ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKIZBORNIK 2017 57 2 0101661851779 ISSN 1581-6613 A C TA G E O G R A P H IC A S LO V E N IC A • G E O G R A FS K I Z B O R N IK • 57 -2 • 20 17ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 57-2 • 2017 Contents – Vsebina Janez NARED, David BOLE, Mateja BREG VALJAVEC, Rok CIGLIČ, Maruša GOLUŽA, Jani KOZINA, Nika RAZPOTNIK VISKOVIĆ, Peter REPOLUSK, Petra RUS, Jernej TIRAN, Majda ČERNIČ ISTENIČ Central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 7 Centralna naselja v Sloveniji leta 2016 24 Grzegorz URBAN Air temperature trends at Mount Śnieżka (Polish Sudetes) and solar activity, 1881–2012 33 Jiří RYPL, Karel KIRCHNER, Martin BLAŽEK The spatial distribution of rock landforms in the Pohořská Mountains (Pohořská hornatina), Czech Republic 45 Vladimir N. MARKOVIĆ, Djordjije A. VASILJEVIĆ, Tamara JOVANOVIĆ, Tin LUKIĆ, Miroslav D. VUJIČIĆ, Milutin KOVAČEVIĆ, Zoran A. RISTIĆ, Slobodan B. MARKOVIĆ, Branko RISTANOVIĆ, Dušan SAKULSKI The effect of natural and human-induced habitat conditions on number of roe deer: case study of Vojvodina, Serbia 57 Spe cial issue – Terraced landscapes Drago KLADNIK, Alexandra KRUSE, Blaž KOMAC Terraced landscapes: an increasingly prominent cultural landscape type 73 Mateja ŠMID HRIBAR, Matjaž GERŠIČ, Primož PIPAN, Peter REPOLUSK, Jernej TIRAN, Maja TOPOLE, Rok CIGLIČ Cultivated terraces in Slovenian landscapes 83 Jana ŠPULEROVÁ, Marta DOBROVODSKÁ, Dagmar ŠTEFUNKOVÁ, Pavol KENDERESSY, Martin IZSÓFF Terraced landscapes in Slovakia 99 Goran ANDLAR, Filip ŠRAJER, Anita TROJANOVIĆ Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: the case of Adriatic Croatia 111 Drago KLADNIK, Mateja ŠMID HRIBAR, Matjaž GERŠIČ Terraced landscapes and protected cultural heritage sites 131 Primož PIPAN, Žiga KOKALJ Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard terraces 149 naslovnica 57-2_naslovnica 49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:20 Page 1 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 57-2 2017 uvod57-2_uvod49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 1 2 uvod57-2_uvod49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 2 ZNANSTVENORAZISKOVALNI CENTER SLOVENSKE AKADEMIJE ZNANOSTI IN UMETNOSTI GEOGRAFSKI INŠTITUT ANTONA MELIKA • RESEARCH CENTRE OF THE SLOVENIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND ARTS ANTON MELIK GEOGRAPHICAL INSTITUTE ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 57-2 2017 LJUBLJANA 2017 uvod57-2_uvod49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 3 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA 57-2 2017 ISSN: 1581-6613 COBISS: 124775936 UDC/UDK: 91 © Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU 2017 International editorial board/mednarodni uredniški odbor: Michael Bründl (Switzerland), Rok Ciglič (Slovenia), Matej Gabrovec (Slovenia), Peter Jordan (Austria), Drago Kladnik (Slovenia), Blaž Komac (Slovenia), Andrej Kranjc (Slovenia), Dénes Lóczy (Hungary), Simon McCharty (United Kingdom), Slobodan Marković (Serbia), Milan Orožen Adamič (Slovenija), Drago Perko (Slovenia), Marjan Ravbar (Slovenia), Aleš Smrekar (Slovenia), Annett Steinführer (Germany), Mimi Urbanc (Slovenia), Matija Zorn (Slovenia). Editor-in-Chief/glavni urednik: Blaž Komac; blaz.komac@zrc-sazu.si Executive editor/odgovorni urednik: Drago Perko; drago@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for physical geography/glavni urednik za fizično geografijo: Matija Zorn; matija.zorn@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for human geography/glavna urednica za družbeno geografijo: Mimi Urbanc; mimi@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for regional geography/glavni urednik za regionalno geografijo: Drago Kladnik; drago.kladnik@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for spatial planning/glavni urednik za regionaln o planiranje: Janez Nared; janez.nared@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for geographic information systems/glavni urednik za geografske informacijske sisteme: Rok Ciglič; rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for environmental protection/glavni urednik za varstvo okolja: Aleš Smrekar; ales.smrekar@zrc.sazu Editorial assistant/uredniški pomočnik: Matjaž Geršič Published by/izdajatelj: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU Issued by/založnik: Založba ZRC Co-issued by/sozaložnik: Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti Address/Naslov: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija The papers are available on-line in English and Slovenian language/prispevki so v angleškem in slovenskem jeziku dostopni na medmrežju: http://ags.zrc-sazu.si (English internet version ISSN: 1581-8314/slovenska internetna različica ISSN: 1581–8314) Ordering/naročanje: Založba ZRC Novi trg 2, p. p. 306, SI – 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenija Phone/telefon: +386 (0)1 470 64 64 Fax/faks: +386 (0)1 425 77 94 E-mail/e-pošta: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si Annual subscription/letna naročnina: 20 € for individuals/za posameznike, 28 € for institutions/za ustanove. Single issue/cena posamezne številke: 12,50 € for individuals/za posameznike, 16 € for institutions/za ustanove. Cartography/kartografija: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU Translations/prevodi: DEKS, d. o. o. DTP/prelom: SYNCOMP, d. o. o. Printed by/tiskarna: Collegium Graphicum d. o. o. Print run/naklada: 400 copies/izvodov The journal is subsidized by the Slovenian Research Agency/revija izhaja s podporo Javne agencije za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije. The journal is indexed in also/revija je vključena tudi v: SCIE – Science citation index expanded , Scopus, JCR – Journal Citation Report/Science Edition, ERIH PLUS, GEOBASE Journals, Current geographical publications, EBSCOhost, Geoscience e-Journals, Georef, FRANCIS, SJR (SCImago Journal & Country Rank), OCLC WorldCat, and Google scholar, CrossRef. Front cover photography: Countless terraces of ripening rice in Nepal (photograph: Sandi Kelnerič). Fotografija na naslovnici: Na poti med brezštevilnimi terasami z zorečim rižem v Nepalu (fotografija: Sandi Kelnerič). uvod57-2_uvod49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 4 5 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA ISSN: 1581-6613 UDC – UDK: 91 Number – številka: 57-2 Year – leto: 2017 Contents – Vsebina Janez NARED, David BOLE, Mateja BREG VALJAVEC, Rok CIGLIČ, Maruša GOLUŽA, Jani KOZINA, Nika RAZPOTNIK VISKOVIĆ, Peter REPOLUSK, Petra RUS, Jernej TIRAN, Majda ČERNIČ ISTENIČ Central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 7 Centralna naselja v Sloveniji leta 2016 24 Grzegorz URBAN Air temperature trends at Mount Śnieżka (Polish Sudetes) and solar activity, 1881–2012 33 Jiří RYPL, Karel KIRCHNER, Martin BLAŽEK The spatial distribution of rock landforms in the Pohořská Mountains (Pohořská hornatina), Czech Republic 45 Vladimir N. MARKOVIĆ, Djordjije A. VASILJEVIĆ, Tamara JOVANOVIĆ, Tin LUKIĆ, Miroslav D. VUJIČIĆ, Milutin KOVAČEVIĆ, Zoran A. RISTIĆ, Slobodan B. MARKOVIĆ, Branko RISTANOVIĆ, Dušan SAKULSKI The effect of natural and human-induced habitat conditions on number of roe deer: case study of Vojvodina, Serbia 57 Special issue – Terraced landscapes Drago KLADNIK, Alexandra KRUSE, Blaž KOMAC Terraced landscapes: an increasingly prominent cultural landscape type 73 Mateja ŠMID HRIBAR, Matjaž GERŠIČ, Primož PIPAN, Peter REPOLUSK, Jernej TIRAN, Maja TOPOLE, Rok CIGLIČ Cultivated terraces in Slovenian landscapes 83 Jana ŠPULEROVÁ, Marta DOBROVODSKÁ, Dagmar ŠTEFUNKOVÁ, Pavol KENDERESSY, Martin IZSÓFF Terraced landscapes in Slovakia 99 uvod57-2_uvod49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 5 Goran ANDLAR, Filip ŠRAJER, Anita TROJANOVIĆ Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: the case of Adriatic Croatia 111 Drago KLADNIK, Mateja ŠMID HRIBAR, Matjaž GERŠIČ Terraced landscapes and protected cultural heritage sites 131 Primož PIPAN, Žiga KOKALJ Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard terraces 149 6 uvod57-2_uvod49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 6 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017, 7–32 CENTRAL SETTLEMENTS IN SLOVENIA IN 2016 CENTRALNA NASELJA V SLOVENIJI LETA 2016 Janez Nared, David Bole, Mateja Breg Valjavec, Rok Ciglič, Maruša Goluža, Jani Kozina, Nika Razpotnik Visković, Peter Repolusk, Petra Rus, Jernej Tiran, Majda Černič Istenič Because of their compact layout and functional connection, Radovljica and Lesce function as a settlement cluster. Radovljica in Lesce zaradi strnjene lege in funkcijske povezanosti delujeta kot eno – stično naselje. M A R J A N G A R B A J S 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 7 8 Central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4606 UDC: 911.37(497.4)»2016« COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: This article presents central settlements in Slovenia and their main characteristics in 2016. We defined central settlements based on services of general interest and the population of an individual settlement, and developed the analysis further by using competitiveness indicators. We defined 360 central settlements at six levels of centrality, among which the significance of Ljubljana as a national center of inter- national importance and the significance of intermunicipal, local, and rural centers are increasing. The significance of certain regional centers at the second and third levels of centrality is decreasing. The level of services of general interest supplied to Slovenian territory is relatively appropriate, but it should be improved by promoting competitiveness, especially in centers of national and regional importance. KEY WORDS: geography, settlement system, central settlements, services of general interest, cohesion, competitiveness, polycentrism, settlement clusters, conurbations, Slovenia The article was submitted for publication on 31th May, 2016. ADDRESSES: Janez Nared, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: janez.nared@zrc-sazu.si David Bole, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: david.bole@zrc-sazu.si Mateja Breg Valjavec, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: mateja.breg@zrc-sazu.si Rok Ciglič, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si Maruša Goluža Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: marusa.goluza@zrc-sazu.si Central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 8 9 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 Jani Kozina, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: jani.kozina@zrc-sazu.si Nika Razpotnik Visković, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: nika.razpotnik@zrc-sazu.si Peter Repolusk Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: peter.repolusk@zrc-sazu.si Petra Rus Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: petra.rus@zrc-sazu.si Jernej Tiran, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: jernej.tiran@zrc-sazu.si Majda Černič Istenič, Ph.D. Sociomedical Institute Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: majdaci@zrc-sazu.si 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 9 Central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 1 Introduction Central settlements have been studied since von Thünen’s (1842) work on the topic, but the concept was established only with Christaller’s (1933) central place theory. In it, central settlements are defined as »major and minor political, cultural, economic, and transport centers that arose as an expression of the political, cultural, and economic operation of human society and that must therefore be considered the basic ele- ments in the functional construction of social life« (Vrišer 1967, 143). Christaller understood them as the centers of regions that shape and define the region through their area of influence. Because of constant mutual influence, regions and their centers are constantly adapting to changing conditions, which also changes the system of central settlements. In the system of central settlements, an important role is played by cen- tral functions, such as commerce, crafts, transport, education, healthcare, administration, and cultural institutions. If the surrounding functional area is small, the settlement has only basic, frequently used cen- tral functions that are available to users in the vicinity of their residences, but, as settlements’ level of centrality increases, these functions become increasingly diverse (Vrišer 1967). Central settlements in Slovenia have been studied since the 1960s (Vrišer 1967; Kokole 1971; Pak, Batagelj and Hrvatin 1987; Vrišer 1988; Cigale 2002; Strategija … 2004; Drozg 2005; Benkovič Krašovec 2006; Zavodnik Lamovšek, Drobne and Žaucer 2008; Rus, Razpotnik Visković and Nared 2013). They are char- acterized by constant changes in their definition, in part due to changing methodology, but more due to spatial and social changes (Nared, Bole and Ciglič 2016). Different authors have used various functions and various numbers of levels of centrality, and the manner in which they obtained their data has also var- ied (surveys and institutionalized data sources; Table 1). As these studies showed, the structure of central settlements at higher levels is relatively stable, but greater changes are visible in central settlements at lower levels, especially because of spatial and social changes in past decades: local government reform, centralization, digitization and increased internet use, construction of the freeway network and increasing mobility, suburbanization and post-suburbanization, demograph- ic changes, tertiarization of the economy, privatization of public services, and the economic crisis (Bole et al. 2012; Rus, Razpotnik Visković and Nared 2013; Nared, Bole and Ciglič 2016). The otherwise scant modern studies of central settlements have added new aspects to the original examination of supply with services. At the forefront are discussions of the ratio between cohesion and competitiveness (Meijers 2008), and examinations of functional regions (Karlsson and Olsson 2006; Zavodnik Lamovšek 2011) and func- tional polycentrism (Green 2007). Meijers (2007) believes that it is necessary to further develop central place theory because towns are not only connected vertically, but also horizontally through sharing func- tions (i.e., conurbations) and functional specializations. Such »networking« is typical of the global economy, especially for growing service sectors such as finance, IT, the creative industry, and so on (Sassen 1991; Castells 1996). This article examines the network of central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 from the perspective of supply with services of general interest (i.e., the functional aspect). The functional aspect of defining cen- tral settlements, which can be understood as an analysis of ensuring the cohesiveness of the entire national territory, is further developed with selected elements of competitiveness or, specifically, an analysis of the distribution of researchers, patents, and the largest export companies. This article is based on the project The Polycentric Network of Centers and Accessibility of the Population to Services of General Interest and General Economic Interest (Nared et al. 2016), which was financed by the Slovenian Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Planning as part of revamping Slovenia’s current spatial strategy. 2 Methods We based our analysis of central settlements on services of general interest, which government bodies define as such and for which special public service obligations apply (ESPON Evidence Brief 2013; Noguera-Tur and Martínez 2014). Following examples from abroad (Meijers 2007), we limited the broader selection of services to four main functions: public administration, education, healthcare, and the judiciary. This nar- rower selection of services of general interest made it possible to define central settlements relatively transparently. With the addition of new functions, the definition of central settlements would be less trans- parent because the various functions appear in the same settlements and the addition of new functions 10 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 10 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 11 Ta ble 1: A co m pa ris on of th e c rit eri a a nd fin din gs of th ree se lec ted st ud ies (K ok ole 19 71 ; V riš er 19 88 ; C iga le 20 02 (R us 20 13 ). Ko ko le (1 97 1) Vr iše r ( 19 88 ) Cig ale (2 00 2) Co lle cti ng da ta on ce nt ral ac tiv itie s Qu ali tat ive ap pr oa ch : d ire cto rie s, tel ep ho ne bo ok s, Qu ali tat ive ap pr oa ch : d ire cto rie s, tel ep ho ne bo ok s, Qu ali tat ive ap pr oa ch : S lov en ian te lep ho ne bo ok , lis ts of ins tit ut ion s, su rve y; lis ts of ins tit ut ion s, Re gis ter of Co m pa nie s a nd inf or m ati on on po st off ice br an ch es , in for m ati on on qu an tit ati ve ap pr oa ch : a cti ve po pu lat ion in th e A s so cia tio ns , R eg ist er of Pr iva te En tre pr en eu rs, ce ns us ; he alt h c en ter s, inf or m ati on on pr im ar y s ch oo ls, su rve y to wn -s er vin g s ec to r qu an tit ati ve ap pr oa ch : ra tio be tw ee n p op ula tio n a nd nu m be r o f e m plo ye d ( job s) in ter tia ry an d q ua ter na ry ac tiv itie s b y l oc al co m m un itie s ( wi th to wn s t rea ted as a wh ole ) De ter m ini ng th e s co pe of th e a rea Su rve yin g p rim ar y s ch oo ls Su rve yin g l oc al co m m un itie s / co m m un ity of fic es Su rve yin g p rim ar y s ch oo ls: de ter m ini ng w he re res ide nt s of inf lue nc e sa tis fy dif fer en t n ee ds fo r d iffe ren t s er vic es Nu m be r o f le ve ls of ce nt ral ity Ni ne : K ok ole do es no t n am e l ev els of ce nt ral ity , Se ve n ( fiv e) : lo ca l c en ter s, ru ral or in du str ial ce nt ers , Th ree : m ac ro -re gio na l c en ter s, m es o- reg ion al ce nt ers , bu t o nly de fin es th e l ev el co m m un al or m un ici pa l c en ter s, dis tri ct ce nt ers , a rea m icr o- reg ion al ce nt ers ce nt ers , p rov inc ial ce nt ers , c en ter s o f Y ug os lav re pu bli cs Cla ssi fyi ng ce nt ral se ttl em en ts Cla ssi fic ati on of in dic ato rs ba se d o n f req ue nc y Cla ssi fic ati on of in dic ato rs ba se d o n f req ue nc y Su pp ly wi th fu nc tio ns / se rv ice ac tiv itie s: by hi era rch ica l le ve l o f c en tra lity of oc cu rre nc e of oc cu rre nc e • Ac tiv itie s p res en t in 15 0 t o f ive hu nd red se ttl em en ts; • Ac tiv itie s p res en t in m ore th an fif ty an d f ew er th an on e h un dr ed se ttl em en ts; • Ac tiv itie s p res en t in fe we r t ha n t we nt y s ett lem en ts 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 11 Central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 would not offer significantly different results. We designed a database of centers’ supply with services of general interest; in addition to georeference data this also included metadata necessary for constantly updat- ing the database. It includes 703 settlements with at least one of four main functions. The database is based on the Slovenian Business Resister (AJPES) and databases at ministries and agencies. Proceeding from definitions of central settlements to date, proposals from a focus group, and a work- shop with stakeholders (Policentrično omrežje … 2015), we defined six levels of centrality (Table 2). On the one hand, the level of centrality was defined based on the population in a particular settlement and, on the other hand, individual functions were ascribed the corresponding level of centrality. Assessment of the overall level of centrality was made using a combined index of level of centrality (lcen). The index equally weighted the average level of centrality from the four functions and the level of centrality based on population (lpop) (1) 12 l f l cen pop = +∑1 4 4 2 f1 4 4 ∑      ! Table 2: Level of centrality for settlements and criteria for individual levels. Level of centrality Population Expected functions 1. National center of international importance ≥ 100,001 • Public university • University medical center • Higher court 2. Center of national importance 20,001–100,000 • College, university faculty, or academy • Large general hospital 3. Center of regional importance 10,001–20,000 • District court • Junior college • Hospital • High school 4. Center of inter-municipal importance 3,001–10,000 • Health center • Local government office • Local court 5. Center of local importance 1,501–3,000 • Full primary school • Health station • Municipal headquarters 6. Center of rural importance 501–1,500 • Branch primary school In classifying the settlements into individual levels of centrality, we defined the following classification limits (Table 3). Table 3: Classification limits for defining levels of centrality. Level of centrality Centrality index value 1. National center of international importance ≤ 1.50 2. Center of national importance 1.51–2.50 3. Center of regional importance 2.51–3.50 4. Center of inter-municipal importance 3.51–4.50 5. Center of local importance 4.51–5.50 6. Center of rural importance ≥ 5.51 6a. Center of rural importance with fewer than 500 people Fewer than 500 people and at least two functions Figure 1: Settlement clusters (Nared, Bole and Ciglič 2016). p 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 12 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 13 G ra di šč e- Sm rje ne D ra ga Fa ra Ra če M ut a K rš ko A pa če Za vr č Pi ra n Iz ol a Vo lč ja D ra ga M ire n K an al K ra nj Ža le c N ak lo Tr ži č O rm ož Sk ok e St ič na Vo jn ik Pi vo la Že ta le Ti šin a D ek an i St ra ža Li tij a To lm in Še nč ur H rp el je Tr eb nj e D or na va A nk ar an Ko če vj e Ri bn ic a Vr hn ik a Se vn ic a M ed vo de K iso ve c Ko m en da Pr eb ol d Po lz el a M ar ib or Le nd av a D or nb er k Šm ar je ta Po ljč an e D es tr ni k Ju rš in ci Č rn om el j Tr bo vl je Je se ni ce D ra vo gr ad Ro ga šo vc i Ra zk riž je G ro su pl je Šk o% jic a Ži ro vn ic a Še nt je rn ej C er kv en ja k A jd ov šč in a Ra do vl jic a N ov a G or ic a Šk o& a Lo ka M ur sk a So bo ta G or nj a Ra dg on a Zg or nj a H aj di na Zg or nj a Ku ng ot a Ro ga šk a Sl at in a Zg or nj a Po lsk av a D ol p ri Lj ub lja ni Ra vn e na K or oš ke m St ar i t rg p ri Lo žu Še nt vi d pr i S tič ni C er kl je n a G or en jsk em K riž ev ci p ri Lj ut om er u Sv . A na v Sl ov . G or ic ah Sv et i J ur ij ob Š ča vn ic i Br ez ov ic a pr i L ju bl ja ni Šm ar je - Sa p Zg or nj e G or je Sp od nj i D up le k D om ža le /K am ni k Sp od nj e Šk o' je Za go rje o b Sa vi M ik la vž n a D ra vs ke m p ol ju A re a of se ttl em en t c lu st er s/ ob m oč je st ič ni h na se lij A re a of p op ul at io n cl us te rs / ob m oč je st ič ne p os el itv e 0 10 20 30 40 50 km C ar to gr ap he r/ ka rt og ra f: Ro k C ig lič So ur ce o f b as em ap /v ir po dl ag e: G U RS 2 01 6 © A nt on M el ik G eo gr ap hi ca l I ns tit ut e ZR C S A ZU 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 13 Central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 14 Because of dispersed settlement, in Slovenia there are a large number of well-supplied settlements with a population below five hundred, which was initially defined as the lower population limit in a central set- tlement. We therefore added a new category of central settlements with a population below five hundred but that had to contain at least two of the four functions examined. We also determined that several administrative settlements are located close to one another but that the functions are uniformly distributed between them, which means that an individual settlement is not necessarily sufficiently large or supplied, but, if it is combined with another, then the combined settlement may satisfy the criteria of both size and supply. These types of settlements are called settlement clusters (such settlements are underlined in the text). We defined them as a set of morphologically connected set- tlements that, despite their administrative division into several settlements, operate as a functionally connected whole. Such settlements had to satisfy two criteria: the majority (> 50%) of their population had to live in areas of high density of numbered housing (> 1.5 house numbers per hectare in a diameter of 800 m) and areas of high density had to be continuously connected with at least one such area in another settlement. In this manner we defined fifty-six areas, further verified them through visual inspection of aerial pho- tos and review of the presence of the four functions, and thus expanded the list of central settlements with an additional twenty-nine settlement clusters (Figure 1). Using settlement clusters, we were better able to assess the level of supply, especially in areas of compact settlement, and the sharing of functions between individual settlements; for example, Nova Gorica–Šempeter–Vrtojba, Piran–Lucija, and so on (Nared, Bole and Ciglič 2016). For analyzing the network of central settlements from the perspective of competitiveness, we studied three indicators: exports in millions of euros per company headquarters in 2015 (SLOEXPORT 2016), num- ber of researchers per workplace (SICRIS 2016), and number of patents per place of patent holder between 1991 and 2016 (Patenti 2016). The last two indicators are often a component of measuring global com- petiveness indicators (Global Competitive … 2016) and global creativity indexes (Global Creativity … 2016), and so they are also appropriate for this analysis of competitiveness. The statistical correlation between settlement size, supply with services of general interest, and competitiveness was calculated using Spearman’s correlation coefficient (ρ). 3 Results Using the methodology presented, we defined 360 central settlements in Slovenia (Figure 2) with a total population of 1,318,051, which is just under 9.2% of the country’s settlements and 64% of its population. Two settlements are national centers of international importance (Ljubljana and Maribor), five are centers of national importance (Celje, Nova Gorica, Koper, Novo mesto, and Kranj), twelve are centers of regional importance (Domžale–Kamnik, Ptuj, Velenje, Jesenice, Murska Sobota, Trbovlje, Piran, Slovenj Gradec, Izola, Škofja Loka, Brežice, and Krško), thirty-eight are centers of inter-municipal importance, fifty-five are centers of local importance, and 248 are centers of rural importance, among which we also classified forty-nine centers with a population under five hundred but at least two main functions; in the text, settlement clusters are underlined. From the perspective of the central functions and size of a settlement, Ljubljana is far in the lead. As the country’s second-largest city, Maribor also preserves an important role. Among the other regional cen- ters, the second level of centrality is achieved by five settlements (Celje, Nova Gorica, Koper, Novo mesto, and Kranj), and the third level by four (or five) (Murska Sobota, Trbovlje, Slovenj Gradec, and the conur- bation of Krško–Brežice). The weakest among the regional centers is Postojna, which is ranked at the level of inter-municipal centers. With regard to the size of the settlement and its economic strength, Velenje is undersupplied with functions, which is largely a consequence of its location between two nearby region- al centers: Celje and Slovenj Gradec. Ljubljana has great administrative and economic influence, and is becoming an important metropol- itan center. The economic significance of settlements at the second and third levels of centrality is weakening, but increased influence can be noted at the level of municipal centers, which may be ascribed to local Figure 2: Central settlements in Slovenia, 2016. p 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 14 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 15 ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( K rš ko K ra nj Li tij a To lm in Ko če vj e Vr hn ik a Se vn ic a M ar ib or Č rn om el j Tr bo vl je Je se ni ce G ro su pl je A jd ov šč in a Ra do vl jic a Iz ol a N ov a G or ic a Šk oƒ a Lo ka Pi ra n M ur sk a So bo ta D om ža le /K am ni k Le nd av a Ra vn e na K or oš ke m Pt uj C el je Se ža na Id rij a Še nt ju r Ve le nj e Br ež ic e Po st oj na Lj ut om er Lj ub lja na N ov o m es to Sl ov en j G ra de c Ili rs ka B ist ric a Sl ov en sk e Ko nj ic e Sl ov en sk a Bi st ric a Ko pe r N at io na l c en tr e of in te rn at io na l i m po rt an ce / na ci on al no sr ed išč e m ed na ro dn eg a po m en a C en tr e of n at io na l i m po rt an ce / sr ed išč e na ci on al ne ga p om en a C en tr e of re gi on al im po rt an ce / sr ed išč e re gi on al ne ga p om en a C en tr e of in te rm un ic ip al im po rt an ce / sr ed išč e m ed ob či ns ke ga p om en a C en tr e of lo ca l i m po rt an ce / sr ed išč e lo ka ln eg a po m en a C en tr e of v ic in al im po rt an ce / sr ed išč e vi ci na ln eg a po m en a C en tr e of v ic in al im po rt an ce w ith le ss th an 5 00 in ha bi ta nt s/ sr ed išč e vi ci na ln eg a po m en a z m an j k ot 5 00 p re bi va lc i M un ic ip al ity b or de r/ ob či ns ka m ej a 0 10 20 30 40 50 km Le ve l o f c en tr al ity a cc or di ng to p op ul at io n an d se rv ic es / st op nj a ce nt ra ln os ti gl ed e na p re bi va ls tv o in st or itv e C ar to gr ap he r/ ka rt og ra f: Ro k C ig lič So ur ce o f b as em ap /v ir po dl ag e: G U RS 2 01 6 © A nt on M el ik G eo gr ap hi ca l I ns tit ut e ZR C S A ZU 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 15 Central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 16 government reform and the »localization« of regional policy; decisions on regional projects are made by mayors, who favor local projects. The creation of many new municipalities had a major impact on the number of central settlements at the sixth level, especially those that do not achieve the threshold of five hundred residents. In line with the size structure of Slovenian municipalities, these settlements predominate in eastern Slovenia. With regard to settlement clusters, it is especially relevant to mention Domžale–Kamnik and Nova Gorica. The settlement cluster of Domžale–Kamnik is only a morphologically connected settlement without shared functions because both of the main settlements are centers of inter-municipal importance. In contrast, the morphological connection of Nova Gorica and the settlements of Šempeter pri Gorici, Kromberk, Pristava, Rožna Dolina, Solkan, and Vrtojba is further enhanced by shared functions, especially between Šempeter pri Gorici and Nova Gorica. It is also interesting to compare the level of centrality from the perspective of settlement size and how well a settlement is supplied with individual functions. Large settlements are generally better supplied with functions than smaller ones. If the level of centrality by function exceeds the level of centrality by popu- lation, the settlement is oversupplied and, in the opposite case, it is undersupplied (Figure 3). Oversupply is especially characteristic of settlements in less urbanized parts of the country, which can be explained by the conscious uniform provision of functions across the entire territory of the country as a result of the policy of polycentric urban development from the 1960s onward. Here it has to be taken into account that, in adapting the functions to the size of the settlement, more sparsely settled areas faced a relatively poor supply of functions. Undersupply is especially characteristic of settlements near major towns, which is a consequence of suburbanization, which has been prominent especially in the last forty years (Ravbar 1997; 2005). Because residents moved to the outskirts of towns, the populations of these settlements have grown greatly, but the supply of functions has not adapted sufficiently quickly to this. Among the central settlements, only twenty-three contain the seat of a major export company (more than 0.5% of Slovenian exports). In this regard, Ljubljana, Novo mesto, and Velenje stand out, which together account for over 50% of all Slovenian exports. Among the major central settlements, Maribor (Level 1), Murska Sobota, Slovenj Gradec, Trbovlje, Brežice, and Izola (Level 3) have no headquarters of a major export company at all. With regard to level of centrality, relatively weak positions are also held by Celje, Kranj, and Nova Gorica (Level 2) and Domžale–Kamnik, Ptuj, and Krško (Level 3). Conversely, there are many export companies in Škofja Loka (Level 3) and certain central settlements at lower levels, such as Slovenska Bistrica and Idrija (Level 4), Mežica and Zreče (Level 5), and Nazarje and Spodnja Idrija (Level 6). In 2016, Slovenian research organizations employed 10,100 researchers on a full-time, additional-time, or part-time basis, which is equivalent to 8,988 full-time researchers. Their distribution among the sixty- nine central settlements is somewhat more dispersed than that of export-oriented companies, but among them stands out Ljubljana (69%), followed at a great distance by Maribor (12%), and the remaining cen- ters have significantly fewer researchers. More than one percent of researchers are also found in Koper, Novo mesto, Celje, and Rodica. In the period from 1991 to 2016, around 5,800 patents were issued in Slovenia. Their distribution among central settlements was more dispersed than that of researchers and export-oriented companies because patents may also be registered by natural persons. Nonetheless, among the 228 central settlements Ljubljana once again strongly stands out with 31% of all Slovenian patents, followed at a great distance by Maribor (7%), Velenje, Kranj, and Novo mesto (3% each), and Celje (2%), whereas the remaining settlements had less than two percent of patents issued. The competitiveness of central settlements is moderately statistically correlated with their size and sup- ply with functions (Table 4). The not very robust correlations primarily result from the great strength of Ljubljana, the relatively low competitiveness of Maribor, Level 2 settlements, and most Level 3 settlements, and the relatively high competitiveness of certain settlements at lower levels of centrality. Figure 3: Difference between level of centrality by function and level of centrality by population of the settlement. p Figure 4: Competitiveness of central settlements in Slovenia in terms of export companies, researchers, and patents. p p. 18 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 16 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 17 Ra vn e na K or oš ke m Le nd av a D om ža le /K am ni k M ur sk a So bo ta Pi ra n Šk o‚ a Lo ka N ov a G or ic a Iz ol a Ra do vl jic a A jd ov šč in a G ro su pl je Je se ni ce Tr bo vl je Č rn om el j M ar ib or Se vn ic a Vr hn ik a Ko če vj e To lm in Li tij a K ra nj K rš ko Ko pe r Sl ov en sk a Bi st ric a Sl ov en sk e Ko nj ic e Ili rs ka B ist ric a Sl ov en j G ra de c N ov o m es to Lj ub lja na Lj ut om er Po st oj na Br ež ic e Ve le nj e Še nt ju r Id rij a Se ža na C el je Pt uj 0 10 20 30 40 50 km D i er en ce b et w ee n le ve ls o f c en tr al ity ac co rd in g to p op ul at io n an d se rv ic es / ra zl ik a m ed st op nj am a ce nt ra ln os ti gl ed e na p re bi va ls tv o in g le de n a st or itv e C ar to gr ap he r/ ka rt og ra f: Ro k C ig lič So ur ce o f b as em ap /v ir po dl ag e: G U RS 2 01 6 © A nt on M el ik G eo gr ap hi ca l I ns tit ut e ZR C S A ZU M un ic ip al ity b or de r/ ob či ns ka m ej a St ro ng ly o ve re qu ip ed c en tr e/ m oč no n ad op re lje m o sr ed išč e (> 1) O ve re qu ip ed c en tr e/ na do pr em lje no sr ed išč e (0 –1 ) U nd er eq ui pe d ce nt re / po do pr em lje no sr ed išč e (– 1– 0) St ro ng ly u nd er eq ui pe d ce nt re / m oč no p od op re m lje no sr ed išč e (< –1 ) 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 17 Central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 18 < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < << < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < << < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < << < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < << < < < < < < < < < < << < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < << < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < << < < < < < < < < < < < << < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < N at io na l c en tr e of in te rn at io na l i m po rt an ce / na ci on al no sr ed išč e m ed na ro dn eg a po m en a C en tr e of n at io na l i m po rt an ce / sr ed išč e na ci on al ne ga p om en a C en tr e of re gi on al im po rt an ce / sr ed išč e re gi on al ne ga p om en a C en tr e of in te rm un ic ip al im po rt an ce / sr ed išč e m ed ob či ns ke ga p om en a C en tr e of lo ca l i m po rt an ce / sr ed išč e lo ka ln eg a po m en a C en tr e of v ic in al im po rt an ce / sr ed išč e vi ci na ln eg a po m en a C en tr e of v ic in al im po rt an ce w ith le ss th an 5 00 in ha bi ta nt s/ sr ed išč e vi ci na ln eg a po m en a z m an j k ot 5 00 p re bi va lc i M un ic ip al ity b or de r/ ob či ns ka m ej a 0 10 20 30 40 50 k m Le ve l o f c en tr al ity ac co rd in g to p op ul at io n an d se rv ic es / st op nj a ce nt ra ln os ti gl ed e na p re bi va ls tv o in st or itv e C ar to gr ap he rs /k ar to gr af a: Ja ni K oz in a in R ok C ig lič So ur ce o f b as em ap /v ir po dl ag e: G U RS 2 01 6 © A nt on M el ik G eo gr ap hi ca l I ns tit ut e ZR C S A ZU N um be r o f p at en ts / št ev ilo p at en to v N um be r o f r es ea rc he rs / št ev ilo ra zi sk ov al ce v Ex po rt o f m aj or co m pa ni es / iz vo z ve čj ih p od je tij N o oc cu re nc e/ ni p oj av a σ < 0 0 ≤ σ ≤ 1 σ > 1 N o oc cu re nc e/ ni p oj av a σ < 0 0 ≤ σ ≤ 1 σ > 1 N o oc cu re nc e/ ni p oj av a σ < 0 0 ≤ σ ≤ 1 σ > 1 Pi ra nI zo la K op er Se ža na N ov a G or ic a To lm in A jd ov šč in a Id rij a Je se ni ce Ra do vl jic a K ra nj Šk o& a Lo ka D om ža le /K am ni k Lj ub lja na Po st oj na Ili rs ka B ist ri ca K oč ev je Č rn om el jN ov o m es to K rš ko Br ež ic e Se vn ic a Li tij a Tr bo vl je C el je Še nt ju r Ve le nj e Sl ov en j G ra de c Ra vn e na K or oš ke m M ar ib or Pt uj Lj ut om er Le nd av a M ur sk a So bo ta Sl ov en sk a Bi st ri ca Sl ov en sk e K on jic e < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < << < < <<< << < < < < < < < < < << < < < << < << << < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < << < < < < < < << < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 18 Table 4: Statistical correlation between the competitiveness of central settlements and their size and supply of services (Spearman’s correlation coefficient). Exports (€ million) Number of researchers Number of patents (23 settlements) (69 settlements) (228 settlements) Settlement level by education 0.399 0.651 0.489 Settlement level by healthcare 0.511 0.480 0.511 Settlement level by public administration 0.644 0.271 0.478 Settlement level by judiciary 0.509 0.514 0.470 Average level by education, healthcare, public administration, and judiciary 0.475 0.544 0.539 Settlement level by population 0.572 0.531 0.601 Average level by education, healthcare, public administration, judiciary, and population 0.524 0.557 0.592 Italic text: correlation significant at p < 0.05 (two-tailed). Boldface text: correlation significant at p < 0.01 (two-tailed). 