doseene ocene pri posameznem predmetu. V drugem obdobju nije stopnje glasbene šole morajo biti pozitivno ocenjeni, da napredujejo v naslednji razred. Za napredovanje na višjo stopnjo izobraevanja uèenec flavte potrebuje pozitivno mnenje izpitne komisije in uèiteljskega zbora (Pravilnik o preverjanju in ocenjevanju znanja ter napredovanju uèencev v glasbenih šolah, 2003). Uèitelji flavte V slovenskih glasbenih šolah mora uèitelj flavte imeti zakljuèen (predbolonjski) univerzitetni študijski program flavte ali magistrski študijski program druge stopnje Instrumentalna in pevska pedagogika ali Glasbena umetnost (smer Flavta) z dodatno pridobljenimi pedagoško-andragoškimi kompetencami in znanji v obsegu 60 kreditnih toèk (Pravilnik o izobrazbi uèiteljev in drugih strokovnih delavcev v izobraevalnih programih glasbene šole, 2015). Poleg ustrezne izobrazbe morajo obvladati slovenski jezik in imeti opravljen strokovni izpit. Takšni so zakonsko doloèeni pogoji za uèitelja flavte, seveda pa so za delo z uèenci najmanj enako pomembne pedagoške kompetence in osebnostne lastnosti, ki pa so èesto teko opisljive. Pomembnih lastnosti uèitelja flavte se v svojih priporoèilih tistim, ki se elijo posvetiti glasbi, dotakne e J. J. Quantz v svojem baroènem priroèniku za igranje flavte, ki je bil prviè izdan leta 1752. V svojih opisih uèiteljev, katerih naj se uèenec varuje, je zelo natanèen in obseen. Med drugim svari pred uèitelji, ki ne znajo jasno in natanèno razloiti uèencu tistega, èesar ne razume. Uèitelji, ki prièakujejo, da se bo uèenec vsega nauèil po posluhu oziroma skozi imitacijo. Uèitelji, ki svoje uèence le hvalijo, spregledajo pa njihove pomanjkljivosti. Izpostavi tudi, naj se uèenci varujejo tistih uèiteljev, ki ne znajo presoditi, kdaj je doloèena skladba za uèenca primerna in kako vsako skladbo stilno pravilno izvesti (Quantz, 2001). Na razlike med uèitelji flavte v vodenju uènega procesa na razliènih uènih stopnjah individualnega pouka flavte sta opozorili tudi Kavèiè Pucihar in Rotar Pance (2017). V njuni raziskavi so uèitelji z veè delovne dobe izkazovali manjšo agilnost pri predstavitvi nove snovi na uènih urah in svojim uèencem podajali manj povratnih informacij kot njihovi kolegi z manj delovne dobe. Hattie in Yates (2014) povzemata ugotovitve raziskav s podroèja preuèevanja lika idealnega uèitelja v treh toèkah: uèenci pri uèiteljih najbolj cenijo, da jih ti obravnavajo pošteno, da uèenci pri tem ohranjajo svoje dostojanstvo in da uèitelj pokae spoštovanje do slehernega posameznika. Uèitelj je neizogibno v poziciji modela, po katerem se zgledujejo, in kot tak predstavlja pogled na svet, kot ga imajo odrasli. Kot zapiše Stronge (2018), je uèitelj znova in znova dokazano najmoènejši s šolo povezani dejavnik, ki vpliva na uèenèev doseek. Veèina ljudi, ki so postali vešèi glasbeniki, je to dosegla ob pomoèi uèiteljev (Lehman in sod., 2007). Avtorji odliène 6 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek uèitelje na glasbenem podroèju opišejo kot tiste, ki imajo razvite posebne vešèine, ki se po veèini razlikujejo od vešèin poklicnih izvajalcev oz. koncertantov. Pembrook in C. Craig (2002) sta na podlagi obsene raziskave o uspešnih uèiteljih na glasbenem podroèju njihove lastnosti razvrstila v tri kategorije: notranje kvalitete, povezovanje z drugimi, socialna kontrola/vodenje skupine. Kot pomembno lastnost uèitelja za njegovo polno uèinkovitost in uspeh izpostavljata ekstravertiranost, kar sta Gordon in Yocke (1999, v Pembrook in Craig, 2002) tudi dokazala. Rotar Pance (1997) izpostavi, da je za glasbeni pouk zelo pomembno, da visoko motivirani uèitelji neprestano izarevajo svojo ljubezen do glasbe, k èemur s svojim zgledom spodbujajo tudi svoje uèence. Tudi uèitelji flavte v raziskavi Kavèiè Pucihar (2019) so med najpomembnejše lastnosti odliènega uèitelja uvrstili sposobnost motiviranja uèencev, poleg poštenja in spoštljivosti do vseh svojih uèencev, potrpeljivosti, stalnega izpopolnjevanja, sposobnosti vzpostavljanja konstruktivnega odnosa z uèenci, ustvarjalnosti, inovativnosti ter doslednosti. Uèni naèrt za flavto V slovenskih glasbenih šolah je literatura, ki se jo uporablja pri pouku, predpisana v uènem naèrtu za flavto (Uèni naèrt. Flavta, 2003). Vendar pa je v uènem naèrtu za flavto v didaktiènih priporoèilih zapisano, naj “uèni naèrt s sistematièno razvršèenim gradivom za uèitelja ne bo toga obveznost, temveè orientacija in pomoè pri vzgoji bodoèega glasbenika” (Uèni naèrt. Flavta, 2003, str. 13). Iz tega sledi, da se uèitelje spodbuja k uporabi glasbene literature po lastni presoji. Posebnih priporoèil uèiteljem flavte pri izbiri uènih gradiv ne zasledimo. Uèitelji flavte so torej popolnoma avtonomni pri izbiri uènega gradiva, za katerega menijo, da uèence najbolje vodi k usvajanju operativnih in splošnih uènih ciljev v uènem naèrtu za flavto (Uèni naèrt. Flavta, 2003). Šantl Zupan (2016) meni, da kakovostno pedagoško delo pri pouku inštrumenta temelji na modelu individualnega pouka in prilagajanju posamezniku v okviru uènih naèrtov. Za avtonomijo uèitelja Juntunen (2017) zapiše, da pozitivno vpliva na izobraevanje. Zato je predvidevati, da je zaupana presoja uèiteljem o primernosti izbranega gradiva eden od dejavnikov, ki lahko pozitivno prispevajo h kakovosti glasbenega izobraevanja. Zastavlja se vprašanje, po kakšnih kriterijih naj uèitelji flavte izbirajo izbirno literaturo za pouk. Štefanc (2005) poudarja, da je nujna vzpostavitev strokovnih kriterijev za presojanje kakovosti uènih gradiv. Štefanc in sod. (2011) ugotavljajo, da morajo biti uèna gradiva pripravljena tako, da pri kakovostnem naèrtovanju in izvajanju pouka pomagajo uèitelju in uèencu pri njegovem samostojnem uèenju. V Priporoèilih podroènih skupin za izbor in rabo uènih gradiv (2017) zasledimo priporoèilo, naj uèitelji izhajajo iz veljavnih uènih naèrtov, tam zapisanih ciljev, standardov znanj in didaktiènih priporoèil. Ob tem naj upoštevajo razliène dejavnike z vidika uèencev, torej njihovo starost, razvojno stopnjo, predznanje ter zmonosti. Uèitelje navaja kot strokovno odgovorne za ustreznost izbora in rabe dodatnih uènih gradiv v izobraevalnem procesu, ki naj jih pred uporabo strokovno in didaktièno natanèno preuèijo, pri èemer morajo upoštevati tudi ustreznost jezika, razvijanja kritiènega in sistemskega mišljenja. 7 Ana Kavèiè Pucihar, UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... Priporoèilo podroènih skupin za izbor in rabo uènih gradiv (2017) v nadaljevanju navaja, naj za izbiro uènega gradiva ne bo edini utemeljeni razlog le skladnost z uènimi naèrti, temveè med drugim tudi zahtevnost ravni znanja, vsebinske, ciljne in medpredmetne povezave, razvijanje osnovnih kompetenc. Veèina priporoèil lahko vodi k ustreznemu izboru uènih gradiv tudi uèitelje flavte in sicer kriterij skladnosti z uènim naèrtom, strokovna neoporeènost, jezikovna ustreznost, primernost ciljni skupini uèencev, upoštevanje didaktiènih naèel, podporna vloga vizualnih elementov, monost usvajanja višjih taksonomskih ciljev ter spodbujanje inovativnosti in ustvarjalnosti. Uèitelj mora pri izbiri uènega gradiva imeti v mislih tako objektivne kriterije, torej smernice obèe in specialne didaktike, pri èemer mora poznati nabor na trgu uènih gradiv, in pa subjektivne dejavnike odloèanja, kamor sodijo uèiteljev naèin pouèevanja, ki ga mora gradivo podpirati (Kovaè in sod., 2005). Harris (2012) uèiteljem inštrumenta priporoèa, naj središèe oblikovanja individualnega uènega naèrta za vsakega uèenca predstavlja veliko razliènih glasbenih del, ob èemer naj veliko pozornosti namenijo zanimivemu obravnavanju glasbenih sestavin posameznega glasbenega dela. Za izbiro uènih gradiv za pouèevanje flavte lahko zgornje smernice tudi uèiteljem flavte sluijo kot dobro izhodišèe za izbor ustrezne izbirne literature. Namen raziskave O uporabi literature pri pouku flavte v slovenskih glasbenih šolah nimamo celovitih podatkov, zato je pomembno, da se to podroèje osvetli in razišèe. V raziskavi smo preuèili zastopanost priporoèene literature v uènem naèrtu za flavto od 1. do 8. razreda in uporabo izbirne uène literature, ki jo za doseganje ciljev uènega naèrta avtonomno izbirajo uèitelji. Zanimalo nas je razmerje med obema vrstama literature v vsakem posameznem razredu. Predvidevali smo, da je zastopanost obeh vrst literature razlièna, tako glede na pogostost uporabe posameznega gradiva kot tudi glede na posamezen razred glasbene šole. Metodologija Raziskovalna metoda V raziskavi smo uporabili kvantitativni raziskovalni pristop, temeljeè na deskriptivni in kavzalno-neeksperimentalni metodi pedagoškega raziskovanja. Raziskovalni vzorec V raziskavi je sodelovalo 78 uèiteljev flavte (49,36 %) od skupno 158 uèiteljev, ki so ta inštrument pouèevali v šolskem letu 2016/2017 v slovenskih dravnih in zasebnih glasbenih šolah (MIZŠ, 2017). 8 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Struktura vzorca glede na spol kae izrazito feminizacijo podroèja, saj je v raziskavi sodelovalo 93,5 % ensk in le 6,5 % moških. V anketi so sodelovali uèitelji flavte iz vseh slovenskih regij. Najveè uèiteljev flavte, sodelujoèih v raziskavi, je pouèevalo v Osrednjeslovenski regiji (32,1 %), sledili so uèitelji Gorenjske (17,9 %) in Savinjske (11,5 %) regije. Iz Podravske (7,7 %) in Obalno-kraške regije (7,7 %) je prihajalo enako število uèiteljev. Tudi iz Jugovzhodne Slovenije (5,1 %), Notranjsko-kraške regije (5,1 %) in Goriške (5,1 %) je sodelovalo enako število uèiteljev. Iz Koroške (3,8 %) in Spodnjeposavske regije (3,8 %) prav tako. 2,6 % uèiteljev je pouèevalo v Zasavski regiji, najmanj (1,3 %) pa v Pomurski regiji. 1,3 % uèiteljev na to vprašanje ni odgovorilo. Nekateri uèitelji so pouèevali v dveh regijah. Najveè uèiteljev flavte, sodelujoèih v raziskavi, je pouèevalo na javni matièni glasbeni šoli (71,8 %). Na podruniènih javnih glasbenih šolah je pouèevalo 38,5 % uèiteljev, na zasebnih glasbenih šolah s koncesijo 5,1 % in na zasebnih glasbenih šolah brez koncesije 3,8 % uèiteljev. Nekateri uèitelji so pouèevali na dveh vrstah glasbenih šol. Najveè v raziskavi sodelujoèih uèiteljev je bilo starih med 26 in 35 let (37,6 %). Uèiteljev med 36. in 45. letom je bilo manj (28, 6 %), 20,8 % je bilo uèiteljev med 46. in 55. letom, medtem ko je bilo uèiteljev v starosti do 25 let 10,4 %. Najmanj uèiteljev je bilo starih med 56 in 65 let (2,6 %). V raziskavo so bili vkljuèeni uèitelji, ki so v skladu z veljavno zakonodajo v razliènih obdobjih veèinoma izpolnjevali zaposlitvene zahteve. Nekaj uèiteljev je imelo poleg zahtevane izobrazbe tudi višjo od predpisane, 10, 3 % pa je v vprašalnik vpisalo tudi drugo izobrazbo. Do uvedbe bolonjskega študija je bil zahtevani naziv za zaposlitev na delovnem mestu uèitelja flavte akademski glasbenik flavtist oz. prof. flavte ali oboje. Po uvedbi bolonjskega študija je zahtevani naziv magister akademski glasbenik flavtist ali magister profesor flavte. Med uèitelji flavte, vkljuèenimi v raziskavo, jih ima veèina z zakonom predpisano izobrazbo, torej nazive: akad. glasbenik – flavtist in prof. flavte (55,1 %); akademski glasbenik – flavtist (12,8 %); profesor flavte (9,0 %); magister akademski glasbenik flavtist (15,4 %) in naziv magister profesor flavte (6,4 %). Umetniško specializacijo ima 11,5 % uèiteljev. 2,6 % uèiteljev je magistrov znanosti s podroèja flavte. 3,8 % uèiteljev študira na III. stopnji doktorskega študija, 3,8 % uèiteljev na to vprašanje ni odgovorilo. Najveè uèiteljev (23,1 %) pouèuje flavto 6–10 let, uèitelji, ki pouèujejo med 16 in 20 let, so bili druga najbolj številna skupina (21,8 %), uèiteljev, ki pouèujejo od 11 do 15 let, je bilo 16,7 %, tistih z 26–30-letnimi izkušnjami je bilo 10,3 %, uèiteljev z 31–35 let delovnih izkušenj 6,4 %, tistih, ki pouèujejo flavto med 21 in 25 let, je bilo prav tako 6,4 %, najmanj pa je bilo uèiteljev z veè kot 35 let delovnih izkušenj (1,3 %). Najveè, torej 16 uèiteljev (20,5 %), pouèuje po 18 uèencev, 12 uèiteljev (15,4 %) pouèuje po 19 uèencev, 9 uèiteljev (11,5 %) pouèuje po 20 uèencev, 7 uèiteljev (9,0 %), pouèuje 16 uèencev, 6 uèiteljev (7,7 %) pouèuje 17 uèencev, 5 uèiteljev (6,4 %) pouèuje 14 uèencev, 4 uèitelji (5,1 %) pouèujejo po 11 uèencev, prav tako 4 uèitelji (5,1 %) pouèujejo po 8 uèencev, po 2 uèitelja (2,6 %) pouèujeta po 21, 22 ali 23 uèencev, po 1 uèitelj (1,3 %) pa pouèuje po 24, 15, 10, 9, 7, 6 ali 4 uèence. Uèitelji v povpreèju pouèujejo po 16,5 uèencev (SD = 4,248), najmanj 4 in najveè 24 uèencev. 9 Ana Kavèiè Pucihar, UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... Uèiteljev, ki pouèujejo poln delovni èas oz. imajo nadobvezo, je 73,1 %, uèiteljev, ki imajo zmanjšan dele zaposlitve oz. zmanjšano obvezo, je 26,9 %. Postopki zbiranja podatkov Za ugotavljanje sociodemografskih znaèilnosti uèiteljev flavte, uporabe literature v uènem naèrtu in uporabe literature po lastnem izboru, smo oblikovali anketni vprašalnik. S petstopenjskimi ocenjevalnimi lestvicami Likertovega tipa smo ugotavljali, kako pogosto uèitelji uporabljajo navedeno literaturo iz uènega naèrta od 1. do 8. razreda. Rabo izbirne literature od 1. do 4. razreda smo ugotavljali s polodprtimi vprašanji in petstopenjskimi ocenjevalnimi lestvicami Likertovega tipa. Od 5. do 8. razreda so uèitelji odgovarjali na odprta vprašanja o rabi izbirne literature pri pouku. Vsebinsko veljavnost vprašalnika so potrdili trije eksperti. Notranjo konsistentnost vprašalnika smo preverili s Cronbachovim koeficientom alfa. Dobljeni rezultat = 0,890 je pokazal dobro zanesljivost vprašalnika. Objektivnost smo zagotovili z uporabljenimi naèini zbiranja podatkov in s sklopi ocenjevalnih lestvic. Pri statistiènem sklepanju smo upoštevali stopnjo tveganja 0,05. Vprašalnik smo posredovali 158 uèiteljem flavte, ki flavto pouèujejo na 54 dravnih in 13 zasebnih glasbenih šolah v Sloveniji. Anketiranje je potekalo v veè fazah, in sicer od novembra 2016 do marca 2017. Vprašalnik smo skupaj z dopisom za ravnatelje in navodili za uèitelje poslali na vse slovenske glasbene šole v tiskani in elektronski obliki ter na flavtistiène izobraevalne dogodke. Uèitelji so izpolnjene vprašalnike vraèali po pošti ali po elektronski pošti. Prejeli smo 78 izpolnjenih vprašalnikov, kar predstavlja 49,36 % odzivnost. Vsem sodelujoèim uèiteljem je bila zagotovljena anonimnost, zbrane podatke pa smo uporabili le v raziskovalne namene. Postopki obdelave podatkov Podatke, ki smo jih pridobili z anketnim vprašalnikom, smo s pomoèjo programa SPSS 22.0 analizirali na ravni opisne in inferenène statistike. Uporabili smo frekvenèno distribucijo (f, f %) atributivnih spremenljivk in aritmetiène sredine (M) numerièno izraenih stopenj odgovorov. Pri intervalnih spremenljivkah smo izraèunali aritmetièno sredino (M) in standardni odklon (SD). Za ugotavljanje razlik v uporabi priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta med posameznimi razredi smo uporabili neparametrièni Friedmanov test. Ker smo ugotovili, da so razlike v pogostosti uporabe priporoèene literature statistièno znaèilne, smo uporabili Znakovni test (ang. Sign test) za preverjanje obstoja statistièno pomembnih razlik med vsemi mogoèimi kombinacijami parov razredov. Pri statistiènem sklepanju smo upoštevali stopnjo tveganja 0,05. Rezultate smo prikazali tabelarièno in grafièno, pri èemer smo uporabili program MS Excel 2010. 10 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Rezultati in interpretacija Zastopanost priporoèene literature smo preverili za vsak posamezen razred glasbene šole. Zanimalo nas je, kako pogosto uèitelji uporabljajo posamezno priporoèeno literaturo, kolikšen dele uèiteljev to literaturo nadomešèa z viri po lastnem izboru in kateri so najpogostejši izbrani viri. Pogostost uporabe so uèitelji ocenili s petstopenjsko ocenjevalno lestvico (1 – nikoli, 2 – redko, 3 – vèasih, 4 – pogosto, 5 – zelo pogosto). 1. Razred Graf 1: Uporaba priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta za flavto v 1. razredu glede na odstotne delee Tabela 1: Pogostost uporaba priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta za flavto v 1. razredu Priporoèena literatura 1. razred NM i nM a xM eMS D G. Gariboldi: Erste Ubungen 75 1 5 5,00 4,37 1,063 C. P. Herfurth/H. M. Stuart: A Tune A Day 75 1 5 4,00 3,60 1,294 E. Prill, op. 7 (I.): Šola za flavto 72 1 5 3,00 3,11 1,632 E. Köhler, op. 53, (I.): Šola za flavto 73 1 5 3,00 3,10 1,556 T. Buh/ N. Tomšiè: Šola za flavto 75 1 5 3,00 2,72 1,429 T. Wye: A beginner's book for the Flute 74 1 5 2,00 2,49 1,316 P. Wastall: Learn as you play flute 73 1 5 2,00 2,37 1,275 G. Lyons: Take Up the Flute 73 1 5 1,00 1,84 1,202 Legenda: N- število, Min – minimalna vrednost, Max – maksimalna vrednost, Me – mediana, M- aritmetièna sredina, SD – standardni odklon 11 Ana Kavèiè Pucihar, UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... Uèitelji v 1. razredu zelo pogosto (Me = 5) uporabljajo uèbenik G. Gariboldi: Erste Übungen, pri èemer vrednost standardnega odklona (M = 4,37; SD = 1,063) kae na poenoteno uporabo tega uèbenika. Kljub dejstvu, da je bil uèbenik G. Gariboldija prviè izdan leta 1880, uèitelji flavte enotno ocenjujejo, da tudi zdaj dobro pokriva potrebe njihovih uèencev 1. razreda. Prvih dvajset etud, kolikor jih je predpisanih v uènem naèrtu, je razmeroma kratkih, v obsegu od e1 do d3, torej v najbolj zveneèem obsegu flavte, vse so v binarni podelitvi, ki je uèencem blizu, in v tonalitetah C-dur in G-dur. Kljub temu da uèbenik nima grafiènih ponazoril, barv ali nosilcev zvoka, oèitno predstavlja vir, ki ga uèitelji pri svojem delu ocenjujejo kot nepogrešljivega. Uèitelji pogosto (Me = 4) uporabljajo uèbenik C. P. Herfuth/H. M. Stuart: A Tune A Day, pri èemer vrednost standardnega odklona (M = 3,60; SD = 1,294 ) rahlo presega tretjino vrednosti aritmetiène sredine, kar kae na manj poenoteno uporabo tega uèbenika. Uèbenik C. P. Herfuth/H. M. Stuart: A Tune A Day je bil prviè izdan leta 1953. Je zelo postopen, sistematièen, snov nadgrajuje po obvladljivih segmentih. Grafièna podoba ne dosega veè današnjih standardov, prav tako nima priloenega CD-ja s spremljavami. Zalonik se je sicer odloèil izdati prenovljeno izdajo, imenovano A New A Tune A Day, katerega uporabe pa ne zasledimo med slovenskimi uèitelji flavte. Uèitelji vèasih (Me = 3) uporabljajo E. Prill, op. 7 (I.): Šola za flavto, E. Köhler, op. 53, (I): Šola za flavto, T. Buh/N. Tomšiè: Šola za flavto. Omenjene šole za flavto so vse starejših datumov – Prill iz leta 1927, Köhler iz leta 1880 in Buh/Tomšiè iz leta 1984. Naštete šole za flavto so današnjim uèencem oddaljene, saj sicer korektno in zelo racionalno predstavljajo snov, a naèin podajanja je v današnjem èasu zastarel. Z uèencem ne vzpostavljajo nikakršnega dialoga, temveè zgolj podajajo vedno bolj zahtevno notno gradivo. Tehnièna zahtevnost in kompleksnost glasbene teorije se hitro poveèuje, zato je našteto gradivo primernejše za uèence, ki se zaènejo uèiti flavto starejši (nad 9 let) oz. imajo predznanje kljunaste flavte. Oèitno nekateri uèitelji flavte še vedno pouèujejo na tak naèin, zato so ti uèbeniki še vedno obèasno v uporabi, èeprav bi jih kazalo ob prenovi uènega naèrta izpustiti. Uèitelji redko (Me = 2) uporabljajo T. Wye: A beginner’s book for the Flute in P. Wastall: Learn as you play the flute. Omenjena uèbenika izhajata iz Velike Britanije. Uèbenik T. Wye: A beginner’s book for the Flute zelo hitro prehaja v vedno bolj kompleksno gradivo, zato je za mlajše uèence manj primeren. Tudi uèbenik P. Wastalla je sicer primerno strukturiran, a zelo hitro prehaja na vse bolj kompleksno in zahtevno gradivo, zato je primeren za starejše uèence oz. uèence s predznanjem kljunaste flavte. Uèitelji ne uporabljajo uèbenika G. Lyons (Me = 1). V tem uèbeniku zasledimo zaèetek pouèevanja na tonu d2, kar je sicer s stališèa vzdrevanja ravnoteja inštrumenta dobro, vse naslednje povezave prijemov pa so toliko bolj zahtevne, ker mora uèenec vsakokrat premakniti veliko število prstov, kar je za zaèetnike obièajno prezahtevno. Uèitelji ga verjetno zato skorajda ne uporabljajo. V nobenem od priporoèenih uèbenikov v uènem naèrtu ne zasledimo sistematiènega spodbujanja inovativnosti in ustvarjalnosti, omogoèanja usvajanja višjih taksonomskih 12 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek ciljev in upoštevanja razliènih uènih stilov. Prav tako nobeden od priporoèenih uèbenikov, razen G. Lyons, nima priloenega CD-ja oz. druge oblike zvoènih posnetkov. Uèitelji flavte oèitno tudi sami ugotavljajo, da priporoèeni uèbeniki v 1. razredu v polni meri ne ustrezajo potrebam današnjih uèencev zaèetnikov, zato priporoèeno literaturo nadomešèajo z uèbeniki po lastnem izboru v kar 97,4 %. Izbirna literatura po izboru uèiteljev v 1. razredu Tabela 2: Pogostost uporabe izbirne literature po izboru uèiteljev v 1. razredu Izbirna iteratura 1. r. NM i nM a xM eMS D Veljavni A. Kavèiè Pucihar: Igramo se flavto 74 1 5 5,00 4,27 1,150 L. Goodwin: The Fife Book 73 1 5 3,00 3,16 1,599 I. Ory: La Flute Traversiere 71 1 5 1,00 1,51 1,120 H. Hammond: Funky Flute I 72 1 5 1,00 1,94 1,433 B. Gissler Hasse: Mini Magic Flute 72 1 5 1,00 1,92 1,392 Jaarsma/Kastelein: Look, Listen and Learn 1 72 1 5 1,00 1,46 0,992 A. Zupan: Potovanje s flavtico 72 1 5 1,00 2,29 1,578 Drugo 1 5 5 5,00 5,00 Najpogostejši izbrani uèbenik je A. Kavèiè Pucihar: Igramo se flavto, ki ga uèitelji uporabljajo v povpreèju zelo pogosto (Me = 5), vrednost standardnega odklona (M = 4,27; SD = 1,150) pa kae poenoteno uporabo med uèitelji. Uèbenik Igramo se flavto omogoèa zgodnje uèenje flavte in uèence postopno ter sistematièno vodi k usvajanju osnov igranja flavte, osnov glasbene teorije ter obvladovanja inštrumenta. Barvni uèbenik je tehnièno opremljen z dvema zgošèenkama, na katerih so posnete spremljave k skladbicam, in tako uèencu omogoèa samostojno vadenje doma in pri urah flavte. Za razliko od veèine ostalih uèbenikov od vsega zaèetka spodbuja komorno igro, aktivno usvajanje osnov glasbene teorije in medpredmetno povezovanje. Uèbenik L. Goodwin: The Fife Book uèitelji uporabljajo vèasih (Me = 3). Glede na to, da je uèbenik namenjen prvotnemu uèenju flavtice, ki je manjši in poenostavljen pribliek koncertne flavte, je razumljivo, da se manjši odstotek uèiteljev odloèa za ta naèin zaèetnega pouèevanja, saj od uèitelja in uèenca zahteva precej prilagajanja. Ostale literature – I Ory: La Flûte Traversiére, H. Hammond: Funky Flute I, Jaarsma/Kastelein: Look, Listen and Learn I, A. Zupan: Potovanje s flavtico ne uporabljajo (Me = 1) oziroma jo uporabljajo le redki uèitelji. Omenjeni uèbeniki predstavljajo raznovrstne pristope k pouèevanju, veèina izmed njih ima priloeno zgošèenko, uèbenik Look, Listen and Learn I spodbuja tudi improvizacijo uèencev. Uèitelje bi kazalo bolje seznaniti z omenjenimi uèbeniki, saj pomenijo dobrodošlo alternativo priporoèenim uèbenikom iz uènega naèrta. 13 Ana Kavèiè Pucihar, UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... 2. razred Graf 2: Uporaba priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta za flavto v 2. razredu glede na odstotne delee Tabela 3: Pogostost uporabe priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta v 2. razredu Priporoèena literatura 2. r. N Min Max Me M SD G. Gariboldi, op. 30: Easy and Progressive Studies, I. del 76 1 5 5,00 4,43 0,957 G. Gariboldi: Erste Ubungen 76 1 5 5,00 4,32 1,098 C. Cheret: 18 Petites Etudes Rythmiques 74 1 5 4,50 3,54 1,722 E. Köhler, op. 53, (I.): Šola za flavto 73 1 5 3,00 3,16 1,546 E. Prill, op. 7 (I.): Šola za flavto 71 1 5 3,00 3,00 1,673 T. Buh/N. Tomšiè: Šola za flavto 75 1 5 2,00 2,51 1,465 T. Wye: A beginner's book for the Flute 74 1 5 2,00 2,20 1,282 P. Wastall: Learn as you play flute 74 1 5 2,00 2,05 1,192 Uèitelji v 2. razredu zelo pogosto (Me = 5) uporabljajo uèbenika G. Gariboldija: Easy and Progressive Studies, I. del, in Erste Übungen Prvi del uèbenika Easy and Progressive Studies sestavljajo etude, ki so dolge po eno stran, kar za drugošolce predstavlja precejšen kondicijski izziv, vendar melodiènost in relativna preprostost teh etud verjetno botrujeta zelo pogosti in poenoteni uporabi med uèitelji. Uèbenik Erste Übungen se nadaljuje tudi v 2. razredu, kjer se po št. 20 zaènejo bolj zahtevne etude, ki drugošolcem predstavljajo dober izziv za izboljševanje tekoèega branja in tehniènega izvajanja notnega gradiva. Tudi C. Cheret: 18 Petites Etudes Rythmiques uèitelji pogosto (Me = 4,5) uporabljajo. Na to najverjetneje vplivajo primerna dolina in ritmièna razgibanost etud ter uporaba zgolj enostavnih tonalitet (C-dur, a-mol, F-dur, d-mol, G-dur, g-mol). Vèasih (Me = 3) 14 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek uporabljajo uèbenika E. Köhler, op. 53, (I): Šola za flavto in E. Prill, op. 7 (I.): Šola za flavto. Kot e zapisano, sta oba uèbenika za današnje potrebe zastarela, zato bi ju kazalo umakniti s seznama priporoèene literature v uènem naèrtu. Prav tako velja za naslednje uèbenike, ki jih uèitelji uporabljajo le redko (Me = 2): T. Buh/N. Tomšiè: Šola za flavto, T. Wye: A beginner’s book for the flute in P. Wastall: Learn as you play the flute. Veèina uèiteljev (91 %) priporoèeno literaturo nadomešèa tudi z uèbeniki po lastnem izboru. Izbirna literatura po izboru uèiteljev v 2. razredu Tabela 4: Pogostost uporabe izbirne literature po izboru uèiteljev v 2. Razredu Izbirna literatura 2. r. N Min Max Me M SD A. Kavèiè Pucihar: Igramo se flavto 67 1 5 5,00 4,21 1,175 K. Šantl Zupan, M. Zupan: Etude za flavto 69 1 5 3,00 2,78 1,533 I. Ory: La Flute Traversiere 67 1 5 1,00 1,51 1,160 H. Hammond: Funky Flute 67 1 5 1,00 1,94 1,466 B. Gissler Hasse: Mini Magic Flute 67 1 5 1,00 1,91 1,454 M. Broers: Look, Listen and Learn 2 65 1 5 1,00 1,38 0,860 Najpogostejši izbirni uèbenik je tudi v 2. razredu A. Kavèiè Pucihar: Igramo se flavto, ki ga uèitelji uporabljajo v povpreèju zelo pogosto (Me = 5) in poenoteno. Vèasih (Me = 3) uèitelji uporabljajo K. Šantl Zupan/M. Zupan: Etude za flavto. Raziskovalni izsledki niso pokazali uporabe uèbenikov: I. Ory: La Flûte Traversiére, H. Hammond: Funky Flute II, Jaarsma/Kastelein: Look, Listen and Learn 2, B. Gissler Hasse: Mini Magic Flute (Me = 1). Navedeni uèbeniki izhajajo iz razliènih drav (Francija, Velika Britanija, Nizozemska in Avstrija). Èe bi uèitelji flavte veè uporabljali omenjene uèbenike iz navedenih drav, bi svojim uèencem omogoèili širši vpogled v razliène šole igranja flavte in omogoèili veè medpredmetnega povezovanja. V prihodnje uèitelje flavte vsekakor velja bolje seznaniti z omenjenimi uèbeniki, ki so primerni za uèence drugih razredov flavte. 15 Ana Kavèiè Pucihar, UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... 3. razred Graf 3: Uporaba priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta za flavto v 3. razredu glede na odstotne delee Tabela 5: Pogostost uporabe priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta v 3. razredu Priporoèena literatura 3. r. N Min Max Me M SD G. Gariboldi, op. 30: Easy and Progressive Studies 74 2 5 5,00 4,66 0,625 G. Gariboldi: Etudes Mignonnes 75 1 5 5,00 4,45 0,920 G. Gariboldi: Erste Ubungen 73 1 5 4,00 3,67 1,472 R. Heriche: Etude 24+4 70 1 5 3,00 3,01 1,556 E. Köhler, op. 53, (I.): Šola za flavto 72 1 5 3,00 3,13 1,538 G. Gariboldi: Methode Complete 71 1 5 2,00 2,51 1,372 Uèitelji v 3. razredu zelo pogosto (Me = 5) uporabljajo dva uèbenika G. Gariboldija, in sicer op. 30: Easy and Progressive Studies in Etudes Mignonnes. Zelo pogosto (Me = 4) uporabljajo uèbenik Erste Übungen istega avtorja. Kljub temu da so navedene etude napisane v 19. stoletju, uèitelji tudi dandanes visoko cenijo njihovo vrednost za napredovanje uèencev. Vèasih (Me = 3) uporabljajo R. Heriche: Etude 24+4 in E. Köhler, op. 53, (I): Šola za flavto. Le redko (Me = 2) uporabljajo Gariboldijev uèbenik Methode Complete. Pri šolah za flavto uèitelji oèitno raje posegajo po novejših uèbenikih od tistih, ki so priporoèeni v uènem naèrtu, saj je naèin predstavitve snovi v Šoli za flavto E. Köhlerja in G. Gariboldija današnjim uèencem manj zanimiv, vsebine niso predstavljene interaktivno, ni glasbenih spremljav, verjetno je v tem vzrok za manjšo uporabo. Veèina uèiteljev (89,7 %) priporoèeno literaturo nadomešèa tudi z viri po lastnem izboru. 