| 107 RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015, pp. 5-42. Analytical review of mindfulness-based educational programs - a missing linkage between humans and a modern world Jana Krivec School of Advanced Social Studies, Nova Gorica, Slovenia Corresponding author's e-mail: jana.krivec@fuds.si 108 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 Abstract: Modern information society gives a big emphasis on high technology development that is supposed to facilitate our lives. However, it often seems that during this information and achievement driven process we left the harmonic development of human beings behind. Finding our inner selves is one of the crucial tasks in the modern, alienated world. This consequently leads us to better cognitive, emotional and social functioning, better mental and physical health, thus making us and broader society more optimistic, positive and happy. These are the goals of a new branch of science, called positive psychology. Within it, mindfulness is an approach that is recently gaining popularity. The first wave of mindfulness-based programs was for adults, while recent efforts have also targeted the well-being of children and adolescents. In this paper we present an overview of the current mindfulness-based educational programs dividing the existing programs into classes, taking into account their objectives, basic disciplines, age of the students, place of implementation and duration of the program. All programs and researches show that mindfulness is a proper way to develop a person and society that will be able to cope with modern world challenges, stay positive and healthy. Key Words: mindfulness, benefits, education, analysis | 109 Introduction "Between the stimulus and response there is a space. In that space is our power to choose our response." - Viktor FrankI Modern world, filled with information and technology is quick, demanding constant alertness and readiness to react. A person shaped by the new world has a big chance to develop stressful reactions which weaken the well-being. In general, people know this is so, but they are positive it cannot happen to them...until it does. Acute reactions are not enough, to ensure a happy life. Prevention is needed. For this purpose a new approach has been developed, called positive psychology. Positive psychology focuses on the positive attitude of humans toward their own lives. It is a shift from the traditional study of disturbing experiences suffered in life to the study of all that makes life worth living. Positive psychology assumes that it is not only the cure that is important for a healthy human mind, but also the prevention or better, striving toward growth of happiness in everyone's lives, that prevents or heading off problems before they arise. Flourishing, in positive psychology, refers to optimal human functioning. It comprises four parts: goodness, generativity, growth, and resilience (Fredrickson, 2005). To achieve the goals of positive psychology one has to be alert of oneself. It means to be consciously moment-by-moment attentive to situational elements of an experience: i.e., thoughts, emotions, physical sensations, and surroundings. The psychological approach dealing with it is called mindfulness (Zylowska et al., 2008). The aim of mindfulness is to feel the present moment; one learns to observe the arising and passing of experience. If we describe it with vivid illustration: it is like if we come out of a wild river (that represents our thoughts and feelings), sit on the shore and just nonjudgmentally watch the river passing by. These experiences and thoughts are not judged or thought about- the challenge during mindfulness is to simply observe (Brown et al., 2007). 110 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 The four key components of the ME program include: 1. Quieting the mind—listening to a resonating instrument (chime) and focusing on the breath 2. Mindful attention—mindful of sensation, thoughts, and feelings 3. Managing negative emotions and negative thinking 4. Acknowledgment of self and others. Formally, mindfulness is trained by meditation practices such as sitting meditation, or physical movement such as yoga or tai chi. These techniques help steady the mind and train its attentional capacity, while also increasing its breadth of focus. Practitioners are instructed to focus their attention on the present moment using an "anchor," for instance, the breath. When the mind drifts away, the focus is gently brought back to the present moment experience. The practitioner tries to simply observe his or her experience of the present moment without judging or modifying it (Zenner et al., 2014). Benefits of mindfulness practice include reduction of stress, anxiety, depression, and chronic pain (Brown et al., 2007). Public and scientific interest for mindfulness is growing, especially in the last decade (see Figure 1). Mindfulness has been applied to many different fields, but it is not until lately, that focus of positive psychology and mindfulness techniques moved to even deeper prevention - into the education of children and youth, to foster their strengths and resiliency. Namely, recent years have witnessed a growing portion of school aged children experiencing a myriad of social, emotional, and behavioral problems that interfere with their interpersonal relationships, school success, and their potential to become competent adults and productive citizens (e.g. Greenberg et al., 2001). | 111 Figure 1. Growth in academic articles published on the topic area of mindfulness. Mindful education "Children Are the Best Ambassadors to Social Change" - Rose Pavlov, Founder and President of Ivy Child Childhood and adolescence are important formative developmental stages that lay the groundwork for well-being and mental health in adulthood. The evidence base for school-based programs that aim to promote well-being, support emotional and social learning and prevent mental health problems in adulthood is growing. Mindfulness shows to be a good counterbalance to the immense media and technology that children are exposed to and formal education should always consider the mental health and balance of children thus preventing disorders and fostering personal development and well-being in children. 