4 Discussion Regional policy and promoting the development of a polycentric system of settlement played an impor- tant role in shaping the settlement system in the past (Drozg 2005; Nared 2007). In addition to the abstract orientation of spatial development towards a polycentric settlement system, this was especially contributed to by both major reforms of local government: the introduction of the communal system in the 1960s, and the establishment of new municipalities in the 1990s (Drozg 2005; Rus, Razpotnik Visković and Nared 2013). This also explains the good supply to settlements at the fourth, fifth, and sixth levels of centrality. On the other hand, the role of Ljubljana is strengthening (Bole 2004; 2011; Nared 2007; Ravbar 2007; 2009; 2011; Ravbar, Bole and Nared 2005), which has especially been apparent after the most recent economic crisis, when Ljubljana has offered employment to an increasing number of people from the surrounding area (Bole et al. 2012; Rus, Razpotnik Visković and Nared 2013). However, one must be cautious in explain- ing the role of Ljubljana because data on commuting, based on which the influence of centers was analyzed (Nared et al. 2016), is connected with information about jobs. This can lead to errors because the job loca- tion is often cited as the company headquarters (e.g., in the official information at AJPES, the legal records office), and not at its branch locations distributed throughout Slovenia (e.g., Mercator grocery stores, Petrol gas stations, or the Slovenian Armed Forces). In the past decades, the role of individual regional centers has been weakening, especially that of Postojna, Kranj (Rus, Razpotnik Visković and Nared 2013), and Murska Sobota, which on the one hand points to the leveling of development within regions, and on the other hand to the increasing divide between Ljubljana and other settlements. The current situation has been strongly influenced by the polycentric arrangement of functions in the past, which points to the path-dependent development of the settlement system (Martin and Sunley 2006; Bristow and Healy 2014). This is especially reflected in the divide between the level of centrality based on settlement size and the level of centrality based on functions in the settlement, where it can be observed that functions only slowly adapt to demographic changes. A similar conclusion can also be drawn from the distribution of researchers, who are concentrated in the two main university centers, whereas patents, which also ought to reflect the activity of the academic sphere to a certain degree, are distributed among considerably more settlements. At the same time, the results point to the influence of past ideologies on spatial planning because polycentrism was also a goal of social planning under communism. Vrišer (1978) thus mentions the development of a polycentric system in line with the organization of systems of »basic organizations of associated labor,« »self-management,« and similar concepts of that era. Despite a different methodology used, our findings agree with those in a study carried out in Norway, in which Dale and Sjøholt (2007) used a definition of central settlements based on commercial and non- commercial functions within walking distance to determine that specialized services and market-oriented functions are especially concentrated in settlements with a high level of centrality, where competitiveness thus comes to the fore. On the other hand, places with a low level of centrality lose market services and Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 19 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 19 Central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 retain only basic functions such as schools and general stores. There, ensuring the basic cohesion of nation- al territory is at the forefront. In general, it is difficult to compare our study with modern investigations by researchers in other coun- tries, who have focused more on the role of competitiveness and the functional organization of polycentric systems than uniform provision of functions. They have especially highlighted the networking and eco- nomic specialization of settlements and regions (Parr 2004), physical polycentrism, which is measured through commuting or employment in particular centers, political-administrative polycentrism, which is a result of the administrative division of territory, functional polycentrism, which arises due to the spe- cialization of towns within the urban system, and regional-identity polycentrism, which is a result of historical, symbolic, and sociocultural processes (Kloosterman and Musterd 2001). Defining central settlements based on services of general interest captures the aspect of competitive- ness only from the perspective of establishing a supportive environment, and therefore it is appropriate for defining and directing the spatial organization of the country, but is less appropriate for directing eco- nomic development. Namely, defining the level of centrality is closely connected with the policy of polycentric development, which is one of the basic goals of spatial development in Europe and for which the so-called European Spatial Development Perspective (Evropske prostorske razvojne perspektive 2000) emphasizes three goals of spatial development in the European Union: • Economic and social cohesion; • Conservation of natural resources and cultural heritage; and • More balanced competitiveness of European territory. It is through polycentric development that countries ought to achieve these goals. Slovenia is follow- ing the guidelines established, whereby attention is focused on ensuring basic coverage of the country’s territory with services of general interest and social cohesion, but Slovenia is less consistent in ensuring more balanced territorial competitiveness. 5 Conclusion This article used selected services of general interest (public administration, education, healthcare, and the judiciary) to determine which settlements comprised the network of central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 and what are their chief characteristics. Based on our own methodology, we defined six levels of central settlements and matched the corre- sponding settlements to them: 1. National centers of international importance (two settlements; in this case, Maribor is a settlement clus- ter, which means that together with certain other settlements forms a group of morphologically connected settlements that, despite their administrative division into several settlements, operate as a function- ally connected whole; in the text, settlement clusters are underlined): Ljubljana and Maribor; 2. Centers of national importance (5): Celje, Nova Gorica, Koper, Novo mesto, and Kranj; 3. Centers of regional importance (12): Domžale-Kamnik, Ptuj, Velenje, Jesenice, Murska Sobota, Trbovlje, Piran, Slovenj Gradec, Izola, Škofja Loka, Brežice, and Krško; 4. Centers of inter-municipal importance (38); 5. Centers of local importance (55); and 6. Centers of rural importance (248). The 360 central settlements were importantly influenced by historical development; among other things, especially by both local government reforms, which in many ways defined the development of the poly- centric settlement system in Slovenia, especially from the perspective of cohesion at the level of centers of inter-municipal, local, and rural importance. Among other factors, we highlight strong centralization, which is a consequence of the concentration of essential national institutions in the capital city. Economic development also follows this, which is evidenced by Ljubljana’s dominant share of export companies, researchers, and patents. From the perspective of uniform spatial coverage, the supply of Slovenian territory with services of general interest is relatively satisfactory, but this should be improved with elements that promote com- petitiveness. In these efforts, attention should especially be directed toward centers of national and regional importance. 20 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 20 6 Literature Benkovič Krašovec, M. 2006: Vloga centralnih naselij prve in druge stopnje pri razvoju slovenskega podeželja. Doktorska disertacija, Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, Ljubljana. Bole, D. 2004: Daily mobility of workers in Slovenia. Acta Geographica Slovenica 44-1. DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.3986/AGS44102 Bole, D. 2011: Changes in Employee Commuting: A Comparative Analysis of Employee Commuting to Major Slovenian Employment Centers from 2000 to 2009. Acta geographica Slovenica 51-1. DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.3986/AGS51104 Bole, D., Gabrovec, M., Nared, J., Razpotnik Visković, N. 2012: Integrated planning of public passenger transport between the city and the region: the case of Ljubljana. Acta geographica Slovenica 52-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS52106 Bristow, G., Healy, A. 2014: Regional resilience: an agency perspective. Regional studies 48-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2013.854879 Castells, M. 1996: The Rise of the Network Society. Malden. Christaller, W. 1933: Die zentralen Orte in Süddeutschland. Jena. Cigale, D. 2002: Centralna naselja v Sloveniji in njihova vplivna območja v letu 1999. Geografski vestnik 74-1. Dale, B. E., Sjøholt, P. 2007: The changing structure of the central place system in Trøndelag, Norway, over the past 40 years – viewed in the light of old and recent theories and trends. Geografiska Annaler, Series B, Human Geography 89-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0467.2007.00257.x Drozg, V. 2005: Koncepti policentrične ureditve Slovenije. Dela 24. ESPON Evidence Brief, 2013. Internet: https://www.espon.eu/main/Menu_Publications/Menu_ EvidenceBriefs/EEB4_Services-General-Interest.html (8. 3. 2016). Evropske prostorske razvojne perspektive, 2000. Ljubljana. Global Competitive Index, 2016. Internet: http://reports.weforum.org/global-competitiveness-report- 2015–2016/competitiveness-rankings/ (1. 3. 2016). Global Creativity Index, 2016. Internet: http://reports.weforum.org/global-competitiveness-report- 2015–2016/competitiveness-rankings/ (1. 3. 2016). Green, N. 2007: Functional polycentricity: a formal definition in terms of social network analysis. Urban Studies 44-11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00420980701518941 Karlsson, C., Olsson, M. 2006: The identification of functional regions: theory, methods, and applications. Annales of Regional Sciences 40-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00168-005-0019-5 Kloosterman, R. C., Musterd, S. 2001: The polycentric urban region: Towards a research agenda. Urban Studies 38-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00420980120035259 Kokole, V. 1971: Centralni kraji v SR Sloveniji, problemi njihovega omrežja in njihovih gravitacijskih območij. Geografski zbornik 12. Martin, R., Sunley, P. 2006: Path dependence and regional economic evolution. Journal of Economic Geography 6-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbl012 Meijers, E. 2007: From central place to network model: theory and evidence of a paradigm change. Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie 98-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9663.2007.00394.x Meijers, E. 2008: Measuring polycentricity and its promises. European Planning Studies 16-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09654310802401805 Nared, J. 2007: Prostorski vplivi slovenske regionalne politike. Geografija Slovenije 16. Ljubljana. Nared, J., Bole, D., Ciglič, R. 2016: Določanje stičnih naselij za vrednotenje opremljenosti naselij s storitvami splošnega in splošnega gospodarskega pomena. Prostorski podatki. GIS v Sloveniji 13. Ljubljana. Nared, J., Bole, D., Breg Valjavec, M., Ciglič, R., Černič Istenič, M., Goluža, M., Kozina, J., Lapuh, L., Razpotnik Visković, N., Repolusk, P., Rus, P., Tiran, J. 2016: Policentrično omrežje središč in dostopnost prebivalstva do storitev splošnega in splošnega gospodarskega pomena. Končno poročilo. Ljubljana. Noguera-Tur, J., Martínez, A. F. 2014: Accessibility and provision of services of general interest in rural areas of the european union: an analysis of the eurobarometer. Boletín de la Asociación de Geógrafos Españoles 64. Pak, M., Batagelj, M., Hrvatin, M. 1987: Problematika centralnih naselij na Notranjskem. Notranjska, zbornik 14. zborovanja slovenskih geografov. Postojna. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 21 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 21 Central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 Parr, J. 2004: The polycentric urban region: A closer inspection. Regional Studies 38-3. DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.1080/003434042000211114 Patenti, 2016. Internet: http://www2.uil-sipo.si/ (15. 1. 2016). Policentrično omrežje središč in dostopnost prebivalstva do storitev splošnega in splošnega gospodarskega pomena: zapisnik 1. javnega posveta. Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU. Ljubljana 2015. Internet: http://giam.zrc-sazu.si/sites/default/files/priponka_3_centralna_naselja_1_-_posvet_zapisnik.pdf (21. 6. 2016). Ravbar, M. 1997: Slovene cities and suburbs in transformation. Geografski zbornik 37. Ravbar, M. 2005: »Urban sprawl«: popačena slika (sub)urbanizacije v Sloveniji? Geografski vestnik 77-1. Ravbar, M. 2007: Geografija človeških virov v Sloveniji – pomen ustvarjalnih socialnih skupin za regionalni razvoj. Geografski vestnik 79-2. Ravbar, M. 2009: Economic geographical assessment of investments – a development factor in regional development. Acta geographica Slovenica 49-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS49105 Ravbar, M. 2011: Creative social groups in Slovenia: contribution to geographic studying of human resources. Acta geographica Slovenica 51-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS51204 Ravbar, M., Bole, D., Nared, J. 2005: A creative milieu and the role of geography in studying the competitiveness of cities: the case of Ljubljana. Acta Geographica Slovenica 45-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS45201 Rus, P. 2013: Centralnost naselij z vidika dosedanjih študij. Seminarska naloga pri predmetu Filozofija in epistemologija raziskovanja. Univerza na Primorskem, Fakulteta za management. Koper. Rus, P., Razpotnik Visković, N., Nared, J. 2013: Upravljanje območij z vidika sprememb funkcijskih zaledij centralnih krajev: primer Gorenjske. Gorenjska v obdobju glokalizacije. Bled. Sassen, S. 1991: The global city. Princeton. SICRIS, 2016. Internet: http://www.sicris.si/public/jqm/cris.aspx?lang=slv&opdescr=home&opt=1 (15. 1. 2016). SLOEXPORT, 2016. Internet: http://www.sloexport.si (1. 3. 2016). Strategija prostorskega razvoja Slovenije. 2004. Internet: http://www.mop.gov.si/fileadmin/mop.gov.si/ pageuploads/publikacije/sprs_slo.pdf (24. 3. 2016). von Thünen, J. H. 1842: Der isolirte Staat in in Beziehung auf Landwirtschaft und Nazionalökonomie. Jena. Vrišer, I. 1967: O centralnih naseljih. Geografski vestnik 39. Vrišer, I. 1978: Slovensko urbano omrežje in policentrični razvoj. Zbornik II. Slovensko-slovaškega geografskega simpozija. Maribor. Vrišer, I. 1988: Centralna naselja v SR Sloveniji leta 1987. Geografski zbornik 28. Zavodnik Lamovšek, A. (ur.) 2011: Funkcionalne regije – izziv prihodnjega razvoja Slovenije. Ljubljana. Zavodnik Lamovšek, A., Drobne, S., Žaucer, T. 2008: Majhna in srednje velika mesta kot ogrodje policentričnega urbanega razvoja. Geodetski vestnik 52-2. 22 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 22 23 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 23 Cen tral na na se lja v Slo ve ni ji leta 2016 Cen tral na na se lja v Slo ve ni ji leta 2016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4606 UDK: 911.37(497.4)»2016« COBISS: 1.01 IZVLEČEK: Na men pris pev ka je pred sta vi ti cen tral na na se lja v Slo ve ni ji in nji ho ve po gla vit ne zna čil no - sti leta 2016. Cen tral na na se lja smo opre de li li na pod la gi sto ri tev splo šne ga po me na in šte vi la pre bi val cev v po sa mez nem na se lju ter ana li zo nad gra di li s ka zal ni ki kon ku renč no sti. Na še stih stop njah cen tral no sti smo opre de li li 360 cen tral nih na se lij, med ka te ri mi na raš ča po men Ljub lja ne kot na cio nal ne ga sre diš ča med - na rod ne ga po me na ter sre dišč me dob čin ske ga, lo kal ne ga in vi ci nal ne ga po me na. Manj ša se po men ne ka te rih re gio nal nih sre dišč na dru gi in tret ji stop nji cen tral no sti. Oprem lje nost slo ven ske ga ozem lja s stori tva mi splo šne ga po me na je raz me ro ma us trez na, a bi jo bilo tre ba nad gra di ti s spod bu ja njem kon ku renč no sti, zla sti v sre diš čih na cio nal ne ga in re gio nal ne ga po me na. KLJUČNE BESEDE: geografija, sistem poselitve, centralna naselja, storitve splošnega pomena, kohezivnost, konkurenčnost, policentrizem, stična naselja, somestja, Slovenija Ured niš tvo je pre je lo pris pe vek 31. maja 2016. NASLOVI: dr. Ja nez Na red Geo graf ski in šti tut An to na Me li ka Znans tve no ra zi sko val ni cen ter Slo ven ske aka de mi je zna no sti in umet no sti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: ja nez.na red @zrc-sazu.si dr. Da vid Bole Geo graf ski in šti tut An to na Me li ka Znans tve no ra zi sko val ni cen ter Slo ven ske aka de mi je zna no sti in umet no sti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: da vid.bole @zrc-sazu.si dr. Ma te ja Breg Va lja vec Geo graf ski in šti tut An to na Me li ka Znans tve no ra zi sko val ni cen ter Slo ven ske aka de mi je zna no sti in umet no sti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: ma te ja.breg @zrc-sazu.si dr. Rok Ci glič Geo graf ski in šti tut An to na Me li ka Znans tve no ra zi sko val ni cen ter Slo ven ske aka de mi je zna no sti in umet no sti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: rok.ci glic @zrc-sazu.si Ma ru ša Go lu ža Geo graf ski in šti tut An to na Me li ka Znans tve no ra zi sko val ni cen ter Slo ven ske aka de mi je zna no sti in umet no sti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: ma ru sa.go lu za @zrc-sazu.si 24 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 24 dr. Jani Ko zi na Geo graf ski in šti tut An to na Me li ka Znans tve no ra zi sko val ni cen ter Slo ven ske aka de mi je zna no sti in umet no sti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: jani.ko zi na @zrc-sazu.si dr. Nika Raz pot nik Vi sko vi ć Geo graf ski in šti tut An to na Me li ka Znans tve no ra zi sko val ni cen ter Slo ven ske aka de mi je zna no sti in umet no sti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: nika.raz pot nik @zrc-sazu.si Pe ter Re po lusk Geo graf ski in šti tut An to na Me li ka Znans tve no ra zi sko val ni cen ter Slo ven ske aka de mi je zna no sti in umet no sti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: pe ter.re po lusk @zrc-sazu.si Pe tra Rus Geo graf ski in šti tut An to na Me li ka Znans tve no ra zi sko val ni cen ter Slo ven ske aka de mi je zna no sti in umet no sti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: pe tra.rus @zrc-sazu.si dr. Jer nej Ti ran Geo graf ski in šti tut An to na Me li ka Znans tve no ra zi sko val ni cen ter Slo ven ske aka de mi je zna no sti in umet no sti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: jer nej.ti ran @zrc-sazu.si dr. Maj da Čer nič Is te nič Druž be no me di cin ski in šti tut Znans tve no ra zi sko val ni cen ter Slo ven ske aka de mi je zna no sti in umet no sti Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljub lja na, Slo ve ni ja E-po šta: maj da ci @zrc-sazu.si Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 25 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 25 Cen tral na na se lja v Slo ve ni ji leta 2016 1 Uvod Cen tral na na se lja so pred met stro kov ne raz pra ve že vse od von Thüne no ve ga dela (von Thünen 1842), a so se uve lja vi la še le s Chri stal ler je vo (1933) teo ri jo cen tral nih na se lij. V njej so cen tral na na se lja opre de lje - na kot »več ja in manj ša po li tič na, kul tur na, gos po dar ska in pro met na sre diš ča, ki so na sta la kot izraz po li tič ne ga, kul tur ne ga in gos po dar ske ga de lo va nja člo veš ke druž be in jih zato mo ra mo sma tra ti kot te melj ni ele ment v funk - cij ski zgrad bi druž be ne ga živ lje nja« (Vri šer 1967, 143). Chri stal ler jih poj mu je kot sre diš ča re gij, ki prek svo jih vpliv nih ob mo čij re gi jo ob li ku je jo in opre de lju je jo. Re gi je in nji ho va sre diš ča se za ra di ne neh ne ga sov pli va nja stal no pri la ga ja jo spre mi nja jo čim se raz me ram, s či mer se spre mi nja tudi si stem cen tral nih na se lij. Pri si ste mu cen tral nih na se lij ima jo po memb no vlo go cen tral ne funk ci je, kot so tr go vi na, obrt, pro - met, šols tvo, zdravs tvo, uprav ne in kul tur ne us ta no ve. Če je za led je majh no, ima na se lje le te melj ne, po go sto upo rab lja ne cen tral ne funk ci je, ki so upo rab ni kom na vo ljo v bli ži ni bi va liš ča, z na raš ča njem stop nje cen - tral no sti na se lja pa so funk ci je vse bolj raz no vrst ne (Vri šer 1967). Cen tral na na se lja v Slo ve ni ji preu ču je mo že od 60-ih let pre te kle ga sto let ja (Vri šer 1967; Ko ko le 1971; Pak, Ba ta gelj in Hr va tin 1987; Vri šer 1988; Ci ga le 2002; Stra te gi ja … 2004; Drozg 2005; Ben ko vič Kra šo - vec 2006; Za vod nik La mov šek, Drob ne in Žau cer 2008; Rus, Raz pot nik Vi sko vi ć in Na red 2013). Zna čil ne so stal ne spre mem be v nji ho vem opre de lje va nju, de lo ma za ra di spre me nje ne me to do lo gi je, še bolj pa za - ra di pro stor skih in druž be nih spre memb (Na red, Bole in Ci glič 2016). Av tor ji so upo rab lja li raz lič ne funk ci je in raz lič no šte vi lo sto penj cen tral no sti, raz lič no je bilo tudi pri do bi va nje po dat kov (an ke te, in sti tu cio na - li zi ra ni viri po dat kov; pre gled ni ca 1). Kot so po ka za le ome nje ne štu di je, je struk tu ra cen tral nih na se lij na viš jih stop njah raz me ro ma sta - bil na, več je spre mem be pa so vid ne v cen tral nih na se ljih niž jih sto penj, zla sti za ra di pro stor skih in druž be nih spre memb v pre te klih de set let jih: re for me lo kal ne sa mou pra ve, cen tra li za ci je, di gi ta li za ci je in po ve ča ne rabe in ter ne ta, iz grad nje av to cest ne ga kri ža in na raš ča jo če mo bil no sti, su bur ba ni za ci je in post su bur ba - ni za ci je, de mo graf skih spre memb, ter cia ri za ci je gos po dars tva in pri va ti za ci je jav nih služb ter gos po dar ske kri ze (Bole s so de lav ci 2012; Rus, Raz pot nik Vi sko vi ć in Na red 2013; Na red, Bole in Ci glič 2016). Si cer red ke so dob ne ra zi ska ve cen tral nih na se lij so iz ho dišč no preu če va nje oprem lje no sti s sto ri tvami nad gra di le z no vi mi vi di ki. V os pred ju so raz pra ve o raz mer ju med ko he ziv nost jo in kon ku renč nost jo (Mei - jers 2008), raz pra ve o funk cij skih re gi jah (Karls son in Ols son 2006; Za vod nik La mov šek 2011) in funk cij skem po li cen triz mu (Green 2007). Mei jers (2007) meni, da je tre ba teo ri jo cen tral nih na se lij nad gra di ti, saj se me sta ne po ve zu je jo le nav pič no, tem več tudi vo do rav no prek de li tve funk cij (so mest ja) in funk cij ske spe - cia li za ci je. Tak šno »mrež no« po ve zo va nje je zna čil nost glo bal ne ga gos po dars tva, zla sti ra sto čih sto ri tve nih sek tor jev, kot so fi nan ce, in for ma ti ka, us tvar jal na in du stri ja in po dob no (Sas sen 1991; Ca stells 1996). Na men pris pev ka je preu či ti omrež je cen tral nih na se lij v Slo ve ni ji leta 2016 z vi di ka oprem lje no sti na - se lij s sto ri tva mi splo šne ga po me na (funk cij ski vi dik). Funk cij ski vi dik opre de lje va nja cen tral nih na se lij, ki ga lah ko ra zu me mo kot ana li zo za go tav lja nja ko he ziv no sti ce lot ne ga dr žav ne ga ozem lja, smo nad gra - di li z iz bra ni mi ele men ti kon ku renč no sti, na tanč ne je z ana li zo raz po re di tve ra zi sko val cev, pa ten tov in naj več jih iz voz nih pod je tij. Pris pe vek je na stal na pod la gi pro jek ta Po li cen trič no omrež je sre dišč in do stop - nost pre bi vals tva do sto ri tev splo šne ga in splo šne ga gos po dar ske ga po me na (Na red s so de lav ci 2016), ki ga je fi nan ci ra lo Mi ni strs tvo Re pub li ke Slo ve ni je za oko lje in pro stor v ok vi ru pre no ve ve ljav ne pro stor ske stra te gi je Slo ve ni je. 2 Me to de Pri ana li zi omrež ja cen tral nih na se lij smo se opr li na sto ri tve splo šne ga po me na, ki jih dr žav ni or ga ni opre - de li jo kot sto ri tve v splo šnem in te re su in se za nje upo rab lja jo po seb ne ob vez no sti jav ne služ be (ESPON Evi den ce Brief 2013; No gue ra-Tur in Martínez 2014). Šir ši na bor sto ri tev smo po tu jih zgle dih (Mei jers 2007) ome ji li na šti ri po gla vit ne funk ci je, in si cer jav no upra vo, šols tvo, zdravs tvo in sods tvo. Ož ji na bor sto ri - tev splo šne ga po me na je omo go čil raz me ro ma pre gled no opre de li tev cen tral nih na se lij. Ob do da ja nju no vih funk cij bi bilo do lo ča nje cen tral nih na se lij manj pre gled no, ker se raz lič ne funk ci je po jav lja jo v is tih na - se ljih, pa do da ja nje no vih funk cij ne bi pri ne slo bis tve no dru gač nih re zul ta tov. Izob li ko va li smo po dat kov no zbir ko oprem lje no sti sre dišč s sto ri tva mi splo šne ga po me na, ki po leg geo re fe ren ci ra nih po dat kov vse bu - je tudi meta po dat ke, po treb ne za sprot no po so dab lja nje po dat kov ne zbir ke. V njej smo za je li 703 na se lja 26 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 26 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 27 Pre gle d n i ca 1: Pr i m er j a v a m e ri l in re zu l ta to v t reh iz br a n ih štu dij (K o k o le 19 71 ; V ri š er 19 88 ; C i ga le 20 02 ) ( Ru s 2 01 3) . Ko ko le 19 71 Vr i še r 1 98 8 Ci g a le 20 02 zb i ra nje po da t ko v kv a li ta t iv n i p ri s to p: ad re s ar j i, t e le fon sk i im e n i ki , kv a li ta t iv n i p ri s to p: ad re s ar j i, t e le fon sk i im e n i ki , kv a li ta t iv n i p ri s to p: te l e fo n s ki im e n ik Slo ve ni j e, po da t ki o c en tra l ni h d e ja v n o s tih se z n a m i u s ta no v, an ke ta; se z n a m i u s ta no v, Re gi s ter de lov nih or ga ni z a c ij o p oš t n ih po slo va l ni ca h, po da t ki o zd rav s tv e n ih do m o v ih, kv an ti t a ti v n i p ri s to p: ak tiv no pr e b i va ls t vo in sa m ou pr av nih sk up no sti , R e g i st er za se b n ih po da t ki o os no v n ih šo lah , a n k e ta v m e s to tvo r n em se k to r ju po d je t n i ko v, po pis pr e b i va ls t va ; kv an ti t a ti v n i p ri s to p: od no s m ed pr e b i va ls t vo m in šte vi l om za po sle nih (d e lo v n i m i m e s ti) v ter cia r n ih in kv ar tar nih de jav no sti h p o k ra j ev nih sk up no sti h (m e s ta ob rav na va na ko t c e lo ta) ug o t av lja nje ob se ga vp liv nih ob m o č ij an ke ti r a n je os no v n ih šo l an ke ti r a n je kra jev nih sk up no sti /k ra j ev nih ur a d ov an ke ti r a n je os no v n ih šo l – ug o t av lja nje , k je pr e b i va l ci za do vo lju je j o r az lič ne po tre be po ra z li č n ih sto ri t va h šte vi l o s to pe nj ce n t ral no sti 9 7 ( 5) 3 Ko ko le sto pe nj ce n t ral no sti ne po i m e n u je , lo k al n a a li k ra j ev na sr e d iš č a; ru ral na al i in du str ij s ka m a k ro r e g io n al n a s re d iš č a; m e z o re gio na l na sr e d iš č a; tem ve č d o lo či le sto p n jo sre diš ča ; k o m u n al n a a li o b č in s ka sr e d iš č a; di s tri kt n a m i kr o re gio na l na sr e d iš č a ali ok rož na sr e d iš č a; ka n t o n al n a a li o kra j na sr e d iš č a; pr o v in c ij s ka al i p o k ra j in s ka sr e d iš č a; re p ub liš ka sre diš ča raz vrš ča nje ce n t ral nih na se lij raz vr s ti t ev in di k a to r je v g le d e n a p o g o s to st raz vr s ti t ev in di k a to r je v g le d e n a p o g o s to st op rem lje no st s f un k c i ja m i/s to ri t ve ni m i d e ja v n os t m i: v h ie r ar h ič n o s to p n jo ce n t ral no sti po jav lja nja po jav lja nja • de jav no sti , k i s o z a s to pa ne v od 15 0 d o 5 00 na se ljih ; • de jav no sti , k i s o z a s to pa ne v ve č k ot 50 in m an j k ot 10 0 n a s e lj ih; • de jav no sti , k i s o z a s to pa ne v m an j k ot 20 na se ljih 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 27 Cen tral na na se lja v Slo ve ni ji leta 2016 z vsaj eno od šti rih po gla vit nih funk cij. Po dat kov na zbir ka te me lji na Po slov nem re gi stru Slo ve ni je (AJPES) ter zbir kah mi ni str stev in agen cij. Iz ha ja joč iz do se da njih opre de li tev cen tral nih na se lij, pred lo gov fo ku sne sku pi ne in de lav ni ce z zain - te re si ra no jav nost jo (Po li cen trič no omrež je … 2015) smo opre de li li šest sto penj cen tral no sti (pre gled ni ca 2). Stop njo cen tral no sti smo na eni stra ni do lo či li na pod la gi šte vi la pre bi val cev v po sa mez nem na se lju, na dru - gi stra ni pa smo po sa mez ni funk ci ji pri pi sa li, ka te ri stop nji cen tral no sti us tre za. Vred no te nje skup ne stop nje cen tral no sti smo opra vi li s se stav lje nim in dek som stop nje cen tral no sti (stcen). V in dek su smo ena ko vredno upo šte va li pov preč no stop njo cen tral no sti, iz ha ja joč iz šti rih funk cij , in stop njo cen tral no sti z vi - di ka šte vi la pre bi val cev (stpop). (1) 28 st f st cen pop = +∑1 4 4 2 f1 4 4 ∑      ! Pre gled ni ca 2: Stop nja cen tral no sti na se lij in me ri la za po sa mez no stop njo. stop nja cen tral no sti šte vi lo pre bi val cev pri ča ko va ne funk ci je 1. na cio nal no sre diš če med na rod ne ga po me na 100.001 in več • se dež jav ne uni ver ze • uni ver zi tet ni kli nič ni cen ter • viš je so diš če 2. sre diš če na cio nal ne ga po me na od 20.001 do 100.000 • se dež vi so ke šo le, fa kul te te ali aka de mi je • več ja splo šna bol ni šni ca 3. sre diš če re gio nal ne ga po me na od 10.001 do 20.000 • okrož no so diš če • se dež viš je šo le • bol ni šni ca • se dež sred nje šo le 4. sre diš če me dob čin ske ga po me na od 3001 do 10.000 • zdravs tve ni dom • uprav na eno ta • okraj no so diš če 5. sre diš če lo kal ne ga po me na od 1501 do 3000 • po pol na os nov na šo la • zdravs tve na po sta ja • se dež ob či ne 6. sre diš če vi ci nal ne ga po me na od 501 do 1500 • po druž ni ca os nov ne šo le Pri raz vrš ča nju na se lij v po sa mez no stop njo cen tral no sti smo do lo či li na sled nje meje raz re dov (pre - gled ni ca 3). Pre gled ni ca 3: Meje raz re dov pri opre de lje va nju sto penj cen tral no sti. stop nja cen tral no sti vred nost in dek sa cen tral no sti 1. na cio nal no sre diš če med na rod ne ga po me na do 1,50 2. sre diš če na cio nal ne ga po me na od 1,51 do 2,50 3. sre diš če re gio nal ne ga po me na od 2,51 do 3,50 4. sre diš če me dob čin ske ga po me na od 3,51 do 4,50 5. sre diš če lo kal ne ga po me na od 4,51 do 5,50 6. sre diš če vi ci nal ne ga po me na nad 5,51 6a. sre diš če vi ci nal ne ga po me na z manj kot 500 pre bi val ci šte vi lo pre bi val cev pod 500 in vsaj dve funk ci ji Za ra di raz pr še ne po se li tve je v Slo ve ni ji ve li ko šte vi lo raz me ro ma do bro oprem lje nih na se lij z manj kot 500 pre bi val ci, kar smo spr va opre de li li kot spod nje šte vi lo pre bi val cev v cen tral nem na se lju. Zato smo do da li novo ka te go ri jo cen tral nih na se lij z manj kot 500 pre bi val ci, ki pa so mo ra la ime ti vsaj dve od obrav - na va nih šti rih funk cij. 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 28 Ugo to vi li smo tudi, da več ad mi ni stra tiv nih na se lij le ži te sno eno ob dru gem, funk ci je pa so ena ko - mer no po raz de lje ne med nji mi, kar po me ni, da po sa mez no na se lje ni nuj no do volj ve li ko ali oprem lje no, če pa jih zdru ži mo, zdru že no na se lje za do sti tako me ri lu ve li ko sti kot oprem lje no sti. To vrst na na se lja smo poi me no va li stič na na se lja (v be se di lu so ta na se lja pod čr ta na). Opre de li li smo jih kot sku pek mor fo loško po ve za nih na se lij, ki kljub ad mi ni stra tiv ni raz čle nje no sti na več na se lij de lu je jo kot funk cij sko po ve za na ce lo ta. Tak šna na se lja so mo ra la za do sti ti dve ma kri te ri je ma: da ima jo ve či no (> 50 %) svo jih pre bi val cev na ob moč jih več je zgo sti tve hi šnih šte vilk (> 1,5 hi šne šte vil ke/ha v pol me ru 800 me trov), in da so ob moč - ja več jih zgo sti tev nuj no ne pre ki nje no po ve za na z vsaj še enim to vrst nim ob moč jem dru ge ga na se lja. Tako smo do lo či li 56 ob mo čij, jih pre ve ri li še z vi zual nim og le dom le tal skih po snet kov in pre gle dom za sto pa - no sti šti rih funk cij ter tako sez nam cen tral nih na se lij raz ši ri li za do dat nih 29 stič nih na se lij (sli ka 1). S stič ni mi na se lji smo lah ko bo lje oce ni li ra ven oprem lje no sti zla sti na ob moč jih str njene po se li tve in de li tve funk - cij med po sa mez ni mi na se lji, na pri mer Nova Go ri ca–Šem pe ter–Vr toj ba, Pi ran–Lu ci ja … (Na red, Bole in Ci glič 2016). Sli ka 1: Stič na na se lja (Na red, Bole in Ci glič 2016). Glej an gleš ki del pris pev ka. Za ana li zo omrež ja cen tral nih na se lij z vi di ka kon ku renč no sti smo preu či li tri ka zal ni ke: iz voz v milijo - nih evrov po se de žu pod je tij leta 2015 (SLOEXPORT 2016), šte vi lo ra zi sko val cev po kra ju dela (SICRIS 2016) in šte vi lo pa ten tov po kra ju imet ni ka v ob dob ju 1991–2016 (Pa ten ti 2016). Zad nja dva ka zal ni ka sta po - go sto se stav ni del me ri tev glo bal ne ga ka zal ni ka kon ku renč no sti (Glo bal Com pe ti ti ve … 2016) in glo bal ne ga ka zal ni ka us tvar jal no sti (Glo bal Crea ti vity … 2016), zato sta pri mer na tudi za na šo ana li zo kon ku renč - no sti. Sta ti stič no po ve za nost ve li ko sti na se lij, nji ho ve oprem lje no sti s sto ri tva mi splo šne ga po me na in kon ku renč no sti smo izra ču na li s po moč jo Spear ma no ve ga ko re la cij ske ga koe fi cien ta (ρ). 3 Re zul ta ti Na pod la gi pred stav lje ne me to do lo gi je smo v Slo ve ni ji opre de li li 360 cen tral nih na se lij (sli ka 2), v ka te - rih ži vi 1.318.051 pre bi val cev, kar je sla bih 9,2% na se lij in 64% pre bi val cev. Dve na se lji sta na cio nal ni sre diš či med na rod ne ga po me na (Ljub lja na, Ma ri bor), pet je sre dišč na cio nal ne ga po me na (Ce lje, Nova Go ri ca, Ko per, Novo me sto, Kranj), 12 sre dišč re gio nal ne ga po me na (Dom ža le-Kam nik, Ptuj, Ve le nje, Je se ni ce, Mur ska So bo ta, Tr bov lje, Pi ran, Slo venj Gra dec, Izo la, Škof ja Loka, Bre ži ce, Krš ko), 38 sre dišč me dob činske - ga po me na, 55 sre dišč lo kal ne ga po me na, in 248 sre dišč vi ci nal ne ga po me na, med ka te re smo uvr sti li tudi 49 sre dišč z manj kot 500 pre bi val ci, a z vsaj dve ma po gla vit ni ma funk ci ja ma; v be se di lu so stič na na selja pod čr ta na. Sli ka 2: Cen tral na na se lja v Slo ve ni ji 2016. Glej an gleš ki del pris pev ka. Z vi di ka cen tral nih funk cij in ve li ko sti na se lja je moč no v os pred ju Ljub lja na. Po memb no vlo go kot dru go naj več je me sto ohra nja Ma ri bor. Med os ta li mi re gio nal ni mi sre diš či dru go stop njo cen tral no sti do - se ga pet na se lij (Ce lje, Nova Go ri ca, Ko per, Novo me sto, Kranj), tret jo stop njo pa šti ri (pet) (Mur ska So bo ta, Tr bov lje, Slo venj Gra dec, so mest je Krš ko-Bre ži ce). Naj šib kej ša med re gio nal ni mi sre diš či je Po stoj na, ki se uvrš ča na ra ven me dob čin skih sre dišč. Z vi di ka ve li ko sti na se lja in nje go ve gos po dar ske mo či je s funkcija - mi po do prem lje no Ve le nje, kar je v ve li ki meri po sle di ca nje go ve lege med bliž nji ma re gio nal ni ma sre diš če ma, Ce ljem in Slo venj Grad cem. Ljub lja na ima ve lik uprav ni in gos po dar ski vpliv in po sta ja po memb no me tro po li tan sko sre diš če. Gos - po dar ski po men na se lij na dru gi in tret ji stop nji cen tral no sti sla bi, po ve čan vpliv pa zno va zaz na mo na rav ni ob čin skih sre dišč. Sled nje lah ko pri pi še mo re for mi lo kal ne sa mou pra ve in »lo ka li za ci ji« re gio nal - ne po li ti ke; o re gio nal nih pro jek tih od lo ča jo žu pa ni, ki da je jo pred nost lo kal nim pro jek tom. Na sta nek šte vil nih no vih ob čin je moč no vpli val na šte vi lo cen tral nih na se lij še ste stop nje, zla sti tistih, ki ne do se ga jo meje 500 pre bi val cev. Sklad no z ve li kost no se sta vo slo ven skih ob čin ta na se lja pre vla dujejo v vzhod ni Slo ve ni ji. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 29 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 29 Cen tral na na se lja v Slo ve ni ji leta 2016 30 Z vi di ka stič nih na se lij je smi sel no opo zo ri ti zla sti na Dom ža le-Kam nik in Novo Go ri co. Stič no na - se lje Dom ža le-Kam nik je le mor fo loš ko po ve za no na se lje brez de li tve funk cij, saj sta obe glav ni na se lji sre diš či me dob čin ske ga po me na. Nas prot no pa je mor fo loš ka po ve za nost Nove Go ri ce in na se lij Šem pe ter pri Go - ri ci, Krom berk, Pri sta va, Rož na Do li na, Sol kan in Vr toj ba nad gra je na z de li tvi jo funk cij, zla sti med Šem pe trom pri Go ri ci in Novo Go ri co. Za ni mi va je tudi pri mer ja va stop nje cen tral no sti z vi di ka ve li ko sti na se lja in z vi di ka oprem lje no sti na se lja s po sa mez ni mi funk ci ja mi. Več ja na se lja so pra vi lo ma bo lje oprem lje na s funk ci ja mi kot manj ša. Če ra ven cen tral no sti po funk ci jah pre se ga ra ven cen tral no sti po šte vi lu pre bi val cev, je na se lje na do prem - lje no, v nas prot nem pri me ru pa po do prem lje no (sli ka 3). Sli ka 3: Raz li ka med stop njo cen tral no sti po funk ci jah in stop njo cen tral no sti gle de na šte vi lo pre bi val cev v na se lju. Glej an gleš ki del pris pev ka. Nad pov preč no oprem lje na so zla sti na se lja na manj ur ba ni zi ra nih pre de lih dr ža ve, kar si lah ko razla - ga mo z za vest nim ena ko mer nim za go tav lja njem funk cij po ce lot nem dr žav nem ozem lju kot po sle di co po li ti ke po li cen trič ne ga ur ba ne ga raz vo ja od 60-ih let pre te kle ga sto let ja da lje. Pri tem je tre ba upo šte va ti, da bi se ob pri la ga ja nju funk cij ve li ko sti na se lja red ke je po se lje na ob moč ja soo ča la z raz me ro ma sla bo oprem - lje nost jo. Po do prem lje na so zla sti sre diš ča v bli ži ni več jih mest, kar je po sle di ca su bur ba ni za ci je, ki je bila izra - zi ta zla sti v zad njih 40-ih le tih (Rav bar 1997 in 2005). Za ra di se li tev pre bi val cev na obrob je mest se je v teh na se ljih moč no po ve ča lo šte vi lo pre bi val cev, os kr ba s funk ci ja mi pa se temu ni do volj hi tro pri la ga ja la. Med cen tral ni mi na se lji je samo v 23-ih se dež več je ga iz voz ne ga pod jet ja (več od 0,5 % slo ven ske ga iz vo za). V tem ozi ru nad pov preč no iz sto pa jo Ljub lja na, Novo me sto in Ve le nje, ki sku paj us tva ri jo več kot 50 % vse ga slo ven ske ga iz vo za. Od več jih cen tral nih na se lij Ma ri bor (1. stop nja), Mur ska So bo ta, Slo venj Gra dec, Tr bov lje, Bre ži ce in Izo la (3. stop nja) sploh ni ma jo se de ža več je ga iz voz ne ga pod jet ja. Gle de na stop njo cen tral no sti so raz me ro ma šib ki tudi Ce lje, Kranj in Nova Go ri ca (2. stop nja) ter Dom ža le-Kamnik, Ptuj in Krš ko (3. stop nja). Obrat no je ve li ko iz voz nih pod je tij v Škof ji Loki (3. stop nja) in ne ka te rih centralnih na se ljih niž jih sto penj, kot so Slo ven ska Bi stri ca in Idri ja (4. stop nja), Me ži ca in Zre če (5. stopnja) ter Nazarje in Spod nja Idri ja (6. stop nja). V slo ven skih ra zi sko val nih or ga ni za ci jah je leta 2016 za pol ni, do dat ni in skraj šan de lov ni čas za po - sle nih 10.100 ra zi sko val cev, kar us tre za 8988 pol no za po sle nim ra zi sko val cem. Nji ho va raz po re di tev med 69 cen tral ni mi na se lji je si cer ne ko li ko bolj raz pr še na od iz voz no us mer je nih pod je tij, ven dar med nji mi izra zi to iz sto pa Ljub lja na (69 %), ka te ri z ve li kim zao stan kom sle di Ma ri bor (12 %), os ta la sre diš ča pa ima - jo bis tve no manj ra zi sko val cev. Več kot en od sto tek slo ven skih ra zi sko val cev je še v na se ljih Ko per, Novo me sto, Ce lje in Ro di ca. V ob dob ju 1991–2016 je bilo v Slo ve ni ji po de lje nih oko li 5800 pa ten tov. Nji ho va raz po re di tev med cen tral ni mi na se lji je bolj raz pr še na od ra zi sko val cev in iz voz no us mer je nih pod je tij, saj so lah ko pa tentni Pre gled ni ca 4: Sta ti stič na po ve za nost ka zal ni kov kon ku renč no sti cen tral nih na se lij z nji ho vo ve li kost jo in oprem lje nost jo s sto ri tva mi (Spear ma nov koe fi cient ko re la ci je). iz voz (v mi li jo nih evrov) šte vi lo ra zi sko val cev šte vi lo pa ten tov (N na se lij = 23) (N na se lij = 69) (N na se lij = 228) stop nja na se lja gle de na šols tvo 0,399 0,651 0,489 stop nja na se lja gle de na zdravs tvo 0,511 0,480 0,511 stop nja na se lja gle de na jav no upra vo 0,644 0,271 0,478 stop nja na se lja gle de na sods tvo 0,509 0,514 0,470 pov preč na stop nja gle de na šols tvo, zdravs tvo, jav no upra vo in sods tvo 0,475 0,544 0,539 stop nja na se lja gle de na šte vi lo pre bi val cev 0,572 0,531 0,601 pov preč na stop nja gle de na šols tvo, zdravs tvo, jav no upra vo in sods tvo ter šte vi lo pre bi val cev 0,524 0,557 0,592 le že če ob li ko va no be se di lo: po ve za nost je zna čil na pri stop nji tve ga nja p < 0,05 (dvo stran ska). krep ko ob li ko va no be se di lo: po ve za nost je zna čil na pri stop nji tve ga nja p < 0,01 (dvo stran ska). 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 30 pri ja vi te lji tudi fi zič ne ose be. Kljub temu med 228 cen tral ni mi na se lji po nov no moč no iz sto pa Ljub lja na z 31 % vseh slo ven skih pa ten tov, ki ji z ve li kim zao stan kom sle di jo Ma ri bor (7 %), Ve le nje, Kranj in Novo me sto (vsak po 3 %) ter Ce lje (2 %), med tem ko ima jo os ta la na se lja manj kot dva od stot ka po de lje nih pa - ten tov. Sli ka 4: Kon ku renč nost cen tral nih na se lij v Slo ve ni ji z vi di ka iz voz nih pod je tij, ra zi sko val cev in pa ten tov. Glej an gleš ki del pris pev ka. Kon ku renč nost cen tral nih na se lij je zmer no sta ti stič no po ve za na z nji ho vo ve li kost jo in oprem lje nostjo s funk ci ja mi (pre gled ni ca 4). Ne naj več ji po ve za no sti bo tru je jo pred vsem ve li ka moč Ljub lja ne, re la tiv no niž ja kon ku renč nost Ma ri bo ra, na se lij 2. stop nje in ve či ne na se lij 3. stop nje ter re la tiv no viš ja kon ku renč - nost ne ka te rih na se lij niž jih sto penj cen tral no sti. 4 Raz pra va Re gio nal na po li ti ka in spod bu ja nje raz vo ja po li cen trič ne ga si ste ma po se li tve sta ime la v pre te klo sti pomemb - no vlo go pri ob li ko va nju na sel bin ske ga si ste ma (Drozg 2005; Na red 2007). K temu sta po leg de kla ra tiv ne us mer je no sti pro stor ske ga raz vo ja v po li cen trič ni si stem po se li tve pris pe va li zla sti obe po memb nej ši re - for mi lo kal ne sa mou pra ve: uved ba ko mu nal ne ga si ste ma v 60-ih in us ta no vi tev no vih ob čin v 90-ih le tih pre te kle ga sto let ja (Drozg 2005; Rus, Raz pot nik Vi sko vi ć in Na red 2013). S tem lah ko po ja sni mo tudi do - bro oprem lje nost na se lij 4., 5. in 6. stop nje cen tral no sti. Na dru gi stra ni se kre pi vlo ga Ljub lja ne (Bole 2004 in 2011; Na red 2007; Rav bar 2007, 2009 in 2011; Rav bar, Bole in Na red 2005), kar je po se bej opaz no po zad nji gos po dar ski kri zi, ko nudi Ljub lja na za po sli tev vse šir še mu za led ju de lav cev (Bole s so de lav ci 2012; Rus, Raz pot nik Vi sko vi ć in Na red 2013). Ven dar pa mo ra mo biti pri raz la gi vlo ge Ljub lja ne pre vid ni, saj so po dat ki o dnev ni mo bil no sti, na pod la gi ka te re smo pre ver ja li vpliv sre dišč (Na red s so de lav ci 2016), ve za ni na po dat ke o de lov nih me stih, kjer po go sto pri ha ja do na pak, saj je kot lo ka ci ja dela več krat na ve - den se dež pod jet ja (npr. v urad nih po dat kih AJPES-a), ne pa nje go ve iz po sta ve, raz meš če ne drug je po Slo ve ni ji (na pri mer Mer ca tor, Pe trol, Slo ven ska voj ska). V zad njih de set let jih sla bi vlo ga po sa mez nih re gio nal nih sre dišč, zla sti Po stoj ne, Kra nja (Rus, Raz - pot nik Vi sko vi ć in Na red 2013) in Mur ske So bo te, kar na eni stra ni na ka zu je na ize na če va nje raz vo ja zno traj re gij, na dru gi pa ve ča nje raz ko ra ka med Ljub lja no in dru gi mi na se lji. Na se da nje sta nje je moč no vpli va la po li cen trič na raz me sti tev funk cij v pre te klo sti, kar na ka zu je na zgo do vin sko po go je ni raz voj na sel bin ske ga si ste ma (an gleš ko path-de pen dent; Mar tin in Sun ley 2006; Bristow in Healy 2014). To zla sti od se va v raz ko ra ku med stop njo cen tral no sti gle de na ve li kost na se lja in stop njo cen tral no sti gle de na funk ci je v na se lju, kjer je zaz na ti, da se funk ci je le po ča si pri la ga ja jo de mo graf skim spre mem bam. Do po dob ne ga skle pa lah ko pri de mo tudi pri raz me sti tvi ra zi sko val cev, ki so osre do to če - ni v dveh po gla vit nih uni ver zi tet nih sre diš čih, med tem ko so pa ten ti, ki bi mo ra li biti v do lo če ni meri tudi odraz de jav no sti aka dem ske sfe re, raz po re je ni po pre cej več na se ljih. Re zul ta ti obe nem ka že jo na vpliv prete - klih ideo lo gij na pro stor sko na čr to va nje, saj je bil po li cen tri zem tudi cilj druž be ne ga pla ni ra nja v so cia liz mu. Vri šer (1978) tako ome nja raz voj po li cen trič ne ga si ste ma sklad no z or ga ni zi ra nost jo si ste mov te melj nih or ga ni za cij zdru že ne ga dela, sa mou prav lja nja in po dob no. Navkljub raz lič ni me to do lo gi ji se naše ugo to vi tve uje ma jo s ti sti mi v ra zi ska vi, oprav lje ni na Nor veškem, kjer sta Dale in Sjøholt (2007) na pod la gi opre de li tve cen tral nih na se lij s po moč jo gos po dar skih in negos - po dar skih funk cij v peš do stop no sti ugo tovila, da se spe cia li zi ra ne sto ri tve in trž no us mer je ne funk ci je zgoš ču je jo zla sti v na se ljih z viš jo stop njo cen tral no sti, kjer to rej v os pred je sto pa kon ku renč nost. Na drugi stra ni kra ji z niž jo stop njo cen tral no sti iz gub lja jo trž ne sto ri tve in ohra nja jo le te melj ne funk ci je, kot so šo le in tr go vi ne z me ša nim bla gom. Tam je v os pred ju za go tav lja nje os nov ne ko he ziv no sti dr žav ne ga ozemlja. Si cer pa je na ša ra zi ska va tež je pri mer lji va s so dob ni mi po sku si tu jih ra zi sko val cev, ki se bolj kot na ena ko mer no za go tav lja nje funk cij osre do to ča jo na vlo go kon ku renč no sti in funk cij sko or ga ni za ci jo poli - cen trič nih si ste mov. V os pred ju so pred vsem mrež no po ve zo va nje in gos po dar ska spe cia li za ci ja na se lij in re gij (Parr 2004), fi zič ni po li cen tri zem, ki se meri z dnev no mo bil nost jo ali za po sle nost jo v do lo če nih sre diš čih, po li tič no-uprav ni po li cen tri zem, ki je po sle di ca uprav ne raz de li tve ozem lja, funk cio nal ni po - li cen tri zem, ki na sta ne za ra di spe cia li za ci je mest zno traj ur ba ne ga si ste ma, ter re gio nal no-iden ti tet ni Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 31 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 31 Cen tral na na se lja v Slo ve ni ji leta 2016 po li cen tri zem, ki je po sle di ca zgo do vin skih, sim bol nih in druž be no-kul tur nih pro ce sov (Kloo ster man in Mu sterd 2001). Do lo ča nje cen tral nih na se lij na pod la gi sto ri tev splo šne ga po me na za ja me vi dik kon ku renč no sti zgolj z vi di ka vzpo stav lja nja pod por ne ga oko lja, zato je pri mer no za opre de lje va nje in us mer ja nje pro stor ske or ga ni za ci je dr ža ve, manj pri mer no pa za us mer ja nje gos po dar ske ga raz vo ja. Opre de lje va nje stop nje cen - tral no sti je na mreč te sno po ve za no s po li ti ko po li cen trič ne ga raz vo ja, enim od te melj nih ci ljev pro stor ske ga raz vo ja v Evro pi, pri če mer so Evrop ske pro stor ske raz voj ne pers pek ti ve (2000) pou da ri le tri ci lje pro stor - ske ga raz vo ja Evro pe: • gos po dar ska in so cial na ko he zi ja, • ohra nja nje na rav nih vi rov in kul tur ne de diš či ne ter • te ri to rial no bolj urav no te že na kon ku renč nost. Te ci lje naj bi dr ža ve do se gle prav s po li cen trič nim raz vo jem. Slo ve ni ja sle di za stav lje nim us me ri tvam, pri če mer sta v os pred ju za go tav lja nje os nov ne po kri to sti ozem lja s sto ri tva mi splo šne ga po me na in so - cial na ko he zi ja, manj do sled na pa je Slo ve ni ja pri za go tav lja nju te ri to rial no bolj urav no te že ne kon ku renč no sti. 5 Sklep Na men pris pev ka je bil na pod la gi iz bra nih sto ri tev splo šne ga po me na (jav na upra va, šols tvo, zdravs tvo in sods tvo) ugo to vi ti, ka te ra na se lja se stav lja jo omrež je cen tral nih na se lij v Slo ve ni ji leta 2016 in ka te re so nje go ve po gla vit ne zna čil no sti. Na pod la gi last ne me to do lo gi je smo opre de li li šest sto penj cen tral nih na se lij in jim do lo či li us tre za - jo ča na se lja: 1. na cio nal na sre diš ča med na rod ne ga po me na (2 na se lji; Ma ri bor je v tem pri me ru stič no na se lje, kar po - me ni, da sku paj s še ne ka te ri mi na se lji tvo ri sku pek mor fo loš ko po ve za nih na se lij, ki kljub ad mi ni stra tiv ni raz čle nje no sti na več na se lij de lu je jo kot funk cij sko po ve za na ce lo ta; v be se di lu so stič na na se lja podčr - ta na): Ljub lja na, Ma ri bor; 2. sre diš ča na cio nal ne ga po me na (5): Ce lje, Nova Go ri ca, Ko per, Novo me sto, Kranj; 3. sre diš ča re gio nal ne ga po me na (12): Dom ža le-Kam nik, Ptuj, Ve le nje, Je se ni ce, Mur ska So bo ta, Tr bovlje, Pi ran, Slo venj Gra dec, Izo la, Škof ja Loka, Bre ži ce, Krš ko; 4. sre diš ča me dob čin ske ga po me na (38); 5. sre diš ča lo kal ne ga po me na (55); 6. sre diš ča vi ci nal ne ga po me na (248). Na sku paj 360 cen tral nih na se lij je po memb no vpli val zgo do vin ski raz voj, med dru gim zla sti obe re - for mi lo kal ne sa mou pra ve, ki sta v mar si čem do lo či li raz voj po li cen trič ne ga si ste ma po se li tve v Slo ve ni ji, še po se bej z vi di ka ko he ziv no sti na rav ni sre dišč me dob čin ske ga, lo kal ne ga in vi ci nal ne ga po me na. Med dru gi mi de jav ni ki iz po stav lja mo moč no cen tra li za ci jo, ki je po sle di ca osre do to če no sti bis tve nih dr žav - nih in sti tu cij v glav nem me stu. Temu sle di tudi gos po dar ski raz voj, na kar ka že pre vla du jo či de lež Ljub lja ne v iz voz nih pod jet jih, ra zi sko val cih in pa ten tih. Pre skr ba slo ven ske ga ozem lja z obrav na va ni mi sto ri tva mi splo šne ga po me na je z vi di ka ena ko mer ne pro stor ske po kri to sti raz me ro ma us trez na, a bi jo bilo tre ba nad gra di ti z ele men ti spod bu ja nja kon ku renčno - sti, pri če mer naj se po zor nost na me ni zla sti sre diš čem na cio nal ne ga in sre diš čem re gio nal ne ga po me na. 6 Li te ra tu ra Glej an gleš ki del pris pev ka. 32 57-2_01_4606-Janez Nared_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 32 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017, 33–44 AIR TEMPERATURE TRENDS AT MOUNT ŚNIEŻKA (POLISH SUDETES) AND SOLAR ACTIVITY, 1881–2012 Grzegorz Urban, Karol Tomczyński Mount Śnieżka (1,603 m), November 12th, 2011. G R Z E G O R Z U R B A N 57-2_02_837-Grzegorz Urban_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 33 34 Air temperature trends at Mount Śnieżka (Polish Sudetes) and solar activity, 1881–2012 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.837 UDC: 911.2:551.524(438.3)"1881/2012" COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: This article discusses air temperature variability at Mount Śnieżka in the Sudetes from 1881 to 2012. It analyzes the relationship between changing trends in mean annual air temperature (Tavg) and solar activity, expressed by the mean annual Wolf number. The characteristic feature of changes in annual mean extremes (Tmax, Tmin) and Tavg at Mount Śnieżka is an upward trend. The increase of Tmin (0.148 °C / 10 years) has been twice as fast as that for Tmax (0.069 °C / 10 years). A strong correlation (almost 1.0) was found between the mean annual Wolf number for twenty-two-year cycles of magnetic changes in the Sun and 1988. During the 1989–2012 cycle, there was a strong increase in Tavg and, at the same time, a decrease in the mean annual Wolf number. KEY WORDS: geography, air temperature, long-term trends, impact of changes, mean Wolf number, Mount Śnieżka, Poland The article was submitted for publication on May 20th, 2014. ADDRESSES: Grzegorz Urban Institute of Meteorology and Water Management National Research Institute, Parkowa Str. 30, PL – 51-616 Wrocław, Poland E-mail: grzegorz.urban@imgw.pl, urbag@poczta.onet.pl Karol Tomczyński Institute of Meteorology and Water Management National Research Institute, Parkowa Str. 30, PL – 51-616 Wrocław, Poland E-mail: karol.tomczynski@imgw.pl Grzegorz Urban, Karol Tomczyński, Air temperature trends at Mount Śnieżka (Polish Sudetes) and solar activity, 1881–2012 57-2_02_837-Grzegorz Urban_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 34 Table 1: Comparison of monthly and seasonal mean air temperature (°C) from 1881 to 2012 as provided by IMGW-PIB: (A) derived from various calculation methods and (B) determined using the method adopted in this work. Ja nu ar y Fe br ua ry M arc h Ap ril M ay Ju ne Ju ly Au gu st Se pt em be r Oc to be r No ve m be r De ce m be r W int er (D ec em be r– Fe br ua ry ) Sp rin g ( M arc h– M ay ) Su m m er (Ju ne –A ug us t) Au tu m n ( Se pt em be r– No ve m be r) W arm se as on (M ay –O cto be r) Co ld se as on (J an ua ry– Ap ril an d N ov em be r– De ce m be r) Ye ar (Ja nu ar y– De ce m be r) A –7.0 –7.0 –5.0 –1.4 3.7 6.6 8.5 8.3 5.3 1.5 –2.8 –5.6 –6.5 –0.9 7.8 1.3 5.6 –4.8 0.4 B –7.0 –7.0 –5.0 –1.3 3.9 6.8 8.8 8.6 5.5 1.6 –2.7 –5.6 –6.5 –0.8 8.1 1.5 5.9 –4.8 0.5 35 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 1 Introduction In recent years, much attention has been devoted to air temperature trends in the context of global warm- ing (IPCC 2013). In such research, long and homogenous measuring series are very useful. The best sites for obtaining such series are isolated, high-elevation mountain summits free of local anthropogenic impact and preserving conditions close to those in a free atmosphere. The conditions at such locations make it possible to follow changes in air temperature over time with high reliability. All of these characteristics apply to the Mount Śnieżka Meteorological Observatory (1,603m) in the Sudetes, operating since July 1st, 1880. The climate at Mount Śnieżka has been the subject of many studies (Głowicki 1998, 2000, 2001, 2003; Dubicka and Głowicki 2000a and 2000b; Wibig and Głowicki 2002). Nonetheless, neither its temperature measuring series going back 130 years nor its trends have been discussed. This article analyzes the variability of annual, seasonal, and monthly mean air temperatures from 1881 to 2012. Variability of annual mean air temperature in relation to solar activity, the index of which is the Wolf number, is also discussed. 2 Data and methods The source data used in this paper include monthly and annual mean maximum and minimum air tem- peratures registered at Mount Śnieżka from 1881 to 2012. The data were obtained from the archives of the German Meteorological Service (DWD) in Offenbach, Germany, and the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management, National Research Institute (IMGW-PIB) in Warsaw, Poland. Based on monthly and annual mean maximums and mean minimums, monthly mean and annual mean temperatures were calculated as the arithmetic mean of corresponding mean extremes using the following formula: (Tmax + Tmin) / 2. This equation is commonly used for calculating the daily air temperature in North America, Australia, and several European countries (e.g., the UK; Urban 2010). Consequently, a homoge- nous series of monthly and annual mean values was obtained. The series is free from potential differences resulting from application of various methods of calculating daily mean values during the period analyzed, and consequently differences of calculations of monthly and annual mean values of air temperature based on measurements taken up to twenty-four times a day (Lorenc and Suwalska-Bogucka 1995; Urban 2010). Moreover, the calculation method adopted for mean air temperature works well for long (e. g., annual) time intervals (Urban 2010 and 2013). The method used for calculating both monthly and annual mean values of air temperature yields high- er monthly values in the warm season than the corresponding values provided by IMGW-PIB or the ones referred to in the literature on the subject (which combine different methods). Consequently, the differ- ences are noticeable in the case of values for summer months, the warm season, and also a year. There are no differences for winter months (Table 1). 57-2_02_837-Grzegorz Urban_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 35 Grzegorz Urban, Karol Tomczyński, Air temperature trends at Mount Śnieżka (Polish Sudetes) and solar activity, 1881–2012 36 It must also be noted that the sites of measuring instruments have changed in the history of meteo- rological measurements and observations at Mount Śnieżka. Until May 31st, 1900, thermometers were attached 2.05 m above the ground to an iron stand located beside the north wall of St. Laurence's Chapel. Starting on June 1st, 1900, they were moved to a Stevenson screen placed on the platform of the former observa- tory building, about 16 m above the ground. Finally, since October 23, 1976, the thermometers have been enclosed in a Stevenson screen on the platform of the new observatory, about 14 m above the ground (Głowicki 1998). The absence of an analogical measuring series taken at a relatively close distance in similar climate conditions that could be used as reference data and the lack of ground-level measurements of air ther- micity in a vertical profile make it difficult to test the homogeneity of chronological data series. The air temperature measurement series carried out at Mount Śnieżka since the beginning of the twentieth cen- tury is considered homogenous (Głowicki 1998 and 2000; Wibig and Głowicki 2002). So far, there has been no study to determine whether the series homogeneity was disrupted by the location changes of thermometers in 1900 and 1976. Figure 1: Former IMGW-PIB observatory building at Mount Śnieżka. Figure 2: New IMGW-PIB observatory building at Mount Śnieżka. W A LT E R S T A U D T E ( IN T E R N E T 1 ) G R Z E G O R Z U R B A N 57-2_02_837-Grzegorz Urban_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 36 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 37 In order to test whether the change of the measuring instrument locations in 1900 and 1976 affected the data series homogeneity, a data quality check of series from 1881 to 1919 and from 1957 to 1995 in each category of air temperature data (Tavg, Tmin, Tmax) was carried out using the Abbe criterion (Kożuchowski 1985, following Nosek 1972; Table 2). The years 1900 and 1976, when two instrument sites were functioning, mark the midpoint of the time series tested for homogeneity. The results show that relocating the ther- mometers from the iron stand next to the Saint Laurence's Chapel to the old wooden observatory (Figure 1) and to the new observatory (Figure 2) did not affect the data series homogeneity. Table 2: Homogeneity of air temperature data series at Mount Śnieżka tested using the Abbe criterion and values of annual mean air temperature (°C). Period Abbe test results Tavg (°C) Tavg Tmin Tmax 1881–1919 0.840/0.867/1.160 0.840/0.986/1.160 0.840/0.937/1.160 0.10 1957–1995 0.840/1.007/1.160 0.840/1.054/1.160 0.840/0.988/1.160 0.76 Based on the assessment of air temperature series at Mount Śnieżka, it is possible to draw conclusions on potential climate variability. The measuring series provides such an opportunity because of its unique length, comparable to only a few data series in Europe; namely, from Mount Säntis and Mount Sonnblick (Auer 2004). The characterization and assessment of the data series of temperatures at Mount Śnieżka from 1881 to 2012 was followed by an analysis of variability of the calculated monthly and annual mean air temperature values (the arithmetic average of corresponding mean extreme values) as well as maxi- mum and minimum average values. Moreover, an attempt was made to determine the relationship between annual mean air temperature and the mean annual Wolf number. Wolf numbers were provided by the Royal Observatory of Belgium (SILSO data 2014). The Wolf number (W) is derived from the formula W= k(10g+s), where g is the number of sunspot groups, s is the number of individual spots, and k is a factor that varies with location and instrumentation. 3 Results 3.1 Air temperature trends The mean annual air temperature at Mount Śnieżka for the entire 132-year period is +0.5 °C. The lowest annual mean temperature of –1.2 °C was noted in 1941, and the highest value of +2.3 °C was registered in 2000, 2006, and 2011 (Figure 5). The trend of annual mean temperature at Mount Śnieżka from 1881 to 2012 is 0.108°C / 10 years (Table 3). Many authors give similar values of air thermicity trends in the northern hemisphere in the twentieth centu- ry (Lorenc 1994; Karl et al. 1993; Karl, Nicholls and Gregory 1997; Schönwiese and Rapp 1997; Nojarov 2012; IPCC 2013). The variability of annual mean extreme values (Tmax, Tmin) and the annual mean value (Tavg) of air tem- perature at Mount Śnieżka from 1881 to 2012 is characterized by an upward tendency. The increase rate of Tmin is twice the increase rate of Tmax; that is, 0.148°C / 10 years and 0.069°C / 10 years, respectively (Figure 3, Table 3). Consequently, a decreasing trend in the annual mean amplitude of air temperature is perceptible; that is, –0.080 °C / 10 years. Tmin shows a continuous increase since the beginning of observation (Figure 3). A higher rate of increase of the minimum when compared to the maximum air temperature, causing a  flattening of diurnal amplitudes, is currently observed in many areas of the globe (Karl  et al.  1993; Kejna 2006). This tendency has not yet been explained. It could be the result of synergy of several factors. It is probably related to the escalation of the greenhouse effect, in which greenhouse gasses slow down the rate of heat loss from Earth's surface emitting infrared radiation out into space. Hence, nights warm faster than days. On a global scale, one cause might be increased cosmic radiation, the flux of which is the high- est during solar minimum activity. Cosmic rays increase the ionization of air particles at high altitudes, which can contribute to increased cloudiness over the Earth, and clouds effectively decrease the quanti- ty of heat emitted from the Earth (Svensmark and Friis-Christensen 1997). 57-2_02_837-Grzegorz Urban_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 37 y = 0.0148 x 30.761– y = 0.0069 x – 10.252 –4.5 –4.0 –3.5 –3.0 –2.5 –2.0 –1.5 –1.0 –0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 Years T ( ° C ) Tmin Tmax T mov.avg 11-yrsmin T mov.avg 11-yrsmax 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Figure 3: Changes in annual mean maximum values (Tmax) and mean minimum values (Tmin) of air temperature, trend line, and eleven-year mean consecutive values at Mount Śnieżka, 1881–2012. Table 3: Mean air temperature trends at Mount Śnieżka (°C / 10 years), 1881–2012. Period Tavg Tmax Tmin Year (Jan–Dec) 0.108 0.069 0.148 Warm season (May–Oct) 0.107 0.059 0.151 Cold season (Nov–Apr) 0.105 0.072 0.139 Winter (Dec–Feb) 0.086 0.064 0.114 Spring (Mar–May) 0.124 0.073 0.169 Summer (Jun–Aug) 0.114 0.057 0.167 Autumn (Sept–Nov) 0.106 0.070 0.138 January 0.099 0.078 0.121 February 0.076 0.043 0.109 March 0.121 0.076 0.165 April 0.149 0.104 0.194 May 0.102 0.058 0.147 June 0.099 0.044 0.154 July 0.081 0.026 0.136 August 0.162 0.113 0.210 September 0.052 0.007 0.097 October 0.146 0.128 0.164 November 0.120 0.087 0.154 December 0.090 0.061 0.119 38 Grzegorz Urban, Karol Tomczyński, Air temperature trends at Mount Śnieżka (Polish Sudetes) and solar activity, 1881–2012 57-2_02_837-Grzegorz Urban_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 38 Table 4: Average air temperatures at Mount Śnieżka by decade, 1881–2010. De ca de 18 81 –9 0 18 91 –0 0 19 01 –1 0 19 11 –2 0 19 21 –3 0 19 31 –4 0 19 41 –5 0 19 51 –6 0 19 61 –7 0 19 71 –8 0 19 81 –9 0 19 91 –0 0 20 01 –1 0 T (°C) 0.0 0.3 –0.1 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.8 1.2 1.5 3.2 Solar activity and temperature changes The impact of solar activity and cosmic radiation on the global climate is indisputable (Hoyt and Schatten 1997; Svensmark and Friis-Christensen 1997; Raspopov, Dergachev and Kolström 2004; Lockwood 2012; Harvey 2013). Over the past few centuries of observation, the number of sunspots has increased while the Earth has been warming. It can be concluded that solar activity affects the global climate, causing warming of the planet (Usoskin et al. 2005). This view is shared by Boryczka et al. (2012), who, based on the synchronicity of mul- tiyear changes in air temperature in Warsaw and Wolf numbers, demonstrated that the Sun's activity is one of the principal causes of climate change. However, in recent decades, air temperature has increased considerably, whereas solar activity has shown only small changes and, moreover, a downward trend (Lockwood 2008). Because total solar radiation, ultra- violet radiation, and cosmic ray flux have not shown any significant changing trend in the past thirty years, researchers have concluded that at least the last episode of warming must have a different cause (Usoskin et al. 2005). On the other hand, Scafetta and West (2006) postulate that global warming has been progressing at a much faster rate since 1975 than could be expected if the Sun were the sole cause. Relating this point of view to the situation at Mount Śnieżka, it can be noted that the Wolf numbers have decreased whereas the annual mean air temperature has increased since approximately 1990 (Figures 4 and 5). The most noticeable air temperature increase at Mount Śnieżka was registered between 1989 and 2012 (Figures 3 and 5); it is also in this period that the highest annual mean air temperature in the multiyear period was noted, which was as high as 1.4 °C. Nonetheless, it is difficult to see the relationship between the Wolf number and the annual mean air temperature based on the plot of interannual variation of those two values (Figures 4 and 5). The average duration of full solar magnetic activity cycle is twenty-two years – twice the length of the sunspot cycle. The analysis of the solar variation impact on changes in Tavg at Mount Śnieżka shows that Tavg is strong- ly correlated (the correlation coefficient is close to 1.0) with the mean Wolf number for twenty-two-year solar magnetic activity cycles until 1988. In the 1989–2012 cycle, Tavg increased considerably whereas the mean Wolf number dropped (Figure 6). It is concluded, then, that higher temperatures for the 1989–2012 cycle of solar magnetic variability may reveal a synergy of astrophysical effects, and atmospheric and oceanic circulation, modified by constantly increasing anthropogenic factors. The synergy of factors (including solar activity) impacted the air temperature in Turkey from 1976 to 2006 (Kilcik et al. 2008). Lockwood and Fröhlich (2007) also point out the synergy of factors affecting the global air temperature increase and opposite trends in solar activity and air temperature in the last twen- ty years. Souza Echer et al. (2009) described similar results to those presented in this analysis, showing a high correlation between global anomalies in air temperatures and twenty-two-year solar magnetic cycles from 1880 to 2000. 39 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 Positive trends, with the exception of mid-annual values, are also noticeable for mean seasonal val- ues and mean values of consecutive months (Table 3). Among the seasonal mean values, the highest increase rate occurs for spring, 0.124 °C / 10 years, and the lowest for winter, 0.086 °C / 10 years. The cold season (November–April) and the warm season (May–October) are characterized by an air temperature increase rate almost similar to the annual rate, approximately 0.11 °C / 10 years. A higher variability of tempera- ture increase at Mount Śnieżka from 1881 to 2012 is noted for mean monthly values, from 0.052 °C / 10 years in September to 0.162 °C / 10 years in August. A high increase rate also characterizes April and October, at 0.149 °C / 10 years and 0.146 °C / 10 years, respectively (Table 3). Since the 1970s, a systematic increase in ten-year air temperature averages from +0.5 °C to +1.5 °C has been seen (Table 4). 57-2_02_837-Grzegorz Urban_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 39 y = 0.5028 x – 916.23 y = –3.8592 x + 7781.1 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Wavg 1881–1989 Wavg 1989–2012 Linear (Wavg 1881–1989) Linear (Wavg 1989–2012) W av g y = 0.0108 x – 20.507 y = 0.0196 x – 37.748 –1.5 –1.0 –0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 T 1881–2012avg T 11-yearsmovavg Linear (T 1881–2012)avg Linear (T 1989–2012)avg T av g (° C ) Figure 4: Plot of the mean Wolf number (Wavg), 1881–2012. Figure 5: Annual mean air temperatures (Tavg) at Mount Śnieżka, 1881–2012. Note: the beginning of the second trend is 1989 because it is the beginning of the Sun's last magnetic cycle (see Figure 6). Moreover, a remarkably faster air temperature change has been noted since 1989. 40 Grzegorz Urban, Karol Tomczyński, Air temperature trends at Mount Śnieżka (Polish Sudetes) and solar activity, 1881–2012 57-2_02_837-Grzegorz Urban_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 40 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 W 1989–2012 1883–1904 1905–1927 1928–1946 1947–1967 1968–1988 T ( ) °C y = 0.0117 x − 0.2875 R = 0.9891 linear trend: (1883–1988) 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 CO (ppm)2 1961–1970 2001–2010 1991–2000 1981–1990 1971–1980 T ( ) °C y = 0.0183 x − 5.4339 R = 0.9543 Figure 6: Mean air temperature (T) at Mount Śnieżka and the mean Wolf number (W) for the twenty-two-year solar magnetic activity cycle (1883–1988). Figure 7: Relationship between ten-year average values of air temperature (T) at Mount Śnieżka and CO2 concentration in the Earth's atmosphere, 1961–2010. 41 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 57-2_02_837-Grzegorz Urban_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 41 Grzegorz Urban, Karol Tomczyński, Air temperature trends at Mount Śnieżka (Polish Sudetes) and solar activity, 1881–2012 In this paper, the period between every second maximum of solar activity (eleven-year ones) was taken as a full magnetic cycle. This is due to the fact that magnetic cycle begins with the period of maximum solar activity during which the Sun's magnetic flip takes place and, after two eleven-year cycles (i. e., on average after twenty-two years), the polarity of the Sun returns to its former state (Internet 2). In an attempt to explain the remarkably fast increase in air temperature at Mount Śnieżka despite decreased Wolf numbers from 1989 to 2012, the relationship between air temperature and CO2 concen- tration in the atmosphere was analyzed. The analysis was based on CO2 concentration in the atmosphere measurements conducted at the Mouna Loa Observatory in Hawaii since 1959. Data from Mouna Loa in Hawaii are considered to reflect global changes in CO2 concentration in the Earth's atmosphere. Analysis of ten-year averages indicates a strong relationship between the air temperature increase at Mount Śnieżka and the increase in CO2 concentration. This relationship is the strongest in the last two to three decades (Figure 7). 