16 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Izbirna literatura po izboru uèiteljev v 3. razredu Tabela 6: Pogostost uporabe izbirne literature po izboru uèiteljev v 3. razredu Izbirna literatura 3. r. N Min Max Me M SD Pollock/Sebba: Abracadabra 66 1 5 3,00 3,15 1,561 K. Šantl Zupan, M. Zupan: Etude za flavto 67 1 5 3,00 2,78 1,455 J. Beekum: Con moto 65 1 5 1,00 2,38 1,774 H. Hammond: Funky Flute 65 1 5 1,00 1,66 1,384 M. Broers: Look, Listen and Learn 3 65 1 3 1,00 1,26 0,619 R. Lombardo: Melodious Studies for Technical Development 66 1 5 1,00 1,82 1,467 W. Popp, op. 411: Schule der Gelaufigkeit 66 1 5 1,00 2,11 1,479 Kot izbirno literaturo uèitelji vèasih (Me = 3) uporabljajo uèbenika M. Pollock/J.Sebba: Abracadabra in K. Šantl Zupan/M. Zupan: Etude za flavto. Prvega od navedenih uèbenikov sestavljajo ljudske pesmi in skladbe z vsega sveta, veèinoma iz angleško govoreèih deel, zato jih uèenci radi igrajo. Vse prvine so predstavljene skozi poznane skladbice, kar je obièajno uèencem blizu in omogoèa dober napredek pri igranju. Drugi navedeni uèbenik je dobro zasnovana zbirka etud razliènih avtorjev, ki omogoèa raznovrstno zastopanost razliènih elementov. Domnevamo, da se zato kar precejšnje število uèiteljev odloèa za uporabo tega uèbenika. Le redki uèitelji kot izbirno literature uporabljajo dela: J. Beekum: Con moto; H. Hammond: Funky Flute; M. Broers: Look, Listen and Learn 3; R. Lombardo: Melodious Studies for Technical Development; W. Popp, op. 411: Schule der Gelaufigkeit (Me = 1). Navedena izbirna literatura pokriva širok spekter od predvsem tehnièno naravnanih (Beekum, Popp in Lombardo) do uèbenikov z elementi improvizacije (Broers) in jazz glasbe (Hammond). Navedeni uèbeniki bi omogoèali veliko popestritev pouka, spoznavanje raznovrstnih glasbenih stilov in monost nadgradnje razvijanja tehniènih sposobnosti 17 Ana Kavèiè Pucihar, UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... 4. razred Graf 4: Uporaba priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta za flavto v 4. razredu glede na odstotne delee Tabela 7: Pogostost uporabe priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta v 4. razredu Priporoèena literatura 4. r. N Min Max Me M SD G. Gariboldi: 20 Petites Etudes 74 3 5 5,00 4,66 0,556 E. Kohler, op. 93: Ubungen 73 1 5 4,00 3,85 1,298 M. Moyse: 24 malih etud z variacijami 73 1 5 4,00 3,47 1,454 G. Gariboldi: Methode Complete 72 1 5 3,00 2,69 1,450 E. Köhler, op. 54: Šola za flavto 71 1 5 3,00 2,94 1,539 Uèitelji v 4. razredu zelo pogosto (Me = 5) in poenoteno (M = 4,66; SD = 0,556) uporabljajo uèbenik G. Gariboldi: 20 Petites Etudes. Pogosto (Me = 4) uporabljajo uèbenika E. Kohler, op. 93: Übungen in M. Moyse: 24 malih etud z variacijami. Uèbenike G. Gariboldi: Methode Complete in E. Kohler, op. 54: Šola za flavto uporabljajo vèasih (Me = 3). Veèina uèiteljev (78,2 %) priporoèeno literaturo nadomešèa tudi z literaturo po lastnem izboru. Tabela 8: Pogostost uporabe izbirne literature po izboru uèiteljev v 4. razredu Izbirna literatura 4. r. N Min Max Me M SD K. Šantl Zupan, M. Zupan: Etude za flavto 60 1 5 3,00 2,82 1,501 J. Beekum: Con moto 55 1 5 1,00 2,49 1,731 H. Hammond: Funky Flute 55 1 5 1,00 1,76 1,503 W. Popp, op. 411: Schüle der Gelaufigkeit 55 1 5 1,00 2,27 1,496 W. Popp, op. 413: Tägliche Fingerübungen 55 1 5 1,00 2,16 1,488 R. Lombardo: Melodious Studies for Technical Development 55 1 5 1,00 1,82 1,415 18 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Tudi v 4. razredu uèitelji vèasih (Me = 3) uporabljajo K. Šantl Zupan/M. Zupan: Etude za flavto. Ostale izbirne literature ne uporabljajo (Me = 1) oziroma jo uporabljajo le redki posamezni uèitelji: J. Beekum: Con moto; H. Hammond. Funky Flute; W. Popp, op. 411: Schüle der Gelaufigkeit; W. Popp, op. 413: Tagliche Fingerübungen; R. Lombardo: Melodious Studies for Technical Development. Tudi v 4. razredu predlagana izbirna literatura ponuja širok spekter glasbenih stilov, od predvsem tehnièno naravnanih (Beekum, Popp in Lombardo) do uèbenikov z elementi improvizacije in jazz glasbe (Hammond), vendar navedene uèbenike, ki bi omogoèali veliko popestritev pouka, spoznavanje raznovrstnih glasbenih stilov in monost nadgradnje razvijanja tehniènih sposobnosti, uporabljajo le redki uèitelji. 5. razred Graf 5: Uporaba priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta za flavto v 5. razredu glede na odstotne delee Tabela 9: Pogostost uporabe priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta v 5. razredu Priporoèena literatura 5. r. N Min Max Me M SD G. Gariboldi: 20 Etudes Chantantes 75 1 5 5,00 4,25 1,028 J. Demmerssemann: 50 Etudes Melodiques 72 1 5 4,00 3,68 1,287 G. Gariboldi: Etudes Journaliers 75 1 5 4,00 4,01 1,180 E. Kohler: Etude op. 33 73 1 5 4,00 4,11 1,137 J. van Beekum: Fabulous Flutes 67 1 5 4,00 3,19 1,743 J. Andersen: 18 Etud, op. 11 71 1 5 3,00 2,97 1,558 Uèitelji v 5. razredu zelo pogosto (Me = 5) in poenoteno (M = 4,25; SD = 1,028) uporabljajo uèbenik G. Gariboldi: Etudes Chantantes, vèasih (Me = 3) pa 18 Etud, op. 11 J. Andersena. 19 Ana Kavèiè Pucihar, UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... Pogosto (M = 4) uporabljajo J. Demmerssemann: 50 Etudes Melodiques, G. Gariboldi: Etudes Journaliers, E. Kohler: Etude op. 33, J. van Beekum: Fabulous Flutes. Veè kot èetrtina uèiteljev (29,5 %) priporoèeno literaturo nadomešèa tudi z viri po lastnem izboru. V opisnih odgovorih so uèitelji navedli, da uporabljajo naslednjo izbirno literaturo: Bantai Kovacs: Šola za flavto, 2. zvezek (lestvice), Bantai/Kovacs: Selected Studies I, II, Dapper: 1. in 2. del, G. Gariboldi: 20 Petites Etudes, J. Rae: 40 Modern Studies, Jagudin: Etude, K. Šantl Zupan/M. Zupan: Etude za flavto: 2, 3. Lombardo: Technical Studies, N. Platonov: 30 Studies for Flute, Ph. Bernold: Technique d` Embouchure, R. Lombardo: Melodious Studies for Technical Development, Reichert: Tägliche Übungen, S. Arriagada: 10 Etudes Latino-Américaines, Taffanel/Gaubert: IV. in V. del, Taffanel/Gaubert: Methode Complete de la flute (izbor), Tomaszewski: Izbor Etud, W. Popp: op. 411 in op. 413. Uèitelji torej uporabljajo zelo raznoliko literaturo, od tehniène (Taffanel/Gaubert, Lombardo, Popp, Reichert) do literature za razvijanje nastavka in tona (Bernold) ter klasiènih etud (Bantai/Kovacs, Jagudin, Šantl Zupan/Zupan, Platonov, Gariboldi, Tomaszewski), šol za flavto (Dapper, Bantai/Kovacs) in tudi etnièno obarvanih etud (Arriagada), modernih etud v razliènih glasbenih stilih (Rae). Verjetno prihaja do take raznolikosti uènih gradiv tako glede na glasbeni stil kot tudi osredotoèenost, ker uèitelji uèencem izbirajo literaturo glede na njihovo prihodnjo usmeritev – èe bo uèenec zakljuèil po 6. razredu, mu verjetno izbirajo drugaèno literaturo kot tistim uèencem, ki nameravajo nadaljevati s šolanjem na višji stopnji glasbene šole ali celo izrazijo eljo po nadaljevanju šolanja iz flavte na umetniški gimnaziji. 6. razred Graf 6: Uporaba priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta za flavto v 6. razredu glede na odstotne delee 20 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Tabela 10: Pogostost uporabe priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta v 6. razredu Priporoèena literatura 6. r. N Min Max Me M SD E. Kohler, op. 66: Romantiène etude 75 1 5 5,00 4,69 0,657 G. Gariboldi: Etudes de Style 71 1 5 4,00 3,73 1,352 G. Gariboldi: Methode Complete, II. del 71 1 5 3,00 2,87 1,453 H. Gagnebin: 24 Pieces Recreatives 70 1 5 2,50 2,64 1,523 Uèitelji v 6. razredu zelo pogosto (Me = 5) in poenoteno (M = 4,69; SD = 0,657) uporabljajo uèbenik E. Kohler, op. 66: Romantiène etude. G. Gariboldi: Etudes de Style uporabljajo pogosto (Me = 4), vendar manj poenoteno (M = 3,73; SD = 1,352). Vèasih (Me = 3) uporabljajo uèbenika G. Gariboldi: Methode Complete, II. del in H. Gagnebin: 24 Pieces Recreatives (Me=2,5). Dobra tretjina uèiteljev (38,5 %) priporoèeno literaturo nadomešèa tudi z viri po lastnem izboru. 7. razred Graf 7: Uporaba priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta za flavto v 7. razredu glede na odstotne delee Tabela 11: Pogostost uporabe priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta v 7. razredu Priporoèena literatura 7. r. N Min Max Me M SD G. Gariboldi: Grandes Etudes de Style 66 1 5 5,00 4,12 1,259 L. Drouet: 25 Études Célebres 64 1 5 4,00 3,80 1,460 M. A. Reichert: 6 dnevnih vaj 62 1 5 3,50 3,40 1,396 T. Wye: Metoda vadenja (I., II. in III. zvezek) 63 1 5 3,00 2,84 1,558 21 Ana Kavèiè Pucihar, UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... Uèitelji v sedmih razredih zelo pogosto (Me = 5) in poenoteno (M = 4,12; SD = 1,295) uporabljajo uèbenik G. Gariboldi: Grandes Etudes de Style. Pogosto (Me = 4), vendar manj poenoteno (M = 3,80; SD = 1,460), uporabljajo L. Drouet: 25 Études Célebres, M. A. Reichert: 6 dnevnih vaj pa uporabljajo vèasih do pogosto (Me = 3,5). Vèasih (Me = 3) uporabljajo še zvezke metod vadenja T. Wye. Slaba èetrtina (24,4 %) uèiteljev priporoèeno literaturo nadomešèa tudi z viri po lastnem izboru. Uèitelji so navedli, da uporabljajo naslednjo izbirno literaturo: A. Terschak: Tägliche Studien für Flöte; J. Demmerssemann: 50 Melodiènih Etud, I. in II. del; E. Köhler, op. 66: Romantiène etude in op. 93, II. del; F. Tomaszewski: Wybor Etud na Fliet: 3; izbor etud, ki so predpisane za nije razrede (E. Köhler: Etude op. 33, Gariboldi: Etudes Journaliers); K. Šantl Zupan/M. Zupan: Etude za flavto 3; L. Moyse: Daily Exercises; Ph. Bernold: La technique d’Embouchure; Taffanel/Gaubert: 17 Daily Exercises, izbor etud; Vester: 100 Classical Studies for Flute. Tako kot v prejšnjih razredih, tudi v 7. razredu lahko ugotovimo, da uèitelji uporabljajo zelo raznoliko literaturo, ki jo lahko razdelimo na tehnièno (Taffanel/Gaubert, Moyse, Terschak) oz. literaturo za razvijanje nastavka in tona (Bernold) in na klasiène etude (Šantl Zupan/Zupan, Köhler, Tomaszewski, Vester, Demmerssemann). Raznolikost izbora znova lahko pojasnimo z uèiteljevim prilagajanjem izbora literature glede na izraene uèenèeve elje glede nadaljevanja šolanja – ali uèenec eli zgolj zakljuèiti višjo stopnjo šolanja na glasbeni šoli ali pa eli nadaljevati s šolanjem na umetniški gimnaziji – smer flavta. 8. razred Graf 8: Uporaba priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta za flavto v 8. razredu glede na odstotne delee 22 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Tabela 12: Pogostost uporabe priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta v 8. razredu Priporoèena literatura 8. r. N Min Max Me M SD G. Gariboldi: Grandes Etudes de Style 59 1 5 5,00 4,03 1,299 M. A. Reichert: 6 dnevnih vaj 61 1 5 4,00 3,46 1,421 L. Drouet: 25 Études Célebres 59 1 5 4,00 3,98 1,306 J. Demerssemann: 50 melodiènih etud, II. del 60 1 5 4,00 3,80 1,424 T. Wye: Metoda vadenja (IV., V in VI. zvezek) 60 1 5 3,00 2,90 1,537 P. L. Graf: Check-up 57 1 5 3,00 2,70 1,603 Uèitelji v 8. razredu zelo pogosto (Me = 5) uporabljajo uèbenik G. Gariboldi: Grandes Etudes de Style, pogosto (Me = 4) uèbenike M. A. Reichert: 6 Dnevnih vaj; L. Drouet: 25 Études Célebres; J. Demerssemann: 50 melodiènih etud, II. del in vèasih (Me = 3) uèbenika T. Wye: Metoda vadenja (IV., V in VI. zvezek) in P. L. Graf: Check-up. Slaba èetrtina uèiteljev (23,1 %) priporoèeno literaturo nadomešèa tudi z viri po lastnem izboru. Uèitelji so navedli, da kot izbirno literature uporabljajo: A. Terschak: Tägliche Übungen; E. Köhler: Etude op. 33, I. in III. del; F. Tomaszewski: Wybor Etiud na flet, 3, 4; J. Andersen: 18 Etud, op. 11; K. Šantl Zupan/M. Zupan: Etude za flavto; L. Moyse: Daily Exercises; Ph. Bernold: La Technique d’Embouchure; T. Böhm: 24 Caprices Etudes; T. Filas: Top Register Studies; T. Wye; Taffanel/Gaubert: 17 Big Daily Exercises. Tako kot v prejšnjih razredih, tudi v 8. razredu lahko ugotovimo, da uèitelji uporabljajo zelo raznoliko literaturo, ki jo lahko razdelimo na tehnièno (Taffanel/Gaubert, Moyse, Terschak, Filas) oz. literaturo za razvijanje nastavka in tona (Bernold, Wye) in na klasiène etude (Šantl Zupan/Zupan, Köhler, Tomaszewski, Vester, Andersen, Böhm). Tudi v 8. razredu veliko raznolikost literature lahko pojasnimo glede na izraene elje glede nadaljevanja šolanja. Bi pa morda veljalo vkljuèiti tudi veèji nabor razliènih glasbenih stilov in monosti uèenja improviziranja na flavti, kar zasledimo v precejšnjem številu tujih uèbenikov, ki so na voljo. Povpreèna pogostost uporabe priporoèene oz. osnovne literature iz uènega naèrta od 1. do 8. razreda Za potrebe sprememb pri prenovi uènih naèrtov potrebujemo podatke, v katerih razredih uèitelji flavte v najveèji meri uporabljajo drugo literaturo od predpisane, saj je oèitno, da bo v tistih razredih potrebno predlagati najveè sprememb pri priporoèeni literaturi. Glede na pridobljene podatke o uporabi priporoèene oz. osnovne literature za vsak razred smo za potrebe celovitega pregleda na osnovi lestvice pogostosti uporabe (ocene od 1 do 5) za vsak razred izraèunali povpreèno pogostost uporabe priporoèene oz. osnovne literature iz uènega naèrta za flavto. 23 Ana Kavèiè Pucihar, UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... Graf 9: Pogostost uporabe priporoèene literature v vseh razredih iz uènega naèrta glede na vrednosti median Tabela 13: Pogostost uporabe priporoèene literature v vseh razredih iz uènega naèrta od 1. do 8. razreda Pogostost uporabe priporoèene literature po razredih NM i nM a xM eM S D 1. razred - Me priporoèene literature 58 1,00 5,00 3,00 2,8103 1,19512 2. razred - Me priporoèene literature 58 1,00 5,00 3,25 3,2328 1,15172 3. razred - Me priporoèene literature 58 1,00 5,00 4,00 3,8707 1,09849 4. razred - Me priporoèene literature 58 1,00 5,00 4,00 3,5000 1,27389 5. razred - Me priporoèene literature 58 1,00 5,00 4,00 3,9483 0,93513 6. razred - Me priporoèene literature 58 1,00 5,00 3,75 3,6293 1,04529 7. razred - Me priporoèene literature 58 1,00 5,00 4,00 3,7672 1,14790 8. razred - Me priporoèene literature 58 1,00 5,00 4,00 3,7500 1,20398 Iz Grafa 9 je razvidno, da priporoèeno literaturo v povpreèju vèasih uporabljajo v 1. razredu (Me = 3) in 2. razredu (Me = 3,3), medtem ko priporoèeno literaturo v višjih razredih uporabljajo v povpreèju pogosto (Me = 4). V 1. razredu uèitelji vèasih uporabljajo priporoèeno literaturo iz uènega naèrta, pri èemer vrednost standardnega odklona kae (M = 2,81; SD = 1,195) na nepoenoteno uporabo med uèitelji. V 2. razredu uèitelji vèasih uporabljajo priporoèeno literaturo iz uènega naèrta, vrednost standardnega odklona (M = 3,23; SD = 1,151) prav tako kae na nepoenoteno rabo med uèitelji. V 3. razredu uèitelji pogosto uporabljajo priporoèeno literaturo, vrednost standardnega odklona (M = 3,87; SD = 1,09) kae na dokaj poenoteno uporabo med uèitelji. V 4. razredu uèitelji priporoèeno literaturo uporabljajo pogosto, vrednost standardnega odklona (M = 3,5; SD = 1,27) kae na nepoenoteno uporabo med uèitelji. V 5. razredu uèitelji pogosto uporabljajo priporoèeno literaturo iz uènega naèrta, vrednost standardnega odklona (M = 3,94; SD = 0,93) kae na poenoteno rabo med 24 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek uèitelji. V 6. razredu uèitelji pogosto uporabljajo priporoèeno literaturo, vrednost standardnega odklona (M = 3,62; SD = 1,04) kae na dokaj poenoteno uporabo med uèitelji. V 7. razredu uèitelji pogosto uporabljajo priporoèeno literaturo iz uènega naèrta, vrednost standardnega odklona (M = 3,76; SD = 1,14) nakazuje na dokaj poenoteno rabo med uèitelji. V 8. razredu uèitelji pogosto uporabljajo priporoèeno literaturo, vrednost standardnega odklona (M = 3,75; SD = 1,20) ponovno kae na dokaj poenoteno uporabo med uèitelji. Razlike v uporabi priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta za flavto in izbirne literature med razredi Raziskali smo, kako pogosto uèitelji uporabljajo literaturo po lastnem izboru v posameznem razredu. Graf 10: Uporaba izbirne literature od 1. do 8. razreda Uèitelji flavte v 1. razredu uporabljajo izbirno literaturo v 97,4 %. V 2. razredu v 91 %, v 3. razredu v 89,7 %, v 4. razredu v 78,2 %, v 5. razredu v 29,5 %, v 6. razredu v 38,5 %, v 7. razredu v 24,4 % in v 8. razredu v 23,1 %. Tabela 14: Rezultat neparametriènega Friedmanovega preizkusa pri uporabi priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta N5 8 Chi-Square 69,411 df 7 Asymp. Sig. 0,000 25 Ana Kavèiè Pucihar, UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... Rezultat neparametriènega Friedmanovega testa kae, da so razlike v pogostosti uporabe priporoèene literature med razredi statistièno znaèilne (x 2 = 69,41, p = 0,000). Priporoèena literatura v 1.in 2. razredu je statistièno znaèilno manj pogosto v uporabi kot v višjih razredih (od 3. razreda naprej). Zato smo z Znakovnim testom (ang. Sign test) preverjali obstoj statistièno pomembnih razlik med vsemi mogoèimi kombinacijami parov razredov. Rezultati Znakovnega preizkusa potrjujejo, da je uporaba priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta med razredi razlièna, kar podpira domnevo, da so potrebe po prenovi priporoèene literature v uènem naèrtu za flavto med posameznimi razredi razliène. Sklep Kot smo predpostavljali, so rezultati pokazali statistièno znaèilne razlike v pogostosti uporabe priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta za flavto tako med posameznimi razredi kot tudi v pogostosti uporabe izbirne literature po izboru uèiteljev; rezultati so pokazali tudi statistièno znaèilne razlike v deleu uèiteljev, ki priporoèeno literaturo iz uènega naèrta za posamezne razrede nadomešèa z literaturo po lastnem izboru. Rezultati raziskave bodo lahko sluili kot izhodišèe ob naslednji prenovi uènega naèrta za flavto. Razmisliti moramo o naèinih, kako uèiteljem predstaviti raznolikost literature za flavto, ki jo najdemo v mednarodnem prostoru. V sedanjem uènem naèrtu ne zasledimo literature, ki bi uèence spodbujala k improvizaciji, lastnemu ustvarjanju skladb, ki bi vkljuèevala razliène glasbene stile. Tudi med izbrano literaturo po izboru uèiteljev tovrstne literature skorajda ne zasledimo. Uèitelje flavte moramo spodbujati k zavedanju, da je prednost individualnega pouka ravno v tem, da ima uèitelj avtonomno monost vsakemu uèencu izbirati raznovrstno glasbeno literaturo, ob kateri se bo ta razvijal v vsestranskega glasbenika. Tudi na ta naèin bo pri uèencih razvijal ljubezen do glasbe in muziciranja, torej temeljno nalogo pouèevanja flavte, kot je opredeljena v uènem naèrtu (Uèni naèrt. Flavta, 2003). 26 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Viri in literatura: Dopolnjeni predmetnik. Glasba (2010). Republika Slovenija. Ministrstvo za izobraevanje, znanost in šport. 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Revija za elementarno izobraevanje , letn. 10, št. 4, str. 399-416. Kovaè, Miha, Mojca Kovaè-Šebart, Janez Krek in Damijan Štefanc (2005). Uèbeniki in druba znanja . Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta: Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete. Lehman, Andreas C., John A. Sloboda in Robert H. Woody (2007). Psychology for Musicians: Understanding and Acquiring the Skills. New York: Oxford University Press. MIZŠ (2017). Ministrstvo za izobraevanje, znanost in šport RS. E-korespondenca z dne 9. 5. 2017. Osebni arhiv avtorice. Pembrook, Randall in Cheryl Craig (2002). Teaching as a Profession. Two Variations on a Theme. V: Colwell, R. in C. Richardson (ur.). The New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pravilnik o izobrazbi uèiteljev in drugih strokovnih delavcev v izobraevalnih programih glasbene šole (2015). Uradni list Republike Slovenije št. 104/15. Dostopno na: http://pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=PRAV12515 (1. 9. 2019). Pravilnik o preverjanju in ocenjevanju znanja v glasbenih šolah (2003). Uradni list Republike Slovenije št. 83/2003. Dostopno na: https://www.uradni-list.si/ glasilo-uradni-list-rs/vsebina/2003-01-3975?sop=2003-01-3975 (1. 9. 2019). Priporoèila podroènih skupin za izbor in rabo uènih gradiv (2017). Dostopno na: https://www.zrss.si/zrss/wp-content/uploads/2017-03-16-priporocila-za-izbiro-ucbenik ov-in-kompletov-ucnih-gradiv-za-solsko-leto-2017-2018.pdf (19. 8. 2019). Quantz, Johann Joachim (2001). On Playing the Flute. The Classic of Baroque Music Instruction. 2. izdaja, 2. ponatis. London: Faber and Faber. 27 Ana Kavèiè Pucihar, UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... Rotar Pance, Branka (1997). Struktura lika uèitelja glasbe. Glasbenopedagoški zbornik Akademije za glasbo v Ljubljani. 2, str. 143 – 150. Stronge, James H. (2018). Qualities of Effective Teachers, 3. izdaja. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Šantl Zupan, Karolina (2016). Pedagoško in umetniško delovanje uèiteljev pihal. Glasbenopedagoški zbornik Akademije za glasbo v Ljubljani. 24, str. 57-71. Štefanc, Damijan (2005). Uèbenik z vidika didaktiène teorije: znaèilnosti, funkcije, kakovost in problematika potrjevanja. Sodobna pedagogika, 56 (4), 172–185. Štefanc, Damijan, Jasna Magon in Danuša Škapin (2011). Z uènimi gradivi do kakovostnega znanja. Ljubljana: Center Republike Slovenije za poklicno izobraevanje. Dostopno na: http://www.cpi.si/files/cpi/userfiles/Datoteke/evalvacija/ Z-ucnimi- gradivi_www.pdf (29. 3. 2018). Uèni naèrt. Flavta (2003). Republika Slovenija. Ministrstvo za izobraevanje, znanost in šport. Dostopno na: http://www.mizs.gov.si/fileadmin/mizs.gov.si/pageuploads/ podrocje/glasba/pdf/Dopolnjeni_predmetnik_ucni_nacrt_Flavta.pdf (22. 10. 2015). Zakon o glasbenih šolah (2000). Uradni list Republike Slovenije št. 81/06. Dostopno na: http://pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=ZAKO2063 (1. 9. 2019). 28 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek SUMMARY Slovenian flute teachers must follow the Slovenian State Flute Curriculum guidelines. These also include recommended graded flute repertoire. Teachers are encouraged to use these recommendations as guidance not as a rigid obligation. We researched the use of recommended and elective flute repertoire between 1 st and 8 th grade among Slovenian Music School flute teachers (N=78). The research is based on descriptive and causally non-experimental quantitative method. The questionnaire was designed to explore the use of flute repertoire in the individual instrumental flute instruction in Slovenian Music Schools. The percentage of female teachers is very high (93,5 %). The majority of flute teachers are 26 to 35 years old (37,6 %). The majority of flute teachers (20,5 %) have 18 students in their class. 73,1 % are full time flute teachers and 26,9 % have less than full time employment. In the 1 st grade, the most frequently used tutor book (Me = 5) from the recommended list is G. Gariboldi: Erste Übungen. Igramo se flavto by A. Kavèiè Pucihar is the most frequently (Me = 5) elected method book. In the 2 nd grade G. Gariboldi’s Easy and Progressive Studies, op. 30 and Erste Übungen are the most frequently (Me = 5) used tutor books from the recommended list. A. Kavèiè Pucihar: Igramo se flavto is the most frequently elected (Me = 5) method book. In the 3 rd grade G. Gariboldi’s Easy and Progressive Studies, op. 30 and Etudes Mignonnes are the most frequently (Me = 5) used tutor books from the recommended list. M. Pollock/J.Sebba: Abracadabra and K. Šantl Zupan/M. Zupan: Studies for the flute are the most frequently (Me = 3) elected tutor books. In the 4 th grade G. Gariboldi: 20 Petites Etudes is the most frequently used tutor book (Me = 5) from the recommended list. K. Šantl Zupan/M. Zupan: Studies for the flute is the most frequently (Me = 3) elected tutor book. In the 5 th grade G. Gariboldi: Etudes Chantantes is the most frequently used tutor book (Me = 5) from the recommended list. In the 6 th grade E. Kohler, op. 66: Romantic studies is the most frequently used tutor book (Me = 5) from the recommended list. In the 7 th and 8 th grade G. Gariboldi: Grandes Etudes de Style is the most frequently used tutor book (Me = 5) from the recommended list. From 5 th –8 th grade on, teachers described their elected repertoire. The elected repertoire consisted of studies in the following categories: technical, tone development, classical and world music studies. The results revealed statistically significant differences in the frequency of the recommended repertoire use among the grades. Statistically significant differences in the frequency of the elective repertoire use also emerged. We find an area for improvement in the stylistic variability of the flute repertoire used in Slovenian Music Schools. Increased variability of musical styles could contribute towards reaching the fundamental goal of music education – kindling the love of music and musicianship. 29 Ana Kavèiè Pucihar, UPORABA LITERATURE PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... 30 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ University of Niš, Faculty of Arts EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED PROFESSIONAL TRAINING PROGRAM IN THE FIELD OF SOLFEGGIO IN SERBIA 2011 - 2019 Abstract The paper presents an interdisciplinary research of accredited vocational training programs in the field of solfeggio in the Republic of Serbia in the period 2011–2019. The obtained results showed a striking lack of identification of progress in the domain of self-evaluation and the implementation of programs, which is one of the characteristics of the pre-reform way of work. From the analyzes performed, it can be concluded that there is a general legal framework for an adequate training system for solfeggio teachers, but that organizational and substantive improvements to the catalog of continuing professional development are needed. Key words: solfeggio, vocational training, professional development, self-evaluation. OCENA AKREDITIRANEGA PROFESIONALNEGA PROGRAMA USPOSABLJANJA NA PODROÈJU SOLFEGGIO V SRBIJI 2011 - 2019 Izvleèek V prispevku je predstavljena interdisciplinarna raziskava akreditiranih programov strokovnega usposabljanja na podroèju solffeggia v Republiki Srbiji v obdobju 2011–2019. Pridobljeni rezultati so pokazali presenetljivo pomanjkanje ugotavljanja napredka na podroèju samoevalvacije in uporabnosti programov, kar je ena od predhodnih znaèilnosti delovanja pred reformami. Iz opravljenih analiz je mogoèe sklepati, da obstaja splošen pravni okvir za ustrezen sistem usposabljanja uèiteljev solfeggia, vendar so potrebne organizacijske in vsebinske izboljšave kataloga stalnega strokovnega spopolnjevanja. Kljuène besede: solfeggio, poklicno usposabljanje, strokovni razvoj, samoevalvacija 31 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ, EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED ... Introduction Teacher competences 1 , the center of pedagogical discussions of the contemporary society, is still an insufficiently defined and investigated area. At the same time, teacher education is a necessary segment of the improvement of the quality of the educational system and the prerequisite for any serious reform of education (Ben-Pertz, 2000; Farrel & Fanwick, 2007; Lieberman & Miller, 2000). Modern education is based on competencies that are a framework for the development and assessment of individuals in professional work and everyday life. Teacher competencies directly depend on the extent students will develop the necessary competences for living in the contemporary society. Teacher Profile in Contemporary Teaching means that they are well aware of the structure, scope and depth of teaching content, but also possess the ability to integrate related content from multiple subjects for better didactic-methodical applicability. Adapting to the individual characteristics of each student individually is equally important. It is necessary that the teacher is also able to communicate systematically and be able to analyze and synthesize the content of teaching in the thematic units. Simultaneously, it is important that the teacher is adept in creating a form of teaching that both differentiates and individualizes instructions so he can create a cheerful, working and stimulating atmosphere in the classroom. The teacher possesses the ability to empathize and exibits a system of values that developes positive attributes among students. A teacher acquires and develops his professional competence by preparing for the profession through higher education and through lifelong learning to implement quality and productive teaching thus becoming a pedagogically and psychologically competent teacher by implementing the teaching process. 