Organizacija znanja, 28 (1–2), 2023, 2328007, https://doi.org/10.3359/oz2328007
Strokovni članek / Professional article

RDA in the Fifth Information Age: entity, identity,
authority
RDA v peti informacijski dobi: entiteta, identiteta, kontrola
Gordon Dunsire1
ABSTRACT: The Fifth Information Age is characterised by the ubiquitous recording of social
transactions in an explosion of persistent cultural memory. A person who contributes to social media
is an agent who creates digital cultural artefacts. The internet of things, of personal devices for the
capture, creation, transmission, and output of information means everyone is potentially an author, a
publisher, a distributor, with a profound impact on traditional methods of authority control. The focus
of authority control is shifting from the provision of a unique label for an individual person or group to
the description of an individual as an instance of a class, as an entity. This paper will discuss some of
the issues in entity-based cataloguing and the tools provided to resolve and accommodate them in
RDA: Resource Description and Access. These include the implementation of entities and relationships
defined in the IFLA Library Reference Model; the categorization of entity labels as unstructured,
structured, and identifier strings; and the development of implementation scenarios to encompass
linked open data. The infrastructure that allows any person to be the creator of a cultural resource
also allows any person to describe the resource; everyone is potentially a cataloguer, a metadata
creator. The paper describes the general approach to metadata provenance that is provided in RDA
and how it can be used to authenticate metadata from a wide variety of sources, including crowdsourcing, and the application of automatic data inferencing to interoperate metadata from multiple
sources.
KEYWORDS: bibliographic control, social media, resource description, standards
IZVLEČEK: Za peto informacijsko dobo je značilno vseprisotno zajemanje družbenih transakcij v
eksploziji trajnega kulturnega spomina. Oseba, ki prispeva v družbene medije, je akter, ki ustvarja
digitalne kulturne artefakte. Internet stvari, osebnih naprav za zajemanje, ustvarjanje, prenos in
izdajanje informacij pomeni, da je vsakdo lahko avtor, založnik, distributer z močnim vplivom na
tradicionalne načine normativne kontrole. Osredotočenost normativne kontrole se premika od
nudenja enoznačne oznake za posameznika ali skupino k opisu posameznika kot primera razreda, kot
entitete. V tem prispevku bomo obravnavali nekatere od problemov, povezanih s katalogizacijo entitet,
in orodja, ki so nam na voljo za reševanje in odpravljanje teh problemov v RDA: Resource Description
and Access. Sem spada implementacija entitet in razmerij, opredeljenih v modelu IFLA Library
Reference Model; kategorizacija oznak entitet kot nestrukturirani nizi, strukturirani nizi in nizi
identifikatorjev; ter razvoj implementacijskih scenarijev za pokritje povezanih podatkov v prostem
dostopu. V infrastrukturi, kjer je lahko vsaka oseba ustvarjalec kulturnih virov, lahko tudi vsaka oseba
opiše vir; vsak je lahko potencialno katalogizator, ustvarjalec metapodatkov. V prispevku bo opisan
splošni pristop k izvoru metapodatkov, ki je na voljo v RDA, in kako se lahko uporabi za preverjanje
pristnosti metapodatkov iz širokega nabora virov, vključno z množičnim zunanjim izvajanjem in
uporabo samodejnega povzemanja podatkov za interoperabilnost metapodatkov iz več virov.
KLJUČNE BESEDE: bibliografska kontrola, družbeni mediji, opis virov, standardi

The article was created based on the presentation with the same title at the COBISS Conference 2022, 19–22 October 2022.
1 Gordon Dunsire, Independent Consultant, Edinburgh, United Kingdom, gordon@gordondunsire.com.