4 Summary and conclusions The analysis of measuring series of air temperature at Mount Śnieżka demonstrated that the relocation of measurement instruments in 1900 and 1976 did not affect the homogeneity of the data series tested (Tavg, Tmax, Tmin) and that the data can be used for climate change research. Moreover, it is one of the few con- tinuous data series in Europe of such length and is a rich source of information on thermal conditions closely corresponding to those of the free atmosphere. A characteristic feature of variability of annual mean extreme (Tmax, Tmin) and annual mean (Tavg) air temperature at Mount Śnieżka from 1881 to 2012 is its increasing trend. The increase of Tmin is twice as fast as the increase of Tmax; that is, 0.148°C / 10 years and 0.069°C / 10 years, respectively. Consequently, a negative tendency for annual mean air temperature amplitude of –0.080°C / 10 years is noticeable. Analysis of the impact of solar activity on Tavg changes at Mount Śnieżka showed that Tavg is strongly correlated (a directly proportional linear relationship) with the mean Wolf number for twenty-two-year solar magnetic activity cycles up to 1988. However, in the case of the 1989–2012 cycle, a considerable dif- ference can be noticed in comparison to previous cycles from 1883 to 1988. Although Tavg shows a high increase, the mean Wolf number has lower values. The higher temperatures during the 1989–2012 cycle of solar magnetic variability probably reveal a synergy of astrophysical effects and atmospheric and ocean- ic circulation modified by constantly intensifying anthropogenic factors. However, proving this hypothesis requires further research. These conclusions are tentative because they are based on data from one station located in a medium latitude zone, where even a slight change in weather type distribution can result in changes in precipita- tion and temperature. 5 References Auer, I. 2004: 100.Hahresbericht des Sonnblick – Vereines fur das Fahr 2002. Wien. Boryczka, J., Stopa-Boryczka, M., Kossowska-Cezak, U., Wawer, J. 2012: Weryfikacja prognoz okresowych zmian temperatury powietrza w Warszawie w latach 1779–2010. Przegląd Geofizyczny 3-4. Dubicka, M., Głowicki, B. 2000a: Air temperature and cloudiness at Śnieżka between 1901 and 1998. Prace Geograficzne Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego 107. Dubicka, M., Głowicki, B. 2000b: Ekoklimat Karkonoszy w przekroju wieloletnim w świetle wskaźników kompleksowych. Opera Corcontica 37. Głowicki, B. 1998: Wieloletnia seria pomiarów temperatury powietrza na Śnieżce. Geoekologiczne Problemy Karkonoszy 1. Głowicki, B. 2000: 20th-century variability to daily maxima and minima of air temperature in the Sudetic Mountains. Geographia Polonica 73-2. Głowicki, B.  2001: Zmienność rocznego cyklu termicznego na Śnieżce w XX wieku. Prace i Studia Geograficzne 29. 42 57-2_02_837-Grzegorz Urban_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 42 Głowicki, B. 2003: Symptoms of contemporary warming in the 100-year series of temperature measure- ments on the Śnieżka Mountain. Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis – Studia Geograficzne 75-2542. Harvey, J. W.  2013: The Sun in time. Space Science Reviews  176-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s11214-010-9726-z Hoyt, D. V., Schatten, K. H. 1997. The role of the Sun in climate change. Oxford. IPCC, 2013. 5th assessment report climate change 2013. The physical science basis. Internet: http://www.ipcc.ch (23. 10. 2014). Internet 1: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sniezka_Old_02.jpg/ (28. 3. 2014). Internet 2: http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2013/05aug_fieldflip/ (28. 3. 2014). Karl, T. R., Knight, R. W., Gallo, K. P., Peterson, T. C., Jones, P. D., Kukla, G., Plummer, N., Razuvayev, V. N., Lindesay, J., Charlson, R. J. 1993: A new perspective on recent global warming: Asymmetric trends of daily maximum and minimum temperature. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 74-6. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/15200477(1993)074%3C1007:anporg%3E2.0.co;2 Karl, T.R., Nicholls, N., Gregory, J. 1997: The coming climate. Scientific American 276-5. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1038/scientificamerican0597-78 Kejna, M. 2006: Zmiany klimatu w Antarktyce. Zmiany klimatyczne w Arktyce i Antarktyce w ostatnim pięćdziesięcioleciu XX wieku i ich implikacje środowiskowe. Gdynia. Kilcik, A., Özgüç, A., Rozelot, J. P., Yeşilyurt, S. 2008: Possible traces of solar activity effect on the surface air temperature of Turkey. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial physics 70-13. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jastp.2008.07.002 Kożuchowski, K. 1985: Zmienność opadów atmosferycznych Polsce w stuleciu 1881–1980. Acta Geographica Lodziensia 48. Lockwood, M. 2008: Recent changes in solar outputs and the global mean surface temperature. III. Analysis of contributions to global mean air surface temperature rise. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 464-2094. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2007.0348 Lockwood, M. 2012: Solar influence on global and regional climates. Survey in geophysics 33-3. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10712-012-9181-3 Lockwood, M., Frölisch, C. 2007: Recent oppositely directed trends in solar climate forcings and the glob- al mean surface air temperature. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 463-2086. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1098/rspa.2007.1880 Lorenc, H. 1994: Symptomy zmian klimatu w strefach ograniczonych wpływów antropogenicznych. Materiały Badawcze IMGW 19. Lorenc, H., Suwalska-Bogucka, M. 1995: Metody obliczania średniej dobowej temperatury i wilgotności względnej powietrza. Materiały Badawcze IMGW 24. Nojarov, P. 2012: Changes in air temperatures and atmosphere circulation in high mountainous parts of Bulgaria for period  1941–2008. Journal of mountain science 9-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s11629-012-2224-x Nosek, M. 1972: Metody v klimatologii. Praha. Raspopov, O. M., Dergachev, V. A., Kolström, T. 2004: Hale cyclicity of solar activity and its relation to cli- mate variability. Solar physics 224-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11207-005-5251-8 Scafetta, N., West, B. J. 2006: Phenomenological solar signature in 400 years of reconstructed Northern Hemisphere temperature record. Geophysical research letters 33-17. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/ 2006GL027142 Schönwiese, C. D., Rapp, J. 1997: Climate trend atlas of Europe – based on observations 1891–1990. Kluwer. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-8818-8 SILSO data, 2014. Royal Observatory of Belgium. Brussels (http://www.sidc.be/silso/datafiles) (28. 3. 2014). Souza Echer, M. P., Echer, E., Nordemann, D. J. R., Rigozo, N. R. 2009: Multi-resolution analysis of global surface air temperature and solar activity relationship. Journal of atmospheric and solar-terrestrial physics 71-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2008.09.032 Svensmark, H., Friis-Christensen, E. 1997: Variation of cosmic ray flux and global cloud coverage – a miss- ing link in solar-climate relationships. Journal of atmospheric and solar-terrestrial physics 59-11. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1364-6826(97)00001-1 Urban, G. 2010: Ocena wybranych metod obliczania średniej dobowej, miesięcznej i rocznej wartości tem- peratury powietrza (na przykładzie Sudetów Zachodnich i ich przedpola). Opera Corcontica 47-1. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 43 57-2_02_837-Grzegorz Urban_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 43 Grzegorz Urban, Karol Tomczyński, Air temperature trends at Mount Śnieżka (Polish Sudetes) and solar activity, 1881–2012 Urban, G. 2013: Evaluation of accuracy of selected methods of calculation of the daily mean air temper- ature depending on atmospheric circulation (the case study of the Western Sudety Mountains and their foreland). Opera Corcontica 50-S. Usoskin, I. G., Schüssler, M., Solanki, S. K., Mursula, K. 2005: Solar activity over the last 1150 years: Does it correlate with climate? Proceedings 13th Cool Stars Workshop. Hamburg. Internet: http://www.mps.mpg.de/ dokumente/publikationen/solanki/c153.pdf (28. 3. 2014). Wibig, J., Głowicki, B. 2002: Trends of minimum and maximum temperature in Poland. Climate research 20. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/cr020123 44 57-2_02_837-Grzegorz Urban_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:21 Page 44 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017, 45–55 THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF ROCK LANDFORMS IN THE POHOŘSKÁ MOUNTAINS (POHOŘSKÁ HORNATINA), CZECH REPUBLIC Jiří Rypl, Karel Kirchner, Martin Blažek View of the Pohořská Mountains from the Nové Hrady Foothills (Novohradské podhůří) JI Ř Í R Y P L 57-2_03_1184-Jirí Rypl_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 45 Jiří Rypl, Karel Kirchner, Martin Blažek, The spatial distribution of rock landforms in the Pohořská Mountains … The spatial distribution of rock landforms in the Pohořská Mountains (Pohořská hornatina), Czech Republic DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1184 UDC: 911.2:551.43(437.3) COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: Geomorphological mapping with an emphasis on rock landforms was carried out in the Pohořská Mountains Pohořská hornatina) and the positional data acquired were further processed using statistical and cartographical methods. The spatial distribution of rock landforms was investigated in rela- tion to lithology, slope, orientation, and elevation based on an analysis using ArcGIS 9.1. The spatial distribution of rock landforms was primarily determined by the index of distribution Wij = Xi / Yj, where Xi is the per- centage representation of landforms in the appropriate category and Yj is the percentage quotient of this category in the entire area studied, and was secondarily determined according to the sum (sum distribu- tion) of the arithmetic mean and the average deviation. KEY WORDS: geomorphology, rock landforms, lithology, slope, orientation of relief, elevation, Pohořská Mountains (Pohořská hornatina), Czech Republic ADDRESSES: Jiří Rypl, Ph.D. Department of Geography, Faculty of Education University of South Bohemia Jeronýmova 10, CZ-37115 České Budějovice, Czech Republic E-mail: rypl@pf.jcu.cz Karel Kirchner, Ph.D. Institute of Geonics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Brno Branch Drobného 28, CZ-60200 Brno, Czech Republic E-mail: kirchner@geonika.cz Martin Blažek, M. Sc. Institute of Geography Masaryk University Kotlářská 2, CZ-61137 Brno, Czech Republic E-mail: mart.mblazek@gmail.com 46 57-2_03_1184-Jirí Rypl_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 46 1 Introduction The Pohořská Mountains geomorphological subunit, which is part of the Nové Hrady Mountains (Novohradské hory, Figure 1), is insufficiently geomorphologically explored due to its inaccessibility in the past. The border between the Czech Republic and Austria passes through the area studied. The area was part of the Iron Curtain during the Cold War, which means that it was virtually inaccessible. This area also deserves increased attention for other reasons in addition to its particular diversity of relief. The first rea- son is the progressive inclusion of Czech protected areas in the European Union’s nature protection system. The unique landscape of the Nové Hrady Mountains with a variety of aesthetic and natural values is pro- tected by national law no. 114/1992 as a natural park (Collection of… 1992). The second reason is anticipated interference in the environment related to carrying out many investment projects. For these reasons, this area has become the target of multilateral and vital research (e.g., Malíček and Palice 2013; Pavlíček 2004; Rypl 2010; Rypl, Kirchner and Dvořáčková 2014; Štykar 2005). Geomorphological mapping with an emphasis on rock landforms was carried out in the Pohořská Mountains and the positional data acquired were further processed using statistical and cartographic methods. Other authors have also dealt with the spatial distribution of rock landforms in other parts of the world. Hjort, Etzelmuller and Tolgensbakk 2010 defined the effects of scale and data source in periglacial distri- bution modeling in a high Arctic environment in western Svalbard, and Marmion et al. (2008) compared predictive methods for modeling the distribution of periglacial landforms in Finnish Lapland. Ridefelt, Etzelmuller and Boelhouwers (2010) dealt with spatial analysis of solifluction landforms and process rates in the Abisko Mountains in northern Sweden. Marvánek (2010) discussed the distribution of cryogenic periglacial landforms in the Krumgampen Valley (Ötztal Alps). Křížek (2007) and Křížek, Treml and Engel (2007) defined the spatial distribution of cryogenic landforms above the alpine timberline in the High Sudetes (Vysoké Sudety) and in the Giant Mountains (also known as the Krkonoše Mountains). The references described were used from the viewpoint of methodological approach and to evaluate the spatial distribution of the research data obtained for comparison with other areas. This paper discusses the distribution of geomorphological landforms in the area studied and its depen- dencies on the characteristics of relief and subsoil geology. The results obtained can be compared with similar areas that developed on granite rocky relief (Migoń 2004b) and can help in the study of complex solutions to problems in the structural control of evolution in granite landforms. 2 Study area Late Variscan migmatites of the Central Moldanubian Pluton prevail in the area (represented by several types: Weinsberg granite, Freistadt granodiorite, and Mrákotín granite), being partially overlaid by cordierite gneisses and migmatites representing remnants of the pluton’s mantle (Pavlíček 2004). The prevailing relief of the Pohořská Mountains has characteristic elements of a fault-block moun- tain range with delimitations strongly marked by erosion, and it is also polygenetic. Here is possible to find recent forms (rounded blocks of various sizes, alcoves, and grooves) and also fossil forms that are con- served in granite rock, such as exfoliation joints, tors, and frost-riven cliffs (Demek 1964). Tables 1 through 4 show the percentage quotient in relation to all mapped categories of relief (lithology, slope, slope orientation, and elevation) in the Pohořská Mountains. Table 1: Percentage quotient representation of lithology. Lithology Granite Gneiss and migmatite Sediments Residue Percentage quotient 56.84 30.61 11.52 1.03 Table 2: Percentage quotient representation of slope. Slope 0–2° 2.1–5° 5.1–10° 10.1–20° above 20.1° Percentage quotient 9.77 19.73 48.28 20.71 1.51 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 47 57-2_03_1184-Jirí Rypl_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 47 Au st ri a Source: ZABAGED 10 IB-3 Novohradské hory Mts. IB-3A Pohoøská hornatina Mts. IB-3B Jedlická vrchovina Highlands Legend Praha České Budějovice • • Mt. Vysoká 1034 m Kraví hora Mt. 953 m Kuní hora Mt. 925 m IB - 3A IB-3B Mt. Myslivna 1040 m Mountain Kuøský p. Mt. Kamenec 1072 m Kabelský p. K am enice M alše Pohoøský p. St ro pn ice Černá Geomorphological subunit border Geomorphological unit border State border 0 2 4 6 km1 Author of contents: Jiøí Rypl Author of map: Jiøí Rypl © University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Education, Department of Geography 1 4 2 3 1 – #e Novohradské hory Mts. 2 – #e Jizerské hory Mts. 3 – #e Giant Mountains 4 – #e Podyjí area River Figure 1: Location of the Nové Hrady Mountains, the Jizera Mountains, the Giant Mountains, and the Podyjí area in the Czech Republic and the basic geomorphological regionalization of the Nové Hrady Mountains. 48 Table 3: Percentage quotient representation of slope orientation. Slope orientation N NE E SE S SW W NW Plain Percentage quotient 14.54 15.01 9.67 5.47 7.15 12.44 14.14 13.07 8.51 Table 4: Percentage quotient representation of elevation. Elevation (m) 560–600 601–700 701–800 801–900 901–1,000 1,001–1,072 Percentage quotient 0.87 14.82 36.85 31.98 14.57 0.91 There are also granite areas with spectacular landforms in the Czech Republic. The Jizera Mountains (Jizerské hory, Figure 1) are among granite areas with extensive protection as a protected landscape area. The Giant Mountains and the Podyjí area (Figure 1) are also among granite areas with extensive protec- tion as national parks. Although the Nové Hrady Mountains are an area with well-preserved spectacular granite landforms in the Czech Republic, there is no appropriate protection of the Nové Hrady Mountains today. Jiří Rypl, Karel Kirchner, Martin Blažek, The spatial distribution of rock landforms in the Pohořská Mountains … 57-2_03_1184-Jirí Rypl_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 48 1 1n W Wij ij i n − = ∑ Sumj W n W Wij ij ij i n = + − = ∑1 1 49 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 3 Methods Investigation of the spatial distribution of rock landforms in relation to geomorphological characteristics (lithology, slope inclination, orientation of slope, and elevation) may be based on division of the territory into discrete areas (e.g., squares). Dependence in the discrete area is examined using multiple statistical methods (e.g., CART, or classification and regression trees; Breiman et al. 1984) or generalized linear mod- els such as GLM (Nelder and Wedderburn 1972). This article used another methodological approach, in which the study area is divided into categories according to its geomorphological characteristics and links to them are investigated. This method was successfully tested earlier in a similar Bohemian mountain range of the Giant Mountains (Křížek, Treml and Engel 2007). Geomorphological mapping and GPS mapping were carried out in the Pohořská Mountains following the methodology described by Condorachi (2011), Smith, Paron and Griffiths (2011), and Voženílek et al. (2001). Mapping focused on rock relief landforms, and spatial data concerning their localization were acquired during the mapping. These spatial data were then processed using ArcGIS 9.1. Every geolocated landform was over- laid with a digital elevation model of the area studied and every feature was associated with data concerning lithology, slope, slope orientation, and elevation. Spatial statistics were calculated and it was possible to obtain the spatial distribution of rock landforms in all these categories. The spatial distribution of rock landforms was detected using the index of distribution Wij = Xi / Yj, where Xi is the percentage representation of the landform in the relevant category of the characteristic studied (e.g., in the case of slope characteristic, five categories of slopes were studied: 0–2.0°, 2.1–5.0°, 5.1–10.0°, 10.1–20.0°, and > 20.1°). Yj is the percentage quotient of this category on the surface of the entire area studied; this means that the percentage of surface was calculated where the relevant category of slope was identified. The example of tors is explicit: 52.5% of tors were found on slopes between 0° and 2°, and this category of slope is located on 9.7% of the area stud- ied. The index of distribution Wij of tors was calculated as 52.49 / 9.79, which yields Wij =5.41. The index of distribution was calibrated using the sum (distribution sum) of arithmetic mean and average deviation: The distribution sum was calculated using the indices of the spatial distribution Wij of all rated land- forms in the appropriate category of the characteristic investigated (e.g., slope 0–2° in the case of slope characteristic), its arithmetic mean, and its average deviation. From these indicators it is possible to obtain the formula: where n represents the number of all landforms rated (the sum of tors, frost-riven cliffs, castle koppies, and blockfields). If the index of distribution Wij is equal to 1, the percentage representation of the landform in the category is equal to the proportional surface of this category in the total area studied. If the value of Wij is above 1, the landform has more significant representation in the relevant category. This means that the presence of this rock landform is related to the relevant category of the observed characteristic. If the value Wij is below 1, the occurrence of the landform in question is less significant in the relevant category and there is no clear dependence of landform localization with the relevant category. Landforms were estimat- ed as dependent landforms based on two statistical conditions. First, the index of distribution Wij must be greater than 1. Second, the index of distribution must be greater than the sum of the arithmetic mean and average deviation in the category of the characteristic studied (Křížek, Treml and Engel 2007; Křížek 2007). 4 Results Thirty-four tors were mapped in the Pohořská Mountains (see Figure 2), as well as 153 frost-riven cliffs (see Figure 3), thirty-six castle koppies, ninety-nine areas of blockfields, and a significant number of cry- oplanation surfaces and terraces. This landforms are defined in global research as cryogenic landforms (Traczyk and Migoń 2000). According to Demek et al. (2006), the territory of what is now the Czech Republic was located not far from the frontal part of a continental glacier in Pleistocene sequence, where the climate 57-2_03_1184-Jirí Rypl_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 49 Figure 2: Tor on Mount Kamenec. Figure 3: Frost-riven cliff on Mount Kuní. JI Ř Í R Y P L JI Ř Í R Y P L 50 Jiří Rypl, Karel Kirchner, Martin Blažek, The spatial distribution of rock landforms in the Pohořská Mountains … 57-2_03_1184-Jirí Rypl_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 50 51 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 was cold and cryogenic processes took place. This geomorphological processes formed cryoplanation ter- races with frost-riven cliffs, tors, castle koppies, and blockfields (Demek et al. 2006). These landforms also developed in the Pohořská Mountains. They stand next to the Bohemian Forest (Šumava), a mountain range covered by an alpine glacier in the late Pleistocene sequence (Demek et al. 2006). Tors and castle koppies were formed during the same process (Migoń 2006) and they are mainly distinguished by their shape and proportions. Landforms with height greater than length were mapped as tors, and landforms with length greater than height were defined as castle koppies. The cryoplanation terraces in the study area were not included in the analysis due to the scale of the maps used (1:25,000; the maps used covered the entire study area) and due to the size of cryoplanation terraces, which was smaller than other rock landforms. The thickness of the regolith was not considered in the research because the regolith was removed by etching during Saxon tectogenesis and a planation surface with a stripped etchplain was created (Migoń 2004a; Demek et al. 2006). The study area is practically without regolith orig- inating from chemical weathering in the Paleogene. The percentage occurrence of cryogenic landforms in relation to various categories of relief is shown in Figures 4 through 7. The index of distribution, the arith- metic mean, the average deviation, and the distribution sum are shown in Tables 5 through 8. Table 5: Index of distribution, arithmetic mean, average deviation, and distribution sum in relation to lithology. Lithology Tors Frost-riven cliffs Castle koppies Blockfields Arithmetic mean Average deviation Distribution sum Granite 1.71 1.53 1.71 1.51 1.62 0.09 1.71 Gneiss 0.10 0.13 0.00 0.33 0.14 0.06 0.20 Table 6: Index of distribution, arithmetic mean, average deviation, and distribution sum in relation to slope. Slope Tors Frost-riven cliffs Castle koppies Blockfields Arithmetic mean Average deviation Distribution sum 0.0–2.0° 5.41 0.40 2.27 0.10 2.05 1.80 3.85 2.1–5.0° 0.15 0.17 0.42 0.05 0.20 0.11 0.31 5.1–10.0° 0.24 0.39 0.23 0.75 0.40 0.17 0.57 10.1–20.0° 1.28 2.68 1.60 2.15 1.93 0.49 2.42 > 20.1° 3.89 12.11 16.56 11.30 10.97 3.54 14.51 Table 7: Index of distribution, arithmetic mean, average deviation, and distribution sum in relation to slope orientation. Slope orientation Tors Frost-riven cliffs Castle koppies Blockfields Arithmetic mean Average deviation Distribution sum N 0.20 0.90 1.15 0.76 0.75 0.28 1.03 NE 0.19 0.70 0.74 0.81 0.61 0.21 0.82 E 1.22 0.42 0.86 1.15 0.91 0.27 1.18 SE 1.61 2.27 1.52 1.48 1.72 0.27 1.99 S 0.00 2.10 0.39 1.70 1.05 0.85 1.90 SW 0.95 0.95 0.89 1.62 1.11 0.26 1.37 W 0.00 1.20 0.98 0.93 0.78 0.39 1.17 NW 0.67 0.75 0.43 0.85 0.68 0.13 0.81 plain 6.22 0.38 2.61 0.19 2.35 2.07 4.42 Table 8: Index of distribution, arithmetic mean, average deviation, and distribution sum in relation to elevation. Elevation (m) Tors Frost- riven cliffs Castle koppies Blockfields Arithmetic mean Average deviation Distribution sum 560–600 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 601–700 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.20 0.06 0.04 0.10 701–800 0.16 0.50 0.15 0.90 0.43 0.27 0.70 801–900 1.11 0.94 0.96 1.45 1.12 0.17 1.29 901–1,000 2.42 2.74 3.24 1.04 2.35 0.67 3.02 above 1,001 25.86 12.21 18.31 2.21 12.76 7.44 20.20 57-2_03_1184-Jirí Rypl_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 51 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Granite Gneiss and migmatite Sediment Lithology Tor Frost - riven cliff Castle koppie Blockfield P er ce n ta ge q u o ti en t o f la n d fo rm 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0–2° 2.1–5° 5.1–10° 10.1–20° above 20.1° Slope Tor Frost - riven cliff Castle koppie Blockfield P er ce n ta ge q u o ti en t o f la n d fo rm Figure 4: Occurrence of rock landforms in relation to lithology. Figure 5: Occurrence of rock landforms in relation to slope. 52 Jiří Rypl, Karel Kirchner, Martin Blažek, The spatial distribution of rock landforms in the Pohořská Mountains … 57-2_03_1184-Jirí Rypl_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 52 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 P er ce n ta ge q u o ti en t o f la n d fo rm Slope orientation N o rt h N o rt h – ea st E as t So u th – ea st So u th So u th – w es t W es t N o rt h – w es t P la in Tor Frost - riven cliff Castle koppie Blockfield 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 560–600 m 601–700 m 701–800 m 801–900 m 901–1,000 m 1,001–1,072 m Altitude Tor Frost - riven cliff Castle koppie Blockfield P er ce n ta ge q u o ti en t o f la n d fo rm Figure 6: Occurrence of rock landforms in relation to slope orientation. Figure 7: Occurrence of rock landforms in relation to elevation. 53 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 57-2_03_1184-Jirí Rypl_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 53 Jiří Rypl, Karel Kirchner, Martin Blažek, The spatial distribution of rock landforms in the Pohořská Mountains … 5 Discussion and conclusion The determination of regularities in the spatial distribution of rock landforms is based on a comparison of the indices of distribution and arithmetic averages, or corresponding distribution sums. Each value of the index of distribution that is greater than the corresponding arithmetic mean of all the indices of dis- tribution of the category shows that the occurrence of the specific type of rock landform is above average with regard to the mean. The data in Tables 5 through 8 show that the criterion related to the distribution sum is more stringent. This is because the criterion corresponds to only some values of the distribution indices that belong to the set of values greater than the arithmetic mean of the corresponding indices. The elimination of a number of values is caused by calculating the variability of all rock landforms in the category, which also involves the error of minimalization potentially caused by variance in irregular- ly distributed values (Křížek, Treml and Engel 2007; Křížek 2007). The spatial analysis of cryogenic landforms shows that all rock landforms are related to the presence of granite in all cases in which Wij > 1 (Table 5). The analysis did not prove dependence on another type of rock from the area studied. The dependence of cryogenic landforms on granite results from its easier conservation as solid rock (French 2007; Migoń 2006; Summerfield 1991) and was also studied in the Giant Mountains (Křížek, Treml and Engel 2007). With regard to slope (Table 6), the dependence between tors and a slope of 0 to 2° was confirmed. This dependence is primarily based on the genesis of these cryogenic landforms (French 2007; Migoń 2006; Summerfield 1991). An above-average occurrence on slopes with an inclination of 0 to 2° was also dis- covered for castle koppies. The dependence of castle koppies and relief with a slope greater than 20.1° is interesting. This dependence is mainly explained by the low percentage quotient of occurrence of this land- form in the area studied. The dependence of occurrence of frost-riven cliffs was proved for relief with a slope of 10.1 to 20° and an above-average occurrence of such cliffs was identified for relief with a slope of 20.1° and greater. This dependence and the above-average occurrence can be explained by the genesis of these cryogenic landforms (French 2007; Migoń 2006; Summerfield 1991). In the case of blockfields, no dependence was found, but only an above-average occurrence for two slope categories: 10.1–20° and > 20.1°. It is not possible to compare the dependence and above-average occurrence of landforms with the results of this relief category in the Giant Mountains because Křížek, Treml and Engel (2007) specified different slope categories in their work. With regard to slope orientation (Table 7), the dependence of tors and the above-average occurrence of castle koppies on plains was confirmed. This dependence and above-average occurrence is connected to the genesis of cryogenic landforms (French 2007; Migoń 2006; Summerfield 1991). The dependence of tors extends to the eastern slope orientation, and the dependence of castle koppies to the northern slope orientation. Frost-riven cliffs are mainly distributed on slopes with a warm exposure (W, S, SE) owing to the intensive dynamics of cryogenic processes (Czudek 2005). This is why the blockfields also depend on slopes with a warm exposure, especially on slopes with a south (S) and southwest (SW) aspect. In this case, it is also difficult to compare the dependency and above-average occurrence of landforms with the results of this relief category in the Giant Mountains because Křížek, Treml and Engel (2007) specify four prin- cipal orientations in their work (N, E, S, W). Above-average occurrences (Table 8) of destructive landforms (tors, frost riven cliffs, and castle kop- pies) were found at elevations above 901 m (climate conditions at this elevation are favorable for the significant expansion of tors; this is cold climatic zone CH7, based on Quitt 1971). Dependences and above-average occurrences of accumulation landforms (blockfields) were found at elevations between 801 and 900 meters (Table 8). Dependences and above-average occurrences with relation to elevations are a result of the gen- esis of these cryogenic landforms (French 2007; Migoń 2006; Summerfield 1991). In the Giant Mountains dependences and above-average occurrences of destructive cryogenic landforms depend on higher ele- vations (1,400–1,500 m), whereas in the case of accumulation landforms this dependence was found for relatively lower elevations (1,100–1,300 m; Křížek, Treml and Engel 2007). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: This research could not have been carried out without the financial support of grant no. MSM 124100001 from the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports of the Czech Republic, and grants nos. KJB 300460501 and RVO 68145535 from the Czech Academy of Sciences. 54 57-2_03_1184-Jirí Rypl_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 54 7 References Breiman, L., Friedman, J., Stone, C. J., Olshen, R. A. 1984: Classification and regression trees. New York. Collection of laws of the Czech Republic, 114/1992. Prague. Condorachi, D. 2011: Geomorphological mapping using GIS for large tableland areas – an example for Fălciu Hills, in eastern Romania. Carpathian journal of earth and environmental science 6-2. Czudek, T. 2005: Vývoj reliéfu krajiny České republiky v kvartéru. Brno. Demek, J. 1964: Formy zvětrávání a odnosu granodioritu v Novohradských horách. Zprávy Geografického ústavu Československé akademie věd 9. Demek, J., Havlíček, M., Mackovčin, P. 2010: Relict cryoplanation and nivation landforms in the Czech Republic: a case study of the Sýkořská hornatina Mts. Moravian geographical reports 18-3. Demek, J., Mackovčin, P., Balatka, B., Buček, A., Cibulková, P., Culek, M., Čermák, P., Dobiáš, D., Havlíček, M., Hrádek, M., Kirchner, K., Lacina, J., Pánek, T., Slavík, P., Vašátko, J. 2006: Zeměpisný lexikon ČR: Hory a nížin. Brno. French, H. M. 2007: The periglacial environment. London. Hjort, J., Etzelmuller, B., Tolgensbakk, J. 2010: Effects of scale and Data Source in Periglacial Distribution Modelling in a High Arctic Environment, western Svalbard. Permafrost and periglacial processes 21-4. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ppp.705 Křížek, M. 2007: Periglacial landforms above the alpine timberline in the High Sudetes. Geomorphological variations. Praha. Křížek, M., Treml, V., Engel, Z. 2007: Zákonitosti prostorového rozmístění periglaciálních tvarů v Krkonoších nad alpínskou hranicí lesa. Opera Corcontica 44-1. Malíček, J., Palice, Z. 2013: Lichens of the virgin forest reserve Zofinsky prales (Czech Republic) and sur- rounding woodlands. Herzogia 26-2. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.13158/heia.26.2.2013.253 Marmion, M., Hjort, J., Thuiller, W., Luoto, M. 2008: A comparison of predictive methods in modelling the distribution of periglacial landforms in Finnish Lapland. Earth surface processes and landforms. 33-14. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/esp.1695 Marvánek, O. 2010: Periglacial Features in the Krumgampen Valley, Ötztal Alps, Austria. Moravian geo- graphical reports 18-2. Migoń, P. 2004a: Etching, etchplain and etchplanation. Encyclopedia of geomorphology. London. Migoń, P. 2004b: Structural control in the evolution of granite landscapes. Acta Universitatis Carolinae Geographica 39-1. Migoń, P. 2006: Granite landscapes of the World. Oxford. Nelder, J., Wedderburn, R. 1972: Generalized linear models. Journal of the Royal statistical society 135-3. Pavlíček, V. 2004: Geologie Novohradských hor. Krajina Novohradských hor – fyzicko-geografické složky krajiny. České Budějovice. Quitt, E. 1971: Klimatické oblasti Československa. Studia geographica 16. Ridefelt, H., Etzelmuller, B., Boelhouwers, J. 2010: Spatial analysis of solifluction landforms and process rates in the Abisko Mountains, northern Sweden. Permafrost and periglacial processes 21-3. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/ 10.1002/ppp.681 Rypl, J. 2010: The distribution and protection of cryogenic relief mesoforms on Mt. Vysoká in the Novohradské hory Mts. (Czech Republic). Moravian geographical reports 18-4. Rypl, J., Kirchner, K., Dvořáčková, S. 2014: Geomorphological inventory of rock landforms on Mt. Kamenec in the Novohradské hory Mts. (the Czech Republic). Carpathian journal of earth and environmental sciences 9-3. Smith, J. M., Paron, P., Griffiths, S. J. 2011: Geomorphological mapping: methods and applications. Amsterdam. Štykar, J. 2005: Biodiversity of forest plant communities within spruce stands conversion in vegetation tiers 4 and 5. Ekologia 24-4. Summerfield, M. 1991: Global geomorphology. Edinburgh. Traczyk, A., Migoń, P. 2000: Cold–climate landform patterns in the Sudetes. Effects of lithology, relief and glacial history. Acta Universitatis Carolinae Geographica 35. Supplementum. Voženílek, V., Kirchner, K., Konečný, M., Kubíček, P., Létal, A., Petrová, A., Rothová, H., Sedlák, P. 2001: Integrace GPS/GIS v geomorfologickém výzkumu. Olomouc. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 55 57-2_03_1184-Jirí Rypl_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 55 56 57-2_03_1184-Jirí Rypl_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 56 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017, 57–69 THE EFFECT OF NATURAL AND HUMAN-INDUCED HABITAT CONDITIONS ON NUMBER OF ROE DEER: CASE STUDY OF VOJVODINA, SERBIA Vladimir N. Marković, Djordjije A. Vasiljević, Tamara Jovanović, Tin Lukić, Miroslav D. Vujičić, Milutin Kovačević, Zoran A. Ristić, Slobodan B. Marković, Branko Ristanović, Dušan Sakulski Roe deer in natural habitat. Z O R A N A . R IS T IĆ 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 57 58 The effect of natural and human-induced habitat conditions on number of roe deer: case study of Vojvodina, Serbia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/AGS.903 UDC: 913:591.522(497.113) 591.522:599.735.341(497.113) COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) have greatly expanded in both distribution and abundance during the last few decades, and are the most abundant cervids in Europe today. The aim of this paper is to determine the factors that have the most considerable impact on roe deer numbers in the Vojvodina region (North Serbia). Environmental (area in ha, total area of forest and total area of meadows and pas- tures in hunting ground) and anthropogenic (number of registered hunters, number of hunting sections, number of gamekeepers and roads in km on 1,000 ha) factors had been shown to influence the number of roe deer in Vojvodina region. A multiple regression analysis was carried out as the main statistical approach. The mapping of certain parameters was done using ArcGIS 9.2 software in order to establish the relation between the roe deer population and the different environmental and anthropogenic conditions. The results signify that the roe deer number dependency in the Vojvodina region is a very complex and multi-facto- rial phenomenon, strongly influenced by human induced modifications. KEY WORDS: geography, environmental protection, roe deer number, habitat, hunting, regression model, GIS, Vojvodina, Serbia The article was submitted for publication on August 8th, 2014. ADRESSES: Vladimir N. Marković, Ph.D. Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: vladimir.markovic@dgt.uns.ac.rs Djordjije A. Vasiljević, Ph.D. Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: vasiljevic80@gmail.com Tamara Jovanović, Ph.D. Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: tamara.jovanovic@dgt.uns.ac.rs Tin Lukić, Ph.D. Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: tin.lukic@dgt.uns.ac.rs The effect of natural and human-induced habitat conditions on number of roe deer: case study of Vojvodina, Serbia 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 58 59 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 Miroslav D. Vujičić, Ph.D. Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: miroslav.vujicic@dgt.uns.ac.rs Milutin Kovačević M.Sc. Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: milutin.kovacevic@dgt.uns.ac.rs Zoran A. Ristić, Ph.D. Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: balzakova@yahoo.com Slobodan B. Marković, Ph.D. Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: slobodan.markovic@dgt.uns.ac.rs Branko Ristanović, Ph.D. Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia E-mail: branko.ristanovic@dgt.uns.ac.rs Dušan Sakulski, Ph.D. Department of Environmental Engineering and Occupational Safety and Health Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad Trg Dositeja Obradovića 6, RS – 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia and Disaster Management Training and Education Centre (DiMTEC) University of the Free State 205 Nelson Mandela Drive, Park West, ZA – 9300 Bloemfontein, South Africa E-mail: dsakulski2@me.com 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 59 Figure 1: The map of roe deer dissemination in the Vojvodina region (Antonić and Beuković 2007; modified). p 60 1 Introduction During the last few decades, roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) have greatly expanded in both distribution and abundance, and today they are the most abundant cervids in Europe (Andersen, Duncan and Linnel 1998; Mysterud and Østbye 2004; Apollonio, Andersen and Putman 2010; Torres et al. 2011) as well as the most extensively studied ungulates (Andersen, Duncan and Linnell 1998). Although generally considered as a typical forest specie, recent studies proved roe deer’s ability to inhabit physically diverse areas and could be found in almost all European landscapes (Hewison et al. 2001; Jepsen and Topping 2004, Torres et al. 2011). The Vojvodina region (North Serbia) is characterised by vast areas of steppe, wetlands, ponds and forests, which are favourable habi-tats for numerous and diverse game species (Ristić, Marković and Dević 2009). The number of roe deer within the investigated area varies among hunting associations. According to the data from 2000, the average number of roe deer in Vojvodina is 17.6 heads on 1,000 ha. The long-term hunting development plan 2001–2010 (Hunting association … 2000), predicted a 49.03% rise in the num- ber of roe deer, which should bring the number of roe deer to 26.2 heads on 1,000 ha in 2010. The data from 2010 are not currently available, but according to the last available data, from 2009, the number has raised to 25.4 heads on 1,000 ha. The aim of this paper is to determine the factors with the most consid- erable impact on the number of roe deer in the investigated area. Although this species’ habitat is widely influenced by a range of biogeographical factors operating at different scales (Torres et al. 2011), recent researches have determined that available food (Virgós and Telléria 1998) and land cover (Mysterud and Østbye 1999; Borkowski 2004; Borkowski and Ukalska 2008; Melis et al. 2009) are two essential factors. These factors play a critical part in shaping this species’ habitat selection, which in turn affects the num- ber of roe deer. However, Torres et al. (2011) consider several other factors that could also affect its population, including human interference and disturbance (Aragón, Braza and San José 1995; Hewison et al. 2001), topography (Mysterud and Østbye 1999), and climatic factors (Brewka and Kossak 1994). This research combines quantitative data on certain factors suggested to have the biggest impact on roe deer habitat suit- ability in order to determine the most influential ones. Environmental (area in ha, total area of forest and total area of meadows and pastures in hunting ground) and anthropogenic (number of registered hunters, number of hunting sections, number of gamekeepers and roads in km on 1,000 ha) factors influence the number of roe deer in Vojvodina region. 2 Materials and methods 2.1 Method 2.1.1 Sample The study area includes 57 hunting grounds (Figure 1) that correspond with the municipality areas – except for the Kikinda, Vršac, Srbobran and Ada municipalities with more than one hunting ground on their area. The hunting grounds are unfenced and managed by the Provincial Secretariat for Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management. The game on these hunting grounds is self-reliant and only influenced by human induced environmental improvements. The following hunting grounds were excluded from the study because they are fenced off and supports different habitat conditions: The hunting grounds of National Park »Fruška gora«; hunting grounds in possession of military of Serbia; Public Company »Vojvodina šume«; and hunt- ing grounds owned by agricultural and fish ponds companies. 2.1.2 Hypotheses The following hypotheses were postulated: 1) The number of roe deer is influenced by natural factors: Total area of hunting ground in hectares; total area of forest on hunting ground in hectares; and total area of meadows and pastures on hunting ground in hectares. The effect of natural and human-induced habitat conditions on number of roe deer: case study of Vojvodina, Serbia 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 60 Vo jv od in a Au th or o f c on te nt s: V la di m ir N . M ar ko vi ć Au th or o f m ap : V la di m ir N . M ar ko vi ć So ur ce : A nt on ić a nd B eu ko vi ć 2 00 7 (m od i€ ed ) © F ac ul ty o f S ci en ce D ep ar tm en t o f g eo gr ap hy , t ou ris m a nd h ot el m an ag em en t 0 10 20 30 40 k m Le ge nd 1 D ot = 3 0 ro e de er Se rb ia H U N G A RY RO M A N IA C RO AT IA C EN TR A L SE R BI A BO SN IA A N D H ER ZE G O V IN A 61 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 61 62 All above listed natural factors positively influence the number of roe deer. Numerous researches (e.g. Mysterud, Lian and Hermann 1999); Bokalo 2001; Partl 2001; Partl 2002; Borkowski 2004; Hemani, Watkinson and Dolman 2005; Toïgo et al. 2008; Popović et al. 2009; Reimosera et al. 2009) support this claim. 2) The number of roe deer is influenced by human induced factors: Number of registered hunters; number of hunting sections; number of gamekeepers; and roads in km on 1,000 ha of hunting ground. The number of registered hunters, number of hunting sections, number of residents in the munici- pality and roads in km on 1,000 ha of hunting ground have a negative influence on the number of roe deer. The number of gamekeepers correlates positively with the number of roe deer. Many researchers have exam- ined these factors and their impact on the number of game (e.g. Stedman et al. 2004; Blumstein et al. 2005; Borkowski and Ukalska 2008; Jayakody et al. 2008; Stankowich 2008; Torres et al. 2011). 2.1.3 Procedure This study used data on the condition and number of game (including roe deer) obtained from the labo- ratory of Hunting Association of Vojvodina. Beside the number of game, the data also include: vegetation structure variability; infrastructure changes; various demographic data (hunters’ number, age, gender); and other variables that could influence the game habitat and number. In order to establish the relation between roe deer population and different environmental and anthropogenic conditions, mapping of certain para- meters was done using ArcGIS 9.2 software. 2.1.4 Statistical approach A multiple regression analysis was carried out using SPSS 17 software for statistical computing. Before the analysis, three hunting grounds were excluded because their number of roe deer was either too small or two large in comparison with the other hunting grounds (± 2 standard deviations). A log-transformation of the dependent variable number of roe deer was performed in order to normalise its distribution. Predictor variables were: Total area of hunting ground in hectares; number of registered hunters; number of hunt- ing sections; number of gamekeepers; total area of forest on hunting ground in hectares; total area of meadows and pastures on hunting ground in hectares; and roads in km on 1,000 ha of hunting ground. The crite- rion variable was the log-transformed number of roe deer. 3 Results The results of the above mentioned multiple regression analysis are shown in table 1. The analysis of the results shows that the overall regression model is significant (r = 0.648; r2 = 0.420; F(6.47) = 4.071; p < 0.01). Only the area in ha, number of registered hunters and number of hunting sections show a statistically sig- nificant influence. The area of the hunting ground and number of registered hunters has a significant positive impact on the number of roe deer. However, the number of hunting sections has a significant negative impact on the number of roe deer. No effect of a multicollinearity problem is detected in the model as all the VIF scores are smaller than 10 and Tolerance values are larger than 0.1 (Figure 2). 4 Discussion The results show that a larger surface area has a larger number of roe deer (Table 1). The smaller the area, the more negatively it affects game habitat in terms of seasonality, lack of shelters, and uniformed food supplies – all of which contribute to the decrease in the number of roe deer. According to Law on Game and Hunting (Zakon o divljači i lovstvu 2010), a minimum of 20% of each hunting ground must be pro- tected as reserves, where all human activities related to hunting and animal disturbance are prohibited. This ensures safer reproducing conditions and protection of the roe deer offspring. Larger hunting ground (HG) will evidently have larger reserves. Commonly, each of the hunting grounds in the Vojvodina region is within only one municipality and is managed by its hunting association (Figure 3). As there is no universal management model, each hunting ground operates independently, resulting in temporal and spatial discordance. Hunters’ ethical behaviour is under question because there is no integral and internal control – it varies between sections and could lead to increased poaching and illegal hunting. This has all been proven in the regression model (Table 1). The effect of natural and human-induced habitat conditions on number of roe deer: case study of Vojvodina, Serbia 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 62 Table 1: The regression model of certain factors influencing the number of roe deer of the investigated area. β (weight) t-test p (significance) Tolerance VIF Total hunting ground area in ha 0.488 2.498 0.02 0.337 2.96 Number of registered hunters without hunter-tourists 0.543 2.778 0.01 0.337 2.97 Number of semi-independent hunting clubs within the hunting -0.524 -2.46 0.02 0.284 3.52 associations Number of gamekeepers without volunteers 0.05 0.299 0.77 0.466 2.15 roads in km on 1,000 ha of hunting ground -0.018 -0.13 0.9 0.665 1.5 total area of meadows and pastures on hunting ground in hectares 0.135 1.117 0.27 0.884 1.13 total area of forest on the hunting ground in hectares -0.04 -0.3 0.77 0.712 1.4 Empirical data from the laboratory Selected factors that influence roe deer habitat Multiple regression analysis Hunting ground area in ha Number of registered hunters Number of hunting sections Number of gamekeepers Traffic Percentage of green area Number of roe deer Forestation 0.488* 0.543** –0.524* 0.135 0.05 –0.018 –0.04 Figure 2: Graphic presentation of regression model. Figure 3: Quantification of hunting factors by hunting grounds (Antonić and Beuković 2007; modified). p p. 64 Figure 4: Traffic network density (km/1,000 ha) by hunting grounds in the Vojvodina region (Source: Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia 2008; modified) p p. 65 Figure 5: Forestation and area of meadows and pastures of hunting grounds in the Vojvodina region (Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia 2008; modified). p p. 66 63 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 63 34 4 11 67 85 0 86 3 54 0 23 1 82 2 98 2 86 0 44 9 40 0 58 8 62 7 59 5 67 9 61 4 63 8 61 0 35 0 32 2 41 1 69 6 42 9 42 8 42 7 68 1 53 3 46 9 59 33 54 26 2 21 1 22 4 34 3 39 7 17 5 37 0 27 8 19 1 19 6 16 2 29 6 37 0 27 2 26 4 15 7 28 9 10 6 11 8 10 0 84 70 19 2 93 74 58 6 8 23 16 4 8 6 7 6 9 11 4 22 5 6 6 19 9 4 1 12 13 0 10 17 6 10 0 10 10 6 15 6 4 12 12 0 10 8 3 0 4 4 5 0 0 10 0 3 3 2 0 6 0 0 0 0 99 55 31 45 51 32 25 7 41 36 13 21 40 41 31 23 31 31 8 6 6 41 6 14 2 26 6 31 37 26 9 31 10 4 17 18 13 5 31 11 3 5 10 41 8 17 8 14 10 7 4 Au th or o f c on te nt s: V la di m ir N . M ar ko vi ć Au th or o f m ap : V la di m ir N . M ar ko vi ć So ur ce : A nt on ić a nd B eu ko vi ć 2 00 7 (m od i€ ed ) © F ac ul ty o f S ci en ce D ep ar tm en t o f g eo gr ap hy , t ou ris m a nd h ot el m an ag em en t 0 10 20 30 40 k m Le ge nd A re a in h ec ta re s 35 00 –1 30 00 13 00 0– 25 00 0 25 00 0– 40 00 0 40 00 0– 80 00 0 80 00 0– 12 60 00 N um be r o f h un tin g se ct io ns N um be r o f g am ek ee pe rs N um be r o f h un te rs 10 23 61 4 H U N G A RY RO M A N IA C RO AT IA C EN TR A L SE R BI A BO SN IA A N D H ER ZE G O V IN A 64 The effect of natural and human-induced habitat conditions on number of roe deer: case study of Vojvodina, Serbia 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 64 Au th or o f c on te nt s: V la di m ir N . M ar ko vi ć Au th or o f m ap : V la di m ir N . M ar ko vi ć So ur ce : A nt on ić a nd B eu ko vi ć 2 00 7 (m od i€ ed ) © F ac ul ty o f S ci en ce D ep ar tm en t o f g eo gr ap hy , t ou ris m a nd h ot el m an ag em en t 0 10 20 30 40 k m Le ge nd Ro ad s i n ki lo m et er s p er 10 00 h a of h un tin g gr ou nd 3, 9 H U N G A RY RO M A N IA C RO AT IA C EN TR A L SE R BI A BO SN IA A N D H ER ZE G O V IN A 65 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 65 H U N G A RY RO M A N IA C RO AT IA C EN TR A L SE R BI A BO SN IA A N D H ER ZE G O V IN A Au th or o f c on te nt s: V la di m ir N . M ar ko vi ć Au th or o f m ap : V la di m ir N . M ar ko vi ć So ur ce : A nt on ić a nd B eu ko vi ć 2 00 7 (m od i€ ed ) © F ac ul ty o f S ci en ce D ep ar tm en t o f g eo gr ap hy , t ou ris m a nd h ot el m an ag em en t 0 10 20 30 40 k m Le ge nd 14 Pe rc en ta ge o f t he g re en a re a Pe rc en ta ge o f t he fo re st at io n 66 The effect of natural and human-induced habitat conditions on number of roe deer: case study of Vojvodina, Serbia 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 66 67 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 Roe deer generally avoid areas that are intensively used by humans (Mysterud, Lian and Hermann 1999). However, this study found that the number of registered hunters is directly proportional to the number of roe deer game. This might be due to increased income generated by the hunter’s membership fees that is used for game food and medicaments, breeding and feeding facilities. Also, larger hunter numbers result in better and more efficient care of game, especially concerning annual procedures such as game counting, feeder and salt lick instalment, maintenance and repair of breeding and feeding facilities, or even game rescue during natural hazards (floods, fires, snow, etc.). The role of hunters in these situations is crucial, as hunting ground quality depends on their assistance. According to Marković et al. (2011), most of the registered hunters in Vojvodina (46.7%) have stated that linking with nature is the primary motive for engag- ing in hunting. In contrast to number of hunters, number of gamekeepers does not affect the number of roe deer game. We believe that this is mostly the case because in the investigated area most of the gamekeepers work vol- untarily and thus their commitment to duty could be questionable. Consequently, the latest Law on Game and Hunting (Zakon o divljači i lovstvu 2010) enacted by Ministry of Agriculture, Trade, Forestry and Water Management of the Republic of Serbia, revoked the title gamekeeper-volunteer. According to Marković (2010), the level of gamekeeper-volunteers’ adequate expertise and knowledge in Vojvodina has shown considerable variability. The length of roads in the investigated area has no effect on roe deer number, although it was expect- ed to have a negative influence (e.g. Mysterud 1999; Hewison et al. 2001; Torres et al. 2011). This could be justified by the fact that average traffic network density in the Vojvodina region is only 2.93 km/1,000 ha (of hunting ground) (Figure 4). The total area of meadows and pastures on hunting ground in hectares, and total area of forest on hunt- ing ground in hectares are insignificant parameters (Table 1), unlike in the findings of previous researches (e.g. Reimoser and Zandl 1993; Partl 2001 and 2002; Bokalo 2001; Borkowski and Ukalska 2008; Reimosera et al. 2009). Vojvodina is one of the European regions with poorest forest areas (only 5.5% of the territory is covered by forest) (Figure 5). Furthermore, most of the forests are located within nature reserves (outside of hunting grounds), which leaves investigated area with average forestation of only 1.7% (Marković 2010). On the other hand, comparing three forest management models – no harvest, single tree selection and clear-cut – the clear cut gives the best habitat quality for roe deer, which indicate that foresta- tion is not necessarily an essential parameter for roe deer habitat (Vospernik and Reimoser 2008). We also believe that the area of meadows and pastures is an insignificant predictor for the number of roe deer, most- ly due to vast areas under agricultural crops with addition of feeding facilities that provide sufficient food supply for roe deer population. 5 Conclusion This study’s results and discussions signify that the roe deer number dependency in the Vojvodina region is a very complex and multi-factorial phenomenon, but strongly influenced by human-induced modifica- tions of habitat. Unfortunately, as a typical Pannonian landscape with a high level of cultivation (Antonić and Beuković 2007), the Vojvodina region offers limited conditions for wildlife habitat (Suchant, Baritz and Braunisch 2003). These agricultural regions, or »agroecosystems« (Knoche and Lupi 2004) present the most important and pervasive type of managed ecosystem (Antle and Capalbo 2002). It is located on the most productive land, cov- ering 30% of the earth's land area, and 80% in the Vojvodina region (Antonić and Beuković 2007). Consequently, the establishment of agriculture and hunting grounds could influence natural habitats (Knoche and Lupi 2004), with certain conflicts arising between wildlife management and protection on the one hand, and the utilisa- tion of the land for tourism and economic exploitation on the other (Suchant, Baritz and Braunisch 2003). Inevitably, there is a formal opinion that (particularly in Vojvodina region) roe deer and ungulates in general, with habitats outside protected areas, could not survive in those numbers if there were no hunting grounds. A great danger to the roe deer population could emerge with uncontrolled hunting, cold and dry periods with poor land cover, food and water supplies, increased cultivated areas, etc. All of these factors are generally prevented by the efficient and devoted work of hunting associations with the application of adequate biogeographical surveys and strategies. 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 67 68 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technological Development, Republic of Serbia (grant 176020) and the Provincial Secretariat for Science and Technological Development, Vojvodina Province, Serbia (grant 114-451-2644/2012-01). 6 References Andersen, R., Duncan, P., Linnell, J. D. C. 1998: The European roe deer: the biology of success. Oslo. Antle, J., Capalbo, S. 2002: Agriculture as a managed ecosystem: implications for econometric analysis of production risk. A comprehensive assessment of the role of risk in U.S. Agriculture. Boston. Antonić, D., Beuković, M. 2007: Hunting organization of Vojvodina. Novi Sad. Apollonio, M., Andersen, R., Putman, R. 2010: European ungulates and their management in the 21st cen- tury. New York. Aragón, S., Braza, F., San José, C. 1995: Socioeconomic, physiognomic, and climatic factors determining the distribution pattern of roe deer Capreolus capreolus in Spain. Acta theriologica 40-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.4098/AT.arch.95-4; oai:rcin.org.pl:12369 Blumstein, D. T., Fernandez-Juricic, E., Zollner, P.A., Garity, S.C. 2005: Inter-specific variation in avian responses to human disturbance. Journal of applied ecology 42-5. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ j.1365-2664.2005.01071.x Bokalo, M. 2001: The role of forest growth in habitat quality dynamics. Wien. Borkowski, J. 2004: Distribution and habitat use by red and roe deer following a large forest fire in South- western Poland. Forest ecology and management 201, 2-3. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2004.07.011 Borkowski, J., Ukalska, J. 2008: Winter habitat use by red and roe deer in pine-dominated forest. Forest ecology and management 255, 3-4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.09.013 Brewka, A., Kossak, S. 1994: The influence of atmospheric conditions on the mobility of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) in winter. Ekologia Polska 40-2. Hemani, M. R., Watkinson, A. R., Dolman, P. M. 2005: Population densities and habitat associations of introduced muntjac Muntiacus reevesi and native roe deer Capreolus capreolus in a lowland pine for- est. Forest ecology and management 215, 1-3. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.05.013 Hewison, A. J., Vincent, J. P., Joachim, J., Angibault, J. M., Cargnelutti, B., Cibien, C. 2001: The effects of woodland fragmentation and human activity on roe deer distribution in agricultural landscapes. Canadian journal of zoology 79-4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z01-032 Hunting association of Vojvodina, 2000: Long-term hunting development plan in Vojvodina 2001–2010. Novi Sad. Jayakody, S., Sibbald, A. M., Gordon, I. J., Lambin, X. 2008: Red deer Cervus elaphus vigilance behaviour differs with habitat type and human disturbance. Wildlife biology 14-1. http://dx.doi.org/10.2981/ 0909-6396(2008)14[81:RDCEVB]2.0.CO;2 Jepsen, J. U., Topping, C. J. 2004: Modelling roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in a gradient of forest fragmentation: behavioural plasticity and choice of cover. Canadian journal of zoology 82-9. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1139/z04-131 Knoche, S., Lupi, F. 2004: Valuing deer hunting ecosystem services from farm landscapes. Ecological eco- nomics 64-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.07.023 Marković, V. 2010: Primena geografskih informacionih tehnologija u lovnom turizmu Vojvodine. Doktorska disertacija, Prirodno-matematički fakultet Univerziteta u Novom Sadu. Novi Sad. Marković, V., Davidović, N., Djurdjev, B., Dragin, A. 2011: Influence of age and educational structure on the behavior of hunters in Vojvodina Province (Serbia). Turizam 15-4. Melis, C., Jedrzejewska, B., Apollonio, M., Barton, K., Jedrzejewski, W., Linnell, J., Kojola, I., Kusak, J., Adamic, M., Ciuti, S., Delehan, I., Dykyy, I., Krapinec, K., Mattioli, K., Sagaydak, A., Samchuk, N., Schmidt, K., Shkvyrya, M., Sidorovich, V., Zawadzka, B., Zhyla, S. 2009: Predation has a greater impact in less pro- ductive environments: variation in roe deer, Capreolus capreolus, population density across Europe. Global ecology and biogeography 18-6. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00480.x Mysterud, A. 1999: Seasonal migration pattern and home range of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in an altitudinal gradient in southern Norway. Journal of zoology 247-4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ j.1469-7998.1999.tb01011.x The effect of natural and human-induced habitat conditions on number of roe deer: case study of Vojvodina, Serbia 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 68 69 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 Mysterud, A., Lian, L.B., Hermann, D.Ø. 1999: Scale-dependent trade-offs in foraging by European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) during winter. Canadian journal of zoology 77-9. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/ z99-118 Mysterud, A., Østbye E. 1999: Cover as a habitat element for temperate ungulates: effects on habitat selec- tion and demography. Wildlife society bulletin 27-2. Mysterud, A., Østbye, E. 2004: Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) browsing pressure affects yew (Taxus bac- cata) recruitment within nature reserves in Norway. Conservation biology 120-4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.biocon.2004.03.027 Partl, E. 2001: Die Wechselwirkungn zwischen Wald als Habitat und Rehwild als Standortfaktor bei der Waldsanierung. Modellbildung und Wissensrepräsentation im Rahmen der Entwicklung des Expertensystems »Wildökologie – Waldverjüngung«. PhD thesis, Gesellschaft für Waldökosystemforschung und experimentelle Baumforschung in Universität für Bodenkultur. Wien. Partl, E. 2002: Expertensystem »Wildökologie – Waldverjüngung«- Modellierung der Wechselwirkungen zwischen Waldhabitat und Rehwild. Berlin. Popović, Z., Đorđević, N., Grubić, G., Stojanović, B. 2009: Estimation of the quality of the nutrition of roe deer based on chemical composition of the rumen content. Acta veterinaria 59-5. https://doi.org/10.2298/ AVB0906653P Reimoser, F., Zandl, J. 1993: Methodisches Grundkonzept für ein Expertensystem »Wildökologie – Waldverjüngung«, Anwendungsbeispiel FIW II – Fallstudie 1 (Schöneben/Oberösterreich). Wien. Reimosera, S., Partl, E., Reimoser, F., Vospernik, S. 2009: Roe-deer habitat suitability and predisposition of forest to browsing damage in its dependence on forest growth – model sensitivity in an Alpine forest region. Ecological modelling 220-18. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2009.05.022 Ristić, Z. A., Marković, V., Dević, M. 2009: Development of hunting tourism in Vojvodina. Geographica Pannonica 13-3. Stankowich, T. 2008: Ungulate flight responses to human disturbance. A review and meta-analysis. Conservation biology 141-9. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.06.026 Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, 2008: Opštine u brojakama. Belgrade. Stedman, R., Diefenbach, D., Swope, C., Finely, J., Luloff, A., Zinn, H., Julian, H., Wang, G. 2004: Integrating wildlife and human-dimensions research methods to study hunters. Journal of wildlife management 762-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2193/0022-541X(2004)068[0762:IWAHRM]2.0.CO;2 Suchant, R., Baritz, R., Braunisch, V. 2003: Wildlife habitat analysis – a multidimensional habitat man- agement model. Journal for nature conservation 10-4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1078/1617-1381-00026 Toïgo, C., Servanty, S., Gaillard, J-M., Brandt, S., Baubet, E. 2008: Disentangling natural from hunting mortality in an intensively hunted wild boar population. Journal of wildlife management 72-7. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2193/2007-378 Torres, R. T., Santosa, J., Linnell, J. D. C., Virgós, E., Fonseca, C. 2011: Factors affecting roe deer occurrence in a Mediterranean landscape, Northeastern Portugal. Mammalian biology 76-4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.mambio.2010.10.013 Virgós, E., Telléria, J. L. 1998: Roe deer habitat selection in Spain: constraints on the distribution of a species. Canadian journal of zoology 76-7. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z98-065 Vospernik, S., Reimoser, S. 2008: Modelling changes in roe deer habitat in response to forest management. Forest ecology and managemet 255, 3-4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.09.036 Zakon o divljači i lovstvu. Službeni Glasnik Republike Srbije 18/10. Beograd. 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 69 70 57-2_04_903-Vladimir N Markovic_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 70 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 71 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 2017 SPECIAL ISSUE Terraced landscapes EDITORS: Drago Kladnik Matjaž Geršič Blaž Komac 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 71 72 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 72 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017, 73–81 TERRACED LANDSCAPES: AN INCREASINGLY PROMINENT CULTURAL LANDSCAPE TYPE Drago Kladnik, Alexandra Kruse, Blaž Komac Terraced paddy fields in Vietnam. S H U T T E R S TO C K 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 73 Drago Kladnik, Alexandra Kruse, Blaž Komac, Terraced landscapes: an increasingly prominent cultural landscape type 74 Terraced landscapes: an increasingly prominent cultural landscape type DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4770 UDC: 911.53:631.613 COBISS: 1.02 ABSTRACT: Over the past decades, attractive terraced landscapes composed of cultivated terraces have been increasingly dealt with in studies in geography, landscape architecture, ethnology, rural sociology, agronomy, pedology, and other spatial disciplines. Around 2000, several important research projects were carried out. The Terraced Landscapes Alliance (ITLA) was established, and terraced landscapes have also obtained their place within the European Geosciences Union (EGU) and EUCALAND. During this peri- od, research on terraced landscapes has also intensified in Slovenia. All five articles featured in this special thematic issue of Acta geographica Slovenica are also briefly presented. KEY WORDS: geography, cultural landscape, terraced landscape, terraces, cultural heritage, terraced land- scapes bibliography This article was submitted for publication on 18th October, 2016. ADRDRESSES: Drago Kladnik, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: drago.kladnik@zrc-sazu.si Alexandra Kruse, Ph.D. Institute for Research on European Agricultural Landscapes (EUCALAND) e.V. Hauptstrasse 48, D–51491 Overath, Germany E-mail: akruse@whconsult.eu Blaž Komac, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: blaz.komac@zrc-sazu.si 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 74 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 75 1 Introduction Terraced landscapes are constructed cultural landscapes with special value, and an exceptional physiog- nomy, in which terraces are the most important element (Ažman Momirski and Kladnik 2015b). Terraces can be found across the entire globe. In some areas, they were created by developed civilizations over mil- lennia, whereas elsewhere they developed completely spontaneously as people adapted to the natural conditions and improved their ability to make a living. They reflect a harmony between man and nature, and in many cases also between people themselves (Kladnik et al. 2016b), which is expressed through the appearance and numerous functions of terraced landscapes. In many areas cultivated terraces provide food and have incomparable scientific, cultural, historical, ecological, and aesthetic value, and even psychological, philosophical, and religious value (Kladnik et al. 2016b). The terraces facilitate the lives of the people and they safeguard the environment by protecting the land and water (Junchao 2015). Their aesthetic value (Smrekar, Polajnar Horvat and Erhartič 2016) is defined by a repeating pattern of terrace platforms and slopes, or hill slope geometrization (Ažman Momirski and Radikon 2008; Ažman Momirski and Kladnik 2015b). The EU has included cultivated terraced landscapes in its 2007–2013 rural development plan, its agri- cultural biodiversity action plan (to improve or maintain biodiversity through the abandonment or change of agricultural activities), its thematic strategy for soil protection (Lasanta et al. 2013), and numerous research projects and civic movements (Varotto 2015). This special issue of Acta geographica Slovenica presents some of the latest research achievements in examining cultivated terraces and terraced landscapes connected with investigation of some more impor- tant elements of the modern transformation of terraced landscapes in Slovenia, neighboring Croatia, and nearby Slovakia. 2 International research on terraced landscapes 2.1 Main research topics Terraces consist of flat or slightly inclined platforms of various widths used for cultivation separated by steeper embankments. These embankments differ in their type of material, which determines the solid- ness of the terraces, and in their height and individual slope (Kladnik et al. 2016b). They reduce the overall slope gradient and length, facilitating cultivation on steep slopes, and increase the infiltration of water in areas with moderate to low soil permeability, with positive effects on agricultural activities (Tarolli et al. 2015). As an agricultural system, terracing has been known and used since the Neolithic (Agnoletti et al. 2015). One can find agricultural terraces in different topographic conditions, e.g., coastal areas, hilly areas, and steeply sloping mountain landscapes (Tarolli et al. 2015). Agricultural terraces are among the most evident and extensive human signatures on various land- scapes of the world. Accordingly, they have been the focus of a wide variety of studies, especially over the past two decades. The studies concentrate on their origins and time of creation, exploring their shapes and main types. A significant body of research is dedicated to their geographical distribution and the related natural conditions, primarily involving studies of relief elements and soil degradation. Terraces are built to retain more soil and water, to use sun exploitation and the reflection of the warmer temperature from the steep. Furthermore to reduce both hydrological connectivity and erosion, and to support irrigation. This is dealt with in studies of the numerous terrace functions, comprising the economic approaches men- tioned above, studies in the humanities, and entirely geomechanical examinations of terraces’ contribution to slope stability. Connected with this are studies of the processes and factors related to rural transformation, such as changes in land use and its intensity, and analyses of the impact of ownership and accessibility on the extent of terracing in the landscape. It can be argued that, due to a large number of influential factors, terraced landscapes are a sensitive indicator of rural development or transformation. This is what their significant social role (crop, fruit and wine production) was based on in the past. With the increasing impor- tance of tourism, this role is now gaining new dimensions (Peters and Junchao 2012; Tillmann and Bueno de Mesquita 2015). On the other hand, agricultural terracing introduced critical issues: increases in slope failures and hydraulic erosion processes with consequent loss of nutrients and redistribution of chemicals. Perhaps the 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 75 76 Drago Kladnik, Alexandra Kruse, Blaž Komac, Terraced landscapes: an increasingly prominent cultural landscape type most important topic related to cultural terraces (especially in developed countries) is that of land aban- donment. Industrialization was associated with people moving from the countryside to towns and with fundamental demographic changes, especially shrinking and aging of the farming population and a result- ing shortage of agricultural labor. Lack of irrigation equipment and poor road access to the land resulted in the abandonment of a significant number of traditional terraces in recent decades, especially in the Mediterranean area. Land abandonment has resulted in a progressive increase in various processes of land degradation in agricultural terraced landscapes (Tarolli et al. 2015). Terraces’ sporadic and partial revi- talization only took place in the last decade and can be ascribed to suburbanization, strengthening of the market economy and resulting increased demand, better road access to the land for farm machinery and emerging tourist flows. 