2 Lifelong learning 3 implies the development of pedagogical and cognitive skills that are focused on the continuous transferance of one’s own personality, through formal and informal education and reflection on their own practice. Such a set of competencies cannot be obtained through a universal study program of a specific subject or a professional seminar, but quality teacher competences are profiled by a lifelong process of learning and improvement, that largely depends on the characteristics of an individual. Although the competencies of teachers should be indisputable, as they have received an accredited degree in teaching from a university, there are occasional problems of insufficient competence of music pedagogues in practice. Initial education cannot provide teachers with the necessary knowledge and 32 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek 1 The term competence can be terminologically defined as a complex combination of knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes necessary for carrying out certain activities, and possessing a whole range of possible actions that can be taken and the ability to implement them. To be competent, in a wider context, means the possession of professional, personal and work quality, knowledge, skills, qualifications, as well as beliefs, attitudes and motivations that an individual can actively, professionally and efficiently operate in a particular practical situation. In the narrower context of competence, they relate to the specific field of work, and thus to the field of education and upbringing. The professional competence of teachers as well as the issue of quality education, which could inevitably respond to the contemporary needs and interests of the individual and society, includes the issue of education and professional development of teachers. 2 In the literature, in order to connect all these competences in one term, the term reflexive teacher (Pollard, 2005) is increasingly used. 3 It is necessary to make a distinction between lifelong education, which includes only organized learning and lifelong learning, as a broader concept that includes every opportunity to acquire knowledge throughout life. skills that are needed to deal with all the different aspects of the profession within a rapidly changing society (Fullan & Hargreaves, 2013). As the educational systems require that a teacher should constantly update and refresh his previously acquired pedagogical, psychological and didactic-methodical skills and knowledge, teachers are additionally asked to transform their role as a person who enables the process of education in the teaching process to be carried out, but who at the same time educates (Antonijeviæ, 2010). The conditions for teachers to acquire new and upgrade existing competencies important for the improvement of educational work are, therefore, ensured by the established system of continuous professional development. Among the different forms of professional development that vary in the level and quality of outcomes, seminars in different fields represent an irreplaceable form of vocational training and professional development. The goal of setting up and implementing various seminars is to meet some of the basic needs of professionals in education in the field of their own professional development. The current system of professional development of teachers started in Serbia in 2002, and now the seminar attendance has become the dominant framework for improving professional competences. Vocational training of teachers in the domestic education system is given as a need, but also a legal obligation, so teachers are obliged to achieve at least 100 hours of professional development within five years, at least eighty hours through the attainment of the professional development program approved by the Institute for Advancement of Education and Upbringing (IAEU) or Minister of Education (Rulebook on continuous professional development of teachers, educators and professional associates, 2015). 4 In accordance with the Law on the Foundations of the System of Education and Upbringing in 2015 a new Rulebook on continuous professional development and acquisition of the title of teachers, educators and professional associates was adopted. It specifies the professional development of teachers and implies that teachers constantly develop competences and professional advancement. The basic elements of this system include the obligation to attend accredited programs of professional development of programs that are created and realized by all interested institutions and associations in the field of education and upbringing. The Institute for the Advancement of Education and Upbringing (IAEU) accredited programs, compiles and publishes a Catalogue of approved programs, and monitors the functioning of the entire system. Teachers and schools are free to choose professional development programs from this Catalog. The law stipulates that the finances for vocational training are provided by local governments, and teachers receive evidence of participation from the implementers in the form of certificates. Solfeggio teacher competences Within the broader context of teaching and learning, the perception of the professional role of teachers of music schools also changes. Namely, moving the focus of the pedagogical discourse towards the student, from the musical product to the musical process, affects the entire teaching process. There is an increasing emphasis on 33 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ, EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED ... 4 “Official Herald of Republic of Serbia, No.” 86/2015: https://www.paragraf.rs/glasila/rs/ sluzbeni-glasnik republike-srbije-86-2015.html developing a creative approach, the development of student autonomy with the ultimate goal which implies the development of a complete musician. There are many reasons for the improvement and modernization of the educational process, and one of the necessary factors in the function of raising the quality of teaching is certainly innovation (Cvetkoviæ, 2015). 21 st century learning is increasingly reflected in the development of a way of musical thinking, not just the acquisition of skills. These variable roles and contexts set different requirements for teachers and therefore require new skills and knowledge. The musical-pedagogical discipline solfeggio (ital.) throughout the history of Serbian music education exists as a teaching subject with almost identical educational-cognitive and functional-practical goals, and they are reduced to: musical literacy, the process of setting certain sound performances, comprehension, storing and recording music content as well as acquiring the skill of voice reproduction of musical notation. In music literacy, it is very important to bring children up to the content of the classroom to become a “musical event”, regardless of the level of achievement (Miletiæ & Cvetkoviæ, 2017). Within the three areas of solfeggio teaching (music theory, melody and rhythm), there are a number of teaching elements that affect the success of realizating a complex task achieving understanding of musical content and performance. Improving skills within solfeggio teaching stimulates the development of musical potential, that is, the development of musical abilities, both at the level of sensory ability and at the level of understanding musical structure. Solfeggio teaching in Serbia is realized at all three levels of music education (elementary, secondary and higher education). During schooling, the requirements are upgraded, and the achievement of the student in solfeggio is monitored through several teaching areas: melody (singing and dictation), rhythm and theory of music. During music education, through the three phases, covering a period of 10 to 14 years of continuous musical training, the principle of the spiral curriculum is applied (Bruner, 1976). The content of the subject is, at different ages, being approached in a new way in accordance with the development level of the students, and thus the acquired knowledge and skills become more complex, deepen and the level of expertise increases. The concept of study programs in the Republic of Serbia at undergraduate music programs has been directed towards the development of future teachers in the subject of solfeggio at schools for elementary and secondary music education. Such a program provides an important role of methodology for solfeggio teaching, a subject that, by its structure, develops basic competences for musical-pedagogical work in elementary and secondary schools. Qualification frameworks that are formed at the end of the undergraduate music pedagogy program are related to the subject specific competences: personal competences (behavior and response), cognitive competences (extracting important from the non-essential, skills of selecting information), professional competence (knowledge from the profession), development competence (improvement of teaching processes), work-action competences (practical operation) and social competences (understanding of interpersonal relationships and interpretation of group emotions) (Lediæ, Stanièiæ & Turk, 2013). The competencies of music pedagogy graduates represent a combination of knowledge, understanding, skills and abilities (Gerasimoviæ & Miškeljin, 2009), as well as understanding and thorough management of acquired knowledge and linking 34 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek knowledge from different fields (Gutvajn, Ðeriæ & Lukoviæ, 2011) in order to perform complex musical pedagogical activities. The stratification and complexity of musical art is directly reflected in solfeggio teaching. Acquisition of concepts, phenomena and laws of music are achieved through the process developing musical literacy, and later on the correlation of solfeggio teaching with the teaching of musical instrument, counterpoint, harmony, musical form and musical styles. In the Serbia educational system, special categories of competences that would apply to teachers in music schools have not yet been defined. The intertwining of the roles of teachers and their continuous overlapping in the teaching and learning process are emphasized, pointing to the emergence of the so-called. dual identity in the practice of music education, when the same person is both a teacher and an active performer (Bogunoviæ et. al., 2013). Supporting both roles forms a pedagogue/teacher who has a high level of musical and technical abilities, as well as expertis as a teacher and educator, with the personal and social competencies necessary for taking pedagogical responsibility. Aim of research and hypotheses The aim of this research was to evaluate the accredited professional training program in the field of solfeggio in Serbia from 2011 to 2019. The subject of our analysis is the Catalog of programs for employee professional development in education as a concrete and operationalization of education policy, i.e. the intentions of the Law relating to improving the quality of teachers’ work. The basic hypothesis relates to the impression that within the framework of accredited professional training programs in the field of solfeggio, knowledge and competences are acquired in a way that greatly fosters and improves the teaching process; that there is not enough reference in certain areas and methodology; that knowledge is not acquired in a way that provides the criticality and the need for reflection on one’s own practice; that little attention is paid to research findigs in which critical thinking would take a particular place. Research Method The research was based on the descriptive method. The processing of the received data was performed in the statistical package IBM SPSS Statistics 20.0. As far as descriptive statistics are concerned, frequencies (f) and percentages (%) were used. For statistical analysis purposes a non-parametric Chi-square test was used. Participants The observed sample consists of 29 respondents (N=29), solfeggio teachers of five Elementary and Secondary Music Schools in Leskovac, Aleksinac, Trstenik, Jagodina and Uice 5 . A relatively small sample is the result of a small number of solfeggio teachers in each of the Music Schools. The sample structure consists of 58 percent of women (58.6%) 35 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ, EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED ... 5 Music School “Stanislav Binièki” Leskovac, Music School “Vladimir Ðorðeviæ” Aleksinac, Music School “Kornelije Stankoviæ” Trstenik, Music School “Vladimir Ðorðevic” Jagodina, Music School “Vojislav-Lale Stefanoviæ” Uice and 41 percent of men (41.4%). In relation to the years of service: less than 10 years 24.1%; 10–20 years 44.8%; over 20 years 31.0%. Most of the teachers teach at both educational levels that are in the focus of our interest (44.8%), a smaller percentage only in the Elementary (31.0%) and considerably lower only in Secondary School (24.1%). Instrument of research In order to obtain empirical quantitative research results and analyze the offer of catalog seminars as prerequisite for improving the competence of solfeggio teachers, a survey by systematic non-experimental testing was conducted, with a questionnaire designed for this occasion which included tasks related to the need to determine: to what extent teachers were informed about the accredited programs; whether the teachers are satisfied with the offer of the seminar program; what they think about the importance of attending accredited programs of professional development for their practical work; how they value the acquisition of competencies from the perspective of the opportunity to improve their own practice; what percentage of critical thinking is present about the way of acquiring knowledge within the accredited programs of professional training in the field of solfeggio. The questionnaire was preceded by a theoretical analysis of the contents of the arts training program – subaltern music (musical art and general music), with emphasis on the programs dealing with the Solfeggio subject in the catalogs of the program of continuous professional development of teachers, educators and professional associates from the school year 2011/2012 until 2017/2018 6 . Procedure The survey was conducted at the end of the school year 2018/19. The analysis of the program involved a thorough examination of existing catalog data, and solfeggio teachers filled out the questionnaire individually in agreement with the researchers. Results and discussion By analyzing the offer of programs related to the Solfeggio 7 subject, we examined the representation of various areas. We focused on the target groups covered by the teacher training program for the Solfeggio subject, having in mind the number of participants who attended the seminar (Table 1). 8 36 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek 6 Catalogues of the program of continuous professional development of teachers, educators and professional associates starting from the school year 2006/2007. contain over 300 programs in the field of music. Seminars held before the school year 2011/2012. do not contain information about the evaluation, so for this reason they are not the subject of our research. https://zuov.gov.rs/katalozi- programa-stalnog-strucnog-usavrsavanja/ 7 A number of 30 seminars related to the subject Solfeggio were singled out 8 The following information is given with the program name: catalog number; name, status and priority; institution, professional association or association that reported it; author’s names; coordinator names, addresses, phone numbers and e-mails; names of the carriers; titles of topics to be processed; target groups; number of participants in the group and duration. From 2012/2014. priority areas of professional development, competence information, general and specific goals of the offered programs were added on the list. http://zuov.gov.rs/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/katalogusavrsavanja20122014.pdf Table 1: Structure of the program Cat no. The program Aim group The number of participant swh o attended the seminar - descending 845 "Good and bad sides of participation in competitions. in children with outstanding musical abilities" EMS and SMS 973 402 "Application of an individualized educational plan in working with children of outstanding musical abilities. with a focus on European practice" EMS and SMS 715 779 "Quality communication with parents-a precondition for successful affirmation of children's predispositions in art school" EMS and SMS 539 803 "Introduction to Music: Innovation in contemporary music pedagogy and Implementation of creative methods in teaching" EMS and SMS 414 758 "Methods in the processing of rhythmic materials in Elementary and Secondary Music School" EMS and SMS 342 811 "Musical note" EMS and SMS 218 745 "Contemporary methods of learning music in different developmental phases of a child" EMS and SMS 149 778 "The role of competition in music development of Students" EMS and SMS 144 878 "Rhythmic and melodic dictates in Elementary and Secondary Music School" EMS and SMS 119 886 "The theoretical-analytical approach to art of phrasing" EMS and SMS 103 897 "Choral conducting - score analysis, manual technique, chorus rehearsal and interpretation of choral work" EMS and SMS 95 785 "The use of piano in the solfeggio teaching in Elementary and Secondary Music School" EMS and SMS 89 733 "Musical ensembles in Primary and Secondary Schools - The shortest way from class to public performance" EMS and SMS 76 843 "I see. I hear. sing. play. correlation of instrument teaching and theoretical subjects" EMS and SMS 74 960 "Music theory - Practical approach" EMS and SMS 72 392 "Methods in the processing of melodic materials in the Elementary Music School" EMS 69 947 "Method of teaching rhythm" EMS and SMS 63 884 "Synchronization of solfeggio teaching elements in Secondary Music School" EMS and SMS 47 37 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ, EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED ... 975 "Application of baroque literature in vocal and instrumental practice" EMS and SMS 34 887 "Technical problems and solutions in vocal pedagogy" EMS and SMS 30 403 "Application of artistic literature in the solfeggio teaching" EMS and SMS 24 794 "Methodology of work on the acquisition of hearing performances about chord progression and a music meter" EMS and SMS 3 397 "From the song to the notes” 9 EMS / 412 "Synthetic music listening" EMS and SMS / 864 "Multimedia music workshop" EMS and SMS / 782 "Solfeggio - Dutch and Serbian experiences" EMS and SMS / 799 "The application of the playwright teaching in the teaching contents of the subjects solfeggio. music theory and general music" EMS and SMS / 810 "The significance of the competition for the musical development of students" EMS and SMS / 944 "Correlation of solfeggio teaching with instrumental teaching" EMS and SMS / 976 "Work on getting to know the basics of musical literacy during the first and second cycle of elementary education and upbringing" EMS / Table 2: Aim group of the program Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Elementary music school 3 10.0 10.0 10.0 Elementary and Secondary music school 27 90.0 90.0 100.0 Total 30 100.0 100.0 Table 3 shows the most represented areas of solfeggio covered by the programs of continuous professional development. 38 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek 9 A considerable number of seminars held do not have evaluation information available. Table 3: The most represented areas of the program Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumu- lative Percent rhythm and meter 2 6.7 6.7 6.7 Melodic 3 10.0 10.0 16.7 Perception 1 3.3 3.3 20.0 Dictations 1 3.3 3.3 23.3 music theory 1 3.3 3.3 26.7 all areas 3 10.0 10.0 36.7 teaching methods and techniques, literature 9 30.0 30.0 66.7 student support 5 16.7 16.7 83.3 rhythm and meter and melodic 1 3.3 3.3 86.7 rhythm and meter, melodic and perception 3 10.0 10.0 96.7 melodic, perception, dications 1 3.3 3.3 100.0 Total 30 100.0 100.0 The most represented are programs in the area of methods and techniques of work and literature (30.0%); Programs relating to the support for talented students are covered with 16.7%; programs that improve competencies in the area of melody, rhythm and meter, melody and perception are included in the catalog with 10.0%; programs relating exclusively to the improvement of competences in the area of rhythm and meter are represented with 6.7%, while all other categories are covered with 3.3% each, or one program within the analyzed time period (perception, dictation, music theory, rhythm and meter and melody, melody, perception and dictation). Data analysis implies that the areas of rhythm and dictation necessarily require greater representation in vocational training programs, bearing in mind the importance of these areas within the solfeggio teaching, while a lot of space is dedicated to reviewing and analyzing the current domestic and foreign instructional literature, with the consideration of relevant world schools and methods with the aim of empowering teachers’ competencies within the mentioned areas. The following table (Table 4) gives an insight into all programs according to the content. 39 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ, EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED ... Table 4: Programs by content 40 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Through catalog review, only some of the problems have opened up. Some program parameters that are given in the Catalog due to the way they are presented and implemented do not contribute to a better understanding of the program, on the contrary, they make it more difficult for teachers to assess it and therefore choose. Our assumption is that this is a consequence of insufficiently clear instructions for completing the accreditation form, where the authors of the program had different understanding of the questions they gave answers to, and sometimes the unexpected acceptance of everything 41 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ, EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED ... that was written in the accepted proposals. Namely, according to the program parameters given in the Catalog (title, target group, author, carrier, institution that supports the program, topics, duration and number of participants) and from the position of solfeggio teachers, we consider that the choice is not good due to the realization of the seminar itself. The goals have not been formulated clearly, and in addition to the goals, the results are not stated, i.e., which novelties and changes (knowledge, skills, competencies, attitudes, behavior) such a training will bring, and thus, it makes it difficult to make a good decision when choosing the program itself. Then, the data evaluation of the program in many realized programs was missing, although according to numerous studies (Guskey & Yoon, 2009) this is one of the key parameters that separates successful professional development programs from the unsuccessful ones. Although the profession of the authors and institutions come from speak indirectly about the quality of the program, the affiliation and professions of the author are absent. Furthermore, if the educational system wants teachers to acquire applicable knowledge and master new competences, the type of training is very important. When attending the training is rewarded with points that are related only to the number of hours of training, the critically important criterion of how teachers have earned those points, whether by listening passively or by actively reflecting on and practicing the content in which they are trained is slipping away. Panels 10 or Scientific meetings 11 cannot be a substitute for seminars 12 where the active involvement of participants is required and they cannot be equally scaled because their theoretical scope is not equal. Another missing information is whether the program is genuine or executable (derived from another program, or taken over, translated). The origin of the program is important information especially in our environment where there are no elaborated mechanisms for the protection of intellectual property rights 13 . 42 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek 10 The panel is an organizational form of education with variable composition of participants and a shorter duration (from 45 minutes to one hour and an hour), which implies the need to publicly talk about certain topics, exchange of opinions, presenting different ideas and concerns, and thus most often involves more interlocutors and auditorium. The aim of the tribune is to discuss a particular topic with the opposition of different opinions and attitudes and to arrive at certain conclusions in the direct and vivid communication with the participants. http://dodjohvidehnaucih.eu/celozivotno-ucenje/recnik/ 11 Scientific meetings are one of the primary venues for scientists to present their new work to their colleagues with the purpose of receiving feedback at an early stage of their research, and thus they are an integral part of the process of science. They serve as an informal peer review that can help researchers to develop, clarify, and refine their work as they proceed to write it up and submit it for formal review and final publication. In addition, meetings allow researchers to hear about what others in their field and related disciplines are doing, talk with colleagues from different institutions around the world, and learn about new research, tools, and techniques that might be relevant to their work. https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/The-How-and-Why-of-Scientific-Me etings/186 12 The seminar is an organizational form with a constant composition of the participants, which is mainly applied when it comes to training in a particular field or specialization for performing certain tasks, and thus assumes the starting point and the knowledge of participants to organize it. The duration is usually limited to one to several days and can be run through several such time units, in which case it is a seminar cycle https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/The-How-and-Why-of- Scientific-Meetings/186 13 CEES (Center for Evaluation in Education and Science: https://www.visionlearning.com/ en/library/Process-of-Science/49/The-How-and-Why-of-Scientific-Meetings/186 has been working on a project to establish plagiarism in education and science in Serbia for two years now. The program reveals plagiarism of texts, and a new suggestion is that national programs of education and science, such as this Catalog, will be included in the analysis. The school should also be an educational institution and should not support any type of forgery (plagiarism). Some other forms of categorizing programs that could make it easier for teachers to decide which program to choose are also missing. The programs are categorized only as compulsory and optional (without specifying the criteria that distinguish between them), although it would be desirable to classify them by the nature of training, in terms of whether they are conceptual types or programs in which specific patterns of behavior are learned, or whether the outcomes the training should accomplish are general, broadly transferable, or limited, narrow transfer to only a few learning situations is possible. The impression is that the offered programs were first collected and then sorted into more general categories. Respecting thoughtful educational policy, the approach should be different. Based on the planned national conception of teacher training, it is necessary to define the categories of programs that teachers should attend, and in pre-prepared categories sort out programs that pass accreditation. The categories thus set up would also have the role of a guide, i.e. they would clearly communicate to teachers what is considered to be a desirable and acceptable training profile, and what will be evaluated in their work and taken into account for their license and advancement. The idea of continuous work in a particular direction, upgrading, programming, moving from basic to higher levels of training cannot be included in the ad hoc set of the current offer. In addition, the function of some of the attached parameters of the offered programs is unclear and debatable, and their realization is often such that it does not provide enough relevant information about the program. In many cases there is no internal consistency and program parameter compliance. This makes it difficult for teachers to make a decision about what is most beneficial for their own professional development or the development of the school they work in. The discussion of these results will be supplemented by a comparison of the opinion of the teachers of Elementary and Secondary Music Schools about accredited professional training programs in the field of solfeggio and the importance for the improvement of work and personal professional development. By analyzing the questionnaire, the following data was obtained: To the first question from the questionnaire: Whether for the improvement of work, personal and professional development and the success of modern teaching, it is necessary to attend accredited professional training programs in the field of solfeggio from the offer of the Vocational Training of Teachers in Education of the IAEU, of a total of 29 teachers 86.2% expressed a positive response, while 13.8% of respondents consider that attending accredited seminars does not have an impact on improving their work, personal and professional development and the success of teaching (Chart 1). The results of the Chi-Square Tests (Chart 2) show that there is no significant statistical difference in opinion compared to the gender (x2=0.142; df=1; p=0.706), school type (x2=1.747; df=2; p=0.417) and the the of service (x2= 4.971; df = 2; p = 0.083). 43 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ, EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED ... Chart 1: Respondents’ attitudes on whether it is necessary to attend accredited professional training programs in the field of solfeggio from the offer of the IAEU in order to improve the work, personal and professional development and the success of modern teaching. Chart 2: Differences in respondents’ attitudes on whether it is necessary to attend accredited professional training programs in the field of solfeggio from the offer of the IAEU in order to improve the work, personal and professional development and the success of modern teaching with regard to gender, school and years of service To the second question from the questionnaire: Are you satisfied with the offer of accredited training programs in the field of solfeggio in the Catalog for Vocational Training of Teachers in Education of the IAEU, 72.4% gave a confirmative answer, 13.8% is not satisfied, and the same number (13.8%) of respondents did not answer this question (Chart 3). No statistically significant difference in opinion was found (Chart 4) in relation to gender (x2=0.338; df=2; p=0.844), type of school (x2=6.122; df=4; p=0.190) and the length of service (x2= 11.884; df=4; p=0.018). 44 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Chart 3: Respondents’ attitudes about satisfaction with the offer of accredited training programs in the field of solfeggio in the Catalog for Vocational Training of Teachers in Education of the IAEU. Chart 4: Differences in respondents’ attitudes about satisfaction with the offer of accredited training programs in the field of solfeggio with regard to gender, school and years of service The claim that daily evaluation is necessary for contemporary teaching 58.6% of respondents considered necessary, while a somewhat smaller number of respondents (41.4%) did not confirm this claim (Chart 5). No statistically significant differences were found (Chart 6) in terms of gender (x2=0.546; df=1; p=0.460); school type (x2=3.258; df=2; p=0.196) and the length of service x2=2.201; df=2; p=0.333). 45 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ, EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED ... Chart 5: Respondents’ attitudes on the necessity of daily evaluation for the success of contemporary teaching. Chart 6: Differences in respondents’ attitudes on the necessity of daily evaluation for the success of contemporary teaching with regard to gender, school and years of service To the fourth question from the questionnaire: How are you familiar with the accredited vocational training programs in the field of solffeggio in the Catalog for Vocational Training of Teachers in the Education of the IAEU, six qualified answers were offered to the interviewed teachers. During the assessment (Chart 7), the surveyed teachers mostly stated that they were informed Through the IAEU (24.1%) and Through the professional councils within the school (20.7%); then by the number of respondents the following answers are 1 – Through the seminar carrier and 4 – Independent (17.2%), 13.8% of respondents were informed Through the psychological-pedagogical service of the school, while a small number of respondents agreed with the last statement I’m not familiar with at all (6.9%). 46 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Chart 7: Respondents’ familiarity with the accredited vocational training programs in the field of solffeggio in the Catalog for Vocational Training of Teachers in the Education of the IAEU. When asked if they attended any of the offered accredited vocational training programs in the field of solfeggio in the Catalog for Vocational Training of Teachers in the education of the IAEU, most teachers answered affirmatively (93.1%), while 6.9% did not attend any program (Chart 8). Chart 8: The attendance of respondents to the accredited program – a seminar for professional development from the field of Solfeggio in the Catalog of Vocational Training of Teachers in the Education of the IAEU. By comparing the data with the variable years of service, we notice that the respondents who answered the question negatively belong to the group of teachers with a working experience of over 20 years, which indicates that teachers with more years of work experience tend to rely more on personal experience than attending seminars and acquiring new competencies (Chart 9). 47 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ, EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED ... Chart 9: Attendance to the accredited program – a seminar for professional development from the field of solfeggio in relation to the years of service To the question: Do you think that the attendance of the seminar influenced the performance and placement of certain contents within the solfeggio teaching, the teachers gave the following answers: 86.2% think that the attendance of the seminars influenced their performance and placement of certain contents within the solfeggio teaching, while 13.8% of respondents opted for the claim I have no answer. The fact that there are no negative answers shows that teachers generally recognize the importance of seminars for quality teaching (Chart 10). Chart 10: Respondents’ attitudes on the impact of the seminar attendance on the performance and placement of certain content within the solfeggio teaching. The next question referred to the contents that were placed in seminars and the possibility of their implementation within the teaching. When asked if they have used some of the 48 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek content that was given to them at seminars, the majority of respondents replied affirmatively (65.5%), 27.6% of the respondents opted for the answer several, and 6.9% did not use the content from the seminar in teaching (Chart 11). Chart 11: The possibility of seminar contents implementation within the teaching. When asked: Do you think that attending seminars has refreshed and improved your teaching? 89.7% of respondents think that attending seminars has refreshed and improved their teaching, while 10.3% have no opinion on this issue. Chart 12: Respondents’ attitudes on improvement of teaching through attending seminars. When analyzing the data on the question: Did you attend the seminar only for the reason of the obligation to collect the necessary points? we came across some divided opinions (Chart 13); 41.4% of the respondents admitted that the seminar was attended only because of the obligation to collect the necessary points, the same number (44.4%) of the 49 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ, EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED ... respondents opted for a negative response, while 17.2% of the respondents did not answer (I have no answer – 17.2 %). Chart 13: Respondents’ attitudes on attending the seminars only for the reason of the obligation to collect the necessary points. The next question from the questionnaire was about teachers who did not attend any accredited program – a training course for the field of professional training in the field of solfeggio (Chart 14). As a reason for this, 3.2% of the total number of respondents stated the financial issue 14 , while the same number (3.2%) considered that there were no adequate working conditions. Chart 14: Respondents’ reasons for not attending the seminars. 50 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek 14 Pursuant to Article 45 paragraph 1 of the Law on the Government (“Official Herald of the Republic of Serbia”, No. 55/05 and 71/05 – correction), The government brings the Strategy of development of vocational education in Republic of Serbia in which a modified system of financing should be guided by the needs of the labor market and be able to respond to the local needs. This means that the funding system should support vocational schools to work with the labor market and ensure that each individual and each region has the same status in the state budget: http://www.mpn.gov.rs/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ Strategija_razvoja_strucnog_obrazovanja.pdf When asked what is the most important area for assessing the effects of professional development training seminars, teachers could choose one of the 6 offered answers (1– Mastering the skills needed for quality teaching, 2 – Better understanding of their own educational needs due to professional development, 3 – Adopted new and extended previous teacher knowledge, 4 – Improving the quality of the application of acquired knowledge, 5 – Improving motivation for further professional development, 6 – Changing teacher attitudes about quality teaching methods). The answers are largely uniform. Namely, the largest number of respondents opted for the area of ??Mastering the skills necessary for quality teaching and Adopted new and extended previous teacher knowledge (24.1% for each claim), in the next place is The change of teacher attitudes about quality teaching methods (17.2%), then with 13.8% Better understanding of your own educational needs due to professional development and, ultimately, with the same percentage ratio (10.3%) Improving the quality of the application of acquired knowledge and Improving the motivation for further professional development (Chart 15). Chart 15: Respondents’ attitudes on the most important area for assessing the effects of professional development training seminars. The teachers had the opportunity to express their attitudes on the ways in which the evaluation of the effects of the seminar should be carried out. More than half of the interviewed teachers (60.2%) said that the evaluation of the effects should be carried out in the form of filling a survey, an assessment scale or another similar instrument. The reason for this is the current practice of realization of the seminar, which implies that upon completion of the training, the participants fill in the questionnaire evaluating the seminar, which is determined by the IAEU. Therefore, it can be concluded that most teachers agree with the form in which this procedure is currently being implemented. Furthermore, according to the frequency, teachers listed the following procedures: Filling the knowledge test (17.2%); Organization of respectable classes (10.3%); Submitting a written report on the applied knowledge gained at the seminar (10.3%); No teacher opted 51 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ, EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED ... for the interview as a way of evaluating the effects of the seminar, and there were not even those who felt that evaluation was not necessary (Chart 16). As in the interpretation of the results in terms of the field of impact assessment, the result obtained could be related to the teacher’s perception of the load that different forms of evaluation imply. Chart 16: Respondents’ attitudes on the ways in which the evaluation of the effects of the seminar should be carried out. Conclusion Out of the total number of programs in the Catalog of programs for employee professional development in education as a concrete and operationalization of education policy, within the music domain, only one tenth of the programs is dedicated to the subject Solfeggio. Analysis of the collected data revealed that teachers were informed about accredited programs and noted their importance for work improvement and personal professional development. The results of the conducted research confirmed the basic hypothesis that within the framework of accredited professional training programs in the field of solfeggio, knowledge and competences are acquired in a way that greatly fosters and improves the teaching process, which can be seen from the content that is covered in seminars, as well as from the respondents’ attitudes about the impact of the seminar on their performance and placement of certain contents within the solfeggio teaching. Teachers recognize the importance of continuous monitoring and evaluation of the effects of professional training seminars and estimate that the key outcome of the training sessions should be acquired by the knowledge and skills they need for teaching. Although rich in content, with the encouragement of competencies from different areas within the solfeggio teaching, as well as the inclusion of different aim groups, the number of programs does not coincide with the vision of continuous progress, as evidenced by the data that in the school year 2011/12 only three seminars for teachers of this subject were realized. 52 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek The good part of the Catalog is that the programs are time-bounded, although we think that a one-year accreditation for already proven programs should be longer. Of course, dynamism allows the state to respond quickly to current needs. The Catalog’s useful value is limited because it does not contain enough information for a valid selection of the program, which can be improved by a more detailed program differentiation, which confirms the sub-hypothesis that there is not enough reference in certain areas and methodology. Therefore, it can be said that the third hypothesis that knowledge is not acquired in a way that provides the criticality and the need for reflection on one’s own practice is proven. Currently, there are no mechanisms in the education system that verify what is being learned in teaching practice. This means that only attendance at the seminars, reflected in the number of hours of training, is valued. Since the limit for the duration of the seminar is set at 24 hours, it is therefore impossible to evaluate the time after the training in which teachers should try to apply something from the learned. In this way, it can be seen that the concept of teacher training that is based on the Catalog is actually a one-time training. Unfortunately, in our country, the professional development of teachers is reduced to the counting of training hours and the collection of papers that prove it. The fourth hypothesis that little attention is paid to research findings in which critical thinking would take a particular place. is proven too. This is a real situation in practice, thus, in order to enable the criticality and the reflection of knowledge on one’s own practice, the catalog could be enriched with a simple questionnaire that would help teachers re-examine their own professional practice and make a diagnosis of their own situation in order to make a good choice at their own expense. When we consider the whole concept we can see there are concrete practical conditions for the realization of training and a number of contextual and individual specificities, thus, we can conclude that we have a general legal framework for a valid system of teacher training, but it is necessary to change the way of its realisation in order to achieve the full potential of teachers’ competences. References Antonijeviæ, R. (2010). Lièni ciljevi i preferencije struènog usavršavanja nastavnika. In N. Potkonjak (Ed.), Godišnjak SAO za 2010. godinu: Nauèni skup SAO „Osposobljavanje nastavnika za nove uloge” (p.673–684). Beograd: Srpska akademija obrazovanja. Ben-Pertz, M. (2000). When Teaching Changes, Can Teacher Education Can be Far Behind?. Prospects, 30 (2), 215–224. Bogunoviæ, B., Karan, G. & Dubljeviæ, J. (2013). Razvoj muzièki darovitih i veštine izvoðenja u nastavi solfeða, In G. Gojkov i B. Vujasin (Eds.): Metodološki problemi istraivanja darovitosti (u štampi). Vršac: Visoka škola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitaèa Mihailo Pavlov. Bruner, D. (1976). Proces obrazovanja. In T. Kovaè-Ceroviæ (Ed.), Psihologija u nastavi. Beograd: Savez društava psihologa Srbije. 53 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ, EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED ... Cvetkoviæ, J. (2015). Imanentni sluh i recepcija muzike. Niš: Univerzitet u Nišu, Fakultet umetnosti u Nišu i Centar SANU. Farrell, L. & Fenwick, T. (2007). World Year Book of Education 2007. Educating the Global Workforce: Knowledge, knowledge work and knowledge workers. London and New York: Routledge. Fullan, M. & Hargreaves, A. (2013). Teacher development and educational change. New York, USA: Routledge. Gerasimoviæ, M. & Miškeljin, L. (2009). Kako studenti procenjuju znaèajnost opštih kompetencija u visokom obrazovanju. In G. Zindoviæ Vukadinoviæ (Ed.), Nastava i vaspitanje, 58(1) (p. 54–72). Beograd: Pedagoško društvo Srbije. Guskey, T. R. & Yoon, K. S. (2009). What works in professional Development? Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 90, No. 07, 495–500. Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa. Gutvajn, N. Ðeriæ, I. & Lukoviæ, I. (2011) Refleksije studenata pedagogije o buduæoj profesiji i procesu traenja posla, Zbornik Instituta za pedagoška istraivanja, 43 (2), Beograd: Institut za pedagoška istraivanja. Lediæ, J., Stanièiæ, S. & Turk, M. (2013). Kompetencije školskih pedagoga. Rijeka: Filozofski fakultet. Lieberman, A. & Miller, L. (2000). Teaching and Teacher Development: A New Synthesis for a New Century. In R.S. Brandt (Ed), E d u c a t i o ni naN e wE r a(p. 47–65). Alexandria, Va: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Miletiæ, A. & Cvetkoviæ, J. (2017). Perception and interpretation of traditional and contemporary music in the teaching of musical literacy. International journal scientific papers, Institute of Knowledge Management, Twelfth international scientific conference KNOWLEDGE WITHOUT BORDERS Vol. 16.2 Vrnjaèka Banja, 921–927. Skopje: Institute of knowledge management. Pollard, A. (2005): Reflective teaching. London: Continuum. Rulebook on continuous professional development of teachers, educators and professional associates. (2015). Official Herald of the Republic of Serbia, No. 86/2015. 54 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Povzetek Kompetence uèiteljev so v središèu pedagoških razprav sodobne drube kot še vedno premalo opredeljenega in raziskovanega obmoèja. Nadaljnje izobraevanje, ki temelji na e usvojenih kompetencah, je referenèni okvir za razvoj in ocenjevanje posameznih kompetenc pri strokovnem delu in vsakdanjem ivljenju. Ker izobraevalna reforma doloèa, da uèitelj neprestano posodablja in osveuje svoje predhodno pridobljene pedagoške, psihološke in didaktièno-metodiène spretnosti in znanja, so pogoji za pridobitev novih in za nadgradnjo obstojeèih kompetenc, pomembnih za izboljšanje vzgojno-izobraevalnega dela, zagotovljeni s sistemom stalnega strokovnega razvoja. Sedanji sistem poklicnega razvoja uèiteljev se je v Srbiji zaèel v prvi polovici zadnjega desetletja, izvajanje seminarjev je postal prevladujoèi okvir za izboljšanje strokovnih kompetenc. Poklicno usposabljanje uèiteljev v domaèem izobraevalnem sistemu je opredeljeno kot potreba, pa tudi kot zakonska obveznost, zato morajo uèitelji v petih letih, doseèi vsaj 100 ur strokovnega izpopolnjevanja z doseganjem programa strokovnega razvoja, ki ga je odobril Inštitut za promocijo izobraevanja (ZUOV) 15 ali minister za šolstvo. Inštitut za promocijo izobraevanja (ZUOV) akreditira programe, pripravlja in objavlja Katalog odobrenih programov ter spremlja delovanje celotnega sistema, uèitelji in šole pa lahko prosto izbirajo programe iz kataloga. Izhajajoè iz dejstva, da so seminarji najpomembnejša oblika strokovnega razvoja, je bila izvedena interdisciplinarna raziskava akreditiranih programov strokovnega usposabljanja na podroèju solffeggia v Republiki Srbiji v obdobju 2011–2019. S preuèevanjem mnenja uèiteljev osnovnih in srednjih glasbenih šol smo ugotavljali pomen in vlogo programov za izboljšanje dela in osebnostnega razvoja. Z izvedeno teoretièno analizo je bil zaznan nizek odstotek zastopanosti programov poklicnega usposabljanja na podroèju solfeggia v primerjavi z drugimi akreditiranimi programi na podroèju glasbene vzgoje. Dobljeni rezultati so pokazali presenetljivo pomanjkanje ugotavljanja napredka na podroèju samoevalvacije in uporabnosti programov, kar kae na pretekli naèin delovanja pred reformami. Iz opravljenih analiz je mogoèe sklepati, da obstaja splošen pravni okvir za ustrezen sistem usposabljanja uèiteljev solfeggia, vendar je treba spremeniti naèin njegovega delovanja. Analiza uporabne vrednosti ZUOV kataloga je pokazala, da ne vsebuje dovolj informacij za veljavno izbiro programov, kar je vsekakor mogoèe izboljšati z reorganizacijo in vsebinsko diferenciacijo kataloga. 55 Jelena Cvetkoviæ Crvenica, Milica Jovanoviæ, EVALUATION OF THE ACCREDITED ... 15 https://zuov.gov.rs/ 56 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Milena Petroviæ Academy of Music, Belgrade GROUP SINGING AND COLLECTIVE IDENTITY 1 Abstract Group singing creates a shared emotional, social, and cognitive experience. It was a crucial factor of early hominid physical survival because the survival needs of the group exceed the instincts of individual survival. Humans used group singing to make strong social bonds, express their identity, and attract a mate. Group singing of our ancestors was probably in unison and in-tune because they had the capability to store absolute pitch information for signals and sound patterns that were necessary for communication and survival. Group singing of modern humans at sports events and music concerts express national, social, and cultural identity, creating a sense of collective consciousness and the state of collective musical identity. This synchronous public singing could be very accurate, because everyone possesses absolute memory for pitch in melodies, while these emotionally engaged “neo-tribe” sing-along choruses point to group singing as a manifestation of the collective unconscious. Group singing provides physical, psychological, social, musical, and educational benefits for an individual’s well-being. It increases empathy and pro-social behaviors in children, which is of the utmost importance for music education. Key words: group singing, collective identity, in-tune, neo-tribe, sing-along, well-being SKUPINSKO PETJE IN KOLEKTIVNA IDENTITETA Izvleèek Skupinsko petje omogoèa deljenje èustvenih, socialnih in kognitivnih doivetij. Predstavljalo je kljuèni dejavnik evolucijskega obstoja èloveka, saj so preivetvene potrebe skupine prevladale nad instinkti individualnega preivetja. Naši predniki so skupinsko petje uporabljali z namenom ustvarjanja moènih socialnih povezav, za izraanje lastne identitete in da bi privlaèili posameznike nasprotnega spola. Skupinsko petje naših prednikov je bilo verjetno v unisonu in uglašeno, saj naj bi posedovali sposobnost absolutnega posluha za zvoène draljaje, ki so jim omogoèali sporazumevanje in preivetje. Skupinsko petje sodobnega èloveka na športnih dogodkih in glasbenih koncertih izraa narodnostno, drubeno in kulturno identiteto s tem, da ustvarja obèutek kolektivne zavesti in stanja kolektivne glasbene identitete. To sinhrono javno petjo je precej uglašeno, saj naj bi bila univerzalna sposobnost èloveka, da ima vrojene sposobnosti absolutnega posluha za tonske višine v melodijah, kadar pride do èustveno zavzetega “neo-plemenskega” skupinskega petja kot manifestacije kolektivnega nezavednega. Skupinsko petje prinaša fiziološke, psihološke, socialne, glasbeni in izobraevalne pozitivne uèinke na posameznikovo blagostanje. Poveèuje empatijo in prosocialno vedenje pri otrocih, kar predstavlja pomemben vidik glasbenega izobraevanja. 