Dunsire, G.: RDA in the Fifth Information Age: entity, identity, authority

1 Introduction
S. R. Ranganathan’s simple model of the function of bibliographic metadata is »Every reader
[their] book« (Ranganathan, 1931). That is, the primary purpose of catalogues and other
finding aids is to allow anyone to access the information resources that they require for
cultural, educational, and entertainment reasons. The human need for access to cultural
information recorded by their forebears is evident from the survival of cave paintings and
portable objects that seem to have only ritualistic functions. These cultural heritage items
seem to be created with future generations in mind, and later human interaction seems to
respect that intention. The relationship between the »reader« and the »book« stretches back
over millennia, at least 50,000 years (Gerber, 2022). If we accept that these activities are
essential to »being human«, the development of metadata for information retrieval services
is driven by changes in the characteristics of resources and the means of obtaining them.
From time to time a technology is invented that has a profound and lasting impact on this
relationship, as well as on human social activity in general. These technologies are the
invention of writing, of movable type printing, of telecommunication and digital information,
and of the Internet. Each technology marks a significant jump in the characteristics of recorded
information and how it is accessed, and divides the continuum of this relationship into a set
of five »information ages« (Dunsire, 2022).
In the current Fifth information age, the »book« is any information resource with any kind of
content embodied in any kind of carrier. Types of content include text, images, and music,
while types of carrier range from printed volumes and videodiscs to online files. The role of an
ordinary person as a mere »reader« is no longer confined to obtaining the content and has
expanded to any interaction with an information resource, including creation, amendment,
publication, reproduction, and distribution activities, as well as the creation of metadata that
describes the resource. There is widespread disintermediation in the lifecycle of information
resources with no guarantee that professional standards or ethics are applied. This is a result
of the development of the Internet and the Semantic Web, and the availability of personal
»smart« devices for capturing and recording information. The quantity of recorded memory
has increased but the quality is more difficult to assess. The sources of bibliographic and
cultural heritage items for collection, preservation, and access by future readers are more
diffuse. All of this presents a challenge for metadata and its application in connecting the
reader to their book.

2 RDA entities and elements
Ranganathan’s simple model was formulated in the middle of the Fourth information age, 80
years after the development of Morse code and 50 years before the beginning of the Internet.
It now requires extension and refinement to reflect the complexity of the interactions
between the »reader« and the »book« in information retrieval services and the metadata that
drive them. An integrated set of tools to support the development of new approaches to
metadata is offered by the current iteration of RDA: resource description and access (RDA
Steering Committee, 2023). RDA is a successor to the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules that
reflects a shift from a specific cultural view of the reader and their book to a more neutral and
international treatment of bibliographic and cultural heritage metadata (Dunsire, 2020).

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Dunsire, G.: RDA in the Fifth Information Age: entity, identity, authority

RDA is an implementation of the IFLA Library Reference Mode (LRM) (Riva, Le Bœuf, and
Žumer, 2017). The LRM is the »Definition of a conceptual reference model to provide a
framework for the analysis of non-administrative metadata relating to library resources«. RDA
refines the entities, relationships, and attributes of this framework to reflect the requirements
for library and cultural heritage metadata in practical information retrieval systems, including
the complexity of the LRM’s user tasks to find, identify, select, and obtain an information
resource, and to explore the context of a resource with respect to other resources.
The LRM treats the reader as a single person or a group of persons that interacts with a
resource. In RDA this is represented by a hierarchy of classes of entities, from the broadest
Agent class to the specific Person, Family, and Corporate Body classes. The Family and
Corporate Body classes are refinements of the LRM. An important constraint in the LRM is that
the persons involved must be »real« and not fictitious, supernatural, or non-human. This
reflects an assumption that the recording of and subsequent access to an information
resource is an activity unique to humans.
The LRM treats the metadata that describe the book as a set of interconnected entities that
reflect various aspects and characteristics of an information resource. This is the so-called
»WEMI stack«. The Work, Expression, Manifestation, and Item classes are aspects of a
resource that are linked with »primary« relationships that maintain the integrity of the
metadata for the resource as a whole. The Work and Expression aspects cover the content
and context of the resource. The boundaries of these entities are determined by and
essentially represent local culture. The Manifestation and Item aspects cover the physical
instantiation of the resource and essentially represent recorded memory. The flexibility of
describing an expression embodied in multiple manifestations, and vice-versa, provides
efficient accommodation of the diversity of the products of the Fifth information age. RDA
implements the resource entity classes directly, without further refinement.
RDA refines the LRM relationships between resource entities and agents to cover the roles of
readers in their interaction with books, from the creation of content as author, editor,
translator, and performer to the creation of carriers as publisher, distributor, reproducer, and
modifier. RDA relationship elements are arranged in hierarchies to support different levels of
granularity in metadata. For example, »mixing engineer agent« is the finest relationship in a
hierarchy of six levels with »related agent of expression« as the broadest relationship. The
hierarchies imply that a relationship recorded at one level is valid for all broader levels; a
mixing engineer must also be an audio engineer, a contributor to a recorded performance, a
contributor to an amalgamation expression, a creator of an expression, and an agent related
to an expression. These implied relationships can be generated automatically to create
broader metadata for display and interoperability with external data sources.

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Dunsire, G.: RDA in the Fifth Information Age: entity, identity, authority

Figure 1: RDA entities for the reader and the book (source: the author)

Figure 1 shows the RDA agent and resource entities that accommodate metadata for the
reader and the book, and some of the relationships that describe the interactions between
them. The arrows between the agent entities represent super-type or »is a« relationships: a
family is a collective agent is an agent. The arrows between the resource entities are primary
relationships that ensure the integrity of the description of a whole information resource. The
accumulation of resource content as works and expressions is the foundation of cultural
heritage and the accumulation of resource carriers as items and manifestations is the
recorded memory of humanity.
Note that the simple ur-relationship »is reader of« is out of scope for the LRM and RDA
because it is considered to be administrative information that has no relevance to the tasks of
information retrieval, but this ignores the impact of »influencers« in social media whose
recommendations for sources of information may have a significant impact on the behaviour
of information seekers. Metadata on who is reading what are automatically recorded by many
Internet search engines and social media sites for business and legal purposes. The addition
of such information to the scope of library and cultural heritage metadata may become a
future requirement.
RDA also provides refinements of the LRM entity attributes to cover the range of
characteristics associated with current information resources. In particular, the RDA content
type and RDA carrier type vocabularies for expressions and manifestations respectively cover
the whole range of possible kinds of content and carriers. For example, image content is
refined in 12 categories such as »still image« and »two-dimensional moving image« and
carriers that require access with an audio player are refined in nine categories such as »audio

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Dunsire, G.: RDA in the Fifth Information Age: entity, identity, authority

disc« and »audiocassette«. These vocabularies are based on the RDA/ONIX framework for
resource categorization (Joint Steering Committee for Revision of AACR, 2006). The
Framework identifies fine-grained attributes for the characteristics of information carriers and
content that are combined to build a set of basic categories (Dunsire, 2007). The Framework
also provides controlled terms for some of the attributes.
All specific things of interest in the bibliographic universe are individuals that are members of
one of the LRM classes of entities. The model says that the basic classes of entity are disjoint,
so no single specific thing can be a member of more than one class unless the class has a superclass. An individual thing is automatically a member of every super-class in a class hierarchy,
in the same way as a relationship hierarchy.
The boundary of a specific individual is a set of characteristics that separate the individual
from other individuals in the same class. The characteristics that determine the boundary for
each entity within a class are either physical or cultural, but not both. Physical boundaries are
measurable and objective in a global environment. Individuals with physical boundaries in RDA
include manifestations, persons, places, and timespans. It is worth noting that while RDA
states that »The absolute boundary of the [Place] entity is determined by characteristics of
the entity that reflect the physical world«, the LRM states that »The entity place, as relevant
in a bibliographic context, is a cultural construction; it is the human identification of a
geographic area or extent of space«. RDA takes the view that »human identification« is a
characteristic of the Nomen entity, and that a physical rather than cultural boundary is better
for interoperability with external datasets for places. This does not break the model because
any physical boundary can be regarded as a global cultural boundary. The inverse is not valid,
so a local cultural boundary cannot be regarded as a global physical boundary. Cultural
boundaries are determined locally and are subjective in a global environment. Individuals with
cultural boundaries include works, expressions, and families. For example, the LRM states
»Bibliographic and cultural conventions play a crucial role in determining the exact boundaries
between similar instances of works«.

3 Appellations and identity
An individual entity may be assigned an appellation, a specific label that is used to reference
the individual and to distinguish the individual from other individuals. Such a label is a string
composed of characters, ideograms, symbols, and other signs that can be recognized by a
reader. The signs are typically taken from a specific script, for example a Latin or Cyrillic
alphabet, so the utility of an appellation depends on the reader being able to understand the
script. Arabic numerals have near-universal recognition, but can be difficult to use when the
label is more than a few numbers in length, which is necessary to distinguish between a large
number of individual entities. An example is the International Standard Book Number (ISBN)
identifier which required an increase from 10 digits to 13 digits in 2007 to cover the increase
in the quantity of books being published. Numeric labels are human-readable, but are typically
assigned for machine recognition. A specific individual may be assigned a label composed of
symbols that provides instant recognition by many readers, for example the unique symbol
used by the person otherwise known as »Prince« or the mathematical signs used as titles of
music albums by Ed Sheeran, but this is a rare occurrence.

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Dunsire, G.: RDA in the Fifth Information Age: entity, identity, authority

An appellation is categorized in RDA by the kind of agent who assigns it to the individual entity
and the context of its use. A name of an agent, place, or timespan is typically assigned by an
agent who reflects a local cultural context, while a title of a work, expression, manifestation,
or item is usually assigned by an agent who creates the resource. The purpose of the label
ranges from recognition and representation of the entity to branding and marketing. The label
is assumed to be an uncontrolled and unstructured human-readable string because of the
wide range of assigners and contexts. An access point of an entity is assigned by a metadata
agency such as an authority control service. The purpose of an access point is unambiguous
identification of an individual in a wider national or international context, and to support
collocation of individual entities in information retrieval processes. RDA accommodates an
access point as a controlled and structured human-readable string. An identifier of an entity
is assigned by a metadata agency as a controlled and structured machine-readable string that
uniquely identifies an individual.
It is notable that a uniform or internationalized resource identifier (URI or IRI) is not treated
as an identifier in RDA. It is not a string in the context of its function, which is to be a unique
and permanent direct representation of an individual entity in global linked open data and the
Semantic Web. However, an IRI can be »stringified« to create an identifier string for metadata
applications that are not based on Resource Description Framework (RDF, the syntax of the
Semantic Web).
A label that refers to an individual entity is called a »nomen string« in the LRM and RDA.
Nomen is a special entity class that represents a combination of an individual string and the
entity it references. Each individual entity combined with a nomen string that is assigned to it
is treated as an individual nomen. This allows the appellation to be described separately and
to be related to other appellations of the same individual entity. This utility is employed
typically in authority control, where one of several appellations of an individual entity is
selected for preference in an information retrieval system. An individual nomen is not quite
the same as a string on its own that identifies an individual, but the distinction is only
significant in linked open data applications. For other applications the RDA Toolkit instructions
do not distinguish between an individual nomen and its nomen string.
A nomen string can be related to the agent who assigned the label; for example, an
International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) is associated with the ISSN Centre that assigns it.
An access point can be related to the method of its construction, known as a »string encoding
scheme«, and its language and script. For example, the access point of an individual work may
be associated with an encoding scheme that concatenates the name of its creator agent with
a title of the work. A nomen string can be related to other nomen strings that are assigned to
the same individual entity, such as variant titles and access points. As already noted, it is not
necessary to use the Nomen entity when authority control is not required or relevant. A
nomen string can be directly related to an individual entity without creating an individual
nomen.
RDA provides a set of »appellation« elements that accommodate the distinct categories of
name/title, access point, and identifier strings. The categories are aligned with RDA’s
»unstructured description«, »structured description«, and »identifier« recording methods for
element values, and also the »flat file data«, »bibliographic/authority data«, and »relational
or object-oriented data« implementation scenarios that are supported by RDA. To
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complement this, the Nomen entity is aligned with the »IRI« recording method and the »linked
open data« implementation scenario. This infrastructure clarifies and supports the complex
interplay of humans, nomenclature, and culture in the recording of and access to recorded
memory.

Figure 2: RDA entities and elements for authority headings and authority control (source: the author)

Figure 2 shows the simple and complex data architectures for accommodating a controlled
appellation in the form of an access point or authority heading. The top of the figure is an
example of an access point used directly as the string appellation of a person in an information
retrieval system. The bottom of the figure shows the same access point as a nomen string
within an authority control system. NACO is the collective agent »Name Authority Cooperative
Program«; VIAF is the vocabulary encoding scheme or dataset »Virtual International Authority
File«. Nomen strings and nomen entities can be mixed without losing integrity or semantic
consistency. Note that the Cyrillic value of »is equivalent to« is itself a distinct nomen string,
so it could be replaced by another instance of a nomen entity, for example if two authority
control systems are being merged or interoperated.
An instance of nomen entity is technically a reification (or »thingification«) of a metadata
statement that assigns a nomen to its referred entity. The simple statement at the top of
Figure 2 is the instance of a nomen in the complex statement at the bottom, which essentially
repeats the »person has access point« part of the simple statement. This redundancy allows
the simple and complex approaches to be governed by the same set of RDA instructions. While
this complication is of interest to system developers, it can remain transparent to the
operational cataloguer.

4 Data provenance
The RDA model of data provenance, defined as »Information about the metadata recorded in
an element or set of elements« or »metadata about metadata«, extends the process of
reification. Reification involves treating metadata as a thing in itself, irrespective of the other
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things that it describes. A single metadata statement or a set of multiple statements, known
as a »description set« in RDA, is reified to create a »metadata work«. This is a kind of Work
that can be described like any other work. The expression of a metadata work has the
characteristics of the syntax in which the statement is made, such as Resource Description
Framework for linked data or UNIMARC for relational databases. This is equivalent to
expressions of a work in different languages. The manifestation of a metadata work is the
carrier of a metadata statement or description set, such as an online resource, a computer
file, or a catalogue card.
This approach allows the full set of RDA attribute and relationship elements to be used in the
recording of data provenance at multiple levels of granularity using unstructured or structured
descriptions, identifiers, and linked data. The RDA model also has the advantage of re-using
existing entities and elements, and does not require any additional entity classes. Some new
elements are added to support flexibility in how values for specific data provenance are
recorded, such as »note on metadata work« and »recording source«. Some legacy elements
are clarified and repurposed, for example »source consulted«. These older elements were the
result of earlier attempts to accommodate data provenance in RDA, analysed in the report
from the RSC Technical Working Group on RDA models for provenance data (RDA Steering
Committee, 2016). That report was published before the LRM, and the current RDA model of
data provenance is a development of the analysis for compatibility with the LRM. It is worth
noting that the reification approach to provenance is latent in the LRM, for example the
»assigned« relationship element between an agent and a nomen (LRM-R14). This is equivalent
to a cataloguer who assigns a value to an element of a specific entity to create a metadata
statement.