2.2 A brief historical outline of studying cultivated terraces and terraced landscapes Cultivated terraces were mentioned in research as early as the mid-nineteenth century (e.g., Kelly 1862). They attracted more attention after the Second World War, but organized research on terraced landscapes only intensified around 2000. Several important projects were carried out at the end of the twentieth cen- tury and during the first decade of the twenty-first century: the PROTERRA (1997–2001), RERTC (1997–2001), PATTER (1999–2001), TERRISC (2004–2006), and ALPTER project (2005–2008) (see Ažman Momirski and Berčič 2016 for details). The project team of the ALPTER project, founded in 2003 and 2004 based on university initiatives developed the methodological bases for evaluating terraced landscapes. Its results appeared in two publications: Terraced Landscapes of the Alps: Atlas (Scaramellini and Varotto 2008) and Terraced Landscapes of the Alps: Projects in Progress (Fontanari and Patassini 2008). The first one fea- tures one Slovenian article (Ažman Momirski 2008) and the second features two (Ažman Momirski, Škvarč and Kodrič 2008; Komac and Zorn 2008). The international study of terraced landscapes reached its peak with international conferences on ter- raced landscapes. At the first one, which took place in China in the fall of 2010, the International Terraced Landscapes Alliance (ITLA) was established and the Honghe Declaration on the protection and development of terraces was adopted. Together with over one hundred conference papers on various aspects of terraced landscapes from around the globe, this declaration was published in an extensive volume in Chinese and English (Peters and Junchao 2012), which also includes one Slovenian contribution (Ažman Momirski and Kladnik 2012). The second conference was held in Peru in May 2014. One of its results is an extensive volume of con- ference proceedings (Tillmann and Bueno de Mesquita 2015), which also features two Slovenian papers (Ažman Momirski and Kladnik 2015a; Ažman Momirski 2015a). The third conference (Terraced Landscapes: Choosing the Future 2016) was held in Italy in October 2016, right at the time when this editorial was being written. In line with the rich Italian tradition of study- ing terraced landscapes (e.g., Barbera et al. 2010; Tarolli, Preti and Romano 2014; Agnoletti et al. 2015), pre-conference meetings were held in ten areas, each one highlighting a specific topic. In connection with the third world conference, a special edition of the Slovenian journal Annales, Series Historia et Sociologia dedicated to terraced landscapes was issued. Among its seventeen articles, fourteen of which deal with cultivated terraces or terraced landscapes, four focus on the findings of detailed stud- ies of Slovenian terraced landscapes (Kladnik et al. 2016a; Ažman Momirski and Berčič 2016; Berčič 2016; Guštin 2016). Research is also taking place as part of the European Geosciences Union (EGU). One of its sections, titled »Agricultural terraces of the world: Their pedological, geomorphological and hydrological role« (Tarolli et al. 2015), dedicates special attention not only to the topics highlighted in its title, but also to the use of technological applications for field data analysis and topographic surveys (i.e., remote sensing), empir- ical and modeling approaches, and advances in environmental planning strategies for agricultural terrace management. In 2015 and 2016, when this section was active, a series of papers exploring terraced land- scapes were presented, including three Slovenian ones (Ažman Momirski 2015b; Kokalj 2015; Komac and Zorn 2015). Since 2015, systematic research on terraced landscapes has also been carried out as part of the non- governmental organization of European experts, EUCALAND (European Culture Expressed in Agricultural Landscapes), which promotes the systematic study of typical European landscape types. It is closely connected 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 76 77 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 with the activities of the Permanent European Conference on the Study of the Rural Landscape (PECSRL). Wooden pastures were the first to be studied as part of EUCALAND; they comprise pastures in traditional rural orchards, fruit-tree and cork-oak plantations, olive groves, and farmland that is already being over- grown by shrubs or trees. In addition, research on water meadows and enclosed fields is still ongoing. 3 Studying cultivated terraces and terraced landscapes in Slovenia Although Slovenia does not have terraces that rank among the best-known such landscapes in the world (i.e., those that are irrigated for rice production), Slovenian terraced landscapes are sufficiently diverse that they deserve special treatment. We seek to reveal their inner structure and to highlight the elements by which they differ from one another. Their diversity is also a consequence of the fact that Slovenia has a great variety of natural landscape types (Ciglič and Perko 2013; Perko, Hrvatin and Ciglič 2015). For a long time, Slovenian geographers failed to treat terraces as an important landscape phenome- non. There were only individual regional studies, among which Titl’s (1965) was the most notable. His study relies at least partly on Melik’s rather in-depth discussion on cultivated terraces in the countryside along the Slovenian coast (Melik 1960). Titl was also the first to develop a typology of terraces. Much later the terraces in the Koper Hills were dealt with in Drobnjak’s article on the physiogeographic significance of cultivated terraces and typology (Drobnjak 1990) and in Kladnik’s article on the possibilities of their inten- sification (Kladnik 1990). An in-depth study of the Gorizia Hills (Vrišer 1954) devotes only scant attention to cultivated terraces, mostly concerning field division and cultivated plants. In eastern Slovenia, in the monograph Ljutomersko-Ormoške gorice (The Ljutomer–Ormož Hills), the author (Belec 1968) mentions the completely altered landscape image caused by the terraces. An exhaustive chronological overview of research on cultivated terraces and terraced landscapes in Slovenia and an outline of Slovenian terraced landscapes were only published a few years ago (Ažman Momirski and Kladnik 2009). Also noteworthy are an article about terraced landscape in the Brkini Hills (Ažman Momirski and Kladnik 2015b) and a comparative study of land-use changes in the Mediterranean terraced settlements of Krkavče in the Koper Hills and Ostrožno Brdo in the Brkini Hills (Ažman Momirski and Gabrovec 2014), a study created based on fieldwork in selected Slovenian terraced landscapes (Križaj Smrdel 2010a; Križaj Smrdel 2010b), and the in-depth volume Terasirana pokrajina Goriških brd (Terraced Landscapes of the Gorizia Hills; Ažman Momirski et al. 2008). It is an interdisciplinary, geographical, his- torical, ethnographic, and architectural study, which still remains the most in-depth study of a Slovenian terraced landscape. Another two studies from this time that should be mentioned address the threat that landslides pose to Slovenian terraced landscapes (Zorn and Komac 2007; Komac and Zorn 2008). In one of the most recent articles (Kladnik et al. 2016a), the geographical distribution and character- istics of selected typical terraced landscapes in Slovenia are presented, based on analysis of the metric characteristics and the qualities of individual terraces and their components (terrace platforms and terrace slopes). The extensive volume Terasirane pokrajine (Terraced Landscapes; Kladnik et al. 2016b) was published in April 2016 upon the seventieth anniversary of the ZRC SAZU Anton Melik Geographical Institute. It is an illustrated text that presents terraced landscapes around the world and Slovenian landscapes, as well as natural and manmade non-agricultural terraces. As far as we know, it is the first and only work of this type in the world. 4 The articles The journal Acta geographica Slovenica has a long tradition in regional geography. With the articles in this special issue (volume 57, issue 2), we present the comprehensive and multidisciplinary nature of the geo- graphical approach to the study of cultural terraces and terraced landscapes. Figure 1: Share of terraced areas by settlement in Slovenia. The level of terracing in Slovenia reflects various natural conditions and cultivation trends associated with them. p p. 78 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 77 Drago Kladnik, Alexandra Kruse, Blaž Komac, Terraced landscapes: an increasingly prominent cultural landscape type 78 0 10 20 30 40 k m Sh ar e of te rr ac ed a re as b y se ttl em en ts no a cc ur en ce <0 ,5 % 0, 5– 1% 1– 2% 2– 5% 5– 10 % 10 –2 0% 20 –3 0% >3 0% A ut ho r o f t he co nt en t: D ra go K la dn ik A ut ho r o f m ap : M an ca V ol k Ba hu m © G eo gr af sk i i nš tit ut A nt on a M el ik a ZR C S A ZU 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 78 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 79 Following this introduction the special issue begins with the article Cultivated terraces in Slovenian landscapes (Šmid Hribar et al. 2017). Its authors study the characteristics of cultivated terraces and their use at selected pilot sites in various Slovenian landscape types. They report that one of the greatest prob- lems for the continued existence of cultivated terraces is the abandonment of their use and subsequent overgrowth, highlighting the issue of land ownership and assuming that the share of privately owned over- grown terraced land is smaller than that of publicly owned land of this type. They also identify natural conditions as factors influencing the abandonment and overgrowth of terraced landscapes. In addition, they raise the issue of further maintenance and protection of aesthetically complete terraced landscapes, recog- nizing their significant tourism potential. In the article Terrraced landscapes in Slovakia (Špulerová et al. 2017) its authors investigate the distribution of terraced landscapes and analyze their structural characteristics and land use. They found that traditional farming and terrace building as a part of agricultural intensification resulted in two main types of terraced landscapes: historical terraced landscapes and new terraced landscapes. The two types differ in size, struc- ture of various elements, their management intensity, and the impact of these spatial structures on biodiversity. The preservation of such landscapes mostly depends on tradition and is highly dependent on the demgraphic situation. These areas are of great value, both from the perspective of nature and heritage conservation as well as with regard to landscape and aesthetic values. In the article Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia (Andlar, Šra- jer and Trojanović 2017), the authors present the Croatian Adriatic terraced landscape classification, with the aim of highlighting its natural and cultural background and proposing a classification framework for further research. The proposed classification framework is based on the landscape pattern dimension whereby the extrac- tion of the class is primarily based on the structure, but also interpreting the geomorphological, biophysical, and cultural-historical circumstances that affected its genesis. Nine classes of terraced landscapes are singled out, described, and referred to with example locations, and also clarified with illustrations and photos. In the article Terraced landscapes as protected cultural heritage sites (Kladnik, Šmid Hribar and Geršič 2017), the authors present the current state of protection of terraced landscapes, both globally and in Slovenia. The UNESCO World Heritage List, the Satoyama Initiative list, and the Slovenian Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage are analyzed. The findings show that terraces rarely appear as a factor justifying pro- tection, even though certain progress has been made in recent years. Intangible aspects of terraced landscapes (e.g., group work, celebrations, rituals) are already being recognized around the globe, but this does not apply to Slovenia. Slovenia shows both a lack of appropriate criteria for identifying terraced landscapes worth protecting and an insufficiently systematic treatment of heritage sites that are already being protected. In the last article Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard ter- races (Pipan and Kokalj 2017), the authors emphasize that the terraced landscape in the Jeruzalem Hills is the result of specific socioeconomic conditions under communism. Nowadays its appearance is dras- tically changing for the second time in the last fifty years. The authors examine the creation of a new landscape layer of modern cultivated terraces, study their disappearance, and discuss the return to a condition sim- ilar to the original state. It is determined that, despite the recognized aesthetic value of terraces, legal protection in the form of a nature park has not impacted their preservation. The analysis is based on interviews and visual interpretation of aerial laser scanning (lidar) data. 5 Conclusion The articles in this special issue of Acta geographica Slovenica provide an interdisciplinary and compre- hensive examination of terraced landscapes in three countries on the border between central and eastern Europe, combining the research potentials of geographers, landscape architects, and biologists. The geo- graphers highlight the spatial, developmental, and protection aspects of terraced landscapes, the landscape architects develop the typology of cultivated terraces using detailed images of terrace structure in indi- vidual terraced landscapes, and the biologists explore the landscape ecology elements within the established typology of terraced landscapes. Due to its comprehensive approach, fresh methods, and newly covered topics, this special issue of Acta geographica Slovenica dedicated to terraced landscapes and cultivated terraces is a significant contribu- tion to a better understanding of the characteristics of terraced landscapes and their typology. 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 79 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: Activities by the researchers at the ZRC SAZU Anton Melik Geographical Institute were carried out as part of the applied project »Terraced Landscapes in Slovenia as Cultural Value« (L6-4038). This special issue was also contributed to by selected colleagues from Croatia and Slovakia involved in the non-governmental organization EUCALAND. EUCALAND’s initiator also helped prepare the edi- torial. The editorial board would like to thank all of them for their precious contributions. 6 References Agnoletti, M., Conti, L., Frezza, L., Santoro, A. 2015: Territorial analysis of the agricultural terraced landscapes of Tuscany (Italy): Preliminary Results. Sustainability 7-4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su7044564 Andlar, G., Šrajer, F., Trojanović, A. 2017: Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4673 Ažman Momirski, L. 2008: The terraced vineyards of Goriška Brda. Terraced landscapes of the Alps – Atlas. Venice. Ažman Momirski, L. 2015a: History, culture and current state of terraced landscapes in the Gorizia Hills, Slovenia. II Congreso Internacional de Terrazas: encuentro de culturas y saberes de terrazas del mundo. Cusco, Lima. Ažman Momirski, L. 2015b: Preventing landslides on terraced slopes. General Assembly of European Geo - sciences Union, Vienna. Internet: http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU2015/EGU2015-9680-1.pdf (10. 10. 2016). Ažman Momirski, L., Berčič, T. 2016: Ignored regions: Slovenian terraced landscapes. Annales, Series Historia et Sociologia 26-3. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.19233/ASHS.2016.37 Ažman Momirski, L., Gabrovec, M. 2014: Changes in land use in the Mediterranean terraced landscapes between 1819 and 2012: the case of two selected villages in Slovenia. Land use, cover changes in select- ed regions in the world 9. Prague. Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D. 2009: Terraced landscapes in Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 49-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1627 Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D. 2012: Terraces and terraced landscapes in Slovenia. First Terraced Landscapes Conference (Honghe – China) paper collection. Kunming. Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D. 2015a: Factors in the conservation and decline of cultivated terraces in Slovenia. II Congreso Internacional de Terrazas: encuentro de culturas y saberes de terrazas del mundo. Cusco, Lima. Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D. 2015b: The terraced landscape in the Brkini Hills. Acta geographica Slovenica 55-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS49101 Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D., Komac, B., Petek, F., Repolusk P., Zorn, M. 2008: Terasirana pokrajina Goriških brd. Geografija Slovenije 17. Ljubljana. Ažman Momirski, L., Radikon, B. 2008: Terase v Brdih: najpomembnejša prvina kulturne krajine: uvodnik. Briški časnik 12-50. Ažman Momirski, L., Škvarč, A., Kodrič, I. 2008: The terraces of Goriška Brda – case study of Medana. Terraced Landscapes of the Alps: Projects in Progress. Venice. Barbera, G., Cullotta, S., Rossi-Doria, I., Rühl, J., Rossi-Doria, B. 2010: I paesaggi a terrazze in Sicilia: metodologie per l’analisi, la tutela e la valorizzazione. ARPA Sicilia, Collana Studi e Ricerche dell’Arpa Sicilia 7. Palermo. Belec, B. 1968: Ljutomersko-Ormoške gorice. Maribor. Berčič, T. 2016: Discovering terraced areas in Slovenia: Reliable detection with Lidar. Annales, Series Historia et Sociologia 26-3. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.19233/ASHS.2016.35 Ciglič, R., Perko, D. 2013: Europe’s landscape hotspots. Acta geographica Slovenica 53-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.3986/AGS53106 Drobnjak, V. 1990: Fizičnogeografski pomen kulturnih teras. Primorje, zbornik 15. zborovanja slovenskih geografov. Ljubljana. Fontanari, E., Patassini, D. (eds.) 2008: Terraced landscapes of the Alps: Projects in Progress. Venice. Guštin, Š. 2016: Spreminjanje funkcij in identitete istrskega podeželja. Annales, Series Historia et Socio - logia 26-3. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.19233/ASHS.2016.40 Drago Kladnik, Alexandra Kruse, Blaž Komac, Terraced landscapes: an increasingly prominent cultural landscape type 80 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 80 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 81 Junchao, S. 2015: Things that are happening in the Chinese terraces. II Congreso Internacional de Terrazas: encuentro de culturas y saberes de terrazas del mundo. Cusco, Lima. Kelly, A. C. 1862: The vine in Australia: its culture and management. Clifton Hill. Kladnik, D. 1990: Možnosti intenziviranja rabe kulturnih teras. Primorje, zbornik 15. zborovanja slovenskih geografov. Ljubljana. Kladnik, D., Ciglič, R., Geršič, M., Komac, B., Perko, D., Zorn, M. 2016a: Diversity of terraced landscapes in Slovenia. Annales, Series Historia et Sociologia 26-3. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.19233/ASHS.2016.38 Kladnik, D., Perko, D. (ed.), Ciglič, R. (ed.), Geršič, M. (ed.) 2016b: Terasirane pokrajine. Ljubljana. Kladnik, D., Šmid Hribar, M., Geršič, M. 2017: Terraced landscapes as protected cultural heritage sites. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4628 Kokalj, Ž. 2015: Estimation of terracing characteristics from airborne laser scanning data. General Assembly of European Geosciences Union, Vienna. Internet: http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/ EGU2015/EGU2015-5252-1.pdf (10. 10. 2016). Komac, B., Zorn, M. 2008: Landslide hazards in Goriška Brda. Terraced Landscapes of the Alps: Projects in Progress. Venice. Komac, B., Zorn, M. 2015: Landsliding, topographic variables and location of cultural terraces in Slovenia. General Assembly of European Geosciences Union, Vienna. Internet: http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/ EGU2015/EGU2015-8364.pdf (10. 10. 2016). Križaj Smrdel, H. 2010a: Kulturne terase v slovenskih pokrajinah. Dela 34. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/ dela.34.3.39-60 Križaj Smrdel, H. 2010b: Kulturne terase v slovenskih pokrajinah. Magistrsko delo, Oddelek za geografijo Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani. Ljubljana. Lasanta, T., Arnaéz, J., Ruiz Flaño, P., Lana-Renault Monreal, N. 2013: Agricultural terraces in the Spanish mountains: an abandoned landscape and a potential resource. Boletín de la Asociación de Geógrafos Españoles 63. Melik, A. 1960: Slovensko Primorje. Slovenija – geografski opis slovenskih pokrajin. Ljubljana. Perko, D., Hrvatin, M., Ciglič, R. 2015: A methodology for natural landscape typification of Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 55-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1938 Peters, A. H., Junchao, S. (eds.) 2012: First Terraced Landscapes Conference (Honghe – China) paper col- lection. Kunming. Pipan, P., Kokalj, Ž. 2017: Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard terraces. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4629 Scaramellini, G., Varoto, M. (eds.) 2008: Terraced landscapes of the Alps – Atlas. Venice. Smrekar, A., Polajnar Horvat, K., Erhartič, B. 2016: The beauty of landforms. Acta geographica Slovenica 56-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.3039 Šmid Hribar, M., Geršič, M., Pipan, P., Repolusk, P., Tiran, J., Topole, M., Ciglič, R. 2017: Cultivated ter- races in Slovenian landscapes. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4597 Špulerová, J., Dobrovodská, M., Štefunková, D., Kenderessy, P., Izsóff, M. 2017: Terraced landscapes in Slovakia. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4674 Tarolli, P., Cerdà, A., Brown, T., Preti, F. 2015: Agricultural terraces of the world: Their pedological, geo- morphological and hydrological role. General Assembly of European Geosciences Union, Vienna. Internet: http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU2015/session/17429 (12. 10. 2016). Tarolli, P., Preti, F., Romano, N. 2014: Terraced landscapes: From an old best practice to a potential hazard for soil degradation due to land abandonment. Anthropocene 6. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.ancene.2014.03.002 Terraced Landscapes: choosing the future. Third World Terraced Landscapes Conference. Venezia, Padova, 6th–15th October 2016. Internet: http://www.terracedlandscapes2016.it/en/ (15. 10. 2016). Tillmann, T., Bueno de Mesquita, M. 2015: II Congreso Internacional de Terrazas: encuentro de culturas y saberes de terrazas del mundo. Cusco, Lima. Titl, J. 1965: Socialnogeografski problemi na koprskem podeželju. Koper. Varotto, M. 2015: Terraced landscapes of the Alps: Decay, rediscovery, revitalization. II Congreso Internacional de Terrazas: encuentro de culturas y saberes de terrazas del mundo. Cusco, Lima. Vrišer, I. 1954: Goriška Brda: gospodarska geografija. Geografski zbornik 2. Zorn, M., Komac, B. 2007: Probability modelling of landslide hazard. Acta geographica Slovenica 47-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS47201 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 81 82 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 82 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017, 83–97 CULTIVATED TERRACES IN SLOVENIAN LANDSCAPES Mateja Šmid Hribar, Matjaž Geršič, Primož Pipan, Peter Repolusk, Jernej Tiran, Maja Topole, Rok Ciglič A terraced olive grove in Krkavče. M IH A P A V Š E K 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 83 M. Šmid Hribar, M. Geršič, P. Pipan, P. Repolusk, J. Tiran, M. Topole, R. Ciglič, Cultivated terraces in Slovenian landscapes Cultivated terraces in Slovenian landscapes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4597 UDC: 911.53:631.613(497.4) COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: Cultivated terraces distinctively mark the landscape and are a result of human adaptation to steep areas. Terraces were studied with regard to their morphometric qualities, ownership structure, and land use at eight pilot sites in various landscape types in Slovenia. Twenty-six detailed interviews were car- ried out with local residents and experts. In current agricultural practice, terraces mostly represent obstacles, and for owners they create a loss rather than profit; however, they represented an advantage in the past, when they were cultivated manually. Land use is intensifying on economically profitable terraces. Among those examined, the Jeruzalem terraces stand out because these are the youngest ones (created in socialist Yugoslavia around 1965). Because of their aesthetic value, they are the best known among the public. Profitability in particular will be an important driving force for the future maintenance of terraces. KEYWORDS: geography, terraces, cultural landscape, terraced landscape, cultural heritage, Slovenia The article was submitted for publication on 3rd June, 2016. ADDRESSES: Mateja Šmid Hribar, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana E-mail: mateja.smid@zrc-sazu.si Matjaž Geršič, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana E-mail: matjaz.gersic@zrc-sazu.si Primož Pipan, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana E-mail: primoz.pipan@zrc-sazu.si Peter Repolusk Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana E-mail: peter.repolusk@zrc-sazu.si Jernej Tiran, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana E-mail: jernej.tiran@zrc-sazu.si 84 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 84 Maja Topole, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana E-mail: maja.topole@zrc-sazu.si Rok Ciglič, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana E-mail: rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 85 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 85 M. Šmid Hribar, M. Geršič, P. Pipan, P. Repolusk, J. Tiran, M. Topole, R. Ciglič, Cultivated terraces in Slovenian landscapes 1 Introduction Cultivated terraces are step-shaped relief forms on inclined land (Križaj Smrdel 2010), which ranks them among the distinctive elements of cultural landscapes. They are a response to human adaptation to nat- ural conditions in steep areas. A distinction is made between irrigated and dry terraces (Rivera 2012). Generations of people invested enormous amounts of labor in their construction, and in many places they completely changed the appearance of the landscape. In places, in developed civilizations they appeared in an organized manner over millennia, and in others they were created spontaneously. Slovenia is criss- crossed by terraces to an extent rarely found in other European countries. In certain places they are so important that one can speak of terraced landscapes, whereas in others they are less distinct and can only be discerned through detailed studies (Kladnik et al. 2016). As a unique landscape system terraced landscapes were recognized at the global level at the confer- ence on terraced landscapes held in Mengzi, China, where the Honghe declaration on the protection and development of global terraced civilizations was adopted (Peters and Junchao 2012). The terraced land- scapes of eastern, southeast, and southern Asia have been discussed by various authors: for example, Liu et al. (2004) studied water flow on terraces, and Min and Zhiyong (2012) wrote about the role of women in working terraced areas among the Hani people. Classification of terraced landscapes in Africa was car- ried out by Rose (2008), and in South America manmade terraces in the Andes were studied by Goodman Elgar (2002) and Kendall (2012), among others; Kendall dedicated special attention to terraces as a method of adapting the land for food production. In Europe, there is a predominance of studies on ter- race management (e.g., Stanchi et al. 2012; Tarolli, Preti and Romano 2014) and the consequences of their overgrowth (e.g., Höchtl, Lehringer and Konold 2005). The economic role of cultivating land in terraces in the Alpine countries has been dealt with in Italy (Scaramelini and Varoto 2008), Switzerland (Lavaux 2007), and France (Jeddou et al. 2008). Špulerová et al. (2017) described the qualities of terraced landscapes in Slovakia. Andlar, Šrajer and Trojanović (2017) studied solutions for avoiding the deterioration of the ter- raced cultural landscape, which is occurring in Croatia due to accelerated deagrarization and rapid tourism development. In Slovenia, cultivated terraces have long been a marginal topic, and they were only inves- tigated in detail in Istria by Titl (1965). The first detailed analyses were made of the Gorizia Hills (Goriška Brda) (Ažman Momirski et al. 2008) and the Brkini Hills (Ažman Momirski and Kladnik 2015). Terracing across all of Slovenia was studied by Ažman Momirski and Kladnik (2009) and Križaj Smrdel (2010). Kladnik et al. (2016) offered detailed data on terraced landscapes in Slovenia. Despite the important role of terraced landscapes in the Slovenian economy and their landscape func- tion, there is still no detailed study at the national level that 1) presents the attitude of owners and experts toward terraces, and 2) examines their multiple importance. This article studies the characteristics of cul- tivated terraces and their use at selected pilot sites in various Slovenian landscape types. It is hypothesized that the share of privately owned overgrown terraced land is smaller than that of publicly owned land of this type. 2 Methods Eight pilot sites or settlements were selected (Figure 1) within eight of the nine landscape types according to Perko’s (1998, 2007, 2015) classification of Slovenia. The pilot sites have an above-average share of ter- raced land in comparison to the proportion of terraces in individual landscape types. The final selection was made based on the morphometric characteristics of the terraces (inclination, aspect, and elevation), the researchers’ own judgement of their aesthetic value (visual impact), and public awareness of them. No pilot site was selected in the Pannonian plains landscape type, where only 0.05% of the land is terraced. The pilot sites were studied using a combination of desk work and fieldwork. The sites were first stud- ied using digital orthophotos (Digitalni ortofoto posnetek 2015), and then shaded relief, which was created with the help of laser scanning data (LIDAR 2015). Because laser scanning can also detect relief forma- tions if the site is covered by vegetation, it can provide data for very accurate digital elevation model (DEM) 86 Figure 1: Map of landscape types and pilot sites. p 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 86 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 87 RU T M ER Č E RO D IN E K RK AV Č E SM O LE VA JE R U ZA LE M D EČ JA V AS V EL IK A S LE V IC A A lp in e m ou nt ai ns A lp in e hi lls A lp in e pl ai ns D in ar ic v al le ys a nd c or ro sio n pl ai ns D in ar ic p la te au s Pa nn on ia n lo w h ill s Pa nn on ia n pl ai ns M ed ite rr an ea n lo w h ill s M ed ite rr an ea n pl at ea us 0 10 20 30 40 50 km © G eo gr af sk i i nš tit ut A nt on a M el ik a ZR C S A ZU So ur ce o f t he ty po lo gy : P er ko , H rv at in a nd C ig lič 2 01 5 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 87 M. Šmid Hribar, M. Geršič, P. Pipan, P. Repolusk, J. Tiran, M. Topole, R. Ciglič, Cultivated terraces in Slovenian landscapes 88 generation. This is very important in determining the layout of terraced landscapes because it makes it possible to register terraces that are overgrown or even covered by forest (Figure 2). The terraces that were identified were then digitized, and overlapping data layers were used to study their morphometric prop- erties (elevation, inclination, and aspect), ownership structure, and land use. A DEM (with a resolution of 1 × 1 m) derived from laser scanning data was used to analyze the pilot sites. For the land use analysis, data from Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food (Grafični podatki RABA … 2015) were used. Information on the owners of individual parcels was obtained from the Land cadastre (Zemljiški kataster 2014). Owners were sorted into ten different categories (private individuals, legal entities, the state, the Slovenian Farmland and Forest Fund, agriculture communities, municipali- ties, parishes, property in public domain, general-use public property, and unknown), and the influence of ownership structure on land use was analyzed. The fieldwork was based on observations and 26 structured interviews that were carried out at the pilot sites in 2014 with 16 local residents that owned terraced land, 5 residents that were not owners, and 5 experts in nature conservation, cultural heritage protection, history, archaeology, and agriculture, respectively. The questionnaire for owners contained 22 questions about the influence of terraces on the settlement, their use, their significance, and their preservation. Non-owners were asked about the same issues, except for questions connected with cultivating and maintaining the terraces. Experts were asked 10 questions regard- ing challenges connected with terraces, their possible protection and future development, and 1 specific question connected to their field of expertise. The audio recordings and transcriptions of the interviews are kept at the Archives of the ZRC SAZU Anton Melik Geographical Institute. 3 Results The history, time, and reason connected with the creation of the terraces, and their position, appearance, current status, and dominant processes differed greatly between landscapes. Some cultivated terraces were shaped centuries ago, and the most recent were created in the 1960s. The characteristics of the terraced landscape are connected with the shape of the terrain, as well as lithological, pedological, climatological, and other natural and social characteristics of the landscape. In order to highlight their variety, the pilot sites, which were selected based on the criteria in Chapter 2, are briefly presented. Their basic character- istics were identified with the help of spatial analyses, in-depth interviews, and field visits (Figures 3, 4, and 5; Table 1). At the Rut site (Alpine mountains) the terraces were created following the settlement of Tyrolean farm- ers from the vicinity of San Candido (Germ. Innichen) in the Puster Valley in the 13th century (Torkar 1994). 0 100 200 m Sources: Ortofoto GURS 2016; LIDAR 2016 © GIAM ZRC SAZU Figure 2: Comparison of a digital orthophoto (left) and shaded relief based on laser scanning (right) for the Krkavče site. Shaded relief makes it possible to also identify terraces under vegetation. 