Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, ISSN 1318-2269  63Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 63–74 (2006)
Erik Sigmund1*
Karel Frömel1 
Dagmar Sigmundová1 
James F. Sallis2
AGE AND GENDER PATTERNS OF PHYSICAL 
ACTIVITY: THE CONTRIBUTIONS 
OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND 
ORGANISED PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
VZORCI TELESNE AKTIVNOSTI GLEDE 
NA STAROST IN SPOL: DELEŽ 
ŠPORTNE VZGOJE IN ORGANIZIRANE 
TELESNE AKTIVNOSTI
Abstract
School physical education (PE) is an important 
component of promoting healthy physical activity (PA) 
patterns during childhood and adolescence. However, 
the proportion of school PE in daily PA has not been 
completely examined. The contribution of activity 
energy expenditure (AEE) spent in PE and organised 
PA was examined in 855 girls and 585 boys aged from 
11 to 19 years. AEE was assessed using the Caltrac 
accelerometer and daily logs. The age-related proportion 
of AEE spent on PE is higher in girls in comparison to 
boys in all age categories. The proportion of AEE girls 
spend on organised PA is also higher than for boys in all 
age categories. PE and organised PA significantly helped 
reduce the age-related decrease of PA especially in girls. 
The current findings indicate both PE and organised PA 
can be effective intervention strategies for increasing 
youth PA, especially in girls. Therefore, policies and 
resources supporting these programmes should be 
strengthened.
Key words: activity energy expenditure, physical 
inactivity, Caltrac accelerometer, physical education 
in school
1Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacky University,
Czech Republic
2 Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, 
USA
*Corresponding author:
Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacky University
Kinanthropology Research Centre, 
Trida Miru 115, 77111 Olomouc, Czech Republic
Tel: +420 585 636 117
Fax: +420 585 412 899
e-mail: erik.sigmund@upol.cz
Izvleček
Športna vzgoja (PE) predstavlja pomembno komponento 
pri vzpodbujanju zdravih vzorcev telesne aktivnosti 
(PA) v otroštvu in adolescenci, kljub temu pa delež 
športne vzgoje v sklopu dnevne telesne aktivnosti še 
ni popolnoma raziskan. Kakšen delež k porabi energije 
pri telesni aktivnosti (AEE) prispeva športna vzgoja in 
organizirana vadba smo ugotavljali na vzorcu 855 deklet 
in 585 fantov starih od 11 do 19 let. AEE smo ocenili s 
pospeškometrom Caltrac in dnevnimi zapisi. Odstotek 
porabe energije pri aktivnostih v okviru športne vzgoje 
je v vseh starostnih skupinah večji pri dekletih kot 
pri fantih. Dekleta vseh starostnih skupin porabijo 
večji odstotek energije tudi v aktivnostih organizirane 
telesne vadbe. Športna vzgoja in organizirana telesna 
vadba predvsem pri dekletih pomembno zmanjšujeta 
upad telesne aktivnosti, do katerega pride zaradi vpliva 
starosti. Ugotovitve kažejo, da tako športna vzgoja 
kot tudi telesna vadba lahko predstavljata strategijo 
učinkovitega poseganja v povečevanje telesne aktivnosti 
mladostnikov, še posebej deklet. Zaradi tega je potrebno 
nameniti več pozornosti spodbujanju tovrstnih 
programov in oblikovanju ustrezne zakonodaje. 
Ključne besede: poraba energije pri aktivnostih, telesna 
neaktivnost, pospeškometer Caltrac, šolska športna 
vzgoja
64 Age and gender patterns of physical activity Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 63–74 (2006) 
INTRODUCTION
The fact that physical activity (PA) decreases with age during youth is well-documented around 
the world in longitudinal studies (Barnett, O’Loughlin, & Paradis, 2002; Bradley, McMurray, 
Harrel, & Deng, 2000; Telama & Yang, 2000; Van Mechelen, Twisk, Post, Snel, & Kemper, 2000), 
cross-sectional studies (Caspersen, Pereira, & Curran, 2000; Gavarry, Giacomoni, Bernard, 
Seymat, & Falgairette, 2001; Hovell, Sallis, Kolody, & McKenzie, 1999; Leslie, Fotheringham, 
Owen, & Bauman, 2001; Riddoch et al., 2004; Saelens, 2003; Trost et al., 2002), multivariate 
studies (Boreham & Riddoch, 2001; Sallis, 2000), and even in non-human species (Ingram, 
2000). The age-associated decline in PA in adolescents appears to be stronger with boys than 
with girls (Gavarry et al., 2001; Leslie, Fotheringham, Owen, & Bauman, 2001; Sallis, 2000; 
Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000; Telama & Yang, 2000; Trost, Pate, Freedson, Sallis, & Taylor, 
2000; Van Mechelen et al., 2000) and in vigorous activities more than in moderate activities 
(Caspersen, Pereira, & Curran, 2000; Leslie et al., 2001; Van Mechelen et al., 2000). However, 
this phenomenon is not well understood. Given the strength and consistency of the age decline 
it is useful to examine the pattern of the decline by age, time of the day or week, gender, season, 
type of activity and other factors.
Although the decline of PA is stronger in youth than adulthood (Sallis, 2000), the most critical 
age for a considerable decrease needs to be determined. Recent studies have documented a 
marked decrease in participation in vigorous PA among children aged 9 to 14 (Bradley et al., 
2000) and in PA overall among adolescents aged 13 to 18 (Sallis, 2000). However, this decrease 
is not evident during preschool years (Pate, Pfeiffer, Trost, Ziegler, & Dowda, 2004). Thus, 
studies of a broad age range during youth are needed.
Differences in the decrease of PA between weekdays and weekends, schooldays and holidays, 
or summer days and winter days are also not well known. Compared with weekdays, children 
have demonstrated significantly higher moderate-to-vigorous PA on weekends, while adoles-
cents have exhibited significantly lower moderate-to-vigorous PA on weekends (Trost et al., 
2000). Gavarry and colleagues (2001) in their cross-sectional study pointed out the influence 
of gender and type of day on the PA of children and adolescents, whereby a significant decrease 
in PA during growth was observed during weekdays in boys. A great decrease in PA from 
primary to high school during weekdays was not observed during weekends. Hovell, Sallis, 
Kolody and McKenzie (1999) reported that girls’ and boys’ PA selections are similar across 
weekdays, weekends and summer, but the general trend involves the decrease in PA levels with 
the age of children on weekdays, weekends and over summer. On the other hand, Pratt, Macera 
and Blanton (1999) stated that vigorous, moderate, and recommended activity peaks in the 
summer months, whereas inactivity peaks in the winter. The range between the highest and 
lowest months is 10.4% for inactivity (January vs. August) and 7.6% for recommended physical 
activity (August vs. December). Similarly, Pivarnik, Reeves, and Rafferty (2003) examined 
Michigan adults and discovered significantly higher weekly leisure-time energy expenditure 
during spring and summer (about 15-20%) in comparison with autumn and winter.
A longitudinal study of Finnish youth (Telama, Yang, Laakso, & Viikari, 1997) discovered 
that their participation in organised sport during childhood was a significant predictor of 
participation in PA during early adulthood. Similarly, participation in organised sporting 
activities in school age predicted leisure time PA in adulthood (Kraut, Melamed, Gofer, & 
Froom, 2003). This relation was consistent in the various subgroups of age, body mass index, 
Age and gender patterns of physical activity 65Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 63–74 (2006)
marital status, shift work, smoking and religious observance (Kraut et al., 2003). Likewise, 
Trudeau, Laurencelle, Tremblay, Rajic, and Shephard (1999) investigated the influence of daily 
primary school physical education (PE) on PA, attitudes to PA, and perceptions of barriers to 
PA during adulthood. They compared an experimental group of women and men (N = 147) 
participating in five PE sessions per week throughout their six years of primary school educa-
tion during the 1970s to a control group (N = 720) with one PE session per week, supervised 
by the home-room teacher. Their data strongly suggest that daily PE at the primary school 
has a significant long-term positive effect on the PA habits of women, despite the similar 
perceived barriers, attitudes and intentions regarding PA in these two groups. In men the 
only positive influence of the daily primary school PE programme is a greatly reduced risk 
of regular current smoking. An early experience of PA at the age of 16 decreased the risk of 
becoming inactive at the age of 34 years (Barnekow-Bergkvist, Hedberg, Janlert, & Jansson, 
1996). School PE is characterised by moderate and vigorous PA, which positively influences PA 
habits in adulthood (Stone, McKenzie, Welk, & Booth, 1998). Therefore, school PE is identified 
as providing important infrastructure for promoting healthy PA patterns during childhood 
and adolescence (Corbin, 2002; Daley, 2002; Stone et al., 1998). 