57 Milena Petroviæ, GROUP SINGING AND COLLECTIVE IDENTITY 1 This is an extended and revised version of a preliminary conference report that was presented at the 20th International Pedagogical Forum of Performing Arts, Belgrade, Serbia, September 29 - October 1, 2017. Kljuène besede: skupinsko petje, kolektivno nezavedno, uglašenost, neo-pleme, pripevanje, blagostanje Introduction The article gives an insight into the group singing experience, which is of great interest to evolutionary theorists, psychologists, sociologists, and musicologists. It is organized into five chapters. In the first, named “The origins of group singing”, we present group singing as a means of humans’ physical survival. We shall discuss group singing that was first found in human evolution. Humans sang together for different ritual and religious purposes, to attract a mate or in a hunt. The idea of the second chapter, “The wisdom of crowds”, is that large groups of people are collectively smarter than individuals, so that could be a reason why crowds might sing in tune. Whereas the average individual is not necessarily a gifted performer, a large group of these imperfect singers performs in unison, surprisingly tuned. Another reason could be a collective unconsciousness of group singing that unites revelers in temporary “neo-tribe” choruses singing familiar songs in tune. Singing in tune is linked to the memory for absolute pitch in a melody, which is actually widespread. The third chapter, “Football chants”, discusses group sing-along behavior at football matches. These chants remind us of “war-cry” tradition, when music was used to motivate a group of people to sing in unison. The same way of thinking extends to the next, fourth chapter, “Singing along in concerts”, which discusses the cultural phenomenon of group singing along at popular music concerts. Group singing interacts with the socio-cultural context where individual expresses self-identity within the social activity of group singing. Social bonding and identity expression could motivate audiences to sing along to music in a leisure context. The final, fifth chapter, “The benefits of group singing”, polemicizes about the positive effects that group singing, whether formal or informal, can provide to an individual, improving his social, physical, and psychological well-being. The origins of group singing Many scientific theories have significantly contributed to our knowledge about the origins of group singing in the context of human evolution. It is claimed that group-singing behavior existed at the very beginnings of music (Brown, 2007), in the form of choral singing (Richman, 1993). Humans’ ability to sing together in harmony was a part of the first universal rituals (Jordania, 2011). Polyphonic singing existed in early human evolution, and the historical development of human musical culture went from polyphony to monophony (Jordania, 2011), from group to individual musical activity (Miron, 1972). Through singing, humans were connected, because music establishes cohesion in human society (Blacking, 1973) and serves as an aid of social bonding (Dunbar, 1996). In ancient times, group singing and body movement put our ancestors into a battle trance and created a powerful mental network between individuals (Jordania, 2011). Group movement synchronization and cooperation was necessary for hunting (Kogan, 1997). Just like some 58 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek animal species (crickets or frogs) synchronize with each other in producing periodic rhythmic chorusing in courtship displays (Patel, 2008), humans’ multi-male synchronous chorusing presented the competing groups of males inviting females for mating (Merker, 2000). Music served as a powerful aid of sexual attraction (Huron, 2003). Even Neanderthals sang to attract females, and their musical abilities were subject to sexual selection (Mithen, 2005). Interesting enough is the evidence showing that Neanderthals possessed the absolute pitch (AP) ability (Mithen, 2005). It was probably their capability to store AP information for signals or sound patterns that were necessary for communication. Group singing is a communication of a basic emotional state (Welch, 2012) and a form of group identification, identity expression, and social bonding (Pawley & Mullensiefen, 2012). It allows people to feel like a part of a community, and therefore, it is central in forming a collective identity (Melucci, 1989; Eyerman & Jamison, 1998). Group singing evokes emotions, raises morale, strengthens solidarity, fosters hope, and unifies members against a common opponent (Bensimon, 2012). Therefore, group singing can be considered a social phenomenon, social ritual, and shared experience that Durkheim called collective effervescence (Durkheim, 1912). The wisdom of crowds With this theory, Durkheim wanted to explain the role emotions play within mass gathering (Durkheim, 1912). During these social rituals, through bodily processes of rhythmic entrainment, participants become synchronized with each other’s motion and emotions, due to a special relationship between auditory temporal intervals (auditory input) and patterned movement (motor output) (Patel, 2008).There is neurological evidence showing that rhythmic entrainment is a basis for collective effervescence (Heinskou&Liebst, 2016) and that interpersonal synchrony increases social bonding and positive affect (Mogan, Fischer & Bulbulia, 2017). Collins’s Interaction Ritual Theory (Collins, 1981) and the Theory of collective effervescence lead to the formation of collective consciousness or collective mind (Durkheim, 1912). This fundamental sociological concept refers to the set of shared values, beliefs, attitudes, or knowledge that are common to a social group or society (Durkheim, 1893). The collective consciousness awakens our sense of belonging and identity, because individuals feel a sense of solidarity with each other, as collective identity presents the shared sense of belonging to a group (Melucci, 1989). The ritual outcomes are the building up of emotional energy in the individual, combined with the growth of group solidarity, morality, and membership symbols. In mass collective singing (at sports events or music concerts), pitch and rhythmic accuracy is recognized due to the emotional engagement, when synchronized movement creates a sense of connectedness and a state of collective musical identity (Jordania, 2011). Contrary to Durkheim’s collective consciousness, a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Carl Jung, introduced the term collective unconscious that first appeared in his essay “The structure of the unconscious”. Jung proposed that we are all born with a collective unconscious, which presents a set of memories and ideas that are shared amongst all of 59 Milena Petroviæ, GROUP SINGING AND COLLECTIVE IDENTITY humanity (Jung, 1981). Jung described this shared concept as archetypes, such as themes and characters emerging in our dreams or our culture (mother figure, for example). Music archetypes are a way of understanding deeper interactions in the collective consciousness of a performing group, due to a group experience that takes place on a lower level of consciousness than the experience of an individual (Jung, 1981). Being a part of a group certainly influences the individual’s feelings and behavior. Group memberships can have a positive impact on a person’s mental health (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) and belonging to a number of different social groups can help us cope with life changes and can be an important predictor of health outcomes (Haslam et al., 2009). Before the members of a crowd of people can constitute a group, these individuals must have a common interest in an object, a similar emotional bias, and some degree of reciprocal influence (McDougall, 1920). The idea of the wisdom of crowds can be traced back to Aristotle’s theory of collective judgment (Aristotle, 1988). In his book “The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind“, Le Bon wrote that when people become a part of a crowd, they lose almost all of their individuality, autonomy, personal judgment, and morality, by becoming caught up in the crowd’s collective and often irrational influence (Le Bon, 1895). To unlock the unconscious mind, one should become a member of a crowd (Freud, 1922). In the book “The Wisdom of Crowds“, Surowiecki explains that collective wisdom best solves: 1) cognitive problems, 2) coordination problems, and 3) cooperation problems. The example of the US navy that lost one of its submarines in 1968 shows how a group can be smarter than any individual. A naval officer asked a wide group of individuals to guess the submarine’s location. The group’s average guess was just 220 yards from the location where the submarine was found. The other example is the “Ask the Audience” as part of the quiz Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, where the studio audience gives the correct answer 91% of the time. It proves that groups should not be made up of exceptionally intelligent, well-informed, or rational people, in order to be smart and reach a wise decision collectively. Therefore, groups do not need to be dominated by exceptionally musical people to be in tune. Everyone possesses absolute memory for pitch in melodies (Levitin, 1994), even adults with little formal musical training (Schellenberg & Trehub, 2003). If most of the people within a group are not particularly musical or talented for singing, they can still reach a collectively good intonation, because, in a large group, close enough is good enough. There do not have to be too many good singers in a crowd, but they should be evenly distributed. Off-key singers will then tend to tune up with their surroundings if there are some other persons with better intonation in their close neighborhood. Regardless of the intonation of each singer, the collective tone will be perceived to be in tune. When several harmonics are played together, the perceived pitch corresponds to a frequency that is not physically present due to its psychoacoustic properties (Lacasa, 2016). It means that a group reinforces the natural harmonics of a tone, creating the fuller and richer sound, and the average pitch, which is somewhere in the middle. Off-key singers tend to find one of those strong harmonics and match it, which doesn’t happen when they are singing solo, because of the fear of solo singing in public and confidence when singing in a group (Whidden, 2008). When a large group of people sings 60 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek in unison, the pitches that match both what the performers are doing and what we expect are achieved. Huron proposes the psychological theory of expectation, showing how emotions evoked by expectation involve predicted responses (Huron, 2006). It means that while listening to music, our brain tells us what will happen next. When listening to a pop song, we pretty much know what is going to happen next. The more “traditional” the harmony, the more accurate the singing will be (Sterling, 1984). If something different from what the brain expected happens, depending on the person, it will make us like or dislike the song more. Music preferences are one of the important predictors of sing-along behavior or sing-along-ability. By singing along, people create a familiar atmosphere in different venues (Bennett, 1997), facilitate social bonding, (Packer & Ballantyne, 2011) create positive social interaction (Finnegan, 2007), and vice versa: musical identities are developed in the social activity of group singing (Davidson & Faulkner, 2016). Nowadays, group sing-along behavior occurs regularly at football matches and popular music concerts. Football chants Football chants express social and cultural identity. Moreover, they establish the individual and collective identity and express the individual’s self-concept as a member of one social group (Tajfel, 1981). It is interesting that, as fans increasingly gain a strong sense of belonging to the community, shared faith, and commitment to be together, their singing becomes more in tune. Furthermore, the more developed football as a sport has become, the more precise tuning of singers at the stadiums has been. Group singing seems to develop as human consciousness and culture develop because music played a crucial role in the development of the human mind and cultural cognition (van der Schyff, 2014). There is some evidence showing that musicality is the ability of great antiquity and fundamental part of being human (Mithen, 2006). Anyhow, we can understand singing in-tune as an ancient category, but still cannot surely tell if it is biologically inherited or it is a product of the environment. In some countries, such as England, there is a long and well-known tradition of singing at football matches. Therefore, football fans in England are able to sing historical or adaptations of popular songs, a mock of the originals, songs from musicals, nursery rhymes, or even the classical themes. The first-ever football anthem is Sir Edward Elgar’s “He Banged the Leather for Goal” (1898). In the second half of the 20th century, football supporters began singing and creating chants to accompany games (Kopiez & Brink, 1999). The first chant ever sung at the football match was “You’ll Never Walk Alone” by Rodgers and Hammerstein. Since the 1960s, Liverpool F.C. fans have sung this song with intense emotions, where the song peak coincides with the long holding tone in-tune (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Go-jJlGd1so). Singing along behavior could be viewed from the “neo-tribes” perspective (Maffesoli & Foulkes, 1988; Malbon, 1999). In his pioneering book “The Soccer Tribe”, British zoologist Morris relates soccer to tribal living and compares football fans with a tribe (Morris, 1981). The first similarity can be observed when the selected individuals, such as 61 Milena Petroviæ, GROUP SINGING AND COLLECTIVE IDENTITY ratified fan leaders, initiate the chant, while a large group of fans joins in quickly (Kopiez & Brink, 1999). The lead singer, or anthemic leader, unites fans in a temporary “neo-tribe” and motivates them to tune together in relative unison (WordNet, 2010). This could be compared to Brown’s theory of “contagious heterophony”, recognized in wolves howling, when one animal starts calling and other members of the group join in (Brown, 2007). This type of singing is also seen in the ancient Serbian folk songs named “ojkanje”, where one singer starts and then the rest of the singers join in (Petroviæ & Ljubinkoviæ, 2011). The second similarity is that football chants remind us of a “call to a party”, an invitation to participate in the party through singing, and might be compared to a “war-cry”. “War-cry” in fighting battles is traditionally male-dominated, so male singers are more “sing-along-able” than females. Male vocalists might think that joining in with female singers is a threat to their masculinity. Therefore, they tend to sing more anthemic songs than females (sports anthems, for example, see Dockwray, 2005). The third similarity is that fans of both football clubs have their own terraces (territories), from where they encourage their own team and jeer at the opposite one (Kopiez & Brink, 1999). The role of football chants today and ancient war songs is similar, and that is to inform the opponent fans/enemy about the strength, group strategy, and territory ownership (Hagen & Bryant, 2003). The last, fourth similarity shows that both football chants and ancient group songs were emotionally engaged choruses of highly synchronized sounds (Hagen & Hammerstein, 2009). Besides singing, fans clap and rhythmically applaud, so through bodily processes of rhythmic entrainment, participants become synchronized with each other’s motion and emotions (Durkheim, 1912). Interaction ritual theory (interaction ritual chains) proves that the intense emotional and ritual experiences of sports fans effect singing in tune (Collins, 1981). The role of emotion in group solidarity is important for understanding fan behavior and singing along in tune. Singing along in concerts Sing-along behavior is the musical quality that might motivate an individual to sing along to a particular song (Pawley, 2009). Several musical factors influence sing-along behavior, but there is no indication of a single or simple “sing-along formula” (Pawley & Müllensiefen, 2012). According to the evidence, the only song that made 100% of the audience sing along was “Imagine” by John Lennon (Pawley & Müllensiefen, 2012). High energy, high chest voice, and songs with clarity of consonants and lesser use of melismas usually motivate the audience to sing along (Pawley & Müllensiefen, 2012). What makes rock songs sing-along-able are short phrases in the chorus, little rhythmic variability, descending melodic contours, and simple intervallic movements (Dockwray, 2005). It seems the audience feels motivated to sing along if songs are catchy and easy to learn, having short phrases within the octave range and being more syllabic (Stefani, 1987). However, some very complex songs in both lyrical and musical aspects make fans sing along in-tune. The question then arises: what makes a song difficult for singing? In his work, Geissmann (2000) argues that complex songs (signals) evolved first and that meanings were added to these signals later (Fitch, 2006). A very complex, but “sing-along-able” song is “Bohemian Rhapsody”, the Queen’s biggest worldwide hit. The lead singer Freddie Mercury reached out to everybody in the 62 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Wembley stadium in 1985 and fans accompanied by singing in tune, primarily as being deeply touched by the beauty of the song and emotions that the singer shared (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oozJH6jSr2U). 2 It seems pretty reasonable to assume that memory for AP and group singing in tune co-exists with the emotion associated with the piece (Eschrich, Münte & Altenmüller, 2008). The song mixes genres of ballad, opera, and rock anthem. It lasts almost six minutes and includes six completely different sections with character, tempo, and meter changes. Lyric variables that could motivate fans to sing along are: the entire song is in English 3 , with some words from non-English languages (Galileo, Fandango, Figaro, Magnifico, Bismillah, Belzebub); the presence of the third person singular (mama, he); combination of person/group in chorus. Vocal style variables that could provoke singing along are: more frequent/intensive use of reverb effects in chorus; the song is mostly sung with some speech parts; very relaxed and calm style in verse is in contrast to the highly energized choruses; the song is mostly syllabic with some melisma; precise consonants; backing and main vocals play equal role; vibrato (Pawley & Müllensiefen, 2012). It is known that when a baby is exceptionally distressed, the cry contains vibrato (Vonwiller, 1986) and has an emotional effect on the parents (Seashore, 1967). It seems that vibrato and some other musical features have a strong emotional influence on listeners resembling primitive emotional responses (Davis, 1998). It is like Mercury’s “call to party”- he starts singing and then fans continue together in unison or take over - and unites fans in the “neo-tribe”. Concerts fans experienced a temporary social bonding (Mogan, Fischer & Bulbulia, 2017), felt connected to the performer by engaging with live music (Packer & Ballantyne, 2011), and became synchronized with each other’s motion and emotions. There is evidence that proves infants display a range of “proto-musical” behaviors, producing regular synchronization of vocal and kinesthetic patterns gaining multimodal sensory information (Papousek, 1996). It means that infants not only listen to sounds, but also produce them and actively move while doing so because music of different cultures, throughout history and in various societies, has always involved not just sound, but action, too (Blacking, 1973). The relation between singing and evolution can only emerge from an understanding of music’s identity in cultural context and its manifestation in early childhood and development (Cross, 2001). Therefore, group singing has been a major component of music education (Spruce, 2002) because of the huge benefits it brings. 63 Milena Petroviæ, GROUP SINGING AND COLLECTIVE IDENTITY 2 However, many years after Mercury’s death, the crowd of 60,000 people precisely sings “Bohemian Rhapsody” without the singer even been there ((https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YL9E1Sm5Pik). 3 It is interesting enough to mention that at the concert of the same band in Rio de Janeiro, the crowd of 400,000 people sang the song “Love of my life” in tune, even though their maternal language is not English, but Portuguese (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fGCBXdY4HKQ). The benefits of group singing The benefits of group singing are: physical, psychological, social, musical, and educational (Welch, 2012). Physical benefits of group singing relate to respiratory and cardiac function. Group singing could improve lung and heart function and immune system. Lung cancer patients who sang in a choir had a greater expiratory capacity than those who did not (Gale et al., 2012). Also, it can help the development of fine and gross motor control in the vocal system and neurological functioning (Welch, 2012). Psychological benefits relate to: intra-personal communication, the development of an individual’s identity, singing as a cathartic activity, and interpersonal communication (Welch, 2012). Group singing can reduce anxiety and depression and positively affects people with chronic mental illness (Grocke et al., 2009). It reduces the stress hormone cortisol during choir rehearsals in professional and amateur singers (Beck et al., 2000). It also improves mood by releasing positive neurochemicals such as -endorphin, dopamine, serotonin, and oxytocin into the forebrain (Freeman, 2000). When singing in a group, the immunoglobulin A, an endocrine defense against bacterial infection in the upper respiratory tract, is being increased (Clift et al., 2010). The satisfaction of performing together is associated with the activation of the brain’s reward system. Social benefits relate to an enhanced sense of social inclusion and better social well-being. From the time a child is born, singing is the most basic form of interpersonal, social, and cultural communication (Welch, 2012). Group singing has the potential to enhance the quality of life because it can help improve singers’ attention, focus, and regular commitment (Clift et al., 2010). It decreases loneliness (Cohen, 2006) and strengthens social musical identities (Davidson & Faulkner, 2015) by forming social bonding (Pawley & Mullensiefen, 2012; Welch, 2012). There is evidence to suggest that singing can be beneficial for building a sense of community, i.e. children with more developed singing ability tend to have a more positive sense of being socially integrated (Welch et al., 2014). Furthermore, singing in schools improves self-esteem, confidence, enjoyment, and engagement in the class. Some studies reported singing increases empathy (Rabinowitch et al., 2012). Group singing has a huge effect on the homeless, marginalized people, and middle-class people (Bailey & Davidson, 2005). The act of singing conveys information about group membership (age, gender, culture, social group) and emotionally unites people. By inducing emotions, music changes behavior, so emotion is required for rational decision-making (Mithen, 2005). Musical benefits from group singing relate to the realization of musical potential and the creation of an individual’s musical repertoire. Vocal learning is a basic and widespread skill (Racette & Peretz, 2007), while the ability to sing in tune is an indicator of the general musical ability (Welch, Sergeant & White, 1997). For children, singing in tune presents a continuum of skill, ranging from almost total “untunefulness”, through degrees of increasing vocal pitch control, to vocal pitch accuracy regardless of the tonal center of the melody (Welch, 1985). The relative proportion of “in-tune” singers has been found to increase as a function of age. Some results show that approximately 35% of seven-years-olds in western countries sing “out-of-tune” in contrast to only 7% of the 64 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek eleven-year-old population. There is also a clearer gender difference, with girls being more competent “in-tune” singers than boys (Welch, Sergeant & White, 1997). Finally, the educational benefits of group singing relate to increasing skills, knowledge, and understanding about the world around us, both in music and through music (Welch, 2012). Good singing experiences at school are also believed to be a major component of developing a lifelong interest and involvement in music (Pitts, 2009). However, when people lose ties with their traditional culture, the role of singing decreases in society. Evidence suggests that singing is a relatively low-status element of Music education in schools (Finney, 2000), and children’s singing skills progress relatively slowly at the start of school (Leighton & Lamont, 2006). Many primary school teachers lack con?dence in their own singing skills (Neokleous, 2009) and may not be singing much with their classes, preferring to rely on recordings. In many schools, singing has become a selective element of Music education in schools (for example, extracurricular choirs) (Bray, 2009). Referring to the previous arguments of group singing benefits, getting singing back to primary schools as the central musical activity, and offering group singing to every primary-school child, is of utmost importance. Conclusion Group singing is the oldest form of humans’ collective identity expression. It served to humans’ physical survival through male-dominated “war-cry” in battles or “call to party” in mating. In traditional or “primitive” societies, group singing, as a part of religion and rituals, played an important role in producing collective consciousness and the state of collective musical identity. Nowadays, football chants and singing along in concerts allow researchers a unique insight into human music behavior. Fans’ tribal behavior provokes singing in-tune because of their emotional engagement, the stability of auditory imagery, and latent absolute pitch ability, i.e., absolute memory for the pitch in favorite melodies. While some authors believe fans are motivated to sing along if songs are easy to learn, contain short phrases, small range, little rhythmic variability, and simple intervallic movements, the others argue that there were complex signals/songs that developed first. Group singing is an integral component of music education because the positive connection between singing and well-being has been proven. It is confirmed that regular singing contributes to good mental and physical health, and that singing improves social development among children. Regular high-quality singing at school has a positive impact on learning outcomes. Therefore, group singing has to be placed at the heart of music education, and a singing strategy to develop singing activities and choirs accessible to all pupils. 65 Milena Petroviæ, GROUP SINGING AND COLLECTIVE IDENTITY References Aristotel (1988). Politika. Zagreb: Globus. Bailey, B. A. & Davidson, J. W. (2005). 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Retrieved from //youtube.com/watch?v=Go-jJlGd1so [Bohemian Rhapsody]. (2019, August 19). Queen - Bohemian Rhapsody (Live at Wembley Stadium, Saturday 12 July 1986).[Video File]. Retrieved from //youtube.com/watch?v=oozJH6jSr2U [Bohemian Rhapsody]. (2019, August 19). Crowd singing Bohemian Rhapsody - Before Green Day concert 01/07/17. Hyde Park, London.[Video File]. Retrieved from //youtube.com/watch?v=YL9E1Sm5Pik Love of My Life]. (2019, August 19). 400,000 people singing with Freddie Mercury / Love of My Life / ENGLISH SUBTITLE (cc).[Video File]. Retrieved from//youtube.com/watch?v=fGCBXdY4HKQ 70 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Povzetek Skupinsko petje predstavlja najstarejšo obliko izraanja ljudi. V tradicionalnih drubah je bilo skupinsko petje del verskih obredov in ritualov ter je tako igralo pomembno vlogo pri oblikovanju kolektivnega zavesti in stanja kolektivne glasbene identitete. Skupinsko petje je bil kljuèni dejavnik v zgodnjem razvoju èloveka, saj mu je omogoèal fizièno preivetje s pomoèjo bojnih krikov vodilnega moškega v krdelu in mu predstavljal tudi klic priprave na paritev. Skupinsko petje naših prednikov je bilo verjetno unisono in uglašeno, saj naj bi èloveška vrsta takrat posedovala absolutni posluh za zvoène draljaje, ki so bili kljuèni za medsebojno sporazumevanje in preivetje. Skupinsko petje sodobnega èloveka na športnih dogodkih in glasbenih koncertih izraa narodnostno, drubeno in kulturno identiteto. Ob skupnem petju feni delijo èustvena, socialna in kognitivna doivetja. Sinhrono pripevanje je obièajno intonanèno pravilno zaradi moènih socialnih vezi in èustvene zavzetosti. Nekateri avtorji so predpostavljajo, da so feni motivirani za skupinsko petje, èe so pesmi enostavne za nauèit, èe vsebujejo kratke fraze v manjšem obsegu in z malo ritmiène variabilnosti in enostavne intervalne postope. Drugi avtorji pa trdijo, da so se evolucijsko najprej razvili kompleksni glasovni signali/pesmi. V skladu s slednjo predpostavko lahko razumemo pripevanje ob zelo kompleksni skladbi “Bohemian rhapsody” Britanske rock skupine Queen. Feni pripevajo in ohranjajo ritmièno in melodièno toènost, ker skladba izvablja moène èustvene odzive pri poslušalcih. To èustveno zavzeto “neo-plemensko” pripevanje kae, da vsak èlovek inherentno poseduje stabilnost zvoène imaginacije in latentno sposobnost absolutnega posluha. Ta absolutni spomin za tonsko višino v priljubljenih melodijah nakazuje, da so glasbene preference eden izmed pomembnih napovednikov ubranega in uglašenega petja. Skupinsko petje predstavlja integralno komponento glasbenega izobraevanja, ker zagotavlja fiziološke, psihološke, socialne, glasbene in izobraevalne pozitivne uèinke za posameznikovo blagostanje. Potrjeno je bilo, da redno petje prispeva k mentalnem in telesnem zdravje in da spodbuja empatijo in prosocialno vedenj pri otrocih. Redno kakovostno petje v vrtcih in šolah ima pozitivne uèinke na uène doseke. Zato je potrebno zborovsko petje umestiti v samo jedro glasbenega izobraevanja in ga narediti dostopnega vsem uèencem. 71 Milena Petroviæ, GROUP SINGING AND COLLECTIVE IDENTITY 72 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Alja Lapuh Akademija za glasbo, Oddelek za glasbeno pedagogiko USVAJANJE GLASBENEGA ZNANJA IN VEŠÈIN PRI OTROCIH Z ASPERGERJEVIM SINDROMOM Izvleèek Motnje avtistiènega spektra (MAS) so skupina vseivljenjskih nevrobioloških motenj, ki moèno vplivajo na kakovost posameznikovega ivljenja (Jurišiæ, 2016). Med MAS uvršèamo tudi Aspergerjev sindrom (AS) (Attwood, 2007). Otroci z AS imajo drugaèno slušno percepcijo kot nevrotipièni vrstniki (DePape, 2012). Namen naše kvalitativne raziskave je bil prouèiti glasbene sposobnosti otrok z AS ter njihov naèin usvajanja glasbenega znanja in vešèin. Izvedli smo dve študiji primera: 8-letnega deèka in 9-letne deklice z AS pri pouku nauka o glasbi. Oba prouèevana otroka sta bila nadpovpreèno dobra v slušnem prepoznavanju intervalov in akordov ter imitaciji, slabša pa v sinhronizaciji razliènih dejavnostih, pomnjenju besedila pesmi in improvizaciji. Pokazali so se tudi pomembni uèinki inkluzije v glasbeno izobraevanje, tako za oba otroka, kot za skupini, katere del sta bila. Kljuène besede: motnje avtistiènega spektra, Aspergerjev sindrom, glasbene sposobnosti, študija primera, glasbeno-izobraevalna inkluzija ADOPTION OF MUSICAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN CHILDREN WITH ASPERGER’S SYNDROME Abstract Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a group of neurobiological disorders that last a lifetime and have a strong impact on the quality of affected individual’s life (Jurišiæ, 2016). One of the ASD is Asperger’s syndrome (AS) (Attwood, 2007). Children with AS have a different kind of auditory perception than their neurotypical peers (DePape, 2012). The aim of our qualitative research was to examine ways of adopting musical knowledge and skills at music theory lessons of children with Asperger’s syndrome. We conducted two case studies of an 8-year old boy and 9-year old girl, diagnosed with AS in whom we systematically observed their adoption of musical knowledge and skills at music theory lessons. Both participants in the case study are exceedingly good in imitation and aural recognition of intervals and chords, however they show lower abilities in synchronizing body movements and music, memorizing lyrics and improvisation. The positive effects of music- educational inclusion were observed in both directions; on one hand on two children v AS, both also on both music groups, they’ve attended. Key words: autistic spectrum disorders, Asperger’s Syndrome, musical abilities, multiple case study, music inclusion 73 Alja Lapuh, USVAJANJE GLASBENEGA ZNANJA IN VEŠÈIN PRI OTROCIH... Uvod V vzgojno-izobraevalnem delu se vedno pogosteje sreèujemo z otroki in mladostniki s posebnimi potrebami. Ena izmed motenj, ki jo uvršèamo v to skupino, je tudi motnja avtistiènega spektra (MAS). Med te motnje spada tudi Aspergerjev sindrom (AS), poimenovan tudi visoko-funkcionalni avtizem (Jurišiæ, 2016; Attwood, 2019). Glavne znaèilnosti Aspergerjevega sindroma so neprimerna socialna interakcija, pedanten govor, slabo neverbalno komuniciranje, izrazito zanimanje za doloèene teme in nenaravna telesna dra (Attwood, 2007). Otroci in mladostniki z MAS velikokrat posedujejo glasbene sposobnosti oz. navdušenost nad glasbo. Glasba je pogosto njihovo moèno podroèje, zato poudarjamo pomen inkluzije otrok s posebnimi potrebi v glasbeno-pedagoški proces, saj tako lahko razvijajo svoj glasbeni talent, hkrati pa krepijo podroèja komunikacije in socialne interakcije. Pri tem izpostavljamo Glasbeni center DO RE MI na Bledu, kjer inkluzijo otrok z MAS uspešno izvajajo e vrsto let, za to pa velike zasluge nosi ravnateljica, mag. Nuša Piber. Podroèje inkluzije otrok z MAS (vkljuèno otrok z AS) v glasbeno-pedagoški proces je tako v Sloveniji kot na tujem še zmeraj premalo raziskano. Veliko raziskav namreè poudarja blagodejne uèinke glasbene terapije na socialni in govorni razvoj, primanjkuje pa študij na podroèju glasbenih sposobnosti ter glasbenega razvoja otrok z MAS. Cilj vkljuèitve otrok v glasbeno šolo je ne le glasbeni napredek, temveè tudi dragoceno medsebojno sodelovanje z nevrotipiènimi vrstniki. V teoretiènem delu bodo predstavljena poglavitna spoznanja slovenske in tuje literature s podroèja avtizma, s poudarkom na Aspergerjevem sindromu ter glasbenih sposobnosti otrok z AS. V empiriènem delu sledi prouèitev glasbenih sposobnosti in vešèin otrok z AS pri pouku nauka o glasbi. Definicija in pojavnost motenj avtistiènega spektra Avtistiène motnje oz. motnje avtistiènega spektra (v nadaljevanju MAS) so skupina pervazivnih 1 razvojnih motenj z nevrobiološko osnovo, ki trajajo vse ivljenje in moèno vplivajo na ivljenje posameznika (Hill in Frith, 2003; Macedoni-Lukšiè idr., 2009; Ockelford, 2013; Jurišiæ, 2016). Osebe z avtizmom imajo veliko skupnih znaèilnosti, obenem pa med njimi obstajajo razlike glede na pojavnost in intenzivnost motnje (Jurišiæ, 2016). Ker ima vsak posameznik z MAS specifièno klinièno sliko, obstaja splošno strinjanje, da govorimo o spektru avtistiènih motenj, ki zajema posameznike na vseh stopnjah inteligentnosti in jezikovnih sposobnosti (Hill in Frith, 2003). Vzrok za MAS ni enoznaèen, vsekakor pa gre za nevrobiološke motnje, ki niso posledica neprimerne vzgoje ali travmatiènega dogodka v otroštvu (Jurišiæ, 2016). Prisotna je okvara tako centralnega kot tudi perifernega ivèevja pod vplivom razliènih dejavnikov. Genetske mutacije lahko poveèajo monost nastanka MAS oz. vplivajo na moganski razvoj otroka. Lahko so podedovane ali nastanejo spontano (Patterson, 2009). 74 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek 1 Ta se kae, manifestira na vseh podroèjih delovanj a posameznika (Slovenski medicinski slovar, b. d.). Ker motnje MAS niso kategorizirane kot bolezen, temveè nevrobiološke motnje, zdravilo zanje ne obstaja. Poznamo razliène pristope, ki stanje izboljšajo, npr. vedenjski pristopi, uèenje komunikacije, terapije in zdravila, ki lahko omilijo simptome pridruenih motenj. Zgodnja obravnava pomembno prispeva k boljšemu izidu in kakovosti ivljenja otroka z MAS ter njegove druine (Jurišiæ, 2016). V naši šolski zakonodaji, natanèneje v Zakonu o usmerjanju otrok s posebnimi potrebami (2013), je ena od skupin otrok s posebnimi potrebami še vedno opredeljena kot otroci z avtistiènimi motnjami, kamor uvršèamo vse MAS oziroma pervazivne razvojne motnje. Med MAS se tako uvršèajo: – otroški (ali Kannerjev) avtizem, – Aspergerjev sindrom, – atipièni avtizem, – Rettov sindrom indezintegrativna motnja v otroštvu (Jurišiæ, 2016). V zadnjem desetletju je prisotno narašèanje števila oseb z MAS. V letu 2016 je veljalo, da je na 10.000 oseb priblino 147 oseb z MAS. Skoraj petkrat pogostejše so med deèki kot med deklicami. Poveèanje števila oseb z MAS strokovnjaki povezujejo z razširjanjem diagnostiènih meril, s spreminjanjem diagnostiènih oznak in z zavedanjem o MAS med ljudmi in strokovnimi delavci (Jurišiæ, 2016). Pomembno je izpostaviti tudi razliko med posamezniki z MAS glede na spol. Deklice zmorejo simptome MAS »prikriti«, saj imajo tenjo po oponašanju drugih v socialnih interakcijah ter pripadanju drubi (Frazier, Georgiades, Bishop in Hardan, 2013), zato lahko pogosteje kot deèki doivljajo depresijo in anksioznost (Hartley in Sikora, 2009). Nadvse elijo vzpostaviti prijateljstva/-stvo s podobno misleèimi osebami (Hiller, Young in Weber, 2015). Dekleta imajo velikokrat èustvene izbruhe in se hitro vznemirijo (Frazier idr., 2013), kljub temu pa v šoli uspešno nadzirajo svoja èustva (Hiller idr., 2015). Hkrati imajo manj obsesivne interese kot deèki (Frazier idr., 2013) in blaje oblike avtistiènega vedenja (Chen, Marvin in Lipkin, 2015; v Sarris, b.d.). Posebni interesi deklet so manj ekscentrièni in bolj starostno ter spolno primerni (zbirajo nalepke ali školjke). Kljub temu da dekleta pogosteje in uspešneje uporabljajo socialne kretnje, ni nujno, da jih povsem razumejo. To je povezano z njihovo visoko zmonostjo kompleksne imitacije (Hiller idr., 2015). Dekleta z MAS so bolj motivirana za socialne interakcije kot deèki (Sedgewick, Hill, Yates, Pickering in Pellicano, 2015), vendar imajo teave pri reševanju konfliktov v prijateljstvih. Hkrati je socialno druenje zanje utrujajoèe, saj stalno oponašajo sprejemljivo vedenje (Hiller idr., 2015). Aspergerjev sindrom Ker bomo v empiriènem delu predstavili študijo primera deèka in deklice z Aspergerjevim sindromom, bomo ta tip MAS podrobneje razloili. Aspergerjev sindrom (v nadaljevanju AS) je eden izmed tipov MAS. Prvi ga je leta 1944 opisal Hans Asperger, vendar njegov opis otrok v svetovni strokovni javnosti ni bil tako odmeven – najbr ker je bil èlanek v nemškem jeziku (Jurišiæ, 2016). Identificiral je skupino otrok s ponavljajoèimi vzorci obnašanja ter specifiènimi sposobnosti, ki so bili 75 Alja Lapuh, USVAJANJE GLASBENEGA ZNANJA IN VEŠÈIN PRI OTROCIH... nezmoni viveti se v èustva drugih, ki so imeli nizko sposobnost sklepanja prijateljstev, posebna zanimanja in okorno gibanje (Atwood, 2007). Kasneje je Lorna Wing leta 1981 v angleškem jeziku prviè uporabila izraz »Aspergerjev sindrom«. Leta 1991 je Uta Frith napisala knjigo z naslovom Avtizem in Aspergerjev sindrom (Jurišiæ, 2016). Takrat je Aspergerjevo pionirsko delo doivelo mednarodno priznanje. Lorna Wing je v svojem delu (Burgoine in Wing, 1983; v Attwood, 2007) opisala glavne kliniène znaèilnosti AS: – pomanjkanje empatije, – neprimerna, enostranska interakcija, – nizka sposobnost sklepanja prijateljstev, – pedanten, ponavljajoè se govor, – slabo neverbalno komuniciranje, – izrazito zanimanje za doloèene teme in – nenaravna dra ter slabo koordinirano premikanje (Attwood, 2007). Diagnoza Aspergerjevega sindroma se najveèkrat postavi pri starosti osmih let. Attwood (2007) izpostavi 6 monih poti do pridobitve diagnoze: 1. Diagnoza avtizma v zgodnji mladosti: pomembno je, da se postopek diagnoze avtizma v zgodnji dobi veèkrat ponovi, saj se lahko zgodi, da prvotna diagnoza avtizma preraste v diagnozo AS – otrok razvije tekoè govor in je ob pomoèi zmoen šolanja v obièajni šoli. 2. Identifikacija znaèilnosti ob prvem vpisu v šolo: otrok lahko doma povsem normalno komunicira in se obnaša, v šoli in nepredvidljivih situacijah pa so lahko nenavadne karakteristike bolj v ospredju. 3. Netipièno izraanje drugega sindroma: otrokov zgodnji razvoj je v tem primeru nenavaden. S podrobnejšim pregledom se ugotovi doloèeno razvojno motnjo – ob tem diagnoza neke druge motnje še ne izkljuèuje monosti AS, saj obstajajo otroci z dvojnimi sindromi. 4. Sorodnik z avtizmom ali Aspergerjevim sindromom: obstajajo druine, v katerih se AS pojavlja v veè generacijah. 5. Sekundarna duševna motnja: depresija najstnika je lahko posledica Aspergerjevega sindroma – osebo lahko muèijo tudi napadi panike ali kompulzivno vedenje. 6. Sledi Aspergerjevega sindroma pri odrasli osebi: odrasla oseba s sindromom se spominja znaèilnosti sindroma, ki so se izraale v njegovih otroških letih. Ko se opravlja diagnostièni postopek pri odrasli osebi, je zelo pomembna pridobitev verodostojnih podatkov o njenih sposobnostih in obnašanju v èasu otroštva; obstajajo tudi primeri oseb s prvotno diagnozo netipiène shizofrenije ali alkoholizma, pri katerih psihiatri sèasoma opazijo karakteristike AS (Attwood, 2007). Socialno vedenje posameznikov z Aspergerjevim sindromom Za posameznike z AS je znaèilno pomanjkanje socialnih spretnosti, nezmonost pravega dvostranskega pogovora ter intenzivno zanimanje za doloèeno stvar (Attwood, 2007). Ti otroci imajo v prvih treh letih razvoja razmeroma dobre jezikovne in miselne zmonosti. 76 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Nekateri to motnjo opisujejo kot avtizem brez motnje v duševnem razvoju ali visoko-funkcionalni avtizem. V današnjem èasu je vse veè odkritih in diagnosticiranih posameznikov z AS, ki jih prej ne bi prepoznali kot »osebe z avtizmom« (Jurišiè, 2016). Radi se igrajo domišljijske igre, vendar samostojno, saj elijo imeti popoln nadzor nad potekom igre. Posamezniki z AS si poveèini elijo drube in stikov z drugimi, vendar imajo nenavadno komunikacijo. Drugi niso motivirani za igro s sovrstniki in so oznaèeni kot samozadostni. Kadar so vkljuèeni v skupinsko igro, se kae tenja po diktiranju aktivnosti, socialni kontakt pa tolerirajo, le èe se igra po njihovih pravilih. Èe se otrok igra sam, drugi otroci pa se mu elijo pridruiti, je v varovanju svoje samote lahko zelo grob ali celo nasilen. Otroci z AS se veèinoma raje pogovarjajo z odraslimi, ki se jim zdijo zanimivejši, veè vedo in so tolerantnejši do njihovih pomanjkljivih socialnih sposobnosti (Atwood, 2007). Nekateri zelo veliko govorijo, manj pa komunicirajo s kretnjami in z izrazom obraza. Teko slišijo sporoèilo sogovornika in berejo èustva drugih. Posamezniki z AS teko vzpostavljajo oèesni stik in ne razumejo, da lahko z oèmi sogovorniku sporoèamo svoje obèutke. Ne razumejo telesne govorice in na glas razlagajo svoje opaanje, ki je sicer resnièno, a lahko mnoge spravi v zadrego. Zanje je znaèilno pomanjkanje empatije, kar pa ne pomeni, da otrok ni zmoen imeti koga rad (Jurišiè, 2016). Otrok z AS ne razume koncepta zasebnosti da z vdiranjem v zasebnost drugim lahko povzroèa nelagodne obèutke. Ko se otroku pravila obnašanja enkrat obrazloijo, se jih nato pogosto zelo strogo dri. Ko otroci z AS dozorevajo, se spreminja tudi njihova predstava o prijateljstvu. Majhni otroci merijo prijateljstvo po zelo enostavnih merilih, npr. bliina domovanja. Mladostniki z AS imajo raje platonska prijateljstva in imajo lahko teave z deljenjem misli in èustev. V manjši drubi ljudi so relativno bolj sprošèeni in socialno vešèi, v veèji skupini pa postanejo osamljeni (Attwood, 2007). Govor posameznikov z Aspergerjevim sindromom Otroci z AS drugaèe uporabljajo jezik v socialnem kontekstu. Ne pomislijo na veè razliènih monih pomenov in imajo nenavaden ton, naglas ali ritem govorjenja. Zaradi pomanjkanja spreminjanja kvalitete glasu je lahko govor monoton ali pa je izraanje preveè natanèno, s poudarkom na vsakem zlogu. Ko otrok sliši doloèeno besedo ali frazo, si zapomni izgovorjavo in jo vedno izgovarja na isti naèin. Ti otroci se stila govora nauèijo od odraslih, ki imajo na razvoj njihovega govora veèji vpliv kot drugi otroci. Prav tako imajo teave z razumevanjem pomena spremembe tona ali poudarjanja doloèenih besed, te majhne modulacije glasu pa so zelo pomembne za prepoznavanje pomena stavkov. Zmede jih tudi, èe veè ljudi govori naenkrat, saj imajo takrat teave z osredotoèenjem na glas ene osebe. Otrok z AS velikokrat pogovor zaène s pripombo, ki v trenutni situaciji ni relevantna ali pa se ne dri socialnih pravil. Ko se zaène pogovarjati, ga je praktièno nemogoèe ustaviti. Hkrati ima teave s prepoznavanjem primernih trenutkov za vkljuèitev v pogovor. Govor se jim veèinoma pozno razvije, vendar tekoèe govorijo praviloma do petega leta starosti. Lahko imajo tudi posebne znaèilnosti glasu in teave z interpretiranjem fraz in besed v prenesenem pomenu. Otrok lahko govori premalo ali preveè in govori nepovezano. Gostobesednost je po navadi znak, da eli otrok pokazati svoje znanje ter izvedeti nove informacije o temi svojega zanimanja. Nekateri otroci imajo 77 Alja Lapuh, USVAJANJE GLASBENEGA ZNANJA IN VEŠÈIN PRI OTROCIH... obdobja, ko izgovorijo zelo malo ali celo niè besed. Zanje je znaèilno tudi glasno razmišljanje, ki se nadaljuje še dolgo po tem, ko bi prièakovali, da se bodo tega odvadili. Prikupna znaèilnost otrok z AS je izumljanje novih besed in izvirnost v rabi jezika (npr. gleenj imenuje »zapestje moje noge«, kocke ledu pa »kosti vode«) (Attwood, 2007). Kognicija posameznikov z Aspergerjevim sindromom Posamezniki z AS imajo teave z razumevanjem in upoštevanjem misli in èustev druge osebe. To hkrati razloi, zakaj raje berejo knjige informativnega znaèaja kot pa leposlovje, saj te vsebujejo osebna doivljanja ljudi in poudarjajo socialne in èustvene izkušnje. Nekateri ljudje z AS razumejo misli drugih ljudi, vendar tega ne znajo ustrezno uporabiti oz. ga v doloèeni situaciji ne prepoznajo kot relevantno. Njihov dolgoroèni spomin je izreden. Lahko imajo tako dober fotografski spomin, da si zapomnijo cele strani knjige. Praviloma razmišljajo togo in se ne zmorejo prilagoditi morebitni spremembi ali neuspehu. Poznajo le en pristop do doloèenega problema in potrebujejo pomoè pri iskanju alternativnih rešitev. Otroci z AS znanja ne pridobivajo po obièajnem in ustaljenem vrstnem redu. Potrebujejo veè èasa za uèenje osnovnih vešèin ali pa jih obvladajo e zelo kmalu, vendar na nekonvencionalen naèin. Imajo svoj naèin razmišljanja in reševanja problemov. Po drugi strani pa imajo velik strah pred neuspehom in se ne elijo preizkusiti v novi aktivnosti, èe obstaja sum, da jim bo spodletelo. Sami si postavijo zelo visoke standarde, ki so lahko nad nivojem, ki ga od otroka prièakujejo uèitelji in sošolci. Po naravi so individualisti in s teavo delajo v skupini, saj jim to predstavlja stres. Ljudje z AS imajo zelo vizualen naèin razmišljanja, kar ima lahko velike prednosti, še posebej v znanosti in umetnosti. Osnovne principe in dogodke si predstavljajo kot resniène prizore (Attwood, 2007). Interesi posameznikov z Aspergerjevim sindromom Otroci z AS imajo zelo strokoven slog pripovedovanja in spominjajo na »male profesorje«. Radi povejo vse podrobnosti, ki jih o doloèeni temi vedo (in se zdi zanimiva le njim) ter ne prepoznajo, da se lahko drugi ob tem e malo dolgoèasijo (Jurišiè, 2016). Njihova zanimanja se pogosto spreminjajo in z njimi se ukvarjajo veèino svojega prostega èasa. Tako imajo neenakomerno porazdeljene sposobnosti – lahko imajo odlièen dolgoroèni spomin, slabše pa se odreejo pri aktivnostih, ki jih ne zanimajo. Majhen otrok pogosto razvije zanimanje za zbiranje doloèenih predmetov, ki so lahko izredno nenavadni (npr. sesalniki za prah ali krtaèe za stranišèno školjko) in neodvisni od trenda med sovrstniki. Njegova potreba po zbiranju teh predmetov je moèna in to poène ob vsaki prilonosti. Posledièno je obseden z doloèeno temo. Obièajne teme zanimanja za otroka z AS so transport (še posebej vlaki), dinozavri, elektronika in znanost. O temi pridobi enciklopedièno znanje in o njej vseskozi išèe nove informacije in postavlja vprašanja. Velikokrat je prisotna fascinacija nad statistiko, redom in simetrijo (Attwood, 2007). Motorièna nespretnost posameznikov z Aspergerjevim sindromom Otroci z AS imajo lahko okorno motoriko in nenavadno dro telesa – lahko hodijo brez zibanja rok in imajo pomanjkanje koordinacije med zgornjimi in spodnjimi okonèinami. 78 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Nekateri otroci z AS shodijo nekaj mesecev kasneje, kot je prièakovano. Velikokrat so poèasni pri opravilih, ki zahtevajo spretnost rok (zapenjanje gumbov, pisanje ali rezanje s škarjami). Med odrašèanjem se nekaterim pojavijo obrazni tiki (nenamerni krèi obraznih mišic, hitro meikanje in obèasne grimase). Nekatere osebe z AS lahko ivijo povsem normalno in samostojno, potrebujejo pa veliko podpore pri vkljuèevanju v drubo vrstnikov in pri uèenju za najveèji izkoristek svojih potencialov (Attwood, 2007). Senzorna obèutljivost posameznikov z Aspergerjevim sindromom Otroci z AS so lahko zelo obèutljivi na doloèene zvoke ali dotik, hkrati pa imajo visok prag boleèine. V nekaterih primerih so obèutljivi tudi na okus, jakost svetlobe, barve in vonj. Zvoke, ki jih ljudje z avtizmom in AS zaznavajo kot intenzivne, lahko razdelimo v tri kategorije. V prvi so nenavadni, neprièakovani in »ostri« zvoki, npr. pasji laje, zvonjenje telefona in kašelj. V drugi skupini so visoki in dolgo trajajoèi zvoki, ki jih npr. oddajajo elektromotorji kuhinjskih aparatov. V zadnjo skupino spadajo pomešani, veèslojni zvoki, kot so hrup v nakupovalnih središèih ali drugih druabnih mestih. Nekateri se nauèijo »izklopiti« oziroma odmisliti doloèene zvoke, tako da èeèkajo, brundajo ali pa se moèno osredotoèijo na doloèen predmet. V poštev pridejo tudi zamaški za ušesa. Veliko jih posluša glasbo s slušalkami, saj lahko zamaskirajo zvok, ki se zdi premoèan. Oseba z AS je lahko obèutljiva tudi na dotik doloèenih delov telesa ali pa na njegovo intenzivnost. Tako se velikokrat izogibajo dotikov, kot so rokovanje in izkazi naklonjenosti, saj se jim zdijo preveè silni. Pri tem izogibanju socialnim stikom pa ne gre za odpor do druenja z osebo, temveè samo za fizièno reakcijo na dotik. Zanje je znaèilna tudi sinestezija. To pomeni, da oseba z enim od èutil obèuti doloèen obèutek, kot posledica pa se pojavi obèutek tudi na nekem drugem èutilu. Najveèkrat se pri njih pojavljajo sinestezije, kar pomeni, da vidijo barve, vsakiè ko slišijo doloèen zvok (Attwood, 2007). Glasbene sposobnosti otrok z Aspergerjevim sindromom Glasbena percepcija posameznikov z Aspergerjevim sindromom Otroci z AS imajo nenavadno slušno percepcijo, kar pomeni, da nimajo tako kategoriène percepcije govora in glasbenih zvokov, veè pozornosti namenjajo manj pomembnim zvokom, bolj so osredotoèeni na posamezne kot celostne znaèilnosti, nenazadnje pa se manj specializirajo za doloèen jezik ali glasbeni sistem njihovega okolja. Prav tako je med njimi pogost pojav absolutnega posluha (DePape, 2012). Pogosto imajo dober melodièni spomin (Heaton, 2003). Nevrološke študije dokazujejo anatomske in funkcionalne motnje v moganskem deblu, malih moganih in temporalnem korteksu ter drugih slušnih strukturah. Otroci z MAS imajo tako drugaèen razvoj slušnega sistema, ki lahko reflektira motnje v procesu dozorevanja moganske skorje (Del Rincon, 2008). Kadar slišijo glasbo, dominantno uporabljajo desno mogansko polovico (Nakamura, 1986; v Del Rincon, 2008). Ena izmed teorij, ki opisuje lastnosti avtizma, je teorija o šibki osrednji usklajenosti. Ta izpostavlja teave posameznikov z AS na podroèju integriranja informacij v smiselno celoto, medtem ko imajo visoko zmonost procesiranja podrobnih informacij (Happé idr., 79 Alja Lapuh, USVAJANJE GLASBENEGA ZNANJA IN VEŠÈIN PRI OTROCIH... 2001). Mottron in kolegi (2006) so predlagali teorijo poveèanega zaznavnega delovanja (na podroèju vizualnega procesiranja), v kateri so pojasnili poveèano zmonost lokalnega procesiranja (procesiranje posameznih prvin) posameznikov z AS, medtem ko uporabljajo tudi globalno procesiranje (procesiranje celote), vendar le takrat, ko je potrebno (Mottron idr., 2006). Kljub temu posamezniki z AS enako dobro ali celo bolje procesirajo tudi globalne vzorce (kot so melodièni orisi in ritmièni vzorci) kot nevrotipièni posamezniki (Heaton, Hudry, Ludlow in Hill, 2008b), vendar je to podroèje še precej neraziskano. Ni še splošno potrjeno, ali ljudje z AS globalne vzorce procesirajo na lokalni ali globalni naèin (Haesen idr., 2011). Heaton, Pring in Hermelin (1999b) so izvedli raziskavo, v kateri so mladostniku z AS brez glasbene izobrazbe predvajali tri kratke pare melodij, v katerih: – sta bili melodiji enaki, – je ena izmed melodij vsebovala ton, ki je spremenil okvir melodije, – je ena izmed melodij vsebovala ton, ki je kljub temu ohranil okvir melodije. V skladu z geštaltistièimi karakteristikami melodije bi jih lahko dojemal kot enake, vendar je fant uspešno zaznal razlike, ki so se pojavile v okviru melodije (Heaton idr., 1999b). Otroci z AS zelo dobro razlikujejo majhne spremembe v melodiji (1 4 poltone). Hkrati bolje prepoznavajo manjkajoèe tone v akordih, èe jim predhodno zaigrajo posamiène tone akorda, kljub temu pa se niso pokazale razlike med njimi in kontrolno skupino v prepoznavanju zgradbe akorda, katere toni so bili zaigrani soèasno (Heaton, 2003). Heaton (2005) je v svoji raziskavi ugotovila, da otroci z AS bolje razlikujejo majhne intervale kot kontrolna skupina. Pri razlikovanju veèjih intervalov (od terce do sekste) razlike med skupinama niso bile oèitne (Heaton, 2005). Heatonova in sodelavci (1998) so raziskovali procesiranje tonskih višin pri otrocih z AS in preverjali hipotezo, ali je absolutni posluh pogosta lastnost oseb z visoko funkcionalnim avtizmom. Povezovati so morali sosledja tonov in slike ivali, pri èemer so preverjali njihovo kapaciteto glasbenega spomina. Otroci z AS so pokazali izjemne zmonosti pomnjenja tonov (Heaton idr., 1998). Kasnejše raziskave so pokazale, da je absolutni posluh tipièna razvojna znaèilnost vseh otrok z MAS ne glede na predhodno glasbeno izobraevanje (Heaton, Hudry in Ludlow, 2008b). Na njegov razvoj v najveèji meri vpliva poveèana pozornost na glasbo v zgodnjih letih, kar se kae v poudarjenem spominu tonskih višin. Povišana obèutljivost na bogate aspekte zvoka poveèa poslušanje in omogoèa razvoj vešèin za pomnenje tonskih višin (Heaton, 2009). Otroci z AS prav tako bolje poimenujejo tone kot nevrotipièni posamezniki (Bonnel idr., 2003) Èeprav imajo otroci z AS nadpovpreène zmonosti percepcije razlikovanja višine tona, so šibkejši na podroèju dojemanja glasbenega èasa. Imajo t. i. »spektralni posluh«, kar pomeni, da je njihova slušna percepcija nagnjena k posameznim kvalitetam zvoka, kot so zvoèni valovi, alikvotni toni, glasnost itn., in ne k zaznavanju celote. Kadar so izpostavljeni percepciji kompleksnih draljajev v zvezi z glasbenim èasom (kombinacija ritma in melodije), pa niso tako uspešni (Mottron idr., 2000). Njihovo mogansko deblo se na slušne draljaje odziva podpovpreèno, to pa lahko moèno vpliva na muzikalnost posameznikov z AS, saj mogansko deblo nosi poglavitno vlogo v procesiranju in 80 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek doivljanju pulza, ritma, metruma in drugih aspektov glasbenega èasa. Fessenden (2019) trdi, da je muzikalnost pri osebah z avtizmom izjemno raznolika, kljub temu pa je »spektralni posluh« lastnost mnogih posameznikov z MAS (Fessenden, 2019). Namen Da bi pridobili poglobljen uvid v glasbeno izobraevanje otrok z AS, smo izvedli dve študiji primera, kjer smo opazovali vedenje, socialno interakcijo ter naèin in hitrost usvajanja glasbenega znanja in vešèin 8-letnega deèka in 9-letne deklice z AS. Raziskovalna vprašanja – Kakšne so razlike v naèinu in hitrosti usvajanja glasbenega znanja in vešèin pri otrocih z Aspergerjevim sindromom in njihovih nevrotipiènih vrstnikih? – Ali obstajajo razlike v spolu pri naèinu in hitrosti usvajanja glasbenega znanja in vešèin otrok z Aspergerjevim sindromom? – Na katerem glasbenem podroèju so otroci z Aspergerjevim sindromom najuspešnejši? – Kako specifiène znaèilnosti otrok z Aspergerjevim sindromom vplivajo na njihovo delovanje v razredu pri pouku nauka o glasbi? Metodologija Raziskovalna metoda V raziskavi smo uporabili kvalitativno metodo raziskovanja – izvedli smo dve študiji primera s sistematiènim opazovanjem brez udelebe. Raziskovalni vzorec V študijo primera sta bila vkljuèena 8-letni deèek in 9-letna deklica z AS, ki se glasbeno izobraujeta po metodi Edgarja Willemsa in obiskujeta 1. in 3. razred nauka o glasbi na Glasbenem centru DO RE MI Bled ter se uèita igranja na inštrument (deèek na tolkala, deklica pa na klavir). Postopki zbiranja podatkov Podatke študije primera smo zbirali s tedenskim sistematiènim odkritim opazovanjem pouka nauka o glasbi, ki sta ga obiskovala deèek in deklica z AS. Opaeno smo zapisovali v obliki dnevniških zapisov, pri tem pa izpostavili predvsem vedenje, komunikacijo in socialno interakcijo otrok pri pouku, melodièno in ritmièno izvajanje ter ustvarjanje, slušno zaznavanje intervalov in akordov ter druge zanimivosti, ki so se nanašale na glasbeno podroèje. Posamezna šolska ura je trajala 60 minut, pouk pa smo opazovali 12 tednov, od 11. marca do 10. junija 2019. 81 Alja Lapuh, USVAJANJE GLASBENEGA ZNANJA IN VEŠÈIN PRI OTROCIH... Postopki obdelave podatkov Podatke študije primera smo kvalitativno obdelali, in sicer s kvalitativno vsebinsko analizo po naslednjih fazah: 1. povzemanje gradiva, 2. doloèanje enot kodiranja, 3. pripisovanje pojmov in kategorij ter vzpostavljanje odnosov znotraj kategorij, 4. izbor in definiranje relevantnih pojmov in kategorij, 5. vzpostavljanje odnosov med kategorijami, 6. opis in razlaganje dobljene klasifikacije (Mesec, 1993; v Èagran idr., 2013). Rezultati Študija primera deèka in deklice z Aspergerjevim sindromom pri pouku glasbene teorije in solfeggia Študija primera 8-letnega deèka Deèek Ane 2 je bil v èasu opazovanja star 8 let in se je v Glasbenem centru DO RE MI na Bledu uèil igranja na tolkala. Ima diagnozo Aspergerjevega sindroma ter obiskuje obièajno javno osnovno šolo. Na Glasbenem centru je v èasu opazovanja obiskoval 1. razred tolkal in 1. razred nauka o glasbi. Pouk 1. razreda nauka o glasbi je potekal v prostorni uèilnici s klavirjem in z omaro, polno Orffovih inštrumentov ter inštrumentov, ki se uporabljajo po metodi Edgarja Willemsa (razni zvonci, infratonalni metalofon). V sredini uèilnice sta postavljeni dve manjši mizi, ki ju obkroajo majhni stoli. Med sistematiènim opazovanjem pouka smo sedeli na stolu ob steni, od koder smo dobro videli dogajanje za mizami in okrog klavirja, pri tem pa nismo motili uènega procesa. Pouk nauka o glasbi, ki ga je obiskoval Ane, smo opazovali enkrat tedensko, ob ponedeljkih, od 11. marca do 10. junija 2019. Enajst terminov je potekalo v uèilnici 1. razreda, en termin pa v sosednji uèilnici. Pri opazovanju smo sledili smernicam sistematiènega opazovanja. Med opazovanjem smo glavne ugotovitve zapisovali v obliki dnevniškega zapisa, kasneje v istem dnevu zapise uredili in dodali morebitna manjkajoèa opaanja. Glavne ugotovitve opazovanj smo razdelili na 8 krovnih podroèij: – slušno prepoznavanje intervalov in akordov, – ritmièno in melodièno izvajanje, – ritmièni in melodièno-ritmièni nareki, – imitacija in improvizacija melodièno-ritmiènih vzorcev, – petje pesmi, – doivljajsko in analitièno poslušanje skladb, – teoretièna in oblikovna znanja ter – specifiène lastnosti otrok z AS, ki se izraajo pri pouku nauka o glasbi. 82 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek 2 Ime smo spremenili zaradi varovanja osebnih podatkov. – V èasu opazovanja je potekala tudi generalka za koncert ob dnevu avtizma, ki je všteta v nabor ur opazovanja in bo opisana posebej. Študija primera 9-letne deklice Deklica Sara 3 je bil v èasu opazovanja stara 9 let in se v Glasbenem centru DO RE MI na Bledu uèi igranja na klavir. Ima diagnozo Aspergerjevega sindroma ter obiskuje obièajno javno osnovno šolo. Na Glasbenem centru je v èasu opazovanja obiskovala 3. razred klavirja in 3. razred nauka o glasbi. Pouk 3. razreda nauka o glasbi je potekal v kletni uèilnici s klavirjem na sredini uèilnice, ki so ga obkroali stoli, na katerih so sedeli uèenci. Na klavirju so bili postavljeni lonèki s svinèniki in z radirkami. Ob steni je stala omara z nekaj Orffovimi inštrumenti ter inštrumenti, ki se uporabljajo po metodi Edgarja Willemsa (razni zvonci). Pri opazovanju smo sledili smernicam sistematiènega opazovanja. Med sistematiènim opazovanjem pouka smo sedeli na stolu ob steni, od koder smo dobro videli dogajanje v uèilnici, pri tem pa nismo motili uènega procesa. Pouk nauka o glasbi, ki ga je obiskovala Sara, smo opazovali ob ponedeljkih, in sicer od 11. marca do 10. junija 2019. Deset terminov je potekalo v uèilnici 3. razreda, en termin v uèilnici 1. razreda in en termin v sosednji uèilnici 1. razreda. Pouk smo opazovali vsak teden, razen 22. aprila (velikonoèni ponedeljek) in 29. aprila (prvomajske poèitnice). Med opazovanjem smo glavne ugotovitve zapisovali v obliki dnevniškega zapisa, kasneje v istem dnevu pa smo zapise uredili in dodali morebitna manjkajoèa opaanja. Glavne ugotovitve opazovanj bomo razdelili na 8 krovnih podroèij: – slušno prepoznavanje intervalov in akordov, – ritmièno in melodièno izvajanje, – ritmièni in melodièno-ritmièni nareki, – imitacija in improvizacija melodièno-ritmiènih vzorcev, – petje pesmi, – doivljajsko in analitièno poslušanje skladb, – teoretièna in oblikovna znanja ter – specifiène lastnosti otrok z AS, ki se izraajo pri pouku nauka o glasbi. V èasu opazovanja je potekala tudi generalka za koncert ob dnevu avtizma, ki je všteta v nabor ur opazovanja in bo opisana posebej. Vse ugotovitve iz sistematiènega opazovanja otrok smo strnili v tabelo. 83 Alja Lapuh, USVAJANJE GLASBENEGA ZNANJA IN VEŠÈIN PRI OTROCIH... 3 Ime smo spremenili zaradi varovanja osebnih podatkov. Tabela 1: Glavne ugotovitve iz študije primera Podroèja opazovanja Ane Sara Slušno prepoznavanje intervalov in akordov – nihanje osredotoèenosti med dejavnostjo (posledièno: napaèni odgovori), – v primeru osredotoèenosti je hitro prepoznaval naslove pesmi oz. poimenoval intervale, – zatikanje pri naštevanju kvantitete intervalov, – uspešno in hitro prepoznaval akorde, – rad opazuje uèiteljièino igranje na klavir, – uspešno in hitro prepoznava naslove pesmi oz. poimenuje intervale, – vèasih ni znala navesti kvalitete intervala, – vèasih ni poznala naslova pesmi, èeprav je pravilno prepoznala interval, Ritmièno in melodièno izvajanje – uspešen pri izvajanju ritmiènih vaj, – nenatanèen pri izvajanju ritmiènih posebnosti, – nenatanèen v primeru soèasnega taktiranja ob izvajanju vaje, – manj uspešen pri izvajanju melodièno-ritmiènih vaj (teave pri poimenovanju tonov), – manj uspešna pri izvajanju ritmiènih vaj, – nenatanèna pri izvajanju ritmiènih posebnosti, – nenatanèna v primeru soèasnega taktiranja ob izvajanju vaje, – manj uspešna pri izvajanju melodièno-ritmiènih vaj (teave pri poimenovanju tonov), razen kadar s prstom sledi poteku melodije, Ritmièni in melodièno- ritmièni nareki – uspešno in hitro zapiše ritmièni in melodièno-ritmièni narek, – uspešno zapiše ritmièni in melodièno-ritmièni narek ob pomoèi uèitelja, Imitacija in improvizacija melodièno- ritmiènih vzorcev – vèasih nenatanèen pri imitaciji melodièno-ritmiènih vzorcev, – teave pri poimenovanju tonov, – zelo preprosta melodièno-ritmièna improvizacija (vèasih uporabi kompleksnejša ritmièna trajanja), – pri improvizaciji je velikokrat uporabil e slišane elemente uèiteljice ali sošolcev, – natanèna pri imitaciji ritmiènih in melodièno-ritmiènih vzorcev, – vèasih ima teave pri poimenovanju tonov, – zelo preprosta melodièno-ritmièna in ritmièna improvizacija (vèasih uporabi kompleksnejše melodiène postope), – pogumnejša pri skupinski improvizaciji, Petje pesmi – velikokrat ni sodeloval pri petju in je pesmi spremljal na tolkalih, – njegove spremljave so glasbeno zaokroene in velikokrat vsebujejo kompleksnejše ritme, – kadar je sodeloval pri petju, ni bil osredotoèen, – »teatralno« petje, – teave pri pomnjenju besedila, – nemirna med petjem novih pesmi, – poje tiho, 84 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Doivljajsko in analitièno poslušanje skladb – veèinoma osredotoèen pri poslušanju, razen ob dlje trajajoèih dejavnostih, – uspešno in hitro prepoznaval taktovske naèine skladb, – osredotoèena pri poslušanju, – uspešno in hitro prepoznava taktovske naèine skladb (nekaj teav pri taktiranju v 6/8 taktovskem naèinu), Teoretièna in oblikovna znanja – dobro teoretièno znanje, – teave pri poimenovanju tonov, ki niso po vrsti, – dobro teoretièno znanje, – naloge rešuje zelo poèasi in natanèno, Specifiène lastnosti otrok z MAS, ki se izraajo pri pouku glasbene teorije in solfeggia – obèutljiv na spremembo postavitve pohištva v uèilnici, – stvari ima urejene in pospravljene, – ne trudi se vzpostavljati oèesnega stika, – govori v knjini slovenšèini s pridihom nareèja, – vèasih izpostavi dejstvo, ki ni v neposredni povezavi z dejavnostjo, ki jo izvajajo, – moèno se trudi navezovati stike s sošolci, ti pa jo velikokrat ignorirajo, – kadar uspešno navee stik, je njeno delo pri uri uspešnejše, – ne mara biti izpostavljena in se trudi biti enaka ostalim, – njeni zapiski so èitljivi, natanèni in pregledni, – vèasih izpostavi dejstvo, ki ni v neposredni povezavi z dejavnostjo, ki jo izvajajo, – zanimajo jo reèi, ki otroke njene starosti po navadi ne pritegnejo (npr. obisk Prirodoslovnega muzeja), – rada ima rutino, Generalka za koncert – ivènost, ker skladbe ni dobro zvadil, je kazal z veliko govorjenja, – skladbo se je hitro nauèil po metodi imitacije, – uiva v igranju na bobne, – zelo je navezan na svojega uèitelja. – nastopala je s kolegico, zato je imela manj treme ob igranju pred obèinstvom, – med vajo potrebuje natanèna navodila. S pridobljenimi podatki lahko odgovorimo na zastavljena raziskovalna vprašanja: 1. Kakšne so razlike v naèinu in hitrosti usvajanja glasbenega znanja in vešèin pri otrocih z Aspergerjevim sindromom in njihovih nevrotipiènih vrstnikih? Tako Ane kot Sara sta zelo dobra v slušnem prepoznavanju intervalov in akordov. Dobro prepoznavata tako majhne kot velike intervale, kar ni v skladu z izsledki predhodnih raziskav, ki poudarjajo, da so otroci z MAS bolj subtilni za razlikovanje majhnih intervalov kot nevrotipièni vrstniki (Heaton, 2005). Vèasih imata teave pri poimenovanju asociativne pesmi za prepoznavanje intervalov in akordov, kar se pri nevrotipiènih vrstnikih pojavi redkeje (ti se hitreje spomnijo pesmi in šele nato imena intervala ali akorda). Nekaj teav imata pri poimenovanju tonov. Tudi to je v neskladju z predhodnimi raziskavami, ki razlagajo, da otroci z MAS bolje poimenujejo tone kot 85 Alja Lapuh, USVAJANJE GLASBENEGA ZNANJA IN VEŠÈIN PRI OTROCIH... nevrotipièni posamezniki (Bonnel idr., 2003; Heaton, Pring in Hermelin, 2001). V poimenovanju s solmizacijo sta uspešnejša kot s tonsko abecedo. Na tem podroèju nevrotipièni vrstniki nimajo toliko teav. Ritem je Anetovo moèno podroèje, izvajanje ritmiènih vaj ter imitacija in improvizacija ritmiènih vzorcev mu ne predstavljajo teav, kar ni v skladu s predhodnimi ugotovitvami, da so otroci z MAS slabši v dojemanju glasbenega èasa kot nevrotipièni vrstniki (Fessenden, 2019). Sara je slabša v improvizaciji ritmiènih ter melodièno-ritmiènih vzorcev. Tudi Anetu predstavlja improvizacija melodièno-ritmiènih vzorcev teave. To je najbr povezano s strahom pred neuspehom, kar je ena izmed znaèilnosti otrok z AS. Njuni nevrotipièni vrstniki ustvarjajo kompleksnejše ritmiène in melodièno-ritmiène vzorce. Pri petju pesmi ima Sara teave pri pomnjenju besedila. Ane tovrstnih teav nima, vendar veèino èasa pesmi spremlja na tolkalih. Tudi nevrotipièni vrstniki imajo vèasih teave pri pomnjenju besedila, nihèe pa nima tako moène elje po izvajanju komplementarne glasbene dejavnosti (kot je spremljava petja pesmi z inštrumentom), kot jo ima Ane. Oba sta glasbeno teoretièno moèno podkovana in med reševanjem nalog ohranjata visoko osredotoèenost, ki je nevrotipièni vrstniki poveèini nimajo. Pišeta poèasi, èitljivo in natanèno. Tudi skladbe poslušata mirno in natanèno. Dobra sta v prepoznavanju taktovskega naèina zaigranih skladb. Vèasih imata teave pri natanènem in pravilnem taktiranju. 2. Ali ostajajo razlike v spolu pri naèinu in hitrosti usvajanja glasbenega znanja in vešèin otrok z Aspergerjevim sindromom? Posebnih razlik v spolu pri naèinu in hitrosti usvajanja glasbenega znanja in vešèin otrok z Aspergerjevim sindromom nismo zaznali. Edina veèja razlika je bila opazna v reševanju ritmiènih in melodièno-ritmiènih narekov. Ane rešuje ritmiène in melodièno-ritmiène nareke bolje kot Sara, ki ima nekaj teav pri razporeditvi notnih trajanj v posamezne takte. Zaradi majhnega vzorca ne moremo trditi, da je to specifièna lastnost deklice ali deèka z Aspergerjevim sindromom. Verjetno je deèek v tem primeru boljši zaradi inštrumentov, na katera igra – tolkala. Veè razlik je opaznih na podroèju vedenja in socialne interakcije. Sara se veliko bolj kot Ane trudi za vkljuèitev v drubo in eli biti enaka svojim sošolkam. Ni ji všeè, èe jo uèitelj izpostavi. Kadar jo sošolke sprejmejo medse, se njeno razpoloenje v hipu spremeni. Prav tako se izboljša v izvajanju posameznih dejavnosti. To je skladno s predhodnimi ugotovitvami, da imajo deklice z MAS tenjo po oponašanju drugih v socialnih interakcijah ter pripadanju drubi (Frazier idr., 2013). Prav tako je Ane skorajda obseden z igranjem na tolkala, medtem ko Sara nima nobene podobne obsesije. To je skladno s predhodnimi raziskavami, ki razlagajo, da so posebni interesi deklic z MAS manj ekscentrièni in intenzivni kot pri deèkih z MAS (Hiller idr., 2015). 86 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek 3. Na katerem glasbenem podroèju so otroci z Aspergerjevim sindromom najuspešnejši? Ane in Sara sta zelo dobra na širokem glasbenem podroèju poslušanja in slušnega zaznavanja. Oba sta blestela na podroèju slušnega prepoznavanja intervalov in akordov. Tovrstne dejavnosti sta opravljala z lahkoto. Vidno je bilo, da so jima všeè disonanèni intervali (zm4, m7) in intervali, katerih asociativna pesem za prepoznavanje intervalov je bila v molu (m3, m6). Te intervale sta po navadi hitreje prepoznala in doiveto zapela pesem. To ne pomeni, da preostalih intervalov nista prepoznala, le da smo pri izpostavljenih intervalih zaznali manjšo afiniteto, ki se je izraala z zadovoljnim izrazom na obrazu ali gibi telesa. Tudi v poslušanju skladb sta dobra (kadar je treba prepoznati ustrezen taktovski naèin), prav tako ju lahko skladba iz klasiène zakladnice moèno prevzame; poslušata jih zbrano in mirno. Ane je prav tako dober v pisanju ritmiènih in melodièno-ritmiènih narekov. Sara je na tem podroèju podpovpreèna. 4. Katere specifiène znaèilnosti otrok z Aspergerjevim sindromom vplivajo na njihovo delovanje v razredu pri pouku nauka o glasbi? Ane in Sara sta zelo skrbna, natanèna in imata rada red. Njun notni zapis je zmeraj èitljiv, domaèo nalogo imata vedno opravljeno. Potrebujeta jasna in razloèna navodila za opravljanje nalog. Dobro se poèutita v rutinskih dejavnostih. Osredotoèenost izgubita pri dlje trajajoèih dejavnostih. Ane redko vzpostavlja oèesni kontakt, vendar se ga ne izogiba. Kadar ga vzpostavi, ga navadno zadri za nekaj sekund, nato pa pogled umakne. Sara vzpostavlja moèan oèesni kontakt, ki pa ga ne zadri dlje od petih sekund. Med poukom velikokrat zre v uèitelja in sošolce. Ta razlika potrjuje dejstvo, da govorimo o spektru avtistiènih motenj, kar pomeni, da so si lahko otroci z MAS med seboj precej razlièni, kljub temu da jih moèno povezuje nekaj skupnih znaèilnosti. Anetov govor je natanèen in artikuliran, medtem ko Sara besede »poira«. Oba sta zelo spoštljiva, vljudna in iskrena. Ane velikokrat priène pogovor s pripombo, ki ni relevantna v trenutni situaciji ali kontekstu, kar je skladno z znaèilnostmi otrok z AS (Attwood, 2007). Sklep S študijo primera dveh otrok z AS pri pouku glasbene teorije in solfeggia smo dobili poglobljen uvid v proces usvajanja glasbenega znanja in vešèin pri posameznikih z AS. Ker smo preuèevali deèka in deklico, smo zaznali doloèene razlike specifiènega vedenja in znaèilnosti glede na spol. Hkrati smo med njima lahko povezali doloèene vzporednice - 87 Alja Lapuh, USVAJANJE GLASBENEGA ZNANJA IN VEŠÈIN PRI OTROCIH... znaèilnosti njunega usvajanja glasbenega znanja in vešèin. Otroci z AS na drugaèen naèin usvajajo glasbeno znanje in vešèine kot nevrotipièni otroci, vendar to ne pomeni, da ne bi smeli biti vkljuèeni v glasbeno-izobraevalni proces. Njihova drugaènost se izraa tako v njihovih posebnih glasbenih sposobnostih kot v njihovih specifiènih lastnostih AS. Izjemno dobri so v slušnem prepoznavanju intervalov in akordov, hitro razumejo osnovne glasbeno-teoretiène zakonitosti in med reševanjem nalog ohranjajo visoko osredotoèenost. Hkrati vestno opravljajo domaèo nalogo, se dobro poèutijo v rutinskih dejavnostih in so spoštljivi. Uèitelj nauka o glasbi in solfeggia mora, èe pouk obiskuje tudi otrok z AS, paziti, da podaja dosledna in natanèna navodila, skrbeti za priblino enako sosledje dejavnosti pri pouku in biti subtilen za njihove potrebe ter skrbeti za spodbujanje njihovih moènih podroèij, saj se tam poèutijo najvarneje. Inkluzija otrok z MAS v glasbeno-izobraevalne ustanove je kljuèna, saj ugodno vpliva tako na otroke z MAS kot na njihove nevrotipiène vrstnike. Prvi se tako uèijo socialne interakcije in komunikacije, drugi pa se navajajo drugaènosti, ki je pravzaprav del nas vseh. Zanimivo bi bilo s študijo primera prouèiti tudi otroke s Kannerjevim avtizmom, vendar se ti v veèini primerov v skupinski pouk nauka o glasbi in solfeggia vkljuèijo veliko kasneje (po 12. letu starosti). Glede na pridobljene izsledke lahko sklepamo, da glasbeno izobraevanje otrok z AS oziroma otrok z visoko funkcionalnim avtizmom ugodno vpliva na razvoj njihovih glasbenih sposobnosti ter da se lahko brez teav glasbeno šolajo. 88 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Reference Attwood, T. (2007). Aspergerjev sindrom: Priroènik za starše in strokovne delavce. Ljubljana: Megaton d. o. o. Attwood, T. (2019). Is There a Difference Between Asperger’s Syndrome and High-Functioning Autism. Pridobljeno 5. 10. s http://www.tonyattwood.com.au/books- by-tony-m/resource-papers/69-is-there-a-difference-between-aspergers-syndrome-and- high-functioning-autism Bonnel, A., Mottron, L., Peretz, I., Trudel, M. in Gallun, E. (2003). Enhanced pitch sensitivity in individuals with autism: A signal detection analysis. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,15 (2), 226–235. Èagran, B., Ivanuš-Grmek, Fošnariè, S., Pšunder, M. in Ladiè, J. (2013). 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Mottron, L., Peretz, I. in Menard, E. (2000). Local and global processing of music in high-functioning persons with autism: beyond central coherence? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 41, 1057 1065. Ockelford, A. (2013). Music, language and autism. London: Jessica Kingsley. Patterson, D. (2009). Avtizem: Kako najti pot iz tega blodnjaka. Ljubljana: Modrijan. Sarris, M. (b.d.). Are girls with autism hiding in plain sight? Pridobljeno 1. 7. 2019 s https://sparkforautism.org/discover_article/are-girls-with-autism-hiding-in-plain-sight/ ?category_selected=&page=4&keywords= 90 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Sedgewick, F., Hill, V., Yates, R., Pickering, L. in Pellicano, E. (2015). Gender Differences in the Social Motivation and Friendship Experiences of Autistic and Non-autistic Adolescents. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46 (4), 1297–1306. Slovenski medicinski slovar. (b. d.). Pridobljeno 26. 6. 2019 s https://www.termania.net/iskanje?query=pervaziven&SearchIn=All Zakon o usmerjanju otrok s posebnimi potrebami (ZUOPP-1). (2013). Pridobljeno 23. 3. 2019 s http://pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=ZAKO5896 Summary Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a group of neurobiological disorders that last a lifetime and have a strong impact on the quality of affected individual’s life (Jurišiæ, 2016). People with ASD have impairments in communication, social interaction, imagination and cognitive flexibility (Hannah, 2009). Asperger’s syndrome (AS) is one of the types of ASD (Jurišiæ, 2016). Main characteristics of children with AS are inappropriate social interaction, low ability of making friends, pedantic speech, low ability of non-verbal communication, distinct interest for certain topics and unnatural body movements (Attwood, 2007). Children with AS have a highly developed melodic memory and many of them possess absolute pitch (Heaton, 2003; DePape, 2012). They have a high ability of processing detailed information (individual tones), however they are also able of global processing (melodic contour) (Happé idr., 2001; Mottron idr., 2006). While they have exceeding abilities in differentiation of pitches, their perception of time is not as good (Mottron idr., 2000). The aim of our research is to examine ways of adopting musical knowledge and skills at music theory lessons of children with Asperger’s syndrome. We conducted two case studies of an 8-year old boy and 9-year old girl, diagnosed with Asperger’s syndrome (AS), in whom we systematically observed their adoption of musical knowledge and skills at music theory lessons. Both participants in the case study are exceedingly good in imitation and aural recognition of intervals and chords, however they show lower abilities in synchronizing body movements and music, memorizing lyrics and improvisation. They have good music-theoretical knowledge and can be extremely focused during some tasks, especially listening to music. We have also noticed some differences in sex regarding their social interaction and behaviour. The girl is much more concerned about being socially accepted than the boy. To conclude, with the two case studies, we have gotten in-depth inside of adapting musical knowledge and skills of children with AS, which are different than those of their neurotypical peers. Inclusive music education has beneficial effects not only on development of music abilities in children with ASD, but also on their communication and social interaction skills. 91 Alja Lapuh, USVAJANJE GLASBENEGA ZNANJA IN VEŠÈIN PRI OTROCIH... 92 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Zdravko Drenjanèeviæ Akademija za umetnost in kulturu v Osijeku ELEMENTI LJUDSKE GLASBE SLAVONIJE V DELIH SKLADATELJEV UMETNIŠKE GLASBE 20. STOLETJA Povzetek doktorske disertacije Mentor: red. prof. dr. Ivan Florjanc Zagovor: 7.12.2018 na Akademiji za glasbo UL Povzetek Skladno z naslovom disertacije Elementi ljudske glasbe Slavonije v delih skladateljev umetniške glasbe 20. stoletja so predmet raziskave prvine ljudskega glasbenega izroèila Slavonije in kompozicijski naèini njihove uporabe v skladateljskem opusu 20. stoletja. To podroèje do sedaj ni bilo deleno podrobne znanstvene obravnave, kar je bil vsekakor dodatni motiv in razlog za njeno raziskovanje. Raziskava je metodološko zasnovana z vnaprej doloèenimi stopnjami dela. Prva in predvsem analitièno zastavljena stopnja je zahtevala opredelitev elementov ljudske glasbe Slavonije in doloèevanje kazalnikov pri presojanju. Na ta naèin smo uresnièili predpogoje, brez katerih nadaljnji potek raziskovanja ne bi bil mogoè. Vzporedno so potekale arhivske raziskave, s katerimi smo zbrali, popisali in katalogizirali glasbeno gradivo v skladu z opredeljenimi kazalniki. Zbrali smo pomenljiv in raznolik opus skladb, od orkestralnih, koncertantnih in komornih, do solistiènih, vokalno-instrumentalnih, vokalnih in scenskih skladateljskih stvaritev. Z namenom, da bi bila raziskava kar se da celovita, smo v izbrani opus uvrstili tudi skladbe, ki so nastale v prvih dveh desetletjih 21. stoletja. Videli smo, da vse te skladbe tako slogovno kakor tudi kompozicijsko ne predstavljajo nikakršne bistvene cezure s skladbami, ki so nastajale v 20. stoletju. Popisovanju in katalogiziranju zbranega opusa, ki je nastal po navdihu slavonske ljudske glasbe, je sledila naslednja metodološka stopnja raziskave. Šlo je za izbiro skladb, nato pa tudi podrobno analizo prisotnosti ljudskih elementov v njih. Iz celotnega opusa skladb smo izbrali reprezentativne primere, v katerih smo prepoznali, doloèili in evidentirali elemente, ki so predstavljali predmet naše raziskave. Vseh devet skladb, ki so bile izbrane v oji nabor, je bilo nato delenih podrobnega glasbenoanalitènega pregleda. Na osnovi te izèrpno izpeljane analitiène študije smo oblikovali zadnje, sintetnièno poglavje disertacije, v katerem smo rezultate analize zbrali in povzeli. Na ta naèin smo prišli do dejanskih rezultatov naše disertacije. V tej podrobni predstavitvi elementov slavonske ljudske glasbe v skladbah 20. stoletja smo sledili kazalnikom, ko smo jih jasno doloèili v drugem poglavju. Glede na to da je prièujoèa disertacija pomembna tudi iz glasbenoteoretiènega in kompozicijskega vidika, smo oblikovali seznam in podroben prikaz skladateljskih tehnik, ki smo jih zaznali v izbranih skladbah. S sintezo rezultatov smo potrdili zastavljeno hipotezo, ki je trdila, da so »skladateljske izraze, ki temeljijo na elementih slavonske ljudske glasbe, pomembno inspirirali glasbeni citati iz teh ljudskih napevov.« 93 Zdravko Drenjanèeviæ, ELEMENTI LJUDSKE GLASBE SLAVONIJE... Znanstveni prispevek prièujoèe disertacije predstavlja temeljita in pregledna študija o zastopanosti in naèinih uporabe elementov ljudske glasbe Slavonije v umetniških stvaritvah. Pomen našega dela je moè prepoznati tudi z vidika zgodovine glasbe, glasbenega stavka in skladateljskih tehnik 20. stoletja. Kljuène besede: Slavonska ljudska glasba, ljudska glasba, umetniška glasba 20. stoletja, kompozicija, glasbena analiza, skladateljske tehnike THE ELEMENTS OF TRADITIONAL SLAVONIAN MUSIC IN PIECES OF THE 20TH CENTURY ART MUSIC COMPOSERS Abstract As reflected in the dissertation’s title “The elements of traditional Slavonian music in pieces of the 20 th century art music composers”, the subject of the research are elements of Slavonia’s traditional music expression and the way of their usage in the composer’s opus of the 20 th century. This field has not been the subject of a more detailed scientific analysis until now, what was definitely an additional motive and reason for its research. The research is methodologically based on pre-defined stages of this work. The first and mostly analytical based stage required the defining of Slavonian traditional music elements and the determination of the criteria during the evaluation. This is the way how we managed to accomplish the pre requirements, without which the further research course would have been impossible. The field researches were going on comparatively where we gathered, listed and catalogued the music material according to the defined criteria. We gathered a significant number of various opus compositions, from orchestral, concert and chamber to solo, vocal-instrumental, vocal and scene composers’ achievements. We also included compositions into the opus which turned up during the first two decades of the 21 st century with the intention for the research to be as complete as possible. We concluded, that all those compositions according to style as well as to compositional forming, do not represent any important differences from compositions which turned up in the 20 th century. The listing and the cataloguing of the gathered opus, which arose due to the inspiration of the Slavonian traditional music, was followed by the next methodological stage of the research. We focused on the choice of compositions and a detailed analysis of traditional elements present in them. We chose representative examples from the complete opus of compositions, in which we recognized, defined and listed the elements that presented the subject of our research. All nine compositions, which were chosen as final choices, were the subject of a detailed musical and analytical (music-analytical) examination. Based on this detailed performed analytical study we formed the last, the synthesis chapter of the dissertation, where we gathered and summarized the results of the analysis. In this manner we came to concrete results of our dissertation. We followed indicators, which we clearly defined in the second chapter, presenting in detail the elements of Slavonian traditional music in the compositions of the 20 th century. 94 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek We formed a list and a detailed review of composers’ techniques which were recognized in the chosen compositions according to the dissertations’ importance from the music-theoretical and the compositional aspect. Synthesising the results, we confirmed the composed hypothesis, which claimed, that “composers’ expressions, which were based on elements of Slavonian traditional music, were significantly inspired by music cites from these traditional melodies.” The dissertation’s scientific contribution represents a thorough and descriptive study about the representation and the ways of using Slavonian traditional music elements in art achievements. Our work’s significance is also recognizable from the aspect of music history, musical forms and compositional techniques of the 20 th century. Key words: Slavonian traditional music, traditional music, art music of the 20 th century, composition, musical analysis, composers’ techniques 95 Zdravko Drenjanèeviæ, ELEMENTI LJUDSKE GLASBE SLAVONIJE... 96 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Ana Kavèiè Pucihar Glasbena šola Glasbénium UÈITELJEVE STRATEGIJE POUÈEVANJA PRI INDIVIDUALNEM INŠTRUMENTALNEM POUKU FLAVTE V GLASBENIH ŠOLAH Povzetek doktorske disertacije Mentorica: izr. prof. dr. Branka Rotar Pance Zagovor: 1.2.2019 na Akademiji za glasbo UL Povzetek Uèitelji flavte morajo pri svojem delu poznati in uporabljati širok nabor strategij, da se uspešno prilagodijo individualnim potrebam vsakega uèenca in ga tako vodijo k izpolnjevanju ciljev uènega naèrta za flavto v glasbeni šoli (GŠ). V praksi ugotavljamo, da uèitelji flavte ne poznajo in obvladajo dovoljšnjega nabora strategij, ki bi jih lahko uporabljali pri svojem delu. Kljub široko zastopanemu stališèu, da je uèenje inštrumenta pomembno za izgrajevanje posameznika, tudi na znanstvenem podroèju zasledimo vrzel pri raziskovanju dejavnikov individualnega inštrumentalnega pouka flavte (IIPF). V teoretiènem delu disertacije raziskujemo dihotomièni diskurz o najbolj razðirjenem naèinu pouèevanja pri individualnem inðtrumentalnem pouku, ki ga Jorgensen (2000) poimenuje mojster – vajenec. Zanj je znaèilen tradicionalizem in prenos predvsem obrtnih znanj, problematièni pa so samostojnost in samoiniciativnost uèenca, asimetrièna porazdelitev moèi med uèiteljem in uèencem ter naèin pouèevanja, v katerega premalo prehajajo spoznanja s podroèja splošne edukacije in glasbene pedagogike. Po drugi strani pa Kennell (2002) in Bloom (1985) izpostavljata veliko kompleksnost in vrednost individualnega pouèevanja pri razvijanju posameznikovih talentov. V teoretiènem delu izpostavljamo »esencialistièni« in »instrumentalistièni« pogled na glasbeno izobraevanje (Scripp, 2002) in ugotavljamo širok razpon predmetnih in dejavnostnih podroèij, na katere igranje inštrumenta, poleg splošno priznane visoko estetsko umetniške vrednosti, pozitivno vpliva. Igranje inštrumenta obravnavamo kot kompleksno vešèino, prvenstveno mentalno, kar je v nasprotju s tradicionalistiènim pogledom genetskega determinizma. V omejenem obsegu, zadostnem za razumevanje konteksta inštrumentalnega pouka, obravnavamo podroèja komunikacije, motivacije, metakognicije in samoregulacije ter njihovo interakcijo. Predstavljamo razliène artikulacijske uène stopnje pri individualnem inštrumentalnem pouku in v povezavi z uèno stopnjo vadenja poudarjamo stališèe, da je vrhunski doseek vedno posledica namenskega vadenja (Ericsson in sod., 1993). Na podlagi trifaznega modela samoregulacijskega uèenja obravnavamo Jorgensenovo (2004) klasifikacijo strategij vadenja in predstavljamo razliène strategije glasbenega memoriranja. Kot izhodišèni model za izgrajevanje vešèin, potrebnih za nastopanje, predstavljamo razvrstitev vešèin Clarka in sod. (2014 a) na tri glavne kategorije: glasbene, neglasbene in psihološke. 97 Ana Kavèiè Puciha, UÈITELJEVE STRATEGIJE POUÈEVANJA PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... Pri obravnavi glasbene nadarjenosti izhajamo iz stališèa, da imajo genetski faktorji blijo povezavo s fiziènimi lastnostmi kot s psihološkimi faktorji (Ericsson in sod., 1993), da se glasbeni potencial spreminja in je nanj mogoèe vplivati (McPherson in Hallam, 2016) ter predstavljamo razliène modele glasbene nadarjenosti. Kot eno od poti za transformiranje in preseganje tradicionalistiène prakse inštrumentalnega pouèevanja izpostavljamo uèiteljevo refleksijo, ki lahko vodi do implementacije novih pristopov v pouèevanje. V empiriènem delu se s kvantitativnim raziskovalnim pristopom, temeljeèim na deskriptivni in kavzalno-neeksperimentalni metodi pedagoškega raziskovanja, usmerjamo na podroèje IIPF na slovenskih GŠ. Z vprašalnikom, ki smo ga oblikovali posebej za to raziskavo, ugotavljamo in analiziramo mnenja uèiteljev flavte o temeljnih dejavnikih in procesih v IIPF, z namenom ugotavljanja uèinkovitih strategij pouèevanja. V raziskavi je sodelovalo 78 uèiteljev flavte iz vseh slovenskih regij. Ugotavljamo, da uèitelji kot najpomembnejša dejavnika z zelo moènim vplivom na napredek pri igranju flavte izpostavljajo vztrajnost in prizadevnost, glasbeni nadarjenosti pa pripisujejo malo manjši vpliv. Pri pogostosti in naèinih vkljuèevanja uènih korakov v pouk so se med uèitelji izkazale statistièno pomembne razlike glede na število njihovih uèencev, ki so nadaljevali z uèenjem flavte na srednji stopnji, glede na uèiteljevo mnenje o koristnosti tekmovanj za razvoj nadarjenih uèencev in glede na leta pouèevanja. Pri uporabi priporoèene literature iz uènega naèrta v primerjavi z uporabo izbirne literature ugotovimo statistièno pomembne razlike v pogostosti uporabe obeh vrst literature, tako med razredi kot tudi v pogostosti uporabe. Najpogostejše strategije vadenja, ki jih uèitelji flavte posredujejo uèencem, so: natanèno upoštevanje notnega zapisa pri poèasnem igranju, vadenje po delih, vadenje v razliènih ritmih, vadenje z metronomom in stopnjevanje tempa izvajanja, pri èemer obstajajo statistièno pomembne razlike med uèitelji glede na to, ali pouèujejo na matièni ali podrunièni šoli. Uèitelji kot najbolj uèinkoviti strategiji memoriranja ocenjujejo vadenje na pamet po delih skladbe in igranje od razliènih mest v skladbi, pri èemer se mnenja uèiteljev statistièno pomembno razlikujejo glede na število njihovih uèencev, ki so nadaljevali s šolanjem na srednji stopnji, glede na mnenje o koristnosti udelebe na tekmovanjih za razvoj nadarjenih uèencev in glede na doseke uèencev nad 90 toèk na dravnih in mednarodnih tekmovanjih. Med uèitelji smo odkrili nepoenoteno uporabo strategij v pripravah na nastope. Uèitelji pripisujejo veliko pomembnost vlogi staršev pri napredku uèencev. Nekaj teav navajajo na strokovnem podroèju, na podroèju dela z uèenci in starši ter v delovnem okolju pa ne navajajo veèjih teav. Kot najpomembnejše dejavnike za svoj poklicni razvoj navajajo delovne izkušnje, stike in sodelovanje z drugimi uèitelji flavte, spoznavanje novih uènih gradiv in glasbene literature ter seminarje. Kot najpomembnejše lastnosti, ki jih pripisujejo odliènemu uèitelju flavte, so sposobnost motiviranja, poštenost in spoštljivost, potrpeljivost, stalno izpopolnjevanje, sposobnost vzpostavljanja konstruktivnih odnosov, ustvarjalnost ter doslednost. Statistièno pomembne razlike med skupinami uèiteljev in s tem povezana uporaba razliènih strategij so se najveèkrat pojavile glede na njihovo mnenje o koristnosti udelebe 98 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek na tekmovanjih za razvoj njihovih nadarjenih uèencev, glede na število let pouèevanja in glede na število uèencev, ki so nadaljevali s šolanjem flavte na srednji stopnji. Obravnavana tematika teoretiènega in empiriènega dela dopolnjuje glasbenopedagoško teorijo na podroèju IIPF in ima aplikativne monosti za prenos spoznanj v prakso. Analiza uporabe priporoèene in izbirne literature iz uènega naèrta slui kot osnova za nadgradnjo uènega naèrta za flavto v GŠ. Na podlagi predstavljene teoretske argumentacije bo mogoèe izdelati smernice za izboljšave na podroèju procesov IIPF v glasbenem izobraevanju doma in v tujini. Najvišje ocenjene strategije vadenja, memoriranja in priprave na nastop predstavljajo izhodišèe za nadaljnje akcijsko raziskovanje uèinkovitosti teh strategij pri delu z uèenci flavte v GŠ in s tem za prihodnje oblikovanje referenène literature za uèitelje flavte. Kljuène besede: individualni inštrumentalni pouk, flavta, uèitelj, glasbena šola, strategije pouèevanja, glasbena nadarjenost, uène stopnje TEACHING STRATEGIES IN INDIVIDUAL INSTRUMENTAL FLUTE INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC SCHOOLS Abstract Flute teachers need to be knowledgeable about a wide array of teaching strategies.Thus they are able to adapt their teaching to the individual needs of their students, consequently enabling them to fulfill the Slovenian State Music School Flute Curriculum objectives. In professional practice, there is a growing awareness that flute teachers’ knowledge and use of various teaching strategies is insufficient. Despite the widely acknowledged importance of playing a musical instrument, there is a gap in systematic research of the music studio flute instruction context. In the literature review, we research the dichotomic discourse about the most widespread instrumental teaching model, the master – apprentice (Jørgensen, 2000). This model is usually described as traditional, transferring mostly the knowledge of the craft, displaying a problematic asymmetrical distribution of power between teacher and student, and lacking student initiative and independence. Findings and practices from research in music education and general education are seldom implemented into this model. On the other hand, Kennell (2002) and Bloom (1985) describe it as particularly effective and complex, especially in the instructional context of talent development. In the theoretical part we highlight the »essentialist« and »instrumentalist« (Scripp, 2002) views of music education and establish a wide array of areas that benefit from playing a musical instrument, besides its significant aesthetic art value. Contrary to the view of genetic determinism, we present playing a musical instrument as a complex, mostly mental skill. We limit the research of communication, motivation, metacognition and self-regulation and their interaction to the context of instrumental 99 Ana Kavèiè Puciha, UÈITELJEVE STRATEGIJE POUÈEVANJA PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... studio instruction. Various teaching stages are presented, emphasizing deliberate practice (Ericsson et al., 1993) as the fundamental way to peak achievement. Based on the three-phased model of self-regulative learning, Jørgensen’s (2004) practice classification and several memorization strategies are discussed. The many skills involved in refining concert performance are presented, as categorized by Clark et al. (2014 a): musical, non-musical, and psychological. Musical talent is presented as a malleable and ever-changing concept (McPherson and Hallam, 2016), with genetic endowments being connected closer to physical than psychological characteristics (Ericsson et al, 1993). Several models of talent development are presented. Teacher reflection is suggested as a possible path towards transforming and upgrading traditional individual instructional practices, leading to new teaching approaches. Research of individual instrumental flute instruction (IIFI) in Slovenian music schools is based on descriptive and causally non-experimental quantitative method. The questionnaire was designed to explore flute teachers’ beliefs about main factors and processes in the IIFI in order to analyze and consequently identify effective teaching strategies. There were 78 flute teachers from all Slovenian regions involved. Findings show that the teachers identify perseverance and diligence as the most important factors in developing proficiency in flute playing. They recognize musical talent as slightly less influential. Statistically significant differences are shown in the frequency and manners of incorporating teaching stages in the instruction, as related to the number of teachers’ students who continued their flute studies at the high school level, teachers’ opinion about the benefits of music competitions for the development of their talented students, and according to cumulative years of instruction. The use of recommended literature in the Slovenian State Flute Curriculum as opposed to literature chosen by the teacher, varied. Both types of literature varied according to the level of use in every grade and between grades. Most often flute teachers recommend to students the following practicing strategies: playing music notation accurately in slow tempo, practicing parts of a piece, practicing in various rhythms, with metronome, and accelerating the performance tempo. There were statistically significant differences among flute teachers according to the type of music school they were teaching at (central or satellite). Teachers identified playing chunks of pieces by heart and memorized playing from different parts in the piece as the most effective memorization strategies. There were statistically significant differences among flute teachers according to the number of students in the studio, the number of students who continued their flute studies at the high school level, teachers’ opinions about the benefits of music competitions for the development of their talented students and according to their students’ achievements at the state and international flute competitions. The use of performance preparation strategies was not unified and varied significantly among teachers. Teachers described parents as very important for the development of their students’ flute proficiency. They reported some problems in the professional knowledge area, while they have not reported any significant problems in the field of collaborating 100 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek with students and parents nor in the work environment. As the most significant contributing factors to their professional development they described: work experience, contacts and collaboration with other flute teachers, learning about new literature, flute music, and seminars. They identified seven features of an excellent flute teacher: ability to motivate, honesty and respect, patience, constant improvement, creativity, and consistency. Most often statistically significant differences occurred according to teachers’ opinions about the significance of music competitions for the development of their talented students, cumulative years of teaching and according to the number of students who continued their flute studies at the high school level. The topics presented in the literature review and research supplement the music education theory in the field of individual instrumental flute instruction and display possibilities for implementation in professional practice. The analysis of the recommended and chosen literature as used by the flute teachers may serve as a foundation for future upgrades of the Slovenian State Flute Curriculum. Guidelines for improvements of the IIFI processes in Slovenia and internationally can be made based on presented theoretical reasoning. Practice, memorization, and performance preparation strategies that were ranked as most effective by the teachers need to be further investigated. Effectiveness of these strategies for teaching music school students should be examined in order to contribute to future reference literature for flute and instrumental teachers. Keywords: individual instrumental instruction, flute, teacher, music school, teaching strategies, musical potential, teaching stage 101 Ana Kavèiè Puciha, UÈITELJEVE STRATEGIJE POUÈEVANJA PRI INDIVIDUALNEM... 102 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek Karolina Šantl Zupan Akademija za glasbo, UL INTERAKCIJA MED UMETNIŠKIM IN PEDAGOŠKIM IZOBRAEVANJEM BODOÈIH UÈITELJEV PIHALNIH INSTRUMENTOV Povzetek doktorske disertacije Mentorica: izr. prof. dr. Branka Rotar Pance Zagovor: 15.7.2019 na Akademiji za glasbo UL Povzetek Doktorska disertacija obravnava interakcijo med umetniškim in pedagoškim izobraevanjem bodoèih uèiteljev pihalnih instrumentov. Uvodna poglavja predstavljajo zaèetke pouèevanja pihalnih instrumentov v Sloveniji v preteklosti in vertikalo glasbenega izobraevanja danes. Prouèevali smo temeljne vidike individualnega pouka, umetniško interpretacijo v povezavi s študijskim procesom, povezovanje umetniškega študija s pedagoškim izobraevanjem in pomen vseivljenjskega uèenja. V dvodelni raziskavi smo obravnavali študij pihal v visokošolskem izobraevanju in podroèje pouèevanja pihal v nijih in srednjih glasbenih šolah v Sloveniji. Zgodovina pouèevanja pihalnih instrumentov na Slovenskem sega v èas zaèetkov delovanja ljubljanske Filharmoniène drube od zgodnjega 19. stoletja in je potekalo v razliènih èasovnih intervalih. Od ustanovitve i. im. Prvega Jugoslovanskega dravnega koservatorija za glasbo (1919) in današnje Akademije za glasbo (1939) je glasbeno šolstvo v Sloveniji doivelo številne spremembe. Zadnja korenita prenova visokošolskega izobraevanja je povezana s sprejetjem Bolonjske deklaracije (1999), ki je vplivala tudi na reorganizacijo študijskih programov na UL Akademiji za glasbo. Današnji programi so vsebinsko primerljivi s sorodnimi evropskimi institucijami, ugotovitve prièujoèe raziskave pa kaejo monosti sprememb v predmetnikih, ki so ciljno naravnani na specifiène profile diplomantov. Individualni pouk ostaja osrednja uèna oblika pouèevanja pihal, vendar ga sodobni trendi nadgrajujejo z drugimi oblikami uèenja, interdisciplinarnim povezovanjem vsebin s teoretiènimi predmeti in poglabljanjem v glasbeno literaturo. V ospredju je interakcija med profesorjem in študentom. Študent v èasu visokošolskega izobraevanja prevzema veèjo odgovornost za svoj napredek, poudarek je na razvoju metakognitivnih sposobnosti v povezavi s samostojnim delom in izvajalsko prakso. Na kakovost študijskega procesa pri individualnem pouku vpliva tudi profesor s strategijami pouèevanja, z motivacijskimi elementi in s sposobnostjo kritiènega podajanja povratnih informacij. Oblikovanje umetniške interpretacije je kompleksen proces, kateremu študenti v èasu študija namenijo najveèjo pozornost. S tem povezana aktivnost študenta zahteva razvoj instrumentalnih spretnosti, namerno vadenje in sposobnost sprotnega reflektivnega analiziranja posameznih elementov pri nastajanju umetniške interpretacije in konène izvedbe. V interakciji z umetniškim razvojem pri študentih poteka pridobivanje pedagoških kompetenc, ki so kljuène za poklicno delovanje na pedagoškem podroèju. Prouèili smo strategije pouèevanja, pomen praktiènih izkušenj in izvedbenih monosti pedagoške prakse. Znanje in kakovostne izkušnje v èasu izobraevanja oblikujejo bodoèega uèitelja pihal in postavljajo temelje za kreativnega in 103 Karolina Šantl Zupan, INTERAKCIJA MED UMETNIŠKIM IN PEDAGOŠKIM IZOBRAEVANJEM... motiviranega profesorja, ki bo lahko skrbel tudi za umetniški in strokovni razvoj v širšem kulturnem in izobraevalnem prostoru. V raziskavi so sodelovali študenti pihal (N=59) Univerze v Ljubljani Akademije za glasbo (UL AG) in Muzièke akademije Sveuèilišta u Zagrebu (MUZA) ter uèitelji pihal v slovenskih nijih in srednjih glasbenih šolah (N=64). Preuèevali smo stališèa študentov o interakciji med umetniškim razvojem in pedagoškimi kompetencami, o pomenu vadenja in monostih reflektiranja izvajalske prakse in prenosu aktualne problematike umetniške interpretacije na pedagoško podroèje v povezavi s pedagoško prakso. Kakovost izobraevanja bodoèih uèiteljev pihal smo preverjali s stališèi izkušenih delujoèih uèiteljev na tem podroèju. Ugotavljali smo, kakšna so njihova stališèa o pridobljenih kompetencah v èasu študija, o individualnem delu v povezavi z demonstracijo pri pouku, o vsebini in naèinu podajanja povratnih informacij in prilagajanju posameznemu uèencu, o vplivu bivših profesorjev na naèin njihovega sedanjega pouèevanja in o umetniškem in strokovnem razvoju v poklicnem delovanju. Rezultati raziskave so spodbudili razmislek o kakovosti in razsenosti interakcije med umetniškim in pedagoškim izobraevanjem bodoèih uèiteljev pihal v smeri boljših medpredmetnih povezav, ne samo med glavnim predmetom/instrumentom in pedagoško prakso, ampak tudi z glasbeno- teoretiènimi predmeti. V tem kontekstu bi bila potrebna evalvacija dveh kljuènih predmetov, Specialne didaktike za pihala in Pedagoške prakse, tako v vsebinskem kot tudi v izvedbenem smislu, prav tako bi bila potrebna evalvacija predmetnika, zlasti na smeri Instrumentalna in pevska pedagogika. Pri razvoju študentove samostojnosti bi bilo potrebno razmisliti o veèji prisotnosti reflektivnega razmišljanja ter samoregulacije samostojnega dela in izvajalske prakse, kar naj ne bi bilo navezano izkljuèno na povratne informacije profesorja. V tej povezavi se postavlja tudi vprašanje eventuelne spremembe razporeditve individualnega pouka skozi študijski proces. Rezultati kaejo, da bi bile potrebne nadaljnje poglobljene raziskave o udejanjanju predmetno specifiènih kompetenc na pedagoškem podroèju, saj delujoèi uèitelji pihal vse svoje kompetence, pridobljene med študijem, vrednotijo v povpreèju le zadovoljivo ali slabo. Kljub izsledkom raziskave, da uèitelji sicer nadgrajujejo umetniške kompetence na umetniškem podroèju, rezultati ne kaejo na njihovo aktivno umetniško solistièno delovanje. Kljuène besede: visokošolsko izobraevanje, individualni pouk pihal, umetniška interpretacija, pedagoško izobraevanje, študenti, uèitelji INTERACTION BETWEEN ARTISTIC AND PEDAGOGICAL TRAINING FOR FUTURE TEACHERS OF WIND INSTRUMENTS Abstract The doctoral dissertation discusses the interaction between artistic and pedagogical training in the education system for future wind instruments teachers. The introductory chapters present the beginnings of the teaching of wind instruments in Slovenia and the vertical organisation of the musical education today. The thesis studies the basic aspects of individual lessons, the artistic interpretation in connection with the study process, the linking of artistic studies with the pedagogical education and the importance of lifelong 104 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek learning. In a two-part study, the study of wind instruments in higher education is discussed, together with the teaching of wind instruments in lower and middle music schools in Slovenia. The history of teaching wind instruments in Slovenia dates back to the time when the Ljubljana Philharmonic Society began its work. Throughout the 19th century, it took place in different time periods. Since the establishment of the First Yugoslav State Music Conservatory (1919) and the today’s Academy of Music (1939), music education in Slovenia has undergone numerous changes. The renewal of higher education is linked with the acceptance of the Bologna Declaration (1999), which influenced the reorganization of study programmes at the University of Ljubljana, the Academy of Music. The contents of today’s programmes are comparable with relevant European institutions, however, our findings show that there are possibility for changes in the curriculum, particularly in the areas that are targeted to specific profiles of graduates. Individual lessons remain a central teaching method for teaching wind instruments, but modern trends enable their upgrading with other teaching methods, with the interdisciplinary linking of the study contents with theoretical subjects and with an in-depth study of the musical literature. The interaction between a professor and a student is at the forefront. A student assumes greater responsibility for his progress during the higher education process: the emphasis is placed on the student’s development of metacognitive abilities in conjunction with his/her independent work and performance practice. The quality of the study process in individual lessons is influenced by a teacher, applying his/her teaching strategies, his/her motivational elements and his/her ability to provide feedback information to a student with a critical approach. Devloping interpretative abilities is a complex process which students pay the greatest attention to during their study. This activity requiers from a student the need to develop instrumental skills, to practice in an organised manner and to be become able to constantly reflect and analyse individual elements during their artistic interpretation and final performance. Combined with their artistic development, students acquire pedagogical competences which are crucial for their professional work in the field of pedagogy. The teaching strategies were thus studied, together with the importance of practical experience and the possibilities for implementing student’s pedagogical practice. The knowledge and experiences of good quality obtained during the education process shape a future teacher of wind instruments and lay the foundations for a creative and motivated professor who is be able to take care for the artistic and professional development in a wider cultural and educational arena. The research included 59 students of wind instruments from the University of Ljubljana, the Academy of Music, and from the University of Zagreb, the Academy of Music. In addition to the above-mentioned students, there were also 64 teachers from the Slovenian lower and middle music schools taking part in the research. The research focused on the students’ views about the interaction between the artistic development and pedagogical competences, on the importance of practice and on the possibilities for reflecting their performance practice; as regards the pedagogical practice, the transfer of current issues in artistic interpretation to pedagogy was researched. The quality of education for future teachers of wind instruments was examined by means of the standpoints provided by 105 Karolina Šantl Zupan, INTERAKCIJA MED UMETNIŠKIM IN PEDAGOŠKIM IZOBRAEVANJEM... experienced teachers working in this field. The research examined the following: the teacher’s views on competences obtained during their study, their views on individual lessons in connection with the practical demonstration in the class, the content and the method of providing feedback information and their approaches to adjust their teaching to an individual student, the impact of their former professors on their current teaching methods, and their views about their artistic and professional development. The research findings have provided a stimulus to contemplate on the quality and the dimension of the interaction between artistic and pedagogical education of future teachers of wind instruments in order to find better cross-curricular connections, not only between the main subject /an instrument and the pedagogical practice, but also with theoretical muscial subject. The evaluation of two key subjects would be necessary in this regard, specifically, Special Ddidactics for Wind Instruments and Pedagogical Practice, in terms of their content and in terms of performance. A similar evaluation of the curriculum would be necessary particularly in the Instrumental and Voice Pedagogy programme. As regards the development of a student’s autonomy, it would be necessary to consider the possibilities of ensuring greater presence of students’ reflective thinking in the programme and to enable better students’ self-regulation of their independent work and their performance practice; this should not be connected solely to their professor’s feedback. In this regard, a question of a potential change in the distribution of individual lessons during the study process has also been raised. The results of the research show that further in-depth research papers on the implementation of subject-specific competences in the pedagogical field would be needed as the research results have shown that active teachers of wind instruments see their own competences, gained during their studies, as adequate or insufficient. In spite of the research findings, showing that teachers do improve their artistic competences in other fields of arts, results show no indication of their active solo artistic activity. Keywords: higher education, individual lessons for wind instruments, artistic interpretation, pedagogical education, students, teachers 106 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 30. zvezek