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 88 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 89 Near the village, cleared stones were laid into dry walls that support the terraces. Originally they contained small cultivated fields, known as flančniki, or seedling plots, and repniki, or plots for turnips and other vegetables. The former fields are now predominantly meadows and pastures, and the small plots have fall- en into disrepair and are overgrown. All of the non-terraced land in Rut is being intensively overgrown, but the terraced land is not. Therefore in a few decades the terrace site in Rut will be the only land that has not undergone afforestation. In Smoleva (Alpine hills) the terraces were created during medieval colonization of hilly areas (Blaznik 1928; Ilešič 1938). The steep slopes and the bottoms of two ravines that open to the southwest were ter- raced in order to facilitate cultivation of fields and reduce soil erosion. In the past, they contained fields with all sorts of cultivars for subsistence farming, but they have now been replaced by meadows. Because of the strong incline of the slope, the terraces are narrow and have high earthen embankments. Their main- tenance is encumbered by the landslide-prone slopes. In Rodine (Alpine plains) the terraces are in a warm zone at the foot of the hills. The terrace platforms are several dozen meters long and at least five meters wide, and the embankments are low, gently sloping, made of earth, and overgrown with grass. A special feature among the embankments is two relatively well- preserved dry stone walls. In the past, more than half of the terraces were used as cultivated fields, whereas today meadows and pastures predominate. In Jeruzalem (Pannonian low hills), the information gathered in the interviews indicates that vine- yard terraces were created around 1965 on land that had been nationalized after the Second World War (Pipan and Kokalj 2017). Due to the lack of manual labor, the terraces were built to accommodate the mechan- ical cultivation available at the time. The terracing was so intense that it was carried out all the way to the houses at the top of the ridge. In 2015, 89.8% of the terraced land was used for vineyards. In Dečja vas (Dinaric plateaus) the terraces are characterized by reddish-brown soil. Terraced land is surrounded by the clustered village on all sides. The terraces in Dečja vas are marked by a predominance of cultivated fields, which cover more than half (51%) of all terraced land, which is noteworthy not only among Slovenian terraced landscapes, but also among agricultural landscapes in general. The terraces in Velika Slevica (Dinaric valleys and corrosion plains) represent the Lower Carniolan type of terraces (Križaj Smrdel 2010). Old agricultural terraces extend along the full length of slopes, espe- cially those facing the southeast. They have recently been subject to grass overgrowth. All of the embankments are earthen and overgrown with grass, and in places one can notice the first signs of overgrowth with bush- es. The greatest danger threatening their long-term existence is ownership fragmentation, which encumbers economical and intensive cultivation. The terraces in Krkavče (Mediterranean low hills) are believed to date back to Antiquity (Gaspari 1998). In the past they were used to cultivate vineyards, fruit trees, and vegetables, but today olive groves predominate because of their profitability and mechanical cultivation. Nearly one-third of the terraces are already afforest- ed. The trend of overgrowth is continuing, whereby the terraces where olives do not thrive are being abandoned first. An important factor in their abandonment is the protected status of the Dragonja River region, which is an obstacle to use. Dry stone walls have largely been replaced by earthen embankments. In Merče (Mediterranean plateaus) there are no terraces at all on karstified soil (Jurkovšek et al. 1996; Jurkovšek, Cvetko Tešović and Kolar-Jurkovšek 2013); they are found on dolomite and are laid out con- centrically around the central village depression. They are bordered by multifunctional dry stone walls (Panjek 2015). Once cultivated fields predominated on the terraces, and there were also many meadows and pastures. Today these are in the majority, one-fourth of the terraces are afforested, and overgrowth con- tinues to be intense. The pilot areas also differ in terms of land use (Figures 4 and 5). Vineyards are almost exclusively found in Jeruzalem, where they account for 89.8% of the terraces, and a very small portion can also be found in Krkavče (6.8%). Olive groves are found only in Krkavče and account for 30.7% of terraced land. There are few orchards; the largest share (9.5%) is found in Velika Slevica. In Dečja vas there is a mix of cultivated fields (51%) and meadows and pastures (40.7%), whereas meadows and pastures dominate in Merče (64.9%), Rodine (83.5%), Rut (83.2%), Smoleva (59.4%), and Velika Slevica (85.4%). One of the basic characteris- tics of land use on agricultural terraces is the abandonment of intensive use for cultivated fields or meadows, Figure 3: Eight selected pilot sites that reflect the diversity of Slovenian terraced landscapes by various landscape types. p p. 88 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 89 M. Šmid Hribar, M. Geršič, P. Pipan, P. Repolusk, J. Tiran, M. Topole, R. Ciglič, Cultivated terraces in Slovenian landscapes 90 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 90 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 91 Ta ble 1: A co m pa ris on of te rra ce ch ara cte ris tic s a t e igh t p ilo t s ite s ( So ur ce : G raf ičn i p od atk i R AB A… 20 15 ; R eg ist er pr os to rsk ih en ot 20 16 ; in ter vie ws ; fi eld in sp ec tio ns ). Pil ot si te Ar ea (h a) Sh are of te rra ce d Pre do m ina nt us e ( > 20 % ) Pre do m ina nt em ba nk m en t t yp e Sp ec ial fe atu res Di ffic ult ies /c ha lle ng es lan d i n s ett le m en t ( % ) Ru t ( 1) 43 .8 4.3 M ea do w an d p as tu re Dr y w all Dr y w all s Cle ari ng ov erg row n e m ba nk m en ts Sm ole va (2 ) 20 .2 11 .0 M ea do w an d p as tu re, w oo ds Ea rth en Th e t err ac es ha ve th eir ow n La nd sli de -p ron e a rea ; p ot en tia l m icr ot op on ym s, wh ich ar e ab an do nm en t o f m ow ing an d b ru sh ge ne ral ly kn ow n b y l oc al rem ov al on sm all fa rm s res ide nt s; th e e m ba nk m en ts oft en ha ve fr uit tr ee s o n t he m Ro din e ( 3) 22 .3 12 .4 M ea do w an d p as tu re Ea rth en Tw o d ry -w all em ba nk m en ts La nd us e c ha ng e f rom cu ltiv ate d fie lds to m ea do ws an d p as tu res ; rem ov al of dr y w all s Je ru za lem (4 ) 24 .4 40 .9 Vin ey ard Ea rth en Th e t err ac es un du lat e a lon g t he La nd sli de -p ron e a rea co nt ou rs of sm all hi lls De čja va s ( 5) 61 .0 20 .0 Cu ltiv ate d f iel d, m ea do w, an d p as tu re Ea rth en Re dd ish -b row n l oa m y s oil ; m ix of Ow ne rs’ ne ga tiv e a tti tu de to te rra ce s; cu ltiv ate d f iel ds an d m ea do ws ne ed to co ns er ve ar ab le lan d Ve lik a S lev ica (6 ) 27 .1 23 .9 M ea do w an d p as tu re Ea rth en Th e t err ac es ex ten d a lon g Ov erg row th of in div idu al th e e nt ire sl op es fo llo wi ng em ba nk m en ts; sm all ne ss an d th e c on to ur s sp ati al dis pe rsi on of la nd ow ne rsh ip; ow ne rs’ ne ga tiv e a tti tu de to te rra ce s Kr ka vč e ( 7) 23 1.3 35 .9 Ol ive gr ov e, wo od s Ea rth en Fe w dr y w all s; oli ve gr ov es ha ve Dr y w all s n ot m ain tai ne d; no t o nly ec on om ic va lue bu t a lso ov erg row th du e t o a ba nd on m en t dis tin cti ve ae sth eti c v alu e of far m ing an d u ns ett led ow ne rsh ip M erč e ( 8) 52 .0 13 .3 M ea do w an d p as tu re, w oo ds Dr y w all Dr y- wa ll s ys tem ; c on ce nt ric Ov erg row th ; m ow ing on ly on arr an ge m en t o f t err ac es ar ou nd ter rac es w he re far m ers re ce ive a c en tra l d ep res sio n w he re th e su bs idi es vil lag e h ou se s s tan d 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 91 M. Šmid Hribar, M. Geršič, P. Pipan, P. Repolusk, J. Tiran, M. Topole, R. Ciglič, Cultivated terraces in Slovenian landscapes 92 which is best seen in afforestation and farmland that is being overgrown. Overgrowth is seen at all pilot sites except Rodine; it is greatest in Krkavče (9.7%) and Merče (3.7%). In general, it is true for all pilot sites that northern orientations are being overgrown more that southern ones, and that slopes with an incli- nation greater than 27° (50%) are being overgrown more than those with less of an incline. The greatest share of woods is in Smoleva (32%), and just under this in Krkavče (27.3%) and Merče (25.2%). Based on information from the Land cadastre (Zemljiški kataster 2014), the largest number of parcel owners in terraced areas is in Krkavče, followed by Merče, and the smallest number is in Smoleva. Comparing the number of owners with the size of the terraced areas, the greatest fragmentation of property is in Rodine and the least in Velika Slevica. With the exception of Jeruzalem, the highest share of owners in terraced areas are private individuals, followed by the state (especially in Krkavče at 34.4%), and the remainder of other categories is negligible. For a total of 6% of land in the register the owner is unknown. In Jeruzalem the largest ownership share is held by the Farmland and Forest Fund (58.4%). The smallest ownership shares are held by agriculture communities, municipalities, legal entities, and parishes. In terms of ownership, the majority of land that is being overgrown is privately owned (Figure 6). The largest share of such land is found in Krkavče (9.7%), Merče (3.7%), and Smoleva (2.2%). Elsewhere overgrown land accounts for less than 2%. 4 Discussion One of the greatest problems for the continued existence of cultivated terraces is abandonment of their use and subsequent overgrowth, which is especially the case in Krkavče, Smoleva, and Merče. Although overgrowth of steep slopes is readily apparent at most of the pilot sites, the overgrowth of land by aspect varies much more. One reason for this is also the fact that certain pilot sites have very little or almost no land with particular aspects (Figure 4). The same is true regarding the influence of elevation and relative elevation differences within the pilot site: overgrowth of higher-elevation areas is characteristic of pilot sites with greater elevation and greater relative elevation differences (e.g., Smoleva and Rut), whereas else- where this tendency is not observable. It was also surprising that land that is being overgrown, especially in Smoleva, Merče, and to some extent in Krkavče, is largely privately owned and not state-owned, as was first expected. It is likely that more meaningful reasons for the overgrowth of cultivated terraces should 0% L an d u se s tr u ct u re in c u lt iv at ed t er ra ce s 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Built area 0,5 2,9 4,1 0,6 1,5 0,3 3,3 1,7 Overgrown 1,8 2,2 0 0,2 0,8 0,1 9,7 3,7 Non cultivated farmland 0 0 0,7 0 0,4 0,1 3,2 0,3 Woods 8,1 32 0,7 0,6 4,9 2,1 27,3 25,2 Olive grove 0 0 0 0 0 0 30,7 0 Vineyard 0 0 0 89,8 0 0 6,8 0,8 Orchard 5 2,7 4,1 0 0,7 9,5 1,3 1,8 Meadow and pasture 83,2 59,4 83,5 8,7 40,7 85,4 9,5 64,9 Cultivated field 1,4 0,8 6,9 0,1 51 2,5 8,2 1,6 Rut Smoleva Rodine Jeruzalem De ja vasč Velika Slevica Krkav eč Mer eč Figure 4: A comparison of terraced land use at pilot sites in % (Grafični podatki RABA … 2015). 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 92 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 93 Fig ur e 5 : O ve rg row th of cu ltiv ate d t err ac es at in div idu al pil ot ar ea s b y a sp ec t in % (G raf ičn i p od atk i R AB A… 20 15 ; L ID AR 20 15 ). Ru t Sm ole va Ro din e Je ru za lem De čja va s Ve lik a S lev ica Kr ka vč e M erč e S W OV G OT S W OV G OT S W OV G OT S W OV G OT S W OV G OT S W OV G OT S W OV G OT S W OV G OT S, SE , S W 82 ,7 8,9 2,1 89 ,0 60 ,9 18 ,0 2,9 79 ,1 82 ,9 0,4 0,0 99 ,6 61 ,1 0,7 0,3 99 ,0 41 ,1 3,4 1,0 95 ,6 54 ,6 1,3 0,2 98 ,5 61 ,0 17 ,2 9,9 72 ,9 30 ,0 27 ,8 4,5 67 ,7 E 4,6 5,9 0,3 93 ,8 8,6 98 ,5 0,0 1,5 1,0 6,2 0,0 93 ,8 22 ,9 0,5 0,1 99 ,4 12 ,9 4,0 1,1 94 ,9 27 ,5 2,4 0,0 97 ,6 6,8 22 ,4 8,5 69 ,1 20 ,7 27 ,9 4,7 67 ,4 W 12 ,1 3,2 0,5 96 ,3 14 ,8 7,9 2,5 89 ,6 12 ,3 0,6 0,0 99 ,4 5,1 0,7 0,1 99 ,2 8,7 4,2 0,0 95 ,8 0,7 16 ,9 0,0 83 ,1 12 ,3 46 ,1 10 ,1 43 ,8 8,8 15 ,3 2,3 82 ,4 N, N E, NW 0,6 14 ,6 1,1 84 ,3 15 ,7 73 ,1 0,6 26 ,3 3,8 4,0 0,0 96 ,0 10 ,9 0,5 0,0 99 ,5 37 ,3 7,0 0,8 92 ,2 17 ,2 3,5 0,0 96 ,5 19 ,9 48 ,1 9,2 42 ,7 40 ,5 24 ,1 2,8 73 ,1 S – sh are (i n % ) o f a sp ec t c ate go rie s; W – w oo ds (i n % ); OV G – ov erg row n f arm lan d ( in % ); OT – ot he r ( in % ) Fig ur e 6 : S ha re of ter rac ed la nd at pi lot si tes by ow ne rsh ip typ e, wi th an em ph as is on w oo de d l an d a nd fa rm lan d b ein g o ve rg row n ( Ze m ljiš ki ka tas ter 20 14 ). Pil ot si te Ru t Sm ole va Ro din e Je ru za lem De čja va s Ve lik a S lev ica Kr ka vč e M erč e Nu m be r o f o wn ers 54 13 37 16 39 29 21 3 84 S W OV G OT S W OV G OT S W OV G OT S W OV G OT S W OV G OT S W OV G OT S W OV G OT S W OV G OT Pr iva te ind ivi du al 91 ,4 6,1 3,5 90 ,4 98 ,2 30 ,9 3,6 65 ,5 75 ,6 0,8 0,1 99 ,1 38 ,9 0,4 1,6 98 ,0 89 ,8 5,0 1,1 93 ,9 88 ,0 1,1 1,2 97 ,7 57 ,2 18 ,4 18 ,0 63 ,6 95 ,1 16 ,5 12 ,9 70 ,6 Le ga l e nt ity – – – – – – – – – – – – 0,0 – – 10 0,0 – – – – – – – – 0,8 3,2 13 ,2 83 ,6 – – – – Re pu bli c o f S lov en ia 1,2 69 ,2 2,9 27 ,9 – – – – 0,2 – – 10 0,0 0,0 – – 10 0,0 – – – – – – – – 34 ,4 26 ,8 22 ,5 50 ,7 0,1 7,7 36 ,6 55 ,7 Th e S lov en ian Fa rm lan d – – – – 0,1 10 0,0 – – – – – – 58 ,4 0,1 0,0 0,1 2,7 1,8 2,4 95 ,8 – – – – 1,5 51 ,6 23 ,3 25 ,1 – – – – an d F ore st Fu nd Ag ric ult ure co m m un ity – – – – – – – – 0,0 – – 10 0,0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – M un ici pa lit y – – – – 0,6 5,6 4,6 89 ,8 0,0 – – 10 0,0 – – – – – – – – – – – – 0,1 21 ,5 32 ,4 46 ,1 – – – – Pa ris h 4,7 0,0 4,5 95 ,5 – – – – 0,0 – – 10 0,0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0,3 32 ,0 22 ,3 45 ,7 Pro pe rty in pu bli c 1,0 3,5 9,9 86 ,6 0,9 12 ,0 29 ,6 58 ,4 0,3 – – 10 0,0 – – – – 1,2 11 ,9 0,4 87 ,7 – – – – 1,2 15 ,6 23 ,9 60 ,5 – – – – do m ain Ge ne ral -u se pu bli c – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 2,0 1,1 4,8 94 ,1 – – – – 2,3 21 ,0 17 ,6 61 ,4 pr op er ty Un kn ow n 1,7 0,0 0,1 99 ,9 0,2 – – 10 0,0 23 ,9 – – 10 0,0 2,7 – – 10 0,0 6,3 0,1 0,5 99 ,4 10 ,0 0,1 0,2 99 ,7 4,8 0,2 12 ,2 87 ,6 2,2 – 4,1 95 ,9 0,0 ca teg or y e xis ts, bu t it s v alu e i s l es s t ha n 0 .05 % ; – ca teg or y d oe s n ot ex ist ; S – sh are (i n % ) o f o wn ers ; W – w oo ds (i n % ); OV G – ov erg row n f arm lan d ( in % ); OT – ot he r ( in % ) 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 93 M. Šmid Hribar, M. Geršič, P. Pipan, P. Repolusk, J. Tiran, M. Topole, R. Ciglič, Cultivated terraces in Slovenian landscapes be sought in the socioeconomic development of the pilot areas: in unfavorable demographic development and deagrarization of a large part of the rural population and the related abandonment of intensive cul- tivation, in the growing market orientation of farming, and, especially in eastern Slovenia, in the planned construction of new vineyard terraces for easier and better cultivation. Based on interviews and fieldwork, it has been established that the abandonment of terraced land results from the following: • Aging of the population and younger generations moving away (Krkavče, Merče, and Rut); • Redirection of residents from farming to other activities (Krkavče, Merče, Rodine, Smoleva, and Velika Slevica); • Fragmented and small holdings, which often impede or completely prevent mechanical cultivation (Smoleva and Velika Slevica); and • Conflicts arising from joint ownership and incapacity for uniform management (Merče). In some cases, these reasons for abandoning terraces are comparable to those in other terraced areas in Europe. In the Alps these especially include natural limiting factors (Höchtl, Lehringer and Konold 2005), in southern Europe poor accessibility to these areas and socioeconomic changes (Stanchi et al. 2012), in Slovakia a lack of successors and young people moving away (Špulerová et al. 2017), and in Croatia decline of traditional agricultural production and diversification in modern agriculture techniques, which rarely include terracing (Andlar, Šrajer and Trojanović 2017). Abandonment due to the expansion of construc- tion areas if terraces are located near large settlements was not observed in Slovenia, as Špulerová et al. (2017) reported for Slovakia. In individual areas, the continued existence of terraces is also threatened by other factors. One of these is the transformation of terraces into vertical vineyards – for example, in the broad- er area of the Jeruzalem Hills – which allows a greater number of grape vines per area unit (Urbanc 2002; Pipan and Kokalj 2017). Terraces are also indirectly threatened by changes in land use from cultivated fields to meadows and pastures because grazing livestock gradually level terraced land, as has started to occur in Velika Slevica. The preservation of terraces is also impeded by the lack of special subsidies for maintain- ing them. Subsidies are available only for cultivating farmland and cultivating areas with »limited agricultural potential«, and so narrow terraces on large slopes are deteriorating, and in places the embankments are becoming overgrown (e.g., in Velika Slevica) because the steep incline necessitates mowing by hand. In contrast to the past, terraces represent more of an obstacle than an advantage to modern agriculture. In addition to the Jeruzalem terraces, only the terraces in Krkavče are also officially recognized as cul- tural heritage (Register nepremične kulturne … 2015; Kladnik, Šmid Hribar and Geršič 2017). Among the local residents, terraces as cultural heritage or as part of tradition that must be respected, are also recog- nized in Merče, and by their owners also in Smoleva and to some extent in Velika Slevica. One of the more important qualities of terraces is their aesthetic value, which is also cited by UNESCO as one of the criteria for defining world heritage (Internet 1). Despite the subjective judgment, perhaps precisely aesthetic attractiveness is a key quality that can aid terrace preservation. Aesthetic value is fur- ther added to terraces by an evenly structured, harmonious, orderly, and cultivated surface, along with individual elements such as trees and dry stone walls. As external observers, we can highlight the mix of terraced cultivated fields and meadows in Dečja vas, which, together with the reddish-brown color of the soil, create a unique landscape. More or less all of the local residents interviewed were aware of the aes- thetic values of terraces–except, interestingly, for those in Dečja vas, where the farmers viewed terraces as merely time-consuming and demanding extra work. It is interesting that the locals ranked the Jeruzalem terraces highest in terms of aesthetic value; these are the youngest terraces and were created mechanically. They emphasized that terraces are more attractive than vertical plantations, and because of their color- fulness they are especially attractive in the autumn. This confirms Kant’s point of view that beauty is the capacity to experience beauty, which is created in the subjective experience of the observer, which is high- lighted by Šmid Hribar (2011) with regard to the aesthetic evaluation of trees and by Smrekar, Polajnar Horvat, and Erhartič (2016) with regard to landscape forms. In the case of the Jeruzalem terraces it turned out, similar to what Erhartič (2009) had already ascer- tained, that it is precisely the aesthetic value of the terraces that influenced the development of tourism as an important branch of the economy. This is well appreciated by both wine producers, who designat- ed the wine from the area with the label Terase (eng. terraces), as well as advertising campaigns, which use the Jeruzalem vineyard terraces to promote landscape beauty. Among the general Slovenian public, it is the Jeruzalem terraces that are best known among all of the pilot sites because of their picturesque character, which should also be taken into account in defining aesthetic criteria for assessing terraced landscapes. 94 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 94 In addition to all of this, due to difficult natural conditions in many steep landscapes, terraces must also be protected for the following reasons: • Protecting soil fertility; • Protection against erosion; • Maintaining soil moisture; and • Safeguarding traditional knowledge about terrace construction, especially regarding how and where it is possible to obtain flat areas on slopes in order to make farming possible (e.g., for vineyards, olive groves, cultivated fields, meadows, and pastures). Based on the observations and interviews, it has been determined that only those terraces will be pre- served that allow mechanical cultivation and that are economically profitable, similar to those in Alpine valleys in Italy (Scaramelini and Varoto 2008), Switzerland (Lavaux 2007), and France (Jeddou et al. 2008). In order to preserve other interesting terraces (but only to a smaller extent), it will be necessary to apply appropriate protection, new practices, and financial resources. This could, for example, prevent overgrowth near settlements in Istria by encouraging residents to engage in hobby production of fruit and vegetables. This should be put in place through systematic measures and setting up appropriate shared places for tool storage. This would also encourage socialization and the exchange of knowledge and experience. 5 Conclusion Construction and maintenance of cultivated terraces is a demanding task. In the past, terraces were con- nected with subsistence farming and represented an advantage, but with modern machinery they mostly hinder owners and generate a loss for them. This leads to two opposing trends. On the one hand, terraces are being abandoned and overgrown on a large scale, but where production on them has proven to be eco- nomically attractive modern farm equipment is being used to convert them into land adapted for mechanical cultivation. This has intensified their use; for example, in Jeruzalem and Krkavče. Both of these contribute to fundamental changes to traditional terraced landscapes. It is therefore concluded that primarily prof- it will be an important driver for the future maintenance of terraces. Because of the steep inclines in Jeruzalem, despite the greater production costs in comparison with vertical vineyards, the terraces have maintained their original viticultural function. The reason for this also lies in their majority ownership by the Farmland and Forest Fund, which rents the land to a large wine- producing company. These terraces, in addition to their primary production function, also promote the development of tourism and other activities. The high profile of the terraces there and their aesthetic impor- tance for tourism will also be important driving forces for their maintenance in the future. In Krkavče, which ranks second among the pilot sites studied in terms of the share of cultivated terraces, the main driver of their preservation in recent times has been the economically profitable production of olive oil. At other pilot sites studied, terraces are preserved solely where the only (flat) farmland can be found on terraces. In addition to economic value, many terraces also have heritage value, with an emphasis on their aes- thetic importance and traditional knowledge and practices used for making a living in a particular landscape. In this respect as well, the Jeruzalem terraces stand out: even though they are the youngest, having been created around 1965 in socialist Yugoslavia, their aesthetic value makes them the best known among the general public. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The following local residents are gratefully acknowledged for providing valu- able information in interviews: Milan Gliha and Janez Strajnar (Dečja vas), Vincenc Brenholc, Mitja Herga, Milan Pevec, Slavko Prapotnik, and Janko Vočanec (Jeruzalem), Jernej Brec and Robert Lisjak (Krkavče), Dean Kariž and Darij Volk (Merče), Janez Čop and Marijan Meterc (Rodine), Ivan Kemperle and Ančka Koder (Rut), Franc Jelenc, Marko Jelenc, Olga Torkar, and Rafael Torkar (Smoleva), and Peter Hočevar and Alojz Stritar (Velika Slevica), as well as the following experts: Jana Horvat, Irena Vrhovnik, Tina Trampuš, Etbin Tavčar, and Žiga Zwitter. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 95 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 95 M. Šmid Hribar, M. Geršič, P. Pipan, P. Repolusk, J. Tiran, M. Topole, R. Ciglič, Cultivated terraces in Slovenian landscapes 6 References Andlar, G., Šrajer, F., Trojanović, A. 2017: Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D., Komac, B., Petek, F., Repolusk, P., Zorn, M. 2008: Terasirana pokrajina Goriških brd. Geografija Slovenije 17. Ljubljana. Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D. 2009: Terraced landscapes in Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 49-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS49101 Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D. 2015: The terraced landscape in the Brkini Hills. Acta geographica Slovenica 55-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1627 Blaznik, P. 1928: Kolonizacija Selške doline. Ljubljana. Digitalni ortofoto posnetek, 2015. Javne informacije Slovenije, Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije, Ljubljana. Erhartič, B. 2009: Terase Jeruzalemskih goric kot krajinska vrednota. Pomurje: trajnostni regionalni razvoj ob reki Muri. Murska Sobota. Gaspari, A. 1998: Ostanki zgodnjerimskih zidanih struktur na Serminu (Mestna občina Koper, Slovenija). Annales 14. Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije, Ortofoto 2015. Internet: http://www.e-prostor.gov.si/si/zbirke_ prostorskih_podatkov/topografski_in_kartografski_podatki/ortofoto/ (19. 5. 2015). Goodman Elgar, M. A. 2002: Anthropogenic landscapes in the Andes: A multidisciplinary approach to precolumbian agricultural terraces and their sustainable use. PhD Thesis, Jesus College. Cambridge. Grafični podatki RABA za celo Slovenijo. Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in prehrano. Ljubljana, 2015. Internet: http://rkg.gov.si/GERK/ (1. 4. 2015). Höchtl, F., Lehringer, S., Konold, W. 2005: »Wilderness«: what it means when it becomes reality - a case study from the southwestern Alps. Landscape and Urban Planning 70. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.landurbplan.2003.10.006 Ilešič, S. 1938: Škofjeloško hribovje. Geografski vestnik 14. Internet 1: http://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria (15. 5. 2016). Jeddou, M. B., Castex, J.-M., Dagorne, A, Davtian, G. 2008: The role of terracing in hindering land erosion within the Roya and Cians Gorges. Terraced landscapes of the Alps – Atlas. Venice. Jurkovšek, B., Cvetko Tešović, B., Kolar-Jurkovšek, T. 2013: Geologija Krasa. Ljubljana. Jurkovšek, B., Toman, M., Ogorelec, B., Šribar., L., Drobne, K., Poljak, M., Šribar, L. 1996: Formacijska geološka karta južnega dela Tržaško-Komenske planote. Ljubljana. Kendall, A. 2012: The importance and implications of the pre-hispanic terrace systems in the highlands of Peru: A way to food support and adaptation to climate changes. First terraced landscapes conference (Honghe – China) paper collection. Kunming. Kladnik, D., Perko, D. (ed.), Ciglič, R. (ed.), Geršič, M. (ed). 2016: Terasirane pokrajine. Ljubljana. Kladnik, D., Šmid Hribar, M., Geršič, M. 2017: Terraced landscapes as protected cultural heritage sites. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4628 Križaj Smrdel, H. 2010: Kulturne terase v slovenskih pokrajinah. Dela 34. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/ dela.34.3.39-60 Lavaux, Vineyard Terraces, 2007. UNESCO World Heritage Center. Paris. LIDAR, eVode. Ministrstvo za okolje in prostor Republike Slovenijie. Internet: http://evode.arso.gov.si/ indexd022.html?q=node/12 (1. 9. 2015) Liu, C.-W., Huang, H.-C., Chen, S.-K., Kuo, Y-M. 2004: Subsurface return flow and ground water recharge of terrace fields in Northern Taiwan. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 40-3. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2004.tb04446.x Min, X., Zhiyong, T. 2012: The role of women in the Hani terraced land system. First Terraced Landscapes Conference (Honghe – China) paper collection. Kunming. Panjek, A. 2015: Kulturna krajina in okolje Krasa. Koper. Perko, D. 1998: The Regionalization of Slovenia. Acta geographica 38. Perko, D. 2007: Landscapes. Slovenia in focus. Ljubljana. Perko, D., Hrvatin M., Ciglič, R. 2015: A methodology for natural landscape typification of Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 55-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1938 96 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 96 Peters, A. H., Junchao, S. (eds.) 2012: First terraced landscapes conference (Honghe – China) paper collection. Kunming. Pipan, P., Kokalj, Ž. 2017: Transformacija kulturne pokrajine Jeruzalemskih goric s sodobnimi vinograd- niškimi terasami. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4629 Register nepremične kulturne dediščine. Ministrstvo za kulturo. Ljubljana. Internet: http://giskd6s.situ- la.org/giskd (1. 3. 2015). Register prostorskih enot, 2015. Javne informacije Slovenije, Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije, Ljubljana. Rivera, W. M. 2012: An agriculture wonder: Terrace, farming, worldwide. First terrace landscapes confer- ence (Honghe – China) paper collection. Kunming. Rose, E. 2008: Terraces in Africa. Montpellier. Scaramellini, G., Varoto, M. (eds.) 2008: Terraced landscapes of the Alps – Atlas. Venice. Smrekar, A., Polajnar Horvat, K., Erhartič, B. 2016: The beauty of landforms. Acta Geographica Slovenica 56-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.3039 Stanchi, S., Freppaz, M., Agnelli, A., Reinsch, T., zanini, E. 2012: Properties, best management practices and conservation of terraced soils in Southern Europe (from the Meditteranean areas to the Alps): A review. Quaternary International 265. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.015 Šmid Hribar, M. 2011: Kulturni vidiki drevesne dediščine 51–1. Glasnik Slovenskega etnološkega društva. Špulerová, J., Dobrovodská, M., Štefunková, D., Kenderessy, P., Izsóff, M. 2017: The features of terraced landscapes in Slovakia. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4674 Urbanc, M. 2002: Kulturne pokrajine v Sloveniji. Geografija Slovenije 5. Tarolli, P., Preti, F., Romano, N. 2014: Terraced landscapes: From an old best practice to a potential hazard to a soil degradation due to land abondonment. Anthropocene 6. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.ancene.2014.03.002 Titl, J. 1965: Socialnogeografski problemi na koprskem podeželju. Koper. Torkar, S. 1994: Zgornja Baška dolina (Rihtarija Nemški Rut) po Tolminskem urbarju iz 1523. Kronika 40-1. Zemljiški kataster, 2014. Javne informacije Slovenije, Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije, Ljubljana. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 97 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 97 98 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 98 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017, 99–109 TERRACED LANDSCAPES IN SLOVAKIA Jana Špulerová, Marta Dobrovodská, Dagmar Štefunková, Pavol Kenderessy, Martin Izsóff Terraces in the Low Tatras, Slovakia S H U T T E R S TO C K 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 99 Jana Špulerová, Marta Dobrovodská, Dagmar Štefunková, Pavol Kenderessy, Martin Izsóff, Terraced landscapes in Slovakia Terraced landscapes in Slovakia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4674 UDC: 911.53:631.613(497.6) COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: This study investigates the distribution of terraced landscapes in Slovakia and analyzes their structural characteristics and land use. We found that traditional farming and terrace building as a part of agricultural intensification resulted in two types of terraced landscapes: historical terraced landscapes and new terraced landscapes. The two types differ in size, structure of various elements, their manage- ment intensity, and the impact of these spatial structures on biodiversity. Historical terraced landscapes in Slovakia have been partially preserved in vineyard regions, but they are mainly found in mountainous areas. New terraced landscapes are mainly linked to vineyard landscapes. The plant species composition on the mapped terraced landscapes shows a high diversity of habitats and terraces as agrarian relief forms create islands of species diversity in extensively managed agricultural landscapes. KEY WORDS: terraced landscape, traditional agricultural landscape, agrarian relief forms, terraces, collectivization, Slovakia This article was submitted for publication on 23rd August, 2016. ADDRESSES: Jana Špulerová, Ph.D. Institute of Landscape Ecology Slovak Academy of Sciences Štefánikova 3, SK – 814 99 Bratislava, Slovakia E-mail: jana.spulerova@savba.sk Marta Dobrovodská, Ph.D. Institute of Landscape Ecology Slovak Academy of Sciences Štefánikova 3, SK – 814 99 Bratislava, Slovakia E-mail: marta.dobrovodska@savba.sk Dagmar Štefunková, Ph.D. Institute of Landscape Ecology Slovak Academy of Sciences Štefánikova 3, SK – 814 99 Bratislava, Slovakia E-mail: dagmar.stefunkova@savba.sk Pavol Kenderessy, Ph.D. Institute of Landscape Ecology Slovak Academy of Sciences Štefánikova 3, SK – 814 99 Bratislava, Slovakia E-mail: pavol.kenderessy@savba.sk Martin Izsóff, M.Sc. Faculty of Natural Sciences Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra Tr. A. Hlinku 1, SK – 949 01 Nitra, Slovakia E-mail: martin.izsoff@savba.sk 100 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 100 1 Introduction Due to natural conditions, such as mild climate and varied topography agriculture represents the most dominant activity of its inhabitants since the earliest colonization of Slovakia (Špulerová et al. 2014b). The south Slovakia – namely, the productive Danubian Lowland (Podunajská nížina) and the Eastern Slovak Lowland (Východoslovenská nížina) were settled first, whereas the mountains and border regions were set- tled and colonized later. In order to improve relief and soil quality, and to decrease both erosion and surface runoff on sloping terrain in less-suitable areas, terraces were built for cultivation. Terraced landscapes devel- oped in various places around the world as a result of terraced farming (Agnoletti et al. 2011; Fischer et al. 2012). They have many environmental effects and often create specific habitats for biota (Babai et al. 2015). The construction and function of the various elements of terraced landscapes and their interactions were the particular focus of this article. Because terraces are the result of long-term utilization of parallel plateaus and grassy slopes, we consider them historical terraced landscapes. The importance of terracing systems in different traditional landscapes is highlighted as one of the most relevant traditional elements in the rural landscape (Barbera and Cullotta 2012), and we consider terraces to be agrarian relief forms. Current studies indicate that naturally less-fertile soils were improved by terracing and long-term cultivation (Slámová et al. 2015). Dry stone walls were used as retaining structures (Petit, Konold and Höchtl 2012). Because gully erosion in traditional agricultural landscapes is controlled by the course of anthropogenic linear features such as unpaved field and forest roads and balks in arable land, terracing usually mitigates erosion (Saksa and Minar 2012). The distribution of terraced landscapes is also related to the geological sub- strate and slope processes (Barančoková and Barančok 2015). Because large parts of the agricultural landscape were transformed by intensification of agriculture in the second half of the twentieth century, agrarian ter- races as the oldest relics of traditional agricultural land use remained only in remote, less-accessible, and less-fertile localities or in areas with significant slope inclination (Štefunková and Dobrovodská 2009; Ivanova et al. 2011; Lieskovský et al. 2014). In the second half of the twentieth century, new terraced landscapes were created through agricultural intensification. These terraces were built as terrain stages on an originally continuous slope in order to mitigate water erosion and allow more efficient mechanical cultivation on the flat part of the terrace (Šte- funková and Hanušin 2016). Traditional and new terraced landscapes are extraordinary landscaping that was used by man to delib- erately reshape the landscape for his needs. They are also witnesses to technological and economic evolution in a particular historical period. This study investigates the distribution of terraced landscapes in Slovakia and analyzes their structural characteristics, which may indicate differences between types of terraces and their role for man and the landscape. 2 Methods The spatial distribution of historical terraced landscapes in Slovakia was acquired from a rural inventory of traditional agricultural landscapes (Špulerová et al. 2011), using visual interpretation of aerial photos and a field survey. As a result of this inventory we classified four types of traditional agricultural landscape with occurrence of terraces. • I. Traditional agricultural landscapes with dispersed settlements; • II. Traditional agricultural landscapes with vineyards; • III. Traditional agricultural landscapes with arable land, grassland, and orchards; and • IV. Traditional agricultural landscapes with arable land and grassland. The presence of terraces and other agrarian relief forms was identified and studied in detail as part of the field survey. Altogether, above 626 landscape sites of traditional agricultural landscapes recorded during the fieldwork, out of which 480 entries include terraced landscape. Regarding the manner of cultivation, content of the soil skeleton, and configuration of relief, we distinguished four agrarian relief forms of terraced landscape (Figure 1): • Relief forms as a result of improvement of relief and soil quality: terraces or banked fields (historical or new terraces). Terraces were created in the course of long-term utilization of parallel plateaus and grassy slopes (balks). Banked fields were created through ploughing, without flattening the relief of arable fields; Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 101 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 101 Jana Špulerová, Marta Dobrovodská, Dagmar Štefunková, Pavol Kenderessy, Martin Izsóff, Terraced landscapes in Slovakia • Relief forms that are a result of soil-skeleton removal: dry stone walls were built from stones as supporting walls for vineyard terraces; • Relief forms that are the result of both manners of soil cultivation: slope mounds and heaps occur on terraces or on banked fields, where stones from soil were removed and heaped onto the slope of the ter- races or banked fields during yearly ploughing. The agrarian relief forms were further characterized by the following features which were recorded in the field: • Skeleton and soil content: 1) muddy, 2) muddy-rocky, 3) loamified rocky, 4) rocky (Figure 2); • Width: average width of the soil/stone features by categories: 1) < 1 m, 2) 1.1–3 m, 3) > 3 m; • Height: average height of soil/stone features by categories: 1) < 0.5 m, 2) 0.5–1 m, 3) 1.1–3 m, 4) > 3 m; • Length: span length of soil/stone features (minimum and maximum of length) in meters; • Continuity of banks: 1) continuous, 2) interrupted; interruptions are shorter than the fragments of a bank, 3) disconnected; interruptions are longer than fragments of a bank; • Habitat: species richness on mapped agrarian relief form, species community belonging to the list of habi- tats with reference to the national habitat catalogue (Ružičková et al. 1996; Stanová and Valachovič 2002). • Continuity of wood cover: 1) continuous; interruption of width is less than one time the vegetation height, 2) interrupted; interruption of width is two to four times the vegetation height, 3) disconnected; inter- ruption of width is more than five times the vegetation height. In order to determine the spatial distribution of new terraced landscapes in Slovakia, we used the CORINE Land Cover database (Pazur, Otaheľ and Maretta 2015) and land cover data from the national Basic Geographic Information System (ZBGIS) by Maretta (Cadastre, Cartography and Land Surveying Office of the Slovak Republic, 2015). Terraces were identified by using visual interpretations of aerial photos. We divided them into three groups: 1) terraced vineyards, 2) abandoned terraced vineyards, and 3) other new terraced landscapes, usually covered by grassland or orchards. 102 Figure 1: Agrarian relief forms of terraced landscape (A: terraces, B: banked fields, C: dry stone walls, D: slope mounds and heaps on terraces). M A R TA D O B R O V O D S K Á M A R TA D O B R O V O D S K Á M A R TA D O B R O V O D S K Á D A G M A R Š T E F U N K O V Á A B C D 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 102 3 Results 3.1 Land use of terraced landscapes The terraced landscapes in Slovakia are a result of two different ways of land management focused on improv- ing soil and relief condition. Long-term traditional farming has caused the origin of historical terraced landscapes. The terrace building as a part of agricultural intensification resulted in new terraced landscapes. Historical terraced landscapes are usually extensively managed and consist of a patchwork of unique small-scale arable fields and permanent agricultural cultivations such as grassland, vineyards, and orchards. Historical terraced landscapes have also been partially preserved in vineyard regions with a warmer climate (type II, traditional agricultural landscape of vineyards), but are mainly found in mountain areas with a cold climate on steep slopes and on shallow and skeletal soils (other types of traditional agricul- tural landscapes). Historical terraced landscapes with vineyards create a patchwork of vineyards, often combined with orchards, grassland, and occasionally arable fields. They are mostly used for viticulture, or for other crops such as vegetables, fruit, potatoes, and cereals. They are distributed in southern Slovakia in the following natural – settlement nodal regions (regióny) (Miklós 2002): Lower Hron–Lower Ipeľ (Hont) (Dolnohronsko- Dolnoipeľský (Hontský) región), Lower Zemplín (Dolnozemplínsky región), Gemer–Novohrad (Gemersko- Novohradský región), Košice (Košický región), Danube (Podunajský regón), Nitra (Ponitriansky región), Trnava (Trnavský región), and Záhorie (Záhorský región). Infrastructure and buildings such as vineyard houses, cellars with vacation houses, and cottages are also a significant element of this small-scale structures because their presence is correlated with their management intensity. Where buildings are present, the patterns of agricultural mosaic are usually regularly managed and this management directly supports maintenance of the traditional landscape. Wine taverns and wine cellars are typical small architectural elements for the vineyard landscapes; however these were often expanded and rebuilt into weekend houses. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 103 Figure 2: Skeleton and soil content of agrarian relief forms of terraced landscapes (A: muddy, B: muddy-rocky, C: loamified rocky, D: rocky). A B C D 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 103 Jana Špulerová, Marta Dobrovodská, Dagmar Štefunková, Pavol Kenderessy, Martin Izsóff, Terraced landscapes in Slovakia 104 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 N u m b er o f p lo ts Traditional agricultural landscape with dispersed settlements Traditional agricultural landscape of vineyards Traditional agricultural landscape of arable land, grasslands and orchards Traditional agricultural landscape of arable land and grasslands Terraces Banked fields Walls Slope mounds and heaps on terraces Figure 3: The presence of agrarian relief forms in traditional agricultural landscapes of Slovakia. Figure 4: The area (in hectares) and share of characteristic types of new terraced landscapes. 56% 23% 21% Terraced vineyards Abandoned terraced vineyards Other new terraced landscapes 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 104 The mountain terraced landscapes occur in other three types of traditional agricultural landscapes (with dispersed settlement – type I, with orchards – type III or with arable land and grassland – type IV). They are characterized by a cold climate, steep slopes, and less-fertile soil, and therefore they are not very suit- able for intensive agriculture. They consist of a patchwork of arable land, orchards, and grassland. They are primarily used for producing hay, vegetables, fruit, potatoes, and cereals. Due to declining management, they have often been transformed into grassland and their heterogeneous patterns are becoming rare. They are threatened by abandonment or construction. Hay barns, springs, and shelters have rarely remained in the traditional agricultural landscape of arable land and grassland. New terraced landscapes are mainly linked to vineyard landscapes and rarely to other agricultural pro- duction. New terraces were created in the second half of the twentieth century and are intensively managed. They usually consist of a vineyard monoculture, and some of them were abandoned and overgrown with grass after 1990 (Figure 4). They are prevalent in the Little Carpathian Mountains (Malé Karpaty) and in south-central Slovakia on slopes with an incline greater than 6°. The new terraced landscape with orchards and/or grassland were mapped in Spiš region (Spišský region). 3.2 Main features of terraced landscapes The largest group of agrarian relief forms are banked fields and terraces, which mainly occur in the tra- ditional agricultural landscape of arable land, grassland, and orchards (type IV). The most valuable terraced landscapes feature dry stone walls, which are mainly found in the traditional agricultural landscape of vine- yards (type II) and less frequently in the traditional agricultural landscape with dispersed settlements (type I) (Figure 3). We differentiated agrarian relief forms in terms of the proportion of rocky material in the substrate, size parameters (width, height, and length), and plant species composition (Figures 5, 6). The terraces and banked fields were gradually formed on the edge of the plot through ploughing, and they are characterized by muddy or muddy-rocky skeleton content. Rocky content is typical for two other agrarian relief forms: walls and slope mounds/heaps on terraces. The height of agrarian relief forms ranges at most from 1.1 to 3 m, and the width mostly exceeds 3 m. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 105 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Terraces Banked fields Walls Slope mounds and heaps on terraces Rocky Loamificated rocky Muddy-rocky Muddy Figure 5: Skeleton content of agrarian relief forms in historical terraced landscapes. 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 105 Jana Špulerová, Marta Dobrovodská, Dagmar Štefunková, Pavol Kenderessy, Martin Izsóff, Terraced landscapes in Slovakia 106 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Terraces Banked fields Walls Slope mounds and heaps on terraces 4;3 4;2 3;3 3;2 3;1 2;3 2;2 2;1 1;3 1;2 1;1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Kr6 Kr7 Kr12 Lk1 Lk2 Lk3 Lk6 Lp1 Lp3 Lp5 Lp6 Sk7 Tr1 Tr5 Tr6 Tr7 Tr8 X1 X3 X5 Terraces Banked fields Walls Slope mounds and heaps on terraces Figure 6: Parameters of historical terraced landscapes. Legend: First number: height category: 1) < 0.5 m, 2) 0.5–1 m, 3) 1.1–3 m, 4) > 3 m; second number: width category: 1) < 1 m, 2) 1.1–3 m, 3) > 3 m). Figure 7: Vegetation on terraced agrarian relief forms. Legend: Habitats: Kr6 Continental deciduous thickets, Kr7 Temperate thickets and scrub, Lk1 Lowland hay meadows, Lk2 Mountain hay meadows, Lk3 Mesophile pastures, Lk6 Eutrophic humid grassland, Lp1 Lines of planted fruit trees, Lp3 Lines of domestic deciduous trees, Lp5 Lines/remnants of mixed succession wood species, Lp6 Line/remnants of invasive woody species (Ailanthus altissima, Negundo aceroides, and others), Sk7 Secondary rocky habitats, Tr6 Xeri-thermophile fringes, Tr7 Mesophile fringes, Tr8 Mat-grass swards, X1 Herbaceous clearings, X3 Ruderal communities, X5 Field margin cropland. 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 106 Previous studies show that agrarian relief forms create islands of species diversity in extensively man- aged traditional agricultural landscapes (Ružičková et al. 1996; Imrichová 2006; Aavik and Liira 2009; Špulerová et al. 2014a). The plant species composition on the mapped terraced landscapes shows a high diversity of habitats, from open secondary screes and rocky habitats through ruderal communities and semi-natural grasslands to shrubby habitats, lines of trees, or other small woody patches (Figure 7). Because some habitat relevés could not be assigned to a particular syntaxon, but are affected by human activities or various phases of succession development between grassland, scrubland, and forest, we did not include them in the figure. Banked fields were most often formed by communities of temperate thickets and scrub (Kr7) or lines/rem- nants of mixed succession wood species (Lp5). If agrarian relief forms were managed, they were usually covered by lowland hay meadows (Lk1) or mesophile pastures (Lk3). The presence of arable land was often accompanied by the occurrence of ruderal communities (X3). Species richness depends on complex fac- tors and corresponds to certain abiotic factors, habitat types, aspects, and methods of cultivation. The biodiversity of new terraced landscapes is generally lower due to intensive use of heavy machinery and intensive fertilization. However, in some areas landscape diversity has increased due to building new terraces during the communist era (Hanušin and Štefunková 2015). 4 Discussion and conclusion Terraced landscapes were originally created mainly to protect and improve the soil quality and agricul- tural productivity in regions with unfavorable natural conditions. The ecosystem effects of such a specific landscape type have changed significantly. From the production point of view, they do not play an impor- tant role in sustaining food provision for local communities. In the case of terraced vineyards, their production and soil protection function remains an important issue. Today many terraced landscapes face two main threats: abandonment and subsequent succession (Gelencsér, Vona and Centeri 2012; Gellrich et al. 2007) or expansion of construction areas if they are located near large settlements. Building various »steps« or terraces was the practice of cutting flat areas out of a hilly or mountain- ous landscape in order to grow crops. This type of farming influenced the development of various habitats. As a result of long-term utilization and management of the traditional agricultural landscape and extensive management practices, it can generally be concluded that traditional agrarian relief forms are overgrown by semi-natural or natural vegetation and that they increase the overall landscape ecological value of these landscapes. The biodiversity of newly created terraced landscapes is lower, but new terraced landscapes also increase overall landscape diversity and stability compared to intensified large block fields. The preservation of such landscapes mostly depends on tradition and is highly dependent on the demo- graphic situation. After decades of their utilization in changing social and economic conditions, the question is what their role and function would be today (Lipský 1995; Liquete et al. 2015). Stakeholders’ preferences could significantly influence the preservation of these landscapes (Howley, Donoghue and Hynes 2012). The same landscape type could provide different services based on the context of preferences. From this perspective, it is important to focus future research on assessing how terraced landscapes affect the ecosys- tem and especially how they are changing in order to justify their preservation. It is also very important to involve social research to investigate social preferences for utilizing such landscapes. This patchwork of agrarian relief forms and small-scale arable fields or permanent agricultural culti- vations comprises areas that are defined as farmland with a high natural value in the European Union (Andersen et al. 2003; Ažman Momirski and Kladnik 2015). These areas are of great value, both from the perspective of nature and heritage conservation, as well as with regard to landscape and aesthetic values (Urbanc, Gašperič and Kozina 2015; Smrekar, Polajnar Horvat and Erhartič 2016; Smrekar, Zorn and Komac 2016). It is necessary to pay special attention to them, to develop strategies for their preservation, and to learn from good practices of the past and good examples from other countries (Stanchi et al. 2012; Kravchenko et al. 2016). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This paper is the result of project funding from the Slovak Research and Development Agency (Project No. APVV-0866-12, »Evaluation of ecosystem functions and services of the cultural land- scape«). Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 107 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 107 Jana Špulerová, Marta Dobrovodská, Dagmar Štefunková, Pavol Kenderessy, Martin Izsóff, Terraced landscapes in Slovakia 5 References Aavik, T., Liira, J. 2009: Agrotolerant and high nature-value species – Plant biodiversity indicator groups in agroecosystems. Ecological Indicators 9-5. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2008.10.006 Agnoletti, M., Cargnello, G., Gardin, L., Santoro, A., Bazzoffi, P., Sansone, L., Pezza, L., Belfiore, N. 2011: Traditional landscape and rural development: comparative study in three terraced areas in northern, central and southern Italy to evaluate the efficacy of GAEC standard 4.4 of cross compliance. Italian Journal of Agronomy 6-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4081/ija.2011.6.s1.e16 Andersen, E., Baldock, D., Bennett, H., Beaufoy, G., Bignal, E., Brouwer, F., Elbersen, B., Eiden, G., Godeschalk, F., Jones, G. 2003: Developing a high nature value farming area indicator. Report to the European Environment Agency. Copenhagen. Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D. 2015: The terraced landscape in the Brkini Hills. Acta geographica Slovenica 55-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1627 Babai, D., Tóth, A., Szentirmai, I., Biró, M., Máté, A., Demeter, L., Szépligeti, M., Varga, A., Molnár, A., Kun, R., Molnár, Z. 2015: Do conservation and agri-environmental regulations effectively support tra- ditional small-scale farming in East-Central European cultural landscapes? Biodiversity and conservation 24-13. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10531-015-0971-z Barančoková, M., Barančok, P. 2015: Distribution of the traditional agricultural landscape types reflect- ing geological substrate and slope processes in the Kysuce Region. Ekológia (Bratislava) 34-4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/eko-2015-0031 Barbera, G., Cullotta, S. 2012: An inventory approach to the assessment of main traditional landscapes in Sicily (Central Mediterranean Basin). Landscape Research 37-5. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 01426397.2011.607925 Geoportal – State Administration of Land Surveying and Cadastre of the Slovak Republic, 2015.. Internet: https://www.geoportal.sk/en/zbgis-smd (8. 11. 2016). Fischer, J., Hartel, T., Kuemmerle, T. 2012: Conservation policy in traditional farming landscapes. Conservation letters 5. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00227.x Gelencsér, G., Vona, M., Centeri, C. 2012: Losing agricultural heritage in rural landscapes – a case study in Koppány Valley Area, Hungary. European Countryside 2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/ v10091-012-0019-2 Gellrich, M., Baur, P., Koch, B., Zimmermann, N. E. 2007: Agricultural land abandonment and natural forest re-growth in the Swiss mountains: A spatially explicit economic analysis. Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment 118/1–4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2006.05.001 Hanušin, J., Štefunková, D. 2015: Zmeny diverzity vinohradníckej krajiny v zázemí Svätého Jura v období 1896–2011. Geografický časopis 67-3. Howley, P., Donoghue, C. O., Hynes, S. 2012: Exploring public preferences for traditional farming land- scapes. Landscape and Urban Planning 104-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.09.006 Imrichová, Z. 2006: Impact of management practises on diversity of grasslands in agricultural region of middle Slovakia. Ekológia 25-1. Ivanova, M., Michaeli, E., Boltiziar, M., Juhascikova, J. 2011: Analysis of landscape heterogeneity changes on the example of Hlinne, Vysny Zipov, and Zlatnik Village (eastern Slovakia) in the Period 1826-2006. Ekológia 30-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4149/ekol_2011_01_269 Kravchenko, Y. S., Chen, Q., Liu, X., Herbert, S. J., Zhang, X. 2016: Conservation practices and manage- ment in Ukrainian mollisols. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology 18-3. Lipský, Z. 1995: The changing face of the Czech rural landscape. Landscape and Urban Planning 31, 1–3. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-2046(94)01034-6 Lieskovský, J., Kenderessy, P., Špulerová, J., Lieskovský, T., Koleda, P., Kienast, F., Gimmi, U. 2014: Factors affecting the persistence of traditional agricultural landscapes in Slovakia during the collectivization of agriculture. Landscape Ecology 29-5. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10980-014-0023-1 Liquete, C., Kleeschulte, S., Dige, G., Maes, J., Grizzetti, B., Olah, B., Zulian, G. 2015: Mapping green infra- structure based on ecosystem services and ecological networks: A Pan-European case study. Environmental Science & Policy 54. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.07.009 Miklós, L. 2002: Členenie prírodno-sídelných spádových regiónov. Atlas krajiny Slovenskej Republiky. Bratislava, Banská Bystrica. Internet: http://geo.enviroportal.sk/atlassr (25. 9. 2016). 108 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 108 Pazur, R., Otahel’, J., Maretta, M. 2015: The distribution of selected CORINE land cover classes in differ- ent natural landscapes in Slovakia: Methodological framework and applications. Moravian Geographical Report 23-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/mgr-2015-0005 Petit, C., Konold, W., Höchtl, F. 2012: Historic terraced vineyards: impressive witnesses of vernacular archi- tecture. Landscape History 33-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01433768.2012.671029 Ružičková, H., Halada, Ľ., Jedlička, L., Kalivodová, E. 1996: Biotopy Slovenska: príručka k mapovaniu a katalóg biotopov. Bratislava. Saksa, M., Minar, J. 2012: Assessing the natural hazard of gully erosion through a Geoecological Information System (GeIS): A case study from the Western Carpathians. Geografie 117-2. Slámová, M., Jakubec, B., Hreško, J., Beláček, B., Gallay, I. 2015: Modification of the potential production capabilities of agricultural terrace soils due to historical cultivation in the Budina cadastral area, Slovakia. Moravian Geographical Reports 23-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/mgr-2015-0010 Smrekar, A., Polajnar Horvat, K., Erhartič, B. 2016: The beauty of landforms. Acta geographica 56-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.3039 Smrekar, A., Zorn, M., Komac, B. 2016: Heritage protection through an geomorphologist’s eyes: From record- ing to awareness raising. Acta geographica 56-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.875 Stanchi, S., Freppaz, M., Agnelli, A., Reinsch, T., Zanini, E. 2012: Properties, best management practices and conservation of terraced soils in Southern Europe (from Mediterranean areas to the Alps): A review. Quaternary International 265. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.015 Stanová, V., Valachovič, M. 2002: Katalóg biotopov Slovenska. Bratislava. Špulerová, J., Dobrovodska, M., Lieskovský, J., Bača, A., Halabuk, A., Kohút, F., Mojses, M., Kenderessy, P., Piscová, V., Barančok, P. 2011: Inventory and classification of historical structures of the agricul- tural landscape in Slovakia. Ekológia 30-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4149/ekol_2011_02_157 Špulerová, J., Dobrovodská, M., Štefunková, D., Bača, A., Lieskovský, J. 2014a: Biodiversity of traditional agricultural landscapes in Slovakia and their threats. Biocultural landscapes. Dordrecht. Špulerová, J., Dobrovodská, M., Štefunková, D., Piscová, V., Petrovič, F. 2014b: Evolution of the traditional agricultural landscapes of Slovakia. Environment and ecology in the Mediterranean Region II. Newcastle. Štefunková, D., Dobrovodská, M. 2009: Preserved European cultural heritage in agrarian landscape of Slovakia. Tájökológiai Lapok 7-2. Štefunková, D., Hanušin, J. 2016: Analysis of the spatial and temporal distribution of selected landscape diversity indexes in detailed scale (example of viticultural landscape Svätý Jur). Landscape and land- scape ecology : proceedings of the 17th International Symposium on Landscape Ecology. Bratislava. Urbanc, M., Gašperič, P., Kozina, J. 2015: Geographical imagination of landscapes: analysis of the book of photographs Slovenian landscapes. Acta geographica 55-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.836 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 109 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 109 110 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 110 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017, 111–129 CLASSIFYING THE MEDITERRANEAN TERRACED LANDSCAPE: THE CASE OF ADRIATIC CROATIA Goran Andlar, Filip Šrajer, Anita Trojanović Terraces with dry walls on the island of Korčula. G O R A N A N D LA R 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 111 Goran Andlar, Filip Šrajer, Anita Trojanović, Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4673 UDC: 911.53:631.613(497.57) COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: This article presents a Croatian Adriatic terraced landscape classification, highlighting its natural and cultural background and proposing a classification framework for further research. The clas- sification is based on the landscape level (i.e., the »landscape pattern level«), synthesizing its structural, biophysical, and cultural-historical dimensions. The interpretation of classes involves a combination of general land use, structure, geomorphology, local land use, crops, soil type, and historical aspects. Nine classes of terraced landscapes are identified and described, example locations are given, and they are sub- stantiated with illustrations and photos. KEYWORDS: landscape classification, cultural landscape, terraces, agricultural land use, Mediterranean, Adriatic, Croatia The article was submitted for publication on September 9th, 2016. ADDRESSES: Goran Andlar, Ph.D. Department of Ornamental Plants, Landscape Architecture, and Garden Art Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb Svetošimunska cesta 25, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia E-mail: gandlar@agr.hr Filip Šrajer, M.Sc. Urbing d.o.o. Avenija V. Holjevca 20, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia E-mail: filip.srajer@gmail.com Anita Trojanović Pavlje Brdo 3, HR-20215 Gruda, Croatia E-mail: anita.trojanovic@gmail.com 112 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 112 1 Introduction Agriculture terracing involves leveling slopes in order to create accessible, flat, or sloped plots for agri- cultural, silvicultural, or pastoral use. The terraces allow the redistribution of soil and prevent soil erosion by controlling the quantity of existing soil and soil brought from the surroundings by man or controlled erosion (Countryman 2012). Terracing has many positive effects because it makes it possible for roots to penetrate hard ground and provides control of the water regime. It also contributes to protecting the ground from wind and ensures better insolation. The shape of terraces depends on various factors, such as their purpose, soil properties, lithology, and relief characteristics, and on construction craftsmanship and local agricultural practices. Cultivated terraces are a prominent feature of the Mediterranean agricultural landscape, and due to their cultural, ecological, and aesthetic value they have had great importance for a range of academic dis- ciplines (Titl 1965; Price and Nixon 2005; Asins-Velis 2006; Acovitsióti-Hameau 2008; Kale 2011; Sluis, Kizos and Pedroli 2014; Gadot et al. 2016). On the other hand, contribution by Croatian researchers and information on Croatia’s terraced landscapes are scant and do not correspond to the variety of efforts invest- ed in their protection (Gotthardi Pavlovsky 1972; Kladnik, Šmid Hribar and Geršič 2017) and interpretation (Gams 1987). These circumstances and the fact that rural exodus, tourism, and new agricultural techniques are increasingly endangering the integrity of terraced and other cultural landscapes (Andlar and Aničić 2017) necessitated an extensive study (Andlar 2012) to assess and evaluate Croatia’s Adriatic cultural landscapes. The research showed the great diversity of agricultural terraced landscapes in the region and provided suf- ficient data to establish a classification of terraced landscapes and a framework for future research. 1.1 Natural and cultural-historical background The Croatian Adriatic region extends across approximately one-third of Croatian territory (18,000 km²). This predominantly karst area is characterized by a Mediterranean climate, high complexity of relief forms, thin soil, sparse natural vegetation, lack of surface water (Filipčić 1998; Bognar 2001; Andlar 2012), and a Euro- Mediterranean cultural context. High and irregularly distributed precipitation, along with high soil erosivity, have resulted in high ecological sensitivity of the area (Cvijić 1918; McNeil 2003; Grove and Rackham 2001). Natural conditions are harsh but vary significantly due to the great diversity of environmental factors (Ciglič et al. 2012), which has led to a high diversity of human adaptation, in which terracing has played an important role in stabilizing resources on steep slopes and in valleys, dolines, and gullies (Andlar 2012). The diversity of terraces can be observed from the cultural point of view. Many areas have a distinc- tive pattern of terraces that reflects cultural and economic influences, and local practices. Due to the high endurance of stone and slow modernization processes, agricultural landscapes still testify to the earliest times of human culture. Terracing has probably been present since the first agricultural activity in steep terrain. However, there is no clear evidence of the evolution of terracing techniques over time; it may have remained unchanged for thousands of years. Many researchers believe that terracing was already present in the Mediterranean in the Neolithic (Price and Nixon 2005; Hughes 2005), whereas other research shows that the first terraces were built during the Bronze Age (Countryman 2012; Grove and Rackham 2001). This was probably related to the spread of agriculture practices and the establishment of a Mediterranean polyculture with the introduction of new agricultural techniques, including terracing. In Croatia, some stone structures have been found in Neolithic settlements (Moore et al. 2007) and on the site of an Iron Age hill fort (Barbarić 2010) (it is rather certain that the terracing happened in the nineteenth or twentieth century), but no clearly prehistoric terraces could be confirmed. In the Greek and Roman period, terrac- ing was clearly present in newly farmed land. For example, the ancient Greek geometrical system of land division has been preserved on the Stari Grad plain on the island of Hvar (Zaninović 2002), and it influ- enced the spatial organization of terraced fields. The next indicative period was the High Middle Ages to Early Modern Age. The Euro-Mediterranean area had flourishing agricultural production from the eleventh to thirteenth century due to the agrarian revolution and economic development (Delort and Walter 2002). In the eastern Adriatic, the development of agricultural communities was fostered by the establishment of medieval statutes, which, in some cases, regulated how agricultural land and terraces were managed (e.g., the Dubrovnik Statute of 1272). From the early fifteenth century onward, some eastern Adriatic islands were targets of regional immigration after Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 113 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 113 Goran Andlar, Filip Šrajer, Anita Trojanović, Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia the Ottoman annexation of the Adriatic hinterland (sixteenth to eighteenth centuries), and the additional need for arable land was met by allocations (Latin gratia; Kasandrić 1978) of former communal land (mostly pastures) to the new settlers for cultivation (Carter 1992; Kovačić 1993; Tudor 2004; Dokoza 2009). Evidence of early terraced landscapes can be seen in a 1573 bird’s eye view of the island of Korčula prepared by Simon Pinargenti (Marković 2001). The southern coastal slopes of Dingač on the Pelješac Peninsula were also cleared for growing grapes in the sixteenth century (Glavina 2008). The last large-scale karst reclamation with extensive terrace construction took place in the late nine- teenth and early twentieth centuries, and was caused by large-scale environmental and socio-political events such as the pandemics of grapevine diseases that first hit the leading winegrowing regions of France and Italy, the ease of international sale through established Austro-Hungarian trade links and the empire’s large market, and the partial transfer of land ownership (or at least disposal rights) from large landlords, the state, or communes to the wider population (Trogrlić 1980; Kale 2006 and 2010; Kraljević 1994; Kulušić 2006; Žuvela-Doda 2008). This period of growth ended in a similar way: suddenly and as a result of larger events such as the First World War, the 1918 flu pandemic, and several others that led to a large-scale crisis that resulted in land abandonment and exodus (Kraljević 1994). Because the vast majority of extremely steep slopes, remote areas, and uninhabited islets have never been reclaimed again, it can be argued that labor- intensive terrace construction and maintenance were only possible under extraordinary socioeconomic conditions. Therefore, these large-scale landscape transformations were far from sustainable, as opposed to polyculture, which is common in the Mediterranean. The most notable example of terrace construction soon after the Second World War is the creation of the terraced vineyards in the Primošten area, carried out in the first period of communist collectivization, when agricultural cooperatives were established (Kale 2006), similar to eastern Slovenia (Kladnik et al. 2016b; Pipan and Kokalj 2017). The vineyards were newly planned and designed, but they were inspired by land- scape patterns from the surrounding area. This method proved to be successful and could be recommended for planning karst land reclamation in the future. 1.2 Classification of terraces It can be observed that there is lack of standardized nomenclature and classification of terraces. For exam- ple, a constructive typology of terraces was given in the transnational project ALPTER (Internet 1) but its nomenclature was primarily based on Italian terms, such as balk (Italian ciglioni), fanlight (Italian lunette), step (Italian gradoni), terrace, and terrace construction (Scaramellini 2008). The terrace typology most often cited is probably that by Grove and Rackham (2001), who classified Mediterranean terraces based on their construction and structural characteristics: step terraces, pocket terraces, braided terraces, check-dam ter- races, and terraced fields. A terrace consists of three parts. The terrace wall is referred to as a riser, the flat planting surface is the tread or platform, and the soil in the interior of the terrace behind the riser is the fill (Countryman 2012; cf. Frederick and Krahtopoulou 2000, 80). The direction of the riser is usually parallel to the terrain contours. Based on the type of riser, the following basic terrace types were distinguished in the research area: • Terraces with built risers; a dry stone wall supporting the construction is the most common, and the riser is vertical, or gently sloped towards the terraced plot. Other forms of supporting structures are pos- sible but are very rare, such as wattle. • Terraces with a vegetation riser; hedges or trees are intentionally or spontaneously grown. • Unwalled terraces; these are shaped intentionally or spontaneously due to ploughing longitudinally along the contour lines. This type of terrace is particularly associated with heavy textured soils. 2 Methods The terraced landscapes in the Croatian Adriatic region have not yet been the subject of systematic inves- tigation. General or site-specific interpretations of Croatian Adriatic karst land use, and terraced or dry stone landscapes from the archaeological, geographical, architectural, structural, biophysical, ethnological, or his- torical points of view are given by Aničić and Perica (2003), Borovičkić (2008), Buble (2009), Freudenreich (1962), Gams (1991), Kale (2006, 2008, 2010), Kulušić (1999, 2006), Lozić et al. (2013), Petrić (2008), 114 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 114 Slapšak et al. (1998), Tudor (2004), Zaninović (2002), and Zupančič (2010). In neighboring Slovenia, the research project Terraced Landscapes in Slovenia as Cultural Values (2011–2015) produced a system- atic inventory of terraces throughout the entire country. Characterization of terraces was carried out within Slovenian landscape types and based on construction techniques, purpose, metrics, biophysical features, and the history of terracing (Ažman Momirski and Kladnik 2008; Kladnik et al. 2016a; Šmid Hribar et al. 2017). The first comprehensive study of the Croatian Adriatic cultural landscape was based on extensive research on land use and identity in agricultural, forestry, and salt-extraction landscapes. In order to identify out- standing cultural landscapes, landscape history and classification studies were carried out (Andlar 2012; Andlar and Aničić 2017): • Research on rural landscape history provided a chronological outline of successive historical periods with common social and spatial patterns. Its purpose was to outline the history and identity of the pre- sent landscape and to understand the historical background on a regional level and at the particular locations observed . • Landscape classification was based on the model of functional, structural, and cultural-historical aspects of landscape types, synthesizing several theoretical and practical approaches (e.g., Fairclough 2010). The classification consists of three levels: the first one is based on general land-use categories, the second revolves around the concept of land-use structure, and the third applies the concept of structural, func- tional, and cultural-historical landscape character. These historical and classification studies, along with descriptions of outstanding landscapes (half of the sixty-three sites identified are terraced or partially terraced), were used in this article as a starting point for terraced landscape analysis and classification. Additional information was collected through a series of local landscape character assessments and a WebGIS public participatory database of Croatian Adriatic dry stone wall heritage (Suhozid … 2016). Creation of the register involved combined flyovers and field- work carried out since 2007, establishment of a geo-tagged photo register, and analysis of data from various available sources, such as historical and recent digital orthophoto images, topographic, soil, and histori- cal maps, and CORINE land cover (CORINE … 2016), Google Earth (Google Earth 2016), and ARKOD data (ARKOD 2016). 3 Classification of terraced landscapes The classification was based on the »landscape pattern scale,« which is defined as consecutive repetition of a similar anthropogenic structure in relation to particular natural and cultural features (Andlar and Aničić 2017). Identification of the terraced landscape class was based on a synthesis of structural, natur- al, and anthropogenic factors; namely, general land use, structure and geomorphology, local land use, crops and soil type, and historical aspects. Each class is presented with a sketch and an example location is given. 3.1 Terraced field landscapes The following terraced landscape types are part of »field landscapes,« which are defined by the presence of natural cultivated soil, where cultivation is primarily achieved through ploughing. It is related to karst depressions with undulating bottoms that have been cultivated with shallow, non-consecutive, and wide terraced fields. The main types of such landscapes are the following: (A) Wide regular-pattern terraced fields in landscapes with karst poljes and river valleys (Figure 1) are associated with large karst depressions with shallow terracing with mildly undulating bottoms. Due to their spaciousness and gentle slopes, regