ANANTHAKUMAR A. et al.: EFFICIENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT THROUGH INTEGRATED WATER HYACINTH SYSTEMS: ... 173–184 EFFICIENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT THROUGH INTEGRATED WATER HYACINTH SYSTEMS: ADVANCES AND APPLICATIONS IN CONCRETE U^INKOVITA OBDELAVA ODPADNE VODE S POMO^JO V VODO INTEGRIRANEGA HIJACINTNEGA SISTEMA: DEJANSKI NAPREDEK IN UPORABA BETONA Ananthakumar Ayyadurai * , Saravanan M M, Devi M Vivekanandha College of Technology for Women, Tiruchengode 637205, Tamilnadu, India Prejem rokopisa – received: 2023-06-20; sprejem za objavo – accepted for publication: 2024-01-30 doi:10.17222/mit.2023.914 This research focuses on enhancing water quality for concrete construction by utilizing treated wastewater from wetlands. The study employs a dual-stage treatment process involving charcoal and aggregate layers for primary treatment, followed by water hyacinths for secondary treatment. Investigating water hyacinths’ ability to absorb nutrients and contaminants from wastewater is a unique aspect of the study, offering a potential solution for soil and water remediation. Water hyacinths, especially stems and leaves, act as natural filters, effectively indicating heavy-metal pollution in tropical regions. The primary goal is heavy-metal removal from wastewater, allowing treated-water use in concrete production at varying proportions (20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 %). Silica fume at 15 % concentration is incorporated to enhance the concrete’s durability. Concrete speci- mens undergo thorough preparation and mechanical property evaluations, compared to conventional M20-grade concrete. The results reveal improvements in mechanical properties, particularly with 80 % treated wastewater in the mix. The dual-stage treatment process removes heavy metals, and the inclusion of silica fume enhances the concrete’s durability and resistance. Keywords: Eichhornia Crassipes, wetland, biological treatment, charcoal, heavy metal, silicafume, compressive strength, flex- ural strength, split tensile strength Avtorji opisujejo raziskavo osredoto~eno na izbolj{anje kakovosti vode za betonske konstrukcije z uporabo obdelane odpadne vode iz mo~virij. V {tudiji so uporabili dvostopenjski postopek obdelave. V primarni fazi obdelave so uporabili oglje in plasti agregatov. Tej je sledila sekundarna faza obdelave vode z vodnimi hijacintami. Raziskovali so sposobnost vodnih hijacint za absorpcijo hranil in onesna`evalcev v odpadni vodi, kar je edinstvena ideja te {tudije. Vodne hijacinte, {e posebej stebla in listi delujejo kot naravni filtri in u~inkovito ka`ejo onesna`enost tropskih obmo~ij s te`kimi kovinami. Glavni namen te {tudije je odstranitev te`kih kovin iz odpadne vode in uporaba razli~nih dele`ev (20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 %) obdelane vode za izdelavo betona. Dodatno izbolj{anje trajnosti izdelanega betoda so dosegli {e z dodatkom 15 % silike v obliki zelo drobnih delcev (prahu). Izdelali so vzorce iz betona in dolo~ili njihove mehanske lastnosti v primerjavi s konvencionalnim betonom M20. Rezultati raziskave so pokazali pomembno izbolj{anje mehanskih lastnosti tako obdelanega betona. [e posebej se je to pokazalo pri uporabi 80 %-nega dele`a obdelane odpadne vode. Proces dvostopenjske obdelave u~inkovito odstrani te`ke kovine, dodatek silike pa izbolj{a trajnost in odpornost betona. Klju~ne besede: vodna hijacinta (Eichhornia Crassipes), mo~virja, biolo{ka obdelava, oglje, te`ke kovine, zelo drobna (fina) silika, tla~na trdnost, flexural strength, cepilna natezna trdnost 1 INTRODUCTION Global water scarcity has emerged as a pressing chal- lenge, necessitating the preservation of water resources amidst the development of advanced technologies for wastewater treatment and recycling. The storage and strategic use of circulating water have become essential practices to address water scarcity. Wastewater discharge poses a grave threat to ecosystems globally, with indus- trialization, civilization, and rapid population growth be- ing primary contributors to environmental pollution. Recognizing the impending significance of water in fu- ture construction and building needs, this research is dedicated to mitigating society’s wastewater production and water demands. The study investigates the impact of wastewater and waste slurry on the strength and durability of concrete specimens, shedding light on specific changes in com- pressive strength, flexural strength, and other mechanical properties. 1 An innovative approach involves utilizing carbonized water hyacinth to enhance phase-change en- ergy-storage materials, demonstrating its efficacy in en- capsulating and improving the thermal conductivity of these materials. 2 Furthermore, the research explores sus- tainable practices in green concrete construction by de- veloping biomaterial fillers using eggshells, water hya- cinth fibers, and banana fibers. 3 An environmentally friendly solution is presented through the creation of thermal insulation boards from wheat bran and banana peels, showcasing the repurposing of agricultural waste into construction materials. 4 The study also delves into a water footprint analysis, emphasizing the environmental impact of construction Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 173–184 173 UDK 666.123.4:582.585.71 ISSN 1580-2949 Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni ~lanek MTAEC9, 58(2)173(2024) *Corresponding author's e-mail: ananthaakumar7410@gmail.com (Ananthakumar Ayyadurai) and advocating for the incorporation of regional architec- tural traditions into contemporary construction for en- hanced sustainability. 5 Another focus lies in the efficient separation of concrete waste through heat-mechanical synergistic treatment, offering a promising technique for recycling concrete and reducing the environmental foot- print of construction materials. 