Figure 3: Reification of a metadata statement to accommodate data provenance (source: the author)

Figure 3 gives an example of reifying a metadata statement as an instance of a metadata work
that can be assigned data provenance by using Work attributes and relationships. The creator

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of the statement is a cataloguer or cataloguing agency. The content standard used to create
the statement is RDA, embodied in RDA Toolkit and associated with the statement by a broad
relationship element. The source of »audiocassette« as the value of the statement is given by
a generic title for a publisher’s catalogue.
A feature of the 5th information age is a much broader group of agents who generate
metadata for information resources. Such interactions include the creation of descriptions of
entities in unstructured forms, for example reviews of Amazon products, and in structured
metadata, for example descriptions of resources in Wikipedia. Some agents who create
metadata can be categorized as trained cataloguers who reflect local cultural norms in the
context of national and international bibliographic and cultural heritage standards, and
publishers and producers of resources whose aims are to market and promote their products
and the agents who create their content. Both of these categories are now vastly
outnumbered by the social media crowd with diverse intentions, but the metadata published
by the crowd may be of very low quality (Jiang, Liu, Liu, Liu, Chen, and Xu, 2021).
Data provenance is a useful tool for managing metadata from multiple sources. Agents and
the metadata they create can be assessed for quality, trust, and consistency, and this
information can be used to warn end-users of a dubious source or to filter low-quality
metadata from information retrieval systems. RDA provides several methods for reusing and
interoperating disparate sources of library and cultural heritage metadata. Data from different
sources may vary in the granularity of the entity being described and the granularity of the
attribute and relationship elements that are used. The semantic consistency of entity and
element hierarchies allows metadata to be automatically broadened, or ‘dumbed-up’, to a
lowest common granularity that allows interoperability. Metadata can be processed in a bulk
operation or on-the-fly, while retaining the original metadata for ‘smarter’ use in the future.

5 Implementation scenarios
RDA supports four scenarios for implementing metadata in an operational information
retrieval system. The »flat file« and »bibliographic/authority« scenarios process metadata in
packages that describe multiple entities. For example, a bibliographic description usually
combines the resource entities into a single record and relates it with authority headings to
descriptions of other associated entities. The »relational or object-oriented« and »linked open
data« scenarios process metadata in sets that describe a single entity. Metadata for multiple
entities is brought together for retrieval and display purposes, but is maintained and stored
as separate descriptions; this is entity-based cataloguing.
The semantic integrity of the RDA entities and elements supports the transformation of
metadata from one scenario to another. The process is asymmetric: flat file data requires
considerable processing to transform it to linked open data, and some data may be lost; linked
open data can be flattened automatically with no loss. This implies that the linked open data
scenario is the most flexible for operational applications. This is echoed by the LRM, which
states »this model is developed very much with semantic web technologies in mind".
The implementation scenarios cover the range of data structures that are used in crowdsourced metadata. For example, an online review of a movie by a fan may be a flat file
description, while an entry for a movie in Wikipedia or IMDb (Internet Movie Database) is
more like a bibliographic/authority description. The transformation and granularity of
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metadata supported by RDA for the scenarios supports the integration of descriptions by the
amateur reader with the professional efforts of the trained cataloguer in a cultural heritage
organisation.

6 Conclusion
RDA provides a variety of tools for managing bibliographic control in the 5th information age.
RDA implements the full range of LRM entities of interest in the bibliographic universe, and
provides a set of elements for each entity class that supports entity-based cataloguing.
Elements are arranged in semantic hierarchies to support description at multiple levels of
granularity.
The RDA categories of appellation element reflect the contexts in which labels that reference
individuals are assigned and used. The Nomen entity and its elements support authority
control of access points to reflect local cultural expectations within an international and
interoperable infrastructure.
The RDA model for data provenance allows the range of RDA tools to be used to manage
multiple sources of metadata in large scale information retrieval applications.
The semantic integrity of RDA entities and elements supports interoperability of metadata
that is produced by a wide range of agents for local contexts and scenarios. In the Fifth
information age, the reader is the cataloguer, the production of recorded memory is the
culture, and the local is the global.

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