112 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 School is an appropriate setting for such interventions, since children spend a lot of time there and interventions can be brought directly to groups of children in areas of need as part of a preventive approach at little cost (Weare and Nind, 2011). Researches show that "academic achievement, social and emotional competence and physical and mental health are fundamentally and multiply interrelated. The best and most efficient way to foster any of those is to foster all of them." (Diamond, 2010, pp.789). Children need to learn to stop their mind wandering and regulate attention and emotions, to deal with feelings of frustration, and to self-motivate. Mindfulness based interventions (MBI) in schools are seen as an approach to tackle these challenges. As a result, various mindfulness programs for schools have been developed and applied within the past few years. In this article we present the current state of the art researches and programs of mindfulness in education under the umbrella of positive psychology and information society. Generally there are three ways in which mindfulness can be integrated in classrooms: indirectly (as the teacher develops his personal practice), directly (by teaching students directly), or combining both. We will describe the first two options in more details. 1. Students 2. Teachers 1. Students We have analyzed 47 mindfully based educational programs/studies. In Table 1 we describe some of their characteristics: age of children to which the program was applied, country of the application, type of school, program and its duration. In Table 2 we present the objectives of particular programs (marked with the sequential number from the first table). | 113 From Table 1 (see in atachement) we can see that mindfulness is by far most developed and spread in the USA, Western Europe, Canada and Australia follow. Programs and researches are rapidly growing in the last five years, not many date latter than the last decade. Thus, we may say that mindfulness is a modern approach that is getting more and more popular. This is so also because some of the programs are funded by celebrities (e.g. Goldie Hawn foundation). Most programs/researches are focusing on children in elementary school (aged 6-14, 30 programs/researches out of 47), following by high school students (aged 14-18, 23 programs/researches). Less interest is for college students (aged 18-24, 2 researches) and preschool children (less than 5 years, 4 studies). Results are expectable, since age 6-14 are most suitable for unlocking children's potential and show them the way to happiness and wellbeing that they can treasure through their whole life. Most mindfulness programs last 4-8 weeks or for longer periods during the school year or semester. Shorter periods of time are not useful, since mindfulness is not a magic stick that would save the world and people living in it, but it is actually work on a personal development. Typically, sessions are from one to three times per week. In this case lessons are usually around 30-45 minutes long. If sessions are everyday, which is rarely, they last less (a few minutes). As for the content, programs use different mindfulness approaches focusing on specific trait such as stress reduction, breathing, attention, awareness, body scan, meditation etc. Some combine mindfulness with transcendental meditation, yoga, Tai chi or even music. The benefits of the programs described in Table 1 are shown separately in Table 2. From Table 2 we can see that the majority of the programs (29/47) outpoint improvement of some aspect of cognitive functioning as important benefit of mindfulness. Attention, concentration and academic performance are most obvious. Psychological improvements are mentioned as an important benefit of the mindfulness in most of the programs (35/47). They are divided in subclasses - resilience is the focus of 26 of 47 programs, stress reduce is the focus of 17 of 47 programs and emotional issues (including decreased depression and anxiety, increased sense of calmness, 114 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 relaxation, and self-acceptance, increased self-calming) are the focus of 14 of 47 programs. Benefits on the social field are mentioned in 23 of 47 programs. Physical aspect as a benefit of mindfulness is mentioned the least (5 times). If we combine the two tables we can notice, that mindfulness programs that are specifically based on stress reduction, do not especially point out attention and concentration improvement as a benefit of such training. Some of the programs include attention and concentration under improvement of broader executive functions or academic performance. Some researches (see Figure 2) state that, in the first stage mindfulness programs improve cognitive functioning and emotional regulation which then results in better students' well-being, social competence and academic achievement. Figure 2. The School-Based Meditation Model Source: Waters et al (2015), pp.121 | 115 We agree that first one has to be mentally alert and has to control his/her own emotions in order to achieve better social competence, wellbeing and academic achievement. However, improved cognitive functioning and emotional regulation are just precondition for developing wellbeing, social competence and academic achievement. We think mindfulness techniques by themselves also directly improve wellbeing and social competence. Firstly, they reduce anxiety, improve optimism and hope. Secondly they improve empathy and better understanding of other people. Nevertheless, all the programs are designed to foster healthy habits through a variety of strength-based approaches focused on exercising mindfulness and positive psychology in every aspect of daily life. Most school-based interventions that we have mentioned so far are designed for students. But youngsters are not the only ones in school communities whose well-being needs to be nurtured and invested in. 2. Teachers Teachers are also the ones to ameliorate the stress involved in the teaching profession and the problem of teacher burnout. "The personal, societal, and financial costs associated with burnout are too high to ignore. Teachers perceptions of stress and their ability to cope with demands are implicated in burnout." (McCormick and Barnett, 2011, pp. 182) We will review 5 major mindfulness - based education programs for teachers: MindUp, MBWE, CARE, SMART and MBSR. MindUP™ is the program under the Hawn foundation (2015). It helps teachers to more easily manage the classroom, maintain an environment conducive to student learning and find greater professional and personal fulfillment while pushing student academic and personal success. Mindfulness-Based Wellness Education (MBWE) was created at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto 116 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 (OISE/UT) in 2005 as a response to the increasing rates of teacher stress and burnout. It is taught in a 9-week (36 h) elective course. Modeled on the MBSR program, MBWE uses a "wellness wheel" as a framework to illustrate the principles and implication of mindfulness to teaching strategies such as reflective practice, professional identity, emotional competence and mindful listening. It applies the learning to the students themselves, as well as their pupils, parents, and their teaching colleagues. Evaluation of the MBWE program was completed and highlights two core learning objectives: mindfull teaching and pedagogy for well-being (Soloway et al., 2011). Garrison's professional development program for teachers, Cultivating Awareness and Resiliency in Education (CARE, 2015), runs in several sites in the US. It recently received a major grant from the U.S. Department of Education's Institute for Education Sciences (IES). The CARE intervention is based on the Prosocial Classroom model (Jennings and Greenberg, 2009). It helps teachers learn skills that can transform the classroom environment into one that fosters not only academic but also social and emotional development. The curriculum combines exercises for recognizing emotional patterns with contemplative practices such as mindfulness meditation. The course has been delivered in various ways and with different durations, the longest being a 5-day intensive retreat. Classroom instruction is supported by email and one to one phone mentoring and coaching (CARE, 2015). Stress Management and Relaxation Techniques (SMART, 2015) is a professional development program for primary and secondary education (K-12) teachers and administrators, including the following three curriculum elements: (1) Concentration, Attention, and Mindfulness; (2) Awareness and Understanding of Emotions; and (3) Empathy and Compassion Training. The training consists of 11 sessions over 8 weeks, including two day-long sessions. Participants are assigned 10-30 min of daily mindfulness practice. (Jennings et al., 2012) Last but not least, an 8-week adapted mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program on educators showed effects on stress and well- | 117 being. Results suggested that educators who participated in MBSR reported significant gains in self-regulation, self-compassion, and mindfulness related skills (observation, no judgment, and no reaction). Significant improvements in multiple dimensions of sleep quality were found as well. These findings provide promising evidence of the effectiveness of MBSR as a strategy to promote educator's personal and professional well-being (Frank et al., 2015). Table 3. Review of the benefits of 4 Mindfulness-based education programs for teachers. PO class Program objectives(PO) Program COGNITIVE Attention, concentration MindUP, SMART Think more clearly especially under MindUP pressure PSYCHO- Increased self-efficiency, better work MBWE, CARE LOGICAL efficiency Increased self-esteem/self-confidence, CARE, MBRS self-awareness and self-control Increased sense of calmness, relaxation, CARE, MBSR and self-acceptance, Increased self- calming, decreased stress Increased emotional regulation CARE Experience greater job satisfaction MindUp Better mental health, well-being - in the classroom and into private life, optimism, joy MindUp, MBWE, CARE, MBSR 118 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 SOCIAL classroom participation Improve Mindup Increased social skills and social communication with students, parents and staff, inducing better behavior with students compliance SOCIAL Increased work motivation SMART Empathy, more accurate perceptions of Mindup, CARE Increased students social skills Improve the overall classroom climate MindUp, CARE and social by infusing it with optimism and hope compliance Helps to create a stronger, more vibrant PHYSICAL school culture Better health, sleeping MBWE, MBSR From Table 3 we can see that most of the above mentioned programs help teachers to improve social skill, mental health and wellbeing and to better focus and concentrate. These are one of the most important traits for teachers in order to avoid burnouts, and to fulfill their class obligations as well as possible. A distressed, burnout teacher, with no focus and social skills is definitely not the one who should educate our children. A mindful and happy teacher on the other hand has qualities such as open minded curiosity, kindliness, empathy, compassion, acceptance, trust, patience, non-striving and empathy. He is a positive person, with good mental and physical wellbeing. Such a person can upgrade raw knowledge with all these characteristics, thus teach children in a better way and show them how to develop harmonically, so that they will not get lost in the modern technological society. | 119 Mindfulness benefits still have to be taken with caution The results of this review must be considered within some of methodological consider-actions. First weakness of most researches and programs is the fact that many of the published studies had evaluated the results in the pilot stage and have only considered the immediate effects of the program. Thus, although we can provide the conclusions above about the short-term benefits, there can be no firm conclusions drawn about whether the benefits are sustained over time. Secondly, the majority of the studies were unable to use random assignment due to specific year levels being used or particular student groups being targeted for the intervention. Therefore interpretation of many studies is limited due to the lack of an equivalent control group or the unreliable and preliminary effect sizes for controlled studies. Results are generalizable only to individuals who have the interest and ability to participate in a Mindfulness program. Next, the meditation programs have commonly been evaluated using student or teachers subjective self-report measures; thus, common-source bias is a concern. Last but not least, it is difficult to make judgements about which types of meditation are most effective with the current evidence available because there was no consistency used in the samples, designs and surveys. More fine-tuned research is needed to understand the optimal frequency with which students are best to practice meditation at school. Similarly, more research is needed to understand the optimal amount of time to spend meditating for each session. Nevertheless, Baer (2003) concludes that although the empirical literature includes many methodological flaws, mindfulness-based interventions may be helpful in the education as well as treatment of several disorders. 