6 Valuable insights into the mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete derived from waste concrete treated at high temperatures contribute to our understanding of sustainable construc- tion practices. 7 Additionally, the research aligns with the trend of incorporating agricultural waste ashes, such as olive, rice husk, and sugarcane leaves, to enhance ul- tra-high-performance concrete, promoting eco-friendly formulations and multi-waste stream utilization. 8 The ex- ploration of the potential use of natural materials in con- crete mixtures underscores the broader commitment to sustainable construction practices. 9 The utilization of wa- ter hyacinth for wastewater treatment in residential set- tings is also investigated, emphasizing the environmental aspects and potential benefits of incorporating treated wastewater into concrete production. 10 Water assumes paramount significance in construc- tion sites, influencing the characteristics of both fresh and hardened concrete. The mineral properties of water must be scrutinized before concrete application, as this research addresses the imperative need to minimize soci- ety’s wastewater generation and facilitate its treatment for diverse applications. A primary focus is on utilizing water hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes) as a bio-filter, as- sessing its potential to effectively remove pollutants from wastewater. This study delves into the influence of wastewater types on concrete properties, providing valu- able insights into how wastewater composition shapes concrete characteristics. 11 Emphasizing the practical ap- plication of treated wastewater in concrete mixing, the research underscores the importance of sustainable wa- ter-management practices, particularly in arid regions. 12 Investigating the stability of cemented dried water hya- cinth for the biosorption of radionuclides sheds light on potential applications in nuclear-waste management. 13 Exploring innovative methods to enhance concrete’s me- chanical properties, the study investigates the compres- sive behavior of low-strength concrete confined with wa- ter hyacinth and jute non-woven fiber-reinforced polymer (NFRP). 14 Additionally, understanding the broader context of water hyacinth invasion becomes cru- cial for formulating strategies to address challenges and harness potential benefits. 15 The research also delves into the phyto-accumulation of heavy metals by water hya- cinth, proposing a sustainable approach for industrial wastewater treatment and highlighting its potential in phytoremediation. 16 The treatment process involves biological treatment and heavy-metal removal from contaminated water, with charcoal playing a key role in the initial removal of im- purities, addressing odor and color concerns. Waste- water-treatment findings underscore the potential utiliza- tion of treated water in concrete construction and various other applications. 1.1 Literature review This review delves into the multifaceted applications of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and water let- tuce (Pista stratiotes) in curbing nutrient build-up in mu- nicipal wastewater, emphasizing their potential contribu- tions to sustainable wastewater management. 17 It further explores the phytoremediation capabilities of water hya- cinth in addressing industrial mine wastewater, show- casing its effectiveness in absorbing and mitigating con- taminants from diverse industrial sources. 18 A crucial aspect of wastewater treatment involves the removal of organic matter and key nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Traditional methods, utilizing activated car- bon, have limitations, necessitating the exploration of al- ternative approaches. 19,20 Water hyacinths, with their unique ability to absorb nutrients and pollutants from water, emerge as a promising solution for wastewater treatment. Their extensive fibrous root system plays a pivotal role in pollutant extraction, primarily through the roots, preventing toxicity by efficiently absorbing and accumulating contaminants. 21 An examination of wastewater treatment by hyacinths reveals their biode- gradable nature and remarkable ability to absorb heavy metals, offering an environmentally friendly and cost-ef- fective method for wastewater treatment. 23,24 Addi- tionally, a comprehensive investigation into the use of water hyacinth for treating industrial wastewater show- cases its ability to remove coliforms, lower chemical ox- ygen demand (COD), and address heavy-metal contami- nation. 25 Beyond wastewater treatment, water hyacinths demonstrate versatile applications, ranging from aqua- culture to biogas production, cow feed, waste manure, and industrial raw materials. 29 The efficacy of water hyacinth in aquaculture waste- water filtration is explored in comparison with lettuce and parrot feathers. 30 This study confirms the potential of aquatic plants, including water hyacinth, in reducing contaminants within aquaculture effluent, supporting the applicability of wastewater recycling in aquaculture. 31 The utilization of water hyacinth waste in producing fi- ber-reinforced polymer composites for concrete confine- ment is evaluated for both mechanical performance and environmental implications. 35 Furthermore, studies on wastewater bioremediation using water hyacinth high- light its effectiveness in reducing COD levels, meeting environmental standards. 36,37 The incorporation of recy- cled aggregates and treated wastewater in concrete con- struction is explored for its potential in sustainable prac- tices. 38,39 Understanding the impact of wastewater on concrete properties and the practical implications of in- corporating treated wastewater in construction materials is essential for ensuring durability and structural integ- rity. 40,41 Additionally, the study investigates the perfor- ANANTHAKUMAR A. et al.: EFFICIENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT THROUGH INTEGRATED WATER HYACINTH SYSTEMS: ... 