Regular participation in school PE and organised sport is a considerable component of one’s 
daily energy expenditure (Katzmarzyk & Malina, 1998; Van Mechelen et al., 2000). Van 
Mechelen et al. (2000) reported that organised sports activities were at low levels in every age 
category from 13 to 27, but these activities did not decline with the increasing age of young 
people. Katzmarzyk and Malina (1998) found that young people aged 12-14 who participated 
in organised sports had higher total daily energy expenditure and moderate-to-vigorous en-
ergy expenditure and spent less time watching television than those who did not participate. 
Although a large proportion of children is involved in PE at school, the contribution of PE 
classes to overall PA depends on their quantity and quality (Sallis & McKenzie, 1991).
The purpose of the present study is to examine the proportion of weekly activity energy 
expenditure (AEE) spent in PE and organised sport in youth aged 12-19 and to explore how 
these components of PA may contribute to, or slow down, the age-related decline. The second 
purpose is to analyse how weekday and weekend physical activity and inactivity are related 
to age.
METHOD
Participants
Adolescents for the cross-sectional analysis were recruited from 17 primary schools and 31 
high schools in the Czech Republic – Middle and Northern Moravia, and Eastern Bohemia. 
These 48 urban and rural schools were randomly chosen from 69 invited schools that agreed 
to participate in this research. Participants for the accelerometer monitoring were identi-
fied by randomly selected classes of urban and rural schools. A total of 855 girls and 585 
boys completed the one-week monitoring of PA and physical inactivity. To examine age- and 
gender-related trends, the adolescents were grouped into four categories: 11.5-13.4 years (66 
girls, 51 boys), 13.5-15.4 years (262 girls, 135 boys), 15.5-17.4 (282 girls, 250 boys), and 17.5-19.4 
years (245 girls, 149 boys). The study was approved by the university ethics committee.
66 Age and gender patterns of physical activity Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 63–74 (2006) 
Instruments
The monitoring of PA and physical inactivity was based on simultaneous multiple measure-
ment, using the Caltrac accelerometer (AEE) and individual 7-day logs (intensity of PA and 
frequency, time and type of PA and physical inactivity) (Frömel, Novosad, & Svozil, 1999). 
Combinations of various approaches and technologies are recommended for the most accurate 
measurement of young people’s PA patterns (Bassett, 2000). Given the lack of a single, com-
monly accepted measure of PA, and the fact that different measures assess different aspects of 
adolescents’ PA behaviour, a combination of the Caltrac accelerometer and individual 7-day 
logs was used.
Field and laboratory studies have supported the validity of accelerometers in assessing PA 
patterns of children and youth (Janz, Witt, & Mahoney, 1995; Trost et al., 2002; Welk, Corbin, 
& Dale, 2000). Accelerometers have been used for several-day, full-week or longer monitoring 
periods (Freedson & Miller, 2000; Janz, Witt, & Mahoney, 1995; Trost et al., 2000; Welk, 
Corbin, & Dale, 2000).
To assess energy expenditure the Caltrac accelerometer has been validated by heart-rate 
monitoring in field conditions (Montoye, Kemper, Saris, & Washburn, 1996) and in a 7-day 
monitoring study of Czech adolescents (Frömel, Novosad, & Svozil, 1999). The Caltrac AEE 
has significantly correlated with steps recorded with an Omron pedometer (rS = 0.62) and time 
of PA from the 7-day log (rS = 0.48) in the 7-day field monitoring of 11-12-year-old children 
(Sigmund, 2000). Most validation studies in children have used the Caltrac accelerometer 
solely as an activity monitor with energy expenditure given in activity counts. However, valid 
caloric expenditure values obtained from the Caltrac accelerometer could provide a more 
meaningful estimation of PA patterns in children than activity counts alone (Bray, Morrow, 
Pivarnik, & Bricker, 1992).