120 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 Conclusion "There's a New Mental Health Model in Town Focusing on the Positives" - Rose Pavlov, founder of Ivy Child International This brief review shows that school-based mindfulness interventions are relatively new but address skills that are important for student wellbeing, and appear to be especially effective in reducing negative functioning. Mindfulness education enhances the very qualities and goals of education in the 21st century shaped by the positive psychology movement. These qualities include not only attentional and emotional self-regulation, but also prosocial dispositions such as empathy and compassion, self-representations, ethical sensitivity, creativity, and problem solving skills. They enable children to deal with future challenges of the rapidly changing world, ideally becoming smart, caring, and committed citizens (Mind and Life Education Research Network (MLERN), 2012). A mindful child grows up to be a person who fulfills three central positive psychology concerns: positive emotions, positive individual traits and positive institutions. One must not forget that a mindful education can only be properly implemented if the educators are properly trained and harmonically personally developed. The goals of education have always been contingent on the cultural context (Durkheim, 1956; Waters, 2015). Therefore we may say that a mindful person is armed with the necessary psychological equipment to fight the 21 century demands - information technology, uncertainty, stressful situations and self-alienation. To sum it up, mindfulness is firstly a gift to ourselves, and consequently to the broader public and social life in general. | 121 References Anand, U, & Sharma, M.P. (2011). Impact of a Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program on Stress and Well-Being in Adolescents: A Study at a School Setting, Journal of Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health 2011, 7(3), 73-97. Arthurson, K. (2015). Teaching Mindfulness to Year Sevens as Part of Health and Personal Development. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 40 (5), 27-40. doi: 10.14221/ajte.2015v40n5.2 Available at: http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontentcgi?article=2605&context=ajt e Baer R.A (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: a conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science & Practice,10,125-143. Baijal, S., Jha, A. P., Kiyonaga, A., Singh, R., & Srinivasan, N. (2011). The influence of concentrative meditation training on the development of attention networks during early adolescence. Frontiers in Psychology, 2(153), 1-9. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00153. Available at: http: //www.amishi.com/lab/wp -content/uploads/Baijaletal 2011.pdf Beauchemin, J., Hutchins, T. L., & Patterson, F. (2008). Mindfulness meditation may lessen anxiety, promote social skills, and improve academic performance among adolescents with learning disabilities. Complementary Health Practice Review, 13, 34-45. doi:10.1177/1533210107311624. Bergen-Cico, D., Razza,R. & Timmins,A. (2015). Fostering Self-Regulation Through Curriculum Infusion of Mindful Yoga: A Pilot 122 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 Study of Efficacy and Feasibility, Journal of child and family studies 23(7), 1024-1062. doi: 10.1007/s10826-015-0146-2 Biegel, G., and Brown, K. W. (2010). Assessing the efficacy of an adapted in-class mindfulness-based training program for school-age children: a pilot study. White Paper. Available online at: http://www.mindfulschools.org/pdf/Mindful%20Schools%20Pilot %20Study%20Whitepaper.pdf Black, D. S. & Fernando, R. (2014). Mindfulness training and classroom behavior among lower-income and ethnic minority elementary school children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23 (7), pp 1242-1246. Bluth, K., Campo, R. A., Pruteanu-Malinici, S., Reams, A., Mullarkey, M., & Broderick, P. C. (2015). A School-Based Mindfulness Pilot Study for Ethnically Diverse At-Risk Adolescents. Mindfulness 6 (1), 115. doi: 10.1007/s12671-014-0376-1. Available at: http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/best/Broderick1.pdf Broderick, P. C., & Metz, S. (2009). Learning to BREATHE: A pilot trial of a mindfulness curriculum for adolescents. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 2, 35-46. Broderick, P. C. (2013). Learning to BREATHE: A mindfulness curriculum for adolescents. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M. & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 211-237. doi:10.1080/10478400701598298. Campion, J., & Rocco, S. (2009). Minding the Mind: The Effects and Potential of a School-Based Meditation Programme for Mental Health Promotion. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 2, 47- 55. | 123 CARE (2015). Retrieved June 11, 2015 from the http://www.care4teachers.org/ Desmond, C. T., & Hanich, L. (2010). The Effects of Mindful Awareness Teaching Practices on the Executive Functions of Students in an Urban, Low Income Middle School. Available online at: http://www.wellnessworksinschools.com/WWResearchReport2 010.pdf Diamond, A. (2010). The Evidence Base for Improving School Outcomes by Addressing the Whole Child and by Addressing Skills and Attitudes, Not Just Content. Early Education and Development, 21(5), 780-793. doi:10.1080/10409289.2010.514522 Durkheim, E. (1956). Eduction: Its nature and role. In Education and Sociology (pp. 61-90). New York: The Free Press. Flook, L., Smalley, S.L., Kitil, M.J., Galla, B,M., Kaiser-Greenland, S., et al. (2010). Effects of mindful awareness practices on executive function in elementary school children. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 26, 70-95. doi: 10.1080/15377900903379125 Flook, L., Goldberg, S.B., Pinger, L., Bonus K., Davidson, R.J. (2013). Mindfulness for teachers: A pilot study to assess effects on stress, burnout, and teaching efficacy, Mind Brain and Education 7(3), 182195. Franco Justo, C., Mañas, I., Cangas, A. J., and Gallego, J. (2011). Exploring the effects of a mindfulness program for students of secondary school. Int. J. Knowl. Soc. Res. 2, 14-28. doi: 10.4018/jksr.2011010102 Frank, J. L., Reibel, D., Broderick, P., Cantrell, T., & Metz, S. (2015). The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction on educator stress and well-being: Results from a pilot study. Mindfulness, 6 (2), 208-216. 124 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 Fredrickson, B. L.& Losada, M. F. (2005). Positive Affect and the Complex Dynamics of Human Flourishing. American Psychologist 60 (7), 678-686. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.7.678. Frenkel, M. O., Georg, A., Plessner, H., and Holt, D. V. (in press). Erste Ergebnisse zur Achtsamkeit in der Schule: "8-sam," ein Training für Jugendliche [Initial results of the Mindfulness in Schools "8-sam" Training for Teenagers]. Galantino, M., Galbavy, R., & Quinn, L. (2008). Therapeutic effects of yoga for children: A systematic review of the literature. Pediatric Physical Therapy, 20 (1), 66-80. doi:10.1097/ PEP.0b013e31815f1208 Greenberg, M. T., Domitrovich, C., & Bumbarger, B. (2001). The prevention of mental disorders in school-aged children: current state of the field. Prevention & Treatment, 4, 1-62. Huppert, F. A., & Johnson, D. A. (2010). A controlled trial of mindfulness training in schools: The importance of practice for an impact on well-being. Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 264- 274. doi:10.1080/17439761003794148 Ivy Child International (2015). Retrieved June 11, 2015 from the http://ivychild.org Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The pro-social classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491525. Jennings, P. A., Roeser, R., & Lantieri, L. (2012). Supporting educational goals through cultivating mindfulness: Approaches for teachers and students. In A. Higgins-D'Alessandro, | 125 M. Corrigan, & P. M. Brown (Eds.) The Handbook of Prosocial Education. New York: Rowman and Littlefield. Joyce, A., Etty Leal, J., Zazryn, T., Hamilton, A., & Hassed, C. (2010). Exploring a mindfulness meditation program on the mental health of upper primary children: A pilot study. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 3, pp.17. Kerrigan, D., Johnson, K., Stewart, M., Magyari, T., Hutton, N., Ellen, J.M., Sibinga, E.M.S. (2010). Perceptions, experiences, and shifts in perspective occurring among urban youth participating in a mindfulness-based stress reduction program. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice , 17 (2) , 96 - 101. doi: 10.1016/j.ctcp.2010.08.003 Klatt, M., Harpster, K. Browne, E., White, S.,Case-Smith, J. (2013). "Feasibility and preliminary outcomes for Move-Into-Learning: An arts-based mindfulness classroom intervention." Journal of Positive Psychology, 8 (3), 233-241. Kuyken W, Weare K, Okoumunne O, Lewis R, Motton N, Burnett R, Cullen, C., Hennelly, S., & Huppert, F. (2013). Effectiveness of the mindfulness in schools program: A non-randomized controlled feasibility study.British Journal of Psychiatry, 203, 126-131. doi: http://doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.113.126649. Learning to BREATHE A mindful curriculum for adolescent (2015). Retrieved June 11, 2015 from the http://learning2breathe.org/curriculum/research Liehr, P. & Diaz, N. (2010). A pilot study examining the effect of mindfulness on depression and anxiety for minority children. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 24(1), 69-71. doi:10.1016/j. apnu.2009.10.001 126 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 McCormick, J. & Barnett, K. (2011). Teachers' attributions for stress and their relationships with burnout. International. Journal of Educational Management, 25 (3), 278-293. Meditation capsules (2015). Retrieved June 11, 2015 from the http://www.meditationcapsules.com/ Meiklejohn J., Philips C., Freedman M. L., Griffin M. L., Biegel G., Roach A., Frank H., Burke C., Pinger L., Soloway G., Isberg R., Sibinga E., Grossman L., Saltzman A.. (2012). Integrating Mindfulness Training into K-12 Education: Fostering the Resilience of Teachers and Students. Mindfulness 3(4), 291-307.doi: 10.1007/s12671-012-0094-5 Available at: http://www.mindfulnesseveryday.info/pdf/WhitePaperMindfulness InEducation.pdf Mendelson, T., Greenberg, M. T., Dariotis, J. K., Gould, L. F., Rhoades, B. L., and Leaf, P. J. (2010). Feasibility and preliminary outcomes of a school-based mindfulness intervention for urban youth. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 38, 985-994. doi: 10.1007/s10802-010-9418-x Metz, S., Frank, J. L., Reibel, D., Cantrell, T., Sanders, S., and Broderick, P. C. (2013). The effectiveness of the learning to breathe program on adolescent emotion regulation. Res. Hum. Dev. 10, 252-272. doi: 10.1080/15427609.2013.818288 Mind and Life Education Research Network (MLERN). (2012). Contemplative practices and mental training: prospects for american education. Child Dev.Perspect. 6, 146-153. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00240.x Monshat, K., Khong, B., Hassed, C., Vella-Brodrick, D., Norrish, J., Burns, J., & Herrman, H. (2013). "A Conscious Control Over Life and My Emotions:" Mindfulness Practice and Healthy Young People. A Qualitative Study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(5), 572-577. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.09.008 | 127 MyRIAD: Mindfulness and Resilience in Adolescence (2015). Retrieved June 11, 2015 from the https://oxfordmindfulness.org/learn/myriad/ Napoli, M., Krech, P., & Holley L (2005). Mindfulness training for elementary school students: The attention academy. Journal of Applied School Psychology., 21 (1), 99-125. doi: 10.1300/J008v21n01_05 Available online at: http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAPPS © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. Nidich, S., Mjasiri, S., Nidich, R., Rainforth, M., Grant, J., Valosek, L., Change, W., & Zigler, R. (2011). Academic achievement and transcendental meditation: A study with at-risk urban middle school students. Education, 131,556-564. Potek R. (2012). Mindfulness as a School-Based Prevention Program and its Effect on Adolescent Stress, Anxiety and Emotion Regulation. Doctoral dissertation, Available from UMI Dissertation Express (AAT 3493866), New York, NY. Powell, L. A., Gilchrist, M., & Stapley, J. (2008). A journey of self-discovery: An intervention involving massage, yoga and relaxation for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties attending primary schools. Journal Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 13 (3), 193-199. Raes, F., Griffith, J. W., Van der Gucht, K., & Williams, J. M. G. (2014). School-based prevention and reduction of depression in adolescents: A cluster-randomized controlled trial of a mindfulness group program. Mindfulness, 5, 477-486. doi: 10.1007/s12671-013-0202-1. Roughest San Francisco schools tamed through meditation (2015). Retrieved June 11, 2015 from the http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/openforum/article/Meditation-transforms-roughest-San-Francisco-5136942.php#src=fb 128 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 http://www.zmescience.com/science/psychology-science/roughest-san-francisco-schools-tamed-through-meditation-4325324/ Saltzman, A., & Goldin, P. (2008). Mindfulness based stress reduction for school-age children. In S. C. Hayes & L. A. Greco (Eds.), Acceptance and mindfulness interventions for children adolescents and families (pp. 139-161). Oakland, CA: Context Press/New Harbinger. Schonert-Reichl, K. A., & Lawlor, M. S. (2010). The effects of a mindfulness-based education program on pre- and early adolescents' well-being and social and emotional competence. Mindfulness, 1, 137-151. doi:10.1007/s12671-010-0011-8. Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Oberle, E., Lawlor, M. S., Abbott, D., Thomson, K., Oberlander, T. F., & Diamond, A. (2015). Enhancing cognitive and social-emotional development through a simple-to-administer mindfulness-based school program for elementary school children: A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 52-66. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4323355/ Semple, R. J., Reid, E. F. G., & Miller, L. (2005). Treating anxiety with mindfulness: An open trial of mindfulness training for anxious children. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 19, 379- 392. Semple R.J., Lee, J., Rosa D., & Miller, L.F.(2010). A randomized trial of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for children: Promoting mindful attention to enhance social-emotional resiliency in children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 218-229. doi:10.1007/s10826-10009-19301-y. Sibinga, E., Perry-Parrish, C., Chung, S. E., Johnson, S. B., Smith, M., & Ellen, J. M. (2013). School-based mindfulness instruction for urban male youth: A small randomized controlled trial. Preventive medicine, 57(6), 799-801. | 129 Sines, J. S. (2009). The Perceptions of Children Following Participation in a Yoga and Mindfulness Program: A Qualitative Study. Retrieved June 11, 2015 from the https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send file?accession=osu1250100959& disposition=inline SMART (2015). Retrieved June 11, 2015 from the http://smart-in-education.org/ Smiling mind (2015). Retrieved June 11, 2015 from the http://smilingmind.com.au/ So, K. T., & Orme-Johnson, D. W. (2001). Three randomized experiments on the longitudinal effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on cognition. Intelligence, 29, 419-440. doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(01) 00060-8. Soloway, G. B., Poulin, A., & Mackenzie, C. S. (2011). Preparing new teachers for the full catastrophe of the 21st century classroom: Integrating mindfulness training into initial teacher education. In A. Cohan & A. Honigsfeld (Eds.), Breaking the mold of preservice and inservice teacher education (pp. 221-227). Lanham: R and L Education. The Hawn Fundation (2015). Retrieved June 11, 2015 from the http://thehawnfoundation.org/ Wall, R. B. (2005). Tai Chi and mindfulness-based stress reduction in a Boston Middle School. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 19, 23-237. Warner, T. Q. (2005). Awareness and cognition: The role of awareness training in child development. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 17,47-64 Waters, L., Barsky, A., Ridd, A. Allen, K. (2015). Contemplative Education: A Systematic, Evidence-Based Review of the effect of 130 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 Meditation Interventions in Schools, Educational Psychology Review, 27, 103-134. doi: 10.1007/s10648-014-9258-2 Weare, K., and Nind, M. (2011). Promoting Mental Health of Children and Adolescents Through Schools and School-Based Interventions. Report of the DataPrev-Project. Available online at: http://www.dataprevprojectnet/files/final reports/WP3%20-%20Final%20Report%20- %20Promoting%20Mental%20Health%20of%20Children%20and% 20Adolescents.pdf Weare,K. (2013). Developing mindfulness with children and young people: a review of the evidence and policy context, Journal of Children's Services, 8 (2), pp.141 - 153. Williams, J.M.G. and Kuyken, W. (2012). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: a promising new approach to preventing depressive relapse. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 200 (5), 359-360. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.111.104745, Available at: http://oxfordmindfulness.org/mbct/publications / Wisner, B. L. (2013). An exploratory study of mindfulness meditation for alternative school students: Perceived benefits for improving school climate and student functioning. Mindfulness, 1, 1-13. doi: 10.1007/s12671-013-0215-9 Zenner, C., Herrnleben-Kurz, S. and Walach, H. (2014). Mindfulness-based interventions in schools - a systematic review and metaanalysis. Frontiers in Pyschology, 5 (1), 1-20. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00603 Zylowska, L., Ackerman, D. L., Yang, M. H., Futrell, J. L., Horton, N. L., Hale, S. T., Pataki C, Smalley S.L. (2008). Mindfulness meditation training with adults and adolescents with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 11, 737-746. doi:10.1177/1087054707308502. | 131 Figures and tables 132 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 Table 1. Review of the mindfully based educational programs/studies characteristics Seq Nr. Program name Country Est. year Age of students / school level Type of students Duration Type of mindfulness techniques used 1 Oakland- USA, 2010 elementary low-income, 5 weeks, 3 Mindfulness of the Breath, Body Scan, based Mindful Oakland school ethnic-minority sessions per week Mindfulness of Walking, mindfulness practices Schools program that help children pay attention, build empathy (Black and Fernando, and self-awareness, improve self-control, and 2014) reduce stress 2 Move-into-Learning USA 2013 third low-income, 8-weeks , 45- mindfulness meditation, yoga and breathing (MIL) (Klatt et al., graders at urban in the minute session, exercises set to music, and positive self- 2013) elementary Midwest weekly expression through writing and visual arts. In school addition, the two classroom teachers led shorter, daily practice sessions that reinforced those skills. 3 Mindfulness USA 2013 high school low-income, half-hour, flexibly guided mindfulness meditation sessions, meditation for rural area at least twice per alternative school week for eight students, (Wisner, weeks 2013) 4 Mindfulness in United 2013 12-16 years public schools weekly by trained nine scripted mindfulness lessons, Schools Kingdom classroom Program (MiSP), teachers (Kuyken et al., 2013) 5 Attention Academy USA 2005 first to third children with 12 sessions over sitting, movement, and body-scan meditations Program (AAP), grade (5-8 high anxiety 24 weeks for 45- as well as relaxation exercises. (Napoli et al., 2005) years) min per session 6 Wall (2005) USA 2005 11-13 years public school 5-weeks modified mindfulness based stress reduction children (MBSR) intervention (sitting meditation and 7 Sempleetal. (2005) USA 2005 7-9 years 8 Sempleetal. (2010) USA 2010 9-12 years 9 Innerkids program USA Flooketal. (2010) 2010 second and third grade children 10 Schonert-Reichl and Canada Lawlor (2010) 2010 pre- and early adolescent students in the 4th to 7th grades, mean age=ll years 133 urban elementary school, referred by their classroom teachers based on observed symptoms of anxiety children enrolled in a clinic-based remedial reading program program at an oncampus university elementary school representative schools of a diverse range of socioeconomic status mindful eating) with Tai Chi. 6- weeks, 45-min- manualized Mindfulness-Based Cognitive per-week Therapy for Children (MBCT-C) 12-weeks MBCT-C 8-weeks, two 30- mindful awareness practices (MAPs) minute sessions per week 10 lessons and ME program - a classroom-based universal three times daily preventive intervention designed to foster children's positive emotions, self-regulation, and goal setting. Mindfulness meditation - four teachers delivered components: quieting the mind, mindful attention (to sensation, thoughts, and feelings), managing negative emotions and thinking, and acknowledgment of self and others. 134 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 11 12 Beauchemin et al. (2008) USA 2008 13-18 years Zylowska et al. (2008) USA, Boston 2008 >15 years, adolescents private residential school for students with learning disabilities attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 13 Learning to USA BREATHE program (Broderick and Metz, 2009) 14 The Mindfulness In United Schools Kingdom Project (MiSP) (Weare, 2013) 2009 17-19 years (average age 17.4) 2012 12-16 years private girls' school in an American independent girls' school public school 15 .b ("Stop, Breathe and United 2010 14-15 years boys in Be") (Huppertand Kingdom secondary Johnson, 2010) school curriculum 5 to 10 min at the mindfulness meditation beginning of each class, 5 days per week, for five consecutive weeks 8-weeks, MAPs intervention with psycho-education - comprised of components to ameliorate self-esteem and self- weekly 2.5-hr regulation, group sessions and daily at-home meditation practice six-session MBSR-derived mindfulness program as part of health curriculum Integrated into MiSP curriculum - involves learning to direct school curriculum, attention to immediate experience, moment by checked after 2-3 moment, with open-minded curiosity and months course acceptance. New skills are learned in a highly practical way, through experience of mindfulness practices and application in everyday life. 4 weeks, one stopping and breathing Learning how to lesson per week, recognize feelings by learning about body responses to emotions + mindfulness how to deal with anger, worry and other difficult feelings. Mindfulness themes are taught by 16 David Lynch USA, San Foundation - Quite Francisco time program 2014 teenagers public school 17 Hawn Foundation, MindUp, The Hawn Fundation (2015) USA 2014 all school children all types of schools 18 Saltzman and Goldin (2008) 19 Joyce et al. (2010) 20 Liehrand Diaz (2010) 21 Raes et al. (2014) USA Australia Caribbean and Central American countries Flanders — the northern, Dutch- speaking region of Belgium. 2008 2010 2010 9-11 years with parents 10-13 years mean age 9.5 years public school public school summer camp, minority and disadvantaged children 2014 14-17 years public school 135 2 sessions a day, Inserted in a curriculum integrated into school curriculum 8-weeks, weekly 10 weeks 10 15- inute classes for two weeks engaging images, video clips and objects such as snow globes to support understanding of busy thoughts come and go. Quiet Time program, which uses Transcendental Meditation techniques to help students focus and stay calm - students closed their eyes and focused their minds development of well-being traits using social, emotional, attentional and self regulation strategies, including mindfulness exercises. Increasing prosocial behavior and fostering emotional and social well-being. MBSR intervention- stress reduction program (Still Quiet Place) 14 mindfulness program interventions focusing on depression and anxiety. during school hours for eight weeks, replacing religious studies, physical education, or another academic course, depending on the class's timetable. Each elements of MBCT and MBSR - guided experiential mindfulness exercises (e.g., mindfulness of breathing, breathing space, body scan), sharing of experience of these exercises; reflections in small groups, inspiring stories; psycho-education (e.g., stress, depression, self-care), and review of homework. 136 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 22 Mindfulness Education (ME) program (Schonert-Reichl, K. A., and Lawlor, M. S., 2010) 23 Razzaetal. (2013) Canada 2010 USA, Boston 2013 pre and early adolescents (4-7 grade) ave. 11 years (6th grade) public schools public schools, white and Asian race 24 Mindfulness Practice Australia 2013 16-24 years public school and Healthy Young People (Monshatet al„ 2013) Sibinga etal., (2013) 25 26 USA 2013 7th and 8th grade boys Ivy child international schools in North 2011 preschool children, urban male school, application -based, tuition-free middle school all types of schools mindfulness session lasted 100 minutes. daily lessons students engage in mindful attention training (three times a day) 1 school year mindfulness and yoga intervention. implemented in English Language Arts (ELA) classes, three times per week for 4 min at the beginning of each ELA class. 6-weeks mindfulness training program 12- week, once- MBSR weekly, 50-minute sessions campus programs, using a combination of mindfulness activities community including yoga, meditation, nutrition, art and program - America, elementary, International's South high school, mindfulness-based America, adolescents learning™ and Asia 27 social and emotional Canada learning (SEL) program (Schonert-Reichl etal., 2015) 2015 elementary suburban, school students, 4 and 5 th graders (9-11 years) predominantly middle-class community public school 28 mindfulness-based USA 2010 adolescents urban public stress reduction schools program (Kerrigan et al„ 2010) 137 programs and events. All programs are tailored to the specific needs of the diverse populations. Single day classes to long-term programs are offered, customized to the unique and diverse populations. SEL program: 12 lessons taught approximately once a week, with each lesson lasting approximately 40-50 min, Mindfulness: every day for 3 min three times a day 8-week program of instruction music mindfulness and caring for others - MindUp program + Social responsibility program mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR): (1) didactic material related to mindfulness, meditation, yoga, and the mind-body connection, (2) experiential practice of 138 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 29 Arthurson et al. (2015) Australia, 2015 11-12 years public school Adelaide 30 Galantinoetal. (2008) 31 Sines (2009) USA USA 2008 Children (4* and 5 th graders) 2009 8-9 years (2nd grade) urban public schools public school 32 Powell et al. (2008) United Kingdom 33 A mindful proj ect, funded by the Wellcome Trust (Williams and Kuyken, 2012; MyRIAD: Mindfulness and Resilience in United Kingdom 2008 8-11 years 2015 teenagers young children with emotional and behavioral difficulties in public schools public schools 9 weeks (July-September 2013), 45 minute class per week 8 weeks 6-week program, 45 minutes per week 12 one hour sessions delivered over two school terms 8-weeks meditation, yoga, and the "body scan" during group meetings and encouragement of home practice, and (3) group discussion focused on applications of mindfulness to everyday situations and problem-solving related to barriers to effective practice several existing mindfulness program resources, including the Mind-up which was adapted to the specific Australian educational context, along with material from two Australian resources, Smiling Mind (2015) and Meditation Capsules (2015) body scan, meditation, breathing exercises, and Tai Chi yoga and mindfulness training Self-discovery program (SDP), interventions involving massage, yoga and relaxation .b mindfulness in schools program developed by the Mindfulness in Schools Project as a Mindfulness Training (MT) intervention. The .b program is based on the 8-week MBCT course Adolescence, 2015) 34 Wellness Works in Germany 2010 10-12 years, urban public SchoolsTM program 6th grade, middle school, (Desmond and low income. Hanich, 2010) 35 Meditación Fluir Spain 2011 16-19 years compulsory program - Franco (lst/2nd secondary Justo research group year of high education from program school) three public school 36 Potek (2012) USA 2012 14-17 years two high schools (one rural and one urban) 37 Frenke etal. (2014) Germany 2014 13-15 years public school 38 Metz et al. (2013) USA 2013 16 years suburban high school 39 Anand and Sharma Bangalore 2011 14 years public school (2011) India 40 Biegel and Brown California 2010 6-8 years elementary (2010) USA school 41 Baijal etal. (2011) USA 2011 13-15 years public school 42 Campion and Rocco Australia 2009 5-18 years public school (2009) 43 Mendelson et al. USA 2010 10 years urban public 139 3 months mindful awareness: focuses on both executive attention and executive control behaviors in students. 10 weeks (first quarter academic year), with frequency of one hour and a half session weekly. 14-weeks Meditation practice and Flow, a meditation that focuses on the attention on the breath in the area abdomen while repeating a mantra. Learning to Breathe program (Broderick, 2007) 6 weeks Home practice mindfulness training Learning to BREATH program 3 months training stress reduction program 5 weeks—3 sessions a week for 15 minutes per session 10 min, twice daily 1 year program in classroom 12 weeks, 45 min mindfulness-based activities: listening breathing movement, walking, eating, seeing, emotions, test taking, activities of daily living, and lessons on the promotion of kindness and caring transcendental meditation mindfulness, visualization, mantra, prays school-based mindfulness and yoga 140 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 (2010) 44 Nidich (2011) USA 2011 6-7 grade 45 So and Orme-Johnson Taiwan 2001 14-18 years (2001) 46 Warner (2005) USA and 2005 5-11 years Canada 47 Bluth (2015) USA 2015 adolescents schools session 4 days per intervention. week public school twice daily 12 min transcendent meditation session, 3 months public school 2 min sessions, transcendential meditation twice daily, 6 months-1 year public school Integrated into transcendential meditation school curriculum, 5 min, twice daily, ongoing > 1 year ethnically 50 min, once a Learning to BREATHE diverse at-risk week, over one adolescents school semester | 141 Table 2. Presentation of the benefits of the above described program/research. PO class Program objectives (PO) COGNITIVE Attention, concentration Executive functions Program / Research nr. 1,2,3,5,7,8,9,18, 26, 30, 40 14,15,16,17, 26, 29, 41 9, 18, 34, 37,46 (working memory, planning, 12, 14, 15, 25, 45 organization, decision making, impulse control metacognition) Decreased ADHD behaviors -specifically hyperactivity and impulsivity 2, 9 12 Academic performance/competence 7, 10, 44 4,11,14,15,16, 26, 29, 35, 42 PSYCHO EMOTIONAL ISSUES LOGICAL Decreased depression 20,26, 43 4,12,15,19,21,22, 47 Decreased anxiety in general and 5,8,20, 26 142 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 text anxiety in particular STRESS AND COPING 5, 11, 12, 15, 25, 29, 35, 36, 45 Increased sense of calmness, relaxation, and self-acceptance, Increased self-calming, decreased stress 1, 3, 6, 26, 43 4, 13,15, 16, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 38, 39, 42, 47 RESILIENCE Decreased aggression negative affect or emotions 10, 17, 31, 43 13 Increased self-esteem/self-confidence 32, 27 24,35 Increased self-awareness and self-control 1, 26, 31 13,17,24,28,29, 38 Fewer conduct and anger management problems 8, 26 15,29, 42 Increased emotional, behavior regulation and reactivity 9, 10, 18, 26, 27 13,29,38 Better mental health and well being 4, 6, 26, 33 (4, 6,15,33), 17, 28, 29, 39 | 143 Happiness, optimism 10, 22, 27 SOCIAL 15, 17 Increased social skills and social compliance:, better behavior 5, 7, 8,9, 10, 11, 22, 26, 27, 33, 40 (11) 17,19,21,31, 35, 42 classroom participation, reduction of suspension, motivation for learning 1, 2, 32 16,17, 47 Respect and care for others 17 PHYSICAL Empathy and compassion 1, 26, 27 17, 24, 35 Enhanced school climate 3,32 (3) Increased quality of sleep 6, 26, 30 (6) Decreased aches, pain, tiredness 13 1 Decreased psychosomatic 38 144 | RSC, Number 7, Issue 2, May 2015 Legend: Third column is divided according to the school level - first row are elementary school, second row is high school programs Numbers are indicating the program/research that is described in Table 1 Colors represent the frequency of the particular program/research objective (class) 10 At least 10 programs/researches are dealing with this subfield >=10 At least 10 programs/researches are dealing with this field >=8 At least 8 programs/researches are dealing with this subfield >=8 At least 8 programs/researches are dealing with this field >=5 At least 5 programs/researches are dealing with this subfield >=5 At least 5 programs/researches are dealing with this field >=3 At least 3 programs/researches are dealing with this subfield >=3 At least 3 programs/researches are dealing with this field <3 L e s s tha n programs/researches are dealing with this subfield <3 Less than programs/researches are dealing with this field