174 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 173–184 mance of concrete incorporating ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) in aggressive wastewater en- vironments, providing insights into concrete durability under challenging conditions. 45 Finally, the incorporation of water-hyacinth ash into concrete is examined as a means of developing a sustainable building material. 46 1.2 Review Analysis 1.2.1 Wastewater Treatment Utilizing Water Hyacinth The exploration commences with a comparative as- sessment of water hyacinth and water lettuce in averting nutrient accumulation in municipal wastewater. It subse- quently scrutinizes the phytoremediation of industrial mine wastewater using water hyacinth, highlighting its adeptness in absorbing and alleviating contaminants across diverse industrial contexts. The study underscores the removal of organic matter and crucial nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, from wastewater, thereby mitigating the adverse effects associated with wastewater pollution. 1.2.2 Challenges Inherent in Traditional Wastewater- Treatment Approaches The literature articulates the drawbacks associated with traditional wastewater-treatment methodologies, cit- ing elevated installation costs, operational intricacies, and substantial spatial demands. These challenges raise environmental concerns, necessitating the development of cost-effective alternatives. 1.2.3 Water Hyacinth’s Integral Role in Wastewater Treatment The review meticulously explores the pivotal role played by water hyacinth in wastewater remediation. Emphasis is placed on its biodegradability, intricate fi- brous root system, and proficiency in absorbing heavy metals and minerals from wastewater. Studies showcased its efficacy in diminishing concentrations of contami- nants like coliforms, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), COD, dissolved oxygen (DO), total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), nitrogen, and phosphorus. 1.2.4 Diverse Applications Beyond Wastewater Treat- ment Beyond its primary role in wastewater treatment, the analysis encompasses a spectrum of applications for wa- ter hyacinth. These include its potential as a raw material for aquaculture, biogas production, and fertilizer. Discus- sions extend to its adaptability for aquaculture, acting as a biofilter for domestic wastewater treatment, and its in- tegration into concrete for the creation of sustainable building materials. 1.2.5 Emphasis on Eco-Friendly and Sustainable Solutions Consistently, the review underscores the eco-friendly nature of water hyacinth-centric wastewater treatment. Its capacity to enhance water quality, address specific challenges posed by industrial pollution, and contribute to biomass production in floating systems underscores its potential for widespread adoption in sustainable and en- vironmentally conscious wastewater-management prac- tices. 1.2.6 Considerations in Design and Long-Term Effec- tiveness The literature broaches design considerations for sys- tems incorporating water hyacinth in constructed wetlands, accentuating their potential to augment the ef- ficiency of such systems for environmentally friendly wastewater treatment. Long-term studies provide evi- dence of the effectiveness of water hyacinth beds in ame- liorating water quality in urban canals. 1.2.7 Integration into Building Materials The final segment introduces an innovative applica- tion of water-hyacinth ash in concrete, signaling its po- tential to influence concrete properties and contribute to the development of sustainable building materials. 2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP The experimental setup involves the collection of treated wastewater from wetlands following a dual-stage treatment process, which includes primary treatment with charcoal and aggregate layers and secondary treat- ment with water hyacinths. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) acts as the binding agent, and fine aggregates meeting specified concrete production standards are uti- lized. Additionally, the concrete mix incorporates silica fume, a highly reactive pozzolanic material, at a concen- tration of 15 %. Various proportions of treated wastewater (20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 %) re- place conventional mixing water in the concrete mix. To ensure uniformity, a concrete mixer with a known mix- ing capacity is employed to prepare the batches. Stan- dard molds, such as cubes, cylinders, and prisms, are uti- lized to cast concrete specimens for subsequent testing. These specimens undergo controlled curing conditions, involving specific temperature and humidity settings, to simulate real-world concrete-curing scenarios. Testing apparatuses, following standard procedures, are em- ployed to assess properties such as compressive strength (CS), tensile strength, flexural strength and density. The mechanical properties of the concrete specimens for each mix proportion are measured and recorded. Statistical analysis is then conducted to compare the mechanical properties of the concrete specimens utilizing treated wastewater at varying proportions with those of conven- tional M20 grade concrete. The interpretation of results aims to identify the optimal proportion of treated wastewater and evaluate the efficacy of the water-hya- cinth-based secondary treatment in enhancing concrete properties. ANANTHAKUMAR A. et al.: EFFICIENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT THROUGH INTEGRATED WATER HYACINTH SYSTEMS: ... Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 173–184 175 2.1 Methods 2.1 Materials Used Harvested (water hyacinth) from natural water bod- ies, water hyacinths with bluish-purple, fresh, and lush appearances are collected, ensuring they are healthy and uncontaminated. Thorough cleaning, including rinsing with clean water, precedes their use for pollutant removal in domestic wastewater. Silica fume is derived from sili- con and ferrosilicon alloys; silica fume is an ultrafine concrete particle. Handled with care to prevent inhala- tion, it enhances concrete properties by reducing thermal cracking and increasing resistance to acid waste erosion. Charcoal produced by burning organic matter in a low-oxygen atmosphere, charcoal is collected from the south zone. It undergoes a high-temperature burning pro- cess to remove water and volatile elements. Quality char- coal, free from contaminants, is crucial for effective pri- mary treatment. Activated charcoal, with a high adsorption surface area, may be preferred, and particle size uniformity can be ensured through sieving or screening. Coal is derived from burning wood or organic matter in a low-oxygen environment, coal is character- ized by low thermal and electrical conductivity due to its amorphous structure. Depending on raw-material den- sity, its density ranges from 0.2 t/m 3 to 0.6 t/m 3 .R a w wastewater samples (Figure 1) are collected daily from an urban sewage-treatment plant in Tamil Nadu, India, for performance evaluation. Ten water-quality parame- ters (pH, COD, BOD, DO, TSS, TN, NH3-N) are as- sessed at 24-hour intervals. The specific gravity of ce- ment 3.13, an initial setting time of 35 min, a total setting time of 270 min, and 33 % consistency when made using OPC grade 53. Natural crushed stone (size 20 mm) with a specific gravity of 2.56, water absorption rate of 0.45 %, and coarse aggregate fineness coefficient of 1.22, verified according to Indian Standard Specifica- tion IS 383-1970. Maximum particle size of fine aggre- gate (M-sand) 4.75mm, specific gravity of 2.32, water absorption rate of 1.42 %, and particle size coefficient of 2.24. Domestic wastewater collected from an urban sew- age-treatment plant in 20-liter capacity containers. Col- lected samples follow safety protocols, including the use of personal protective equipment. Clean, sterile contain- ers are used, and a representative sample is obtained through multiple grabs or composite sampling over a specific time interval. Metadata such as date and time are recorded, and collected samples are stored in a cool envi- ronment to slow down biological and chemical reactions before analysis. Physical properties of the materials as shown in Table 1. Table 1: Physical properties of raw material. Physical Prop- erties Cement Fine ag- gregate Coarse ag- gregate Silica fume Specific gravity 3.13 2.32 2.56 2.24 Color Dark grey Light grey Blackish White Loose bulk den- sity (kg/m 3 ) 1332 1210 – 580 LOI ( %) 3.12 0.48 – 0.51 2.2 Wastewater Treatment Wastewater undergoes a multi-step treatment process before reaching water hyacinths. Initially, pretreatment diverts the wastewater collected from various sources, such as households, industries, and municipal sewer sys- tems. This raw wastewater may contain a mix of organic and inorganic contaminants, suspended solids, nutrients, and other pollutants. 2.2.1 Primary Treatment This phase focuses on physical and chemical treat- ments to eliminate large, suspended solids and reduce the organic load in the wastewater. The process involves the sequential flow through different layers. Charcoal serves as an adsorbent for organic compounds and certain chemicals, effectively removing odors and colors. The subsequent layer, composed of larger particles like gravel or crushed stone, acts as a physical barrier to remove substantial debris and sediments. The final primary treat- ment layer, using sand or similar particles, aids in trap- ping and settling smaller suspended solids. This layered arrangement facilitates the gradual settling of solids, or- ganic compound adsorption, and impurity removal. Some mixing and aeration may be applied during pri- mary treatment to enhance solid settling and separation (Figure 2). 2.2.2 Secondary Treatment Following the primary treatment, the secondary stage focuses on biological treatment to further eliminate or- ganic matter, nutrients (such as nitrogen and phospho- rus), and other contaminants from the wastewater. Water hyacinth serves as the treatment agent during this phase. As a floating aquatic plant, water hyacinth excels in ab- sorbing and metabolizing nutrients and organic pollut- ants from water. Its roots and foliage provide a habitat for beneficial microorganisms that contribute to organic ANANTHAKUMAR A. et al.: EFFICIENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT THROUGH INTEGRATED WATER HYACINTH SYSTEMS: ... 176 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 173–184 Figure 1: Photographs of the materials matter breakdown. Treatment conditions for water hya- cinth require maintaining suitable water-quality parame- ters, including temperature, pH, and nutrient levels, to support its growth and pollutant-removal capabilities (Figure 2). 2.2.3 Monitoring and Analysis Assessing pollution levels and the efficacy of water treatment, wastewater samples are tested before and after treatment using various criteria, including physico- chemical and biological parameters (Figure 3). Parame- ters such as pH, color, odor, TDS, TSS, BOD, COD, chlorides, nitrates, and heavy metals are examined (Ta- ble 2). Eichhornia crassipes is effective as a domestic sewage-treatment agent, with treated samples observed to be clear and odorless. The pH values before and after treatment, depending on dilution groups, approach neu- trality. The initial pH recorded before treatment was 8.8, which subsequently lowered to 7.2 at 100 percent dilu- tion. This aligns with the wastewater guidelines of the Central Pollution Control Board of India, suggesting ef- ANANTHAKUMAR A. et al.: EFFICIENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT THROUGH INTEGRATED WATER HYACINTH SYSTEMS: ... Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 173–184 177 Figure 2: a) Methodology and b) wetland treatment process Table 2: Wastewater physicochemical parameters before and after treatment with Eichhornia Crassipes Parameters pH DO mg /L TSS mg /L TDS mg /L TS mg /L BOD mg /L COD mg /L NO3 mg /L Chlorides mg /L * B.T * A.T B.T A.T B.T A.T B.T A.T B.T A.T B.T A.T B.T A.T B.T A.T B.T A.T Waste water 8.8 7.2 0.6 6.5 1925 935 1258 636 3175 1510 220 125 335 145 9.6 1.4 45.02 33.80 * Before treatment (B.T.) and after treatment (A.T.) Figure 3: Physiochemical parameters of the treated wastewater fective treatment across all tests, maintaining the pH within the recommended range of 6.5–7.5. DO levels ex- hibited a significant change following various hyacinth water dilutions for wastewater treatment. Untreated wastewater, rich in organic and inorganic substances, dis- played low DO content and emitted a foul odor. How- ever, post-treatment, a substantial increase in DO levels was observed. Specifically, the 100 % diluted OD in- creased from 0.6 before treatment to 6.5 mg/L after treat- ment, indicating improved water quality. The assessment of TDS, TSS, and Total Solids indi- cated an overall increase, with the highest reduction in solid content observed at 100 % dilution. BOD values were calculated before and after processing, revealing a decrease from 220 mg/L to 125 mg/L at 100 percent di- lution. The observed BOD reduction is influenced by the Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT), where longer retention times enhance interactions within the aquatic plant sys- tem, leading to increased organic matter processing effi- ciency. Distinct levels of COD were evident across all the di- lution series, with a notable decrease from 315 mg/L be- fore treatment to 155 mg/L after treatment at 100 percent dilution. Nitrate concentrations exhibited variations based on dilution, with the most significant decrease ob- served at 100 percent dilution. The comprehensive study of treated wastewater suggests its suitability for various purposes, including agriculture, laundry, gardening, and planting. Table 3 provides details on the removal of heavy metals from wastewater before and after treat- ment. Table 3: Metal analysis of Eichhornia Crassipes plant sections Metals Metals Before Treatment in the plant parts (mg) Metals After Treat- ment in the plant parts (mg) Efficiency (%) Cu 2.105 2.558 21.52 Ni 0.254 0.286 12.59 Co 0.032 0.058 81.25 Fe 0.175 0.224 28.00 The efficacy of water hyacinth in wastewater treat- ment has been thoroughly examined and documented. The experimental setup involved a semi-continuous wastewater drain tank, both with and without the pres- ence of water hyacinth. Figures 4 and 5 illustrate the substantial removal of heavy metals from the wastewater, showcasing the plant’s effectiveness in enhancing water quality through the treatment process. Utilizing the formula expressed in Equation (1), the removal efficiencies of metals in various plant parts were assessed after treatment. RE MCAT MCBT MCBT (%) = − ⋅100 (1) where RE is Removal Efficiency, MCAT is Metal Con- centration After Treatment and MCBT is Metal Con- centration Before Treatment. The hyacinth wetlands demonstrated remarkable ef- fectiveness in removing pollutants, with removal per- centages of 73 % for BOD, 69 % for COD, 45 % for TS, 100 % for zinc, 32 % for nitrate, 41 % for chloride, and 96 % for sulfate from the wastewater. The quantification ANANTHAKUMAR A. et al.: EFFICIENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT THROUGH INTEGRATED WATER HYACINTH SYSTEMS: ... 178 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 173–184 Figure 5: a) Relationship between COD and b) BOD 5 inflow and out- flow Figure 4: Before and after treatment of heavy-metal removal in waste water of metal-removal efficiency is determined through the application of Equation (1). The strength assessment of M20 grade concrete in this study adheres to IS: 456-2000 standards, achieving a compressive strength (CS) of 20 N/mm². Mix design variations using different proportions of treated water were subjected to various tests. Flow rates of 140 ± 20 mm were determined through the test method, employing treated water with a plasticizer at replacement levelsof0%,20%,40%,60%,80%,and100%.Sil- ica fume, constituting 15 %, was consistently included in all M20 concrete mixes. The quantities of materials in kilograms required to produce one cubic meter of con- crete are detailed in Table 4. Mix identification numbers denote the cement-re- placement rate, with self-compacting concrete (SCC) un- dergoing testing in fresh conditions using cubes, cylin- ders, and prismatic specimens to regulate both the properties of fresh concrete and enforce mechanical characteristics. Mechanical properties were assessed af- ter 7 d, 14 d, and 28 d of treatment, and the results were compared with the performance of the control concrete. Table 4: The amount of materials required to produce 1 cubic meter of concrete (kg) Mix ID Normal Water (L) Treated Water Powder Content (kg/m 3 ) Aggregate (kg/m 3 ) Cement Silica fume Fine ag- gregate Coarse aggre- gate 0TW* 146.00 0 408 0 712 1312 20TW 116.80 29.20 346.80 61.20 712 1312 40TW 87.60 58.40 346.80 61.20 712 1312 60TW 58.40 87.60 346.80 61.20 712 1312 80TW 30.00 116.00 346.80 61.20 712 1312 100TW 0 146.00 346.80 61.20 712 1312 *TW – Treated water 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Following the casting of all samples, a thorough ex- amination of the concrete’s mechanical properties was conducted – a crucial step preceding the incorporation of the sample-polymerization process. The polymerization process was conducted at a controlled temperature of 27 ± 20 °C. CS assessments were carried out in accor- dance with BIS 516 standards. The strengths were sub- jected to curing periods of 7 d, 14 d, and 28 d. The test strength was determined as the average of three speci- mens, encompassing CS, split tensile strength, and flex- ural strength evaluations. Figure 6 presents the morpho- logical image obtained through scanning electron microscopy of the treated concrete. Cubes were meticulously cast and subjected to spe- cific curing conditions (temperature and humidity) for the prescribed durations of 7 d, 14 d, and 28 d. Post-cur- ing, the specimens underwent testing in a machine where a gradually applied axial load was administered until specimen failure. The maximum load at failure was re- corded, and CS was determined by dividing the maxi- mum load by the cross-sectional area of the specimen. The CS tests were conducted at 7 d, 14 d, and 28 d, as depicted in Figure 7. For conventional concrete, the CS values were 13.65 MPa, 18.35 MPa, and 24.65 MPa on days 7, 14, and 28 for the hardened specimens, re- spectively. In contrast, the CS of the concrete mixture comprising 80 % treated water, 40 % plain water, and 15 % silica fume (SF) reached 15.56 MPa, 22.58 MPa, and 25.82 MPa at 7 d, 14 d, and 28 d, respectively. These values exhibited increases of 8.6 %, 4.7 %, and 4.8 % in ANANTHAKUMAR A. et al.: EFFICIENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT THROUGH INTEGRATED WATER HYACINTH SYSTEMS: ... Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 173–184 179 Figure 6: a) SEM image of CSH gel formation, b) SEM image of crack formation, c) SEM image of voids developed Figure 7: Variation in compressive strengths of concrete CS compared to conventional concrete at 7 d, 14 d, and 28 d of curing, respectively. The incorporation of SF into the concrete mix contributed to the increased CS. Con- crete mixtures with 20–100 % silica-fume-treated water (15 %) demonstrated a slight enhancement in CS com- pared to conventional concrete. Specifically, the resistance of concrete to silica fume increased by 80 % when compared to the control con- crete. Prismatic specimens, in the form of rectangular bars, were cast and cured under conditions similar to those for the CS specimens. These specimens were posi- tioned on a testing machine with a span length, and a load was applied at the center until the specimen frac- tured. The maximum load at failure was recorded, and the flexural strength was calculated based on the dimen- sions of the specimen. Comparatively, the flexural and split tensile strengths of the 80TW concrete exhibited improvements over conventional concrete. As the flex- ural strength of the 60TW increased gradually, it reached the nominal flexural strength of M20 concrete (4.75 N/mm 2 ), and the tensile strength value of the 60TW concrete also met the standard value of concrete. Figures 8 and 9 illustrate the flexural properties and cracking strength of water-treated concrete. The optimal ratio for the concrete mixture in M20-grade water curing is determined to be 80 TW. The split tensile strength of concrete is a crucial indi- cator of its resistance to tensile stresses along a plane perpendicular to the direction of loading. This property becomes particularly significant in scenarios where con- crete experiences bending or flexural stresses. Cylinders are cast and cured under identical conditions to the CS specimens. Following the designated curing period, the cylindrical specimen is positioned horizontally between two steel bearing plates within a testing machine. A compressive load is then applied along the axis of the cylinder, leading to its rupture along the horizontal plane. This applied load induces tensile stresses within the con- crete specimen. The recorded maximum load at which the cylinder fails (splits) serves as a measure of the con- crete’s split tensile strength. This study introduces a novel approach by employing water hyacinth for wastewater treatment, and the treated water is subsequently utilized to enhance concrete strength, thereby reducing the overall water demand in construction. Previous publications have explored wastewater pretreatment using plants. Another study pro- posed the processing of wastewater as a means to en- hance the mechanical properties of the concrete. 3.1 Implications and Significance of the test results The CS is a fundamental indicator of concrete qual- ity, crucial for assessing its load-bearing capacity. Con- ventional concrete exhibited the expected increase in CS over time during the curing period. However, the con- crete mixture incorporating 80 % treated water, 40 % plain water, and 15 % silica fume consistently demon- strated higher CS compared to the conventional counter- part across all curing durations. The improvement was notable, with an 8.4 % increase at 7 d, 4.5 % at 14 d, and 4.8 % at 28 d, indicating the positive influence of silica fume on CS. Concrete mixtures using silica-fume-treated water displayed slightly elevated CS compared to stan- dard concrete. The study observed an enhancement in the flexural strength of the concrete mix with treated water, particu- larly noting improved flexural and tensile strengths with 80 % treated water. These results imply that incorporat- ing treated water in the concrete mix positively affects flexural strength, making it more suitable for structural elements subjected to bending stresses. In terms of split tensile strength, which gauges a concrete’s resistance to tensile stresses perpendicular to the loading direction, the study reported a slight improvement with the use of treated water. This enhancement is particularly signifi- cant in scenarios where the concrete is exposed to tensile stresses, suggesting increased resilience against cracking and tensile forces. ANANTHAKUMAR A. et al.: EFFICIENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT THROUGH INTEGRATED WATER HYACINTH SYSTEMS: ... 180 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 173–184 Figure 9: Variation in split tensile strengths of concrete Figure 8: Variation in flexural strengths of concrete The study’s overall findings suggest that treated wa- ter, specifically water treated with water hyacinth and combined with silica fume, can enhance the mechanical properties of concrete. The observed improvements in compressive, flexural, and tensile strength have notable implications for the construction industry, offering the potential for developing more durable and sustainable concrete mixtures. The innovative use of water hyacinth for wastewater treatment aligns with environmentally friendly practices, contributing to both improved water quality and reduced reliance on fresh water in concrete production. The study successfully addresses its research objectives in evaluating the impact of treated water on concrete properties and mechanical strengths. 3.2 Study limitations and comparison with other stud- ies Exploring treatment possibilities for various plant species is recommended, as the current study focused on a wetland system using one plant species. An additional limitation was the examination of only one season, while plant performance can vary seasonally. The study exclu- sively utilized treated water in concrete construction, ne- cessitating a comprehensive year-long investigation. A previous study utilized water hyacinth for waste- water remediation, and the treated wastewater found ap- plications in agriculture. In contrast, the present study in- troduced both primary and secondary treatment methods, involving charcoal and aggregate layers along with water hyacinth. The process efficiently processed large quanti- ties of wastewater, swiftly removing pollutants and heavy metals. The treated water was subsequently inte- grated into concrete mixtures and other construction pro- jects. Earlier research reported a water-recovery rate of only 40–50 % during the water-hyacinth-treatment method. The utilization of water hyacinth for wastewater treatment, coupled with incorporating treated water into concrete, adheres to environmental sustainability princi- ples. 2,3,15 An improvement in compressive strength (CS) was observed when treated water (80 % treated water, 20 % plain water, and 15 % silica fume) was integrated into the concrete mix. At 28 days, this mixture exhibited a CS of 25.82 MPa, representing an approximately 4.8 % increase compared to conventional concrete. This ob- served enhancement in CS aligns with the broader litera- ture emphasizing the use of supplementary materials and treated water to enhance concrete properties. The poten- tial of water hyacinth and its treated water to improve various mechanical properties, including flexural and split tensile strength, is underscored by these find- ings. 13,21 Based on these studies, successfully collecting treated water up to 80 % of the time and incorporating it into concrete has demonstrated the potential to enhance mechanical properties compared to conventional con- crete. 3.3 Summary of Key Findings This study underscores the efficacy of water-hya- cinth-based wetland treatment for household and societal wastewater. The integration of primary and secondary treatment processes, addressing color, odors, solid wastes, and heavy-metal removal through water hya- cinths, demonstrates the adaptability and efficiency of this approach. Combining these methods proves to be a pragmatic strategy for comprehensive wastewater treat- ment. Treated water not only enhances the properties of fresh and hardened concrete, showcasing improved workability, accelerated hydration rates, and heightened compressive, flexural, and tensile strengths, but the addi- tion of 15 % silica fume further fortifies concrete strength. The identification of the optimal mix propor- tion, featuring 80 % treated wastewater and 15 % silica fume, emerges as the most favorable for superior con- crete performance. 3.4 Interpretations and Implications These findings affirm the viability of water hyacinth as a sustainable wastewater-treatment solution, offering a cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative. The dual-treatment approach ensures comprehensive pol- lutant removal, making the treated water suitable for di- verse applications, including construction. The positive influence of treated water on concrete properties sup- ports resource-efficient construction practices, promoting the development of innovative and eco-friendly construc- tion materials. The research highlights the significance of wetland-based treatment systems in mitigating wastewater pollution and advancing environmental sustainability. The utilization of treated water in con- struction contributes to reducing the demand for fresh- water resources, aligning with sustainable building prac- tices. 3.5 Comparative Study Analysis While the study concentrates on M20-grade concrete and specific mix proportions, extrapolating these find- ings to other concrete grades and mix designs may ne- cessitate additional research and validation. Evaluating the performance of the water-hyacinth-based waste- water-treatment system across different seasons could provide a more comprehensive understanding of its ef- fectiveness. Moreover, assessing the long-term durability and performance of concrete produced using treated wa- ter is vital for practical applications in construction. Con- sidering potential ecological impacts and sustainability aspects of large-scale wetland systems is essential. 3.6 Overall Analysis of Results This research contributes to sustainable water man- agement by showcasing the potential of water-hya- cinth-based treatment and its advantages for construc- ANANTHAKUMAR A. et al.: EFFICIENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT THROUGH INTEGRATED WATER HYACINTH SYSTEMS: ... Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 173–184 181 tion. It proposes a resource-efficient approach aligned with the global shift towards sustainable and eco-friendly practices. The improved concrete properties with treated water present opportunities for greener and more resil- ient infrastructure. The findings present an innovative so- lution to wastewater treatment and construction chal- lenges, underscoring the importance of sustainable practices in urban development and construction, partic- ularly in regions where water resources are limited. The broad applications of the study pave the way for more environmentally responsible and resource-efficient con- struction methods. 4 RECOMMENDATIONS Future research endeavors should aim to evaluate the wetland system’s performance across various seasons to account for potential seasonal variations. Expanding the scope of the study to encompass additional concrete grades and mix designs would enhance the applicability insights of treated water. To address practical applica- tions, conducting long-term studies on concrete durabil- ity is imperative. In-depth cost-benefit analyses are es- sential to assess the economic feasibility of integrating wetland-based treatment systems and the utilization of treated water in construction projects. Additionally, com- prehensive environmental impact assessments are indis- pensable when deploying large-scale wetland systems. 5 LIMITATIONS Several limitations should be acknowledged, includ- ing the exclusive focus on M20-grade concrete and spe- cific mix proportions. Generalizing the findings to en- compass various concrete grades and mix designs requires additional validation. The current short-term fo- cus on the impact of treated water on concrete properties highlights the need for investigations into the long-term durability aspects. It is crucial to consider ecological im- pacts and sustainability factors when contemplating the deployment of large-scale wetland systems. Further ex- ploration into economic feasibility, including robust cost-benefit analyses, is imperative for the pragmatic im- plementation of these initiatives. 6 CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE WORK The utilization of water treated with hyacinth in wet- land conditions demonstrates favorable composition and achieves optimal workability for M20-grade concrete. The conclusions drawn from the results of wastewater treatment and mechanical properties are as follows: • Wetland treatment employing hyacinths for house- hold and societal wastewater proves to be a success- ful and easily implementable method. The wetland system allows for the efficient decontamination and chemical characterization of wastewater, including parameters such as pH, BOD, COD, DO, TSS, etc. • The treatment system effectively removes contami- nated minerals from wastewater using two distinct methods. The primary treatment acts efficiently to eliminate color, odors, solid wastes, etc., while the secondary treatment utilizes water hyacinth to effec- tively remove heavy metals from polluted water. • The aquatic system of the water hyacinth contributes to reducing pollution loads in wastewater, enhancing water quality, and rendering the treated water suitable for concrete construction purposes. • Treated water, when mixed with concrete treated with water hyacinth, enhances the qualities of both fresh and hardened concrete. The hydration process of con- crete is increased during the utilization of wastewater after concrete treatment. Additionally, the incorpora- tion of 15 % silica fume has been found to enhance the strength of the concrete. • The workability of concrete mixed with treated water is 140 mm, making it recommended for concrete grade M20. The addition of silica fumes to concrete aims to increase its CS. Concrete mixtures combining treated water with varying silica fume content (15 %) exhibit superior performance compared to conven- tional concrete. • In fresh concrete conditions, the performance sur- passes that of control concrete. The CS of the 80 % treated water and 15 % silica fume mixture exceeds that of control concrete in terms of CS, flexural strength, and breaking strength. • The optimal concrete proportion is achieved by using up to 80 % treated wastewater and 15 % SF. This ra- tio yields the optimum concrete performance. • In future experiments, a constructed wetland featur- ing a variety of plant species could enhance treatment possibilities. Evaluating the performance of this com- bination throughout different seasons would provide a more comprehensive understanding. Furthermore, considering the technical qualities of treated water, it could find applications in various construction sce- narios. Conflicts of interest The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare. Author’s Contributions Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, and Writing - Original draft, Derive the Numerical Analysis, Writing - review & editing, A Ananthakumar; Supervi- sion and Correction, Saravanan M.M and Devi M. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Vivekanandha Col- lege of Technology for Women, Department of Civil En- gineering for providing the laboratory test facilities. Spe- ANANTHAKUMAR A. et al.: EFFICIENT WASTEWATER TREATMENT THROUGH INTEGRATED WATER HYACINTH SYSTEMS: ... 182 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 173–184 cial thanks to the chairman and secretary for their motivation and support. The authors greatly appreciate the reviewers and editors for their critical comments that helped in improving the quality of this manuscript. 7 REFERENCES 1 X. Chen, J. Wu, Y. Ning, W. 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