The Caltrac accelerometer was programmed to provide a read-out of total and activity energy 
expenditure calories by setting personal data for each subject (weight, height, age and gen-
der). An AEE means the net cost of activity calculated as total energy expenditure – resting 
metabolic rate from the Caltrac accelerometer. In determining caloric expenditure values, 
the Caltrac accelerometer uses an equation that estimates the resting metabolic rate based on 
the subject’s personal data – weight, height, age and gender (Bray et al., 1992). The two-page, 
seven-day logs (the first page is for the Caltrac accelerometer and the second is for performed 
activities) contained tables with seven columns (one for each day). The first table with physical 
activities included 21 items concerning transport, conditioning, occupation, sports and leisure 
activities. The second table with types of physical inactivity included six items – sitting or 
lying and watching TV, sitting in front of a computer, sitting or lying while studying, sitting at 
school, sitting in a park, pub etc., sitting in a car, bus, train etc. Additional space was provided 
for any activities that were not listed.
Procedure
Each of the monitored adolescents wore a Caltrac accelerometer for seven consecutive days of 
their weekly habitual school routine. All participants were instructed in detail on how to use 
the Caltrac accelerometer and the 7-day logs. They were instructed to wear the accelerometer 
fixed on their right hip during the whole day, except when sleeping, bathing or swimming. An 
elastic belt with a pocket for the Caltrac accelerometer device provided for an accurate and 
Age and gender patterns of physical activity 67Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 63–74 (2006)
fixed placement. A small pencil and the 7-day logs were placed in the accelerometer pocket. 
Monitoring started on a randomly selected day of the week. Whole classes were monitored 
at the same time and accelerometers were reset to begin monitoring the morning after the 
instructions were given, and they were not reset for seven days. The adolescents recorded 
the time and total and active energy expenditure values in their 7-day logs every morning 
after waking up and in the evening before sleeping. In the evening, they also recorded FITT 
characteristics (frequency, intensity – moderate or vigorous, time/duration, and type) of daily 
PA and the duration of daily types of physical inactivity in their 7-day logs. Further, on week-
days (schooldays) the students recorded the time and the total and active energy expenditure 
variables at the beginning of school, at the beginning and at the end of PE classes, at the 
end of school and at the beginning and end of any type of organised sport. The participants 
were instructed to make entries only for activities with a duration ≥10 min. A check of the 
correctness of the 7-day logs was conducted with each class at the end of the 7-day monitoring. 
The number of participants who filled in the 7-day logs incorrectly varied from 5% to 15% 
across the classes. Correctly filled in 7-day logs were considered those that included at least 6 
days of data (2 weekend days and 4 weekdays) from the Caltrac accelerometer and data about 
PA and physical inactivity.
The monitoring took place in the spring and autumn semesters from 2000 to 2005 during 
school weeks without any important examinations, days off (school and public holidays), and 
without any special sports courses or competitions lasting more than one day. Organised 
sport meant any intentional PA led by a teacher, trainer or instructor (Frömel, Novosad, & 
Svozil, 1999).
It is necessary to compare the different age and somatic groups of girls and boys. Therefore, 
AEE is expressed in a relative value – (kcal·kg-1·day-1). For the statistical analysis of age- and 
gender-related AEE (kcal·kg-1·day-1) and time of physical inactivity (min·day-1), two different 
two-way (age x gender) MANOVA were used. Weekdays and weekends were used as the 
dependent variables. Scheffe post-hoc comparisons were used to identify the significant main 
effects. The estimate of the strength of the relationship between the independent and dependent 
variables was represented as the coefficient ω2 (Thomas & Nelson, 2001).
The Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test was used for a statistical comparison of the percentage 
representation of PE classes or organised sport. The effect size reported for the Kruskal-Wallis 
procedure was η2 (Morse, 1999).
The standard amount of PE for all these students was two classes of 45 minutes per week led 
by a certified PE teacher. The active participation of adolescents in at least one of the two PE 
classes was a necessary precondition for statistical analysis of the percentage representation 
of PE classes or organised sport.
RESULTS
An age-related decline in AEE (kcal·kg-1·day-1) assessed by the Caltrac accelerometer was 
evident in both girls and boys, especially on weekends (see Figure 1). The negative values of 
Spearman’s correlation coefficient between weekend or weekday AEE and the age of girls (r 
= -0.11, p = 0.0012 or r = -0.21, p = 0.0000), and boys (r = -0.16, p = 0.0000 or r = -0.25, p = 
0.0000) indicated these results. Girls and boys were more physically active on weekdays than 
weekends in all age categories (days F (1, 2880) = 125.13, p = 0.0000, ω2 = 0.076); (age F (3, 
68 Age and gender patterns of physical activity Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 63–74 (2006) 
2880) = 24.65, p = 0.0000, ω2 = 0.043). The interaction effect of days x age was not significant (F 
(3, 2880) = 1.49, p = 0.2165, ω2 = 0.001. However, Spearman’s correlation coefficients between 
weekday and weekend AEE in girls (r = 0.58, p = 0.0000), and boys (r = 0.55, p = 0.0000) 
demonstrated that adolescents who are active on weekdays are also active on weekends. This 
pattern is strengthened with the increasing age of boys (r = 0.30 at age from 11.5 to 13.4 years, 
r = 0.45 at age from 13.5 to 15.4 years, r = 0.54 at age from 15.5 to 17.4 years, and  r = 0.61 at 
age 17.5 to 19.4 years), and girls (r = 0.53 at age from 11.5 to 13.4 years, r = 0.59 at age from 
13.5 to 15.4 years, r = 0.51 at age from 15.5 to 17.4 years, and r = 0.63 at age from 17.5 to 19.4 
years). According to AEE, boys were more physically active than girls in all age categories (F 
(1, 2880) = 63.92; p = 0.0000, ω2 = 0.004). The interaction effect of gender x age was significant 
(F (3, 2880) = 3.98, p = 0.0077, ω2 = 0.006). Although the interaction effect of gender x day 
was not significant (F (1, 2880) = 1.86, p = 0.1726, ω2 = 0.001), the gender differences were 
greater on weekdays (Scheffe post-hoc test p = 0.0000) than weekends (Scheffe post-hoc test 
p = 0.0000).
Activity energy expenditure (kcal•kg
-1
•day
-1
)
7.21
7.93
9.06
9.38
6.68
7.03
7.537.69
9.16
9.56
8.44
11.40
11.89
8.46
9.82
9.2
11.5-13.4
(n=66)
13.5-15.4
(n=262)
15.5-17.4
(n=282)
17.5-19.4
(n=245)
– 11.5-13.4
(n=51)
13.5-15.4
(n=135)
15.5-17.4
(n=250)
17.5-19.4
(n=149)
GIRLS BOYS
weekends
weekdays
The physical inactivity (min•day
-1
)
273281
231
258258
217207
169
394386
371
355352
382
364
304
11.5-13.4
(n=66)
13.5-15.4
(n=262)
15.5-17.4
(n=282)
17.5-19.4
(n=245)
– 11.5-13.4
(n=51)
13.5-15.4
(n=135)
15.5-17.4
(n=250)
17.5-19.4
(n=149)
GIRLS BOYS
weekends
weekdays
Figure 1: Comparison of AEE (kcal·kg-1·day-1) in the weekly habitual school routines of ado-
lescents of different age categories
Figure 2: Comparison of physical inactivity (min·day-1) in the weekly habitual school routines 
of adolescents of different age categories
Age and gender patterns of physical activity 69Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 63–74 (2006)
An increase in physical inactivity with advancing age was evident in girls on weekends and 
in boys on weekdays (see Figure 2). Although Spearman’s correlation coefficients between 
weekend or weekday time of physical inactivity and the age of girls and boys are low (girls: 
r = 0.21, p = 0.0000 or r = 0.08, p = 0.0883; boys: r = 0.11, p = 0.0500 or r = 0.14, p = 0.0160), 
they support these findings. According to the activity logs, girls and boys were more physically 
inactive on weekdays than weekends in all age categories (days: F (1, 2880) = 331.53, p = 0.0000, 
ω2 = 0.1840; age: F (3, 2880) = 7.56, p = 0.0000, ω2 = 0.011). The interaction effect of days x age 
was significant (F (3, 2880) = 2.94, p = 0.0319, ω2 = 0.003). Spearman’s correlation coefficients 
between the weekday and weekend time of physical inactivity in girls (r = 0.51, p = 0.0000), and 
boys (r = 0.52, p = 0.0000) indicate the striking relationship between weekday and weekend 
physical inactivity patterns.
Physical inactivity in girls and boys represented from 4.5 to 5.7 hours per day in all age 
categories (see Figure 2). Sitting at school accounted for about 60-70% of the weekday physical 
inactivity of adolescents of both genders. For girls, watching TV and using computers com-
prised 23-33% and 6.9-8% (71-83 minutes and 18-27 minutes) of daily time spent on physical 
inactivity. For boys, watching TV and using computers comprised 21-31% and 18-24% (72-101 
minutes and 57-83 minutes) of daily time spent on physical inactivity. The proportion of 
physically inactive time calculated from the time of watching TV and using the computer was 
considerably higher on weekends than weekdays for both girls and boys in all age categories. 
The ratio of PA (including walking) to physical inactivity (excluding sleeping), according to 
the times noted in the adolescents’ individual self-reports, was from 1:2.38 to 1:3.3, which was 
similar for girls and boys.
Figure 3: Percentage of weekday activity energy expenditure accounted for PE classes, by age 
and gender
Since students were only included in the analyses if they participated in at least one required PE 
session during the monitoring week, the percentage of time devoted to PE was similar across 
all subgroups (see Figure 3). However, the share of AEE contributed by PE increased with the 
advancing age of youths. These increases were significant for both girls (H (3, 451) = 10.12, p 
= 0.0175, η2 = 0.036, rS×AGE = 0.23, and boys (H (3, 284) = 20.53, p = 0.0001, rS×AGE = 0.25). The 
Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test revealed that PE accounted for a higher proportion of girls’ 
AEE compared to that of the boys (H (1, 735) = 45.45, p = 0.0000, η2 = 0.062).
Portion of physical education classes in weekdays physical activity
2.3% 2.7% 2.8% 2.7% 1.8% 2.6% 1.8% 2%
9.5%
13.3%
17.4%
18.9%
6.5%
11% 10.3% 10.8%
11.5-13.4
(n=66)
13.5-15.4
(n=152)
15.5-17.4
(n=99)
17.5-19.4
(n=134)
- 11.5-13.4
(n=49)
13.5-15.4
(n=85)
15.5-17.4
(n=75)
17.5-19.4
(n=75)
GIRLS BOYS
from total time of monitoring
from activity energy expenditure
70 Age and gender patterns of physical activity Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 63–74 (2006) 
Figure 4: Percentage of weekly activity energy expenditure accounted for organised sport, by 
age and gender
There was a small significant age-related decline in the percentage of time in organised sport 
for both genders (girls: H (3, 491) = 7.87, p = 0.0496, η2 = 0.016, rS×AGE = -0.03; boys: H (3, 
300) = 9.55, p = 0.0231, η2 = 0.032, rS×AGE = -0.09) (see Figure 4). However, the results of the 
Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test indicate considerable significant increases with age in the 
proportion of AEE contributed by organised sport for girls (H (3, 491) = 26.61, p = 0.0000, η2 = 
0.054, rS×AGE = 0.19), and for boys (H (3, 300) = 15.06, p = 0.0018, η
2 = 0.050, rS×AGE = 0.14). The 
contribution of organised sport AEE was significantly higher in girls than in their male peers 
(Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test H (1, 791) = 12.27, p = 0.0005; η2 = 0.016).
DISCUSSION
As expected, the present study documented a significant decline in PA for girls and boys during 
teenage years, which is consistent with previous findings from Europe (Riddoch et al., 2004; 
Telama & Yang, 2000; Van Mechelen et al., 2000), Australia (Leslie et al., 2001) and North 
America (Barnett, O’Loughlin, & Paradis, 2002; Bradley et al., 2000; Gavarry et al., 2001; 
Hovell et al., 1999; Trost et al., 2002). The present study has extended the previous findings by 
showing that the decline is similar on weekdays and weekends for both genders, and that the 
gender difference in PA is mainly due to boys being more active than girls on weekdays.
A notable finding for both genders and all age categories is that adolescents are much more 
active on weekdays than on weekends. An extremely low value of AEE (4 kcal·kg-1·day-1) 
characterised only 3.4% of girls and 2.7% of boys on weekdays. However, on weekends 21.9% 
of girls and 16.6% of boys had an AEE lower than 4 kcal·kg-1·day-1. Increasing physical activity 
on weekends should be a high priority but this may be a challenging task because there is no 
opportunity to intervene through schools on weekends.
Physical inactivity, particularly from TV viewing and computer use, occupied at least four 
and half hours per weekday for all subgroups, and about 60-70% of sedentary time was due to 
sitting in class. There were few differences by gender or age, and the greater inactivity time on 
Portion of organized sport in weekly physical activity
2.8%3.2%
3.9%2.9%3.1%3.1%3.8%3.4%
14.7%
16.6%15.5%
10.7%
22.1%
18.1%17.5%
11.6%
11.5-13.4
(n=66)
13.5-15.4
(n=165)
15.5-17.4
(n=120)
17.5-19.4
(n=140)
- 11.5-13.4
(n=49)
13.5-15.4
(n=85)
15.5-17.4
(n=91)
17.5-19.4
(n=75)
GIRLS BOYS
from total time of monitoring
from activity energy expenditure
Age and gender patterns of physical activity 71Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 63–74 (2006)
weekends was largely explained by time at school. Due to the well-documented associations 
of inactivity time and risk of being overweight in youth (Saelens, 2003), the present results 
indicate that reducing inactivity time in Czech adolescents should be a priority. It is important 
to find effective methods for shifting time away from physical inactivity towards physical 
activity in youths’ leisure time.
This study documents the important role that can be played by PE and organised PA in the 
overall PA of adolescents. A quality PE class can reduce disparities in PA between girls and boys 
(Katzmarzyk & Malina, 1998; McKenzie et al., 2000), higher- and lower-skilled boys (Hastie & 
Trost, 2002) and participants and non-participants of organised sports (Katzmarzyk & Malina, 
1998). Although adolescents in the current study spent only 2-3% of their non-sleeping time 
in PE classes, those classes contributed 10% (boys) and 15.5% (girls) of weekly AEE. Much 
PA in youth is done outside of school, yet a few studies have documented the contribution 
of organised PA to total PA. In the present study, organised sport on average contributed 
18.2% of weekly AEE for girls and 14.8% for boys. Both PE and organised sports were larger 
contributors to girls’ than to boys’ weekly AEE, and that contribution significantly increased 
with age for girls. The present findings indicate both PE and organised sport can be effective 
intervention strategies for increasing youth PA. So policies and resources supporting these 
programmes should be strengthened. However, these structured opportunities for PA are 
especially important for girls, who have lower PA levels than boys (Sallis, 2000). We completely 
identified with Corbin’s (2002) belief that PE programmes should make special efforts to help 
all children develop positive self-perceptions (self-esteem) in PA situations. Positive physical 
self-esteem relates positively to lifelong PA (Corbin, 2002; Daley, 2002). However, PE alone is 
not the answer to ensure the adopting of a physically active lifestyle. Corbin (2002, pp. 140) 
stated: “We can teach children to be active, but parents must help in this effort by giving their 
children the opportunity to be active daily”.
Strengths of the study include the substantial sample of Czech adolescents involved, drawn 
from a wide age range. Recruiting young people from multiple schools should increase the 
generalisability of the findings, although the generalisability vis-à-vis other countries needs 
to be tested. Although validated accelerometers were used for an entire ‘normal’ school week, 
there are some limitations of the measures. The accelerometer protocol was a combination of 
objective and self-report measurement because the students recorded accelerometer scores on 
logs several times per day. In addition to the inability of the Caltrac accelerometer to record 
some activities (Freedson & Miller, 2000), the need for careful recording introduced additional 
errors. Although the completeness of recording was found to be relatively high, the accuracy 
cannot be evaluated. Despite some limitations of the measures, the current study did use an 
objective monitor and was designed to answer questions about the decline in youth PA that 
rarely have been addressed.
In conclusion, the present study documents the need for additional programmes to boost PA, 
especially on weekends, and to reduce the time devoted to undesirable forms of inactivity, 
especially watching TV and using computers. The substantial promise of PE and organised 
sport programmes to contribute to youth PA was shown, suggesting that improvements in 
quantity, quality and enrolment in such programmes could be effective for promoting PA. It 
was notable that PE and organised sport contributed more to girls’ overall AEE and that this 
contribution increased with age. Without PE and organised sport programs, the decline in 
72 Age and gender patterns of physical activity Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 63–74 (2006) 
girls’ AEE would be even more pronounced. Further studies are needed to examine how PE 
and organised sport programmes may contribute to adolescent AEE in other countries.
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Acknowledgment
Data for this analysis was collected as part of the national research grant: ‘Physical activity 
and inactivity of inhabitants of the Czech Republic in the context of behavioural changes, 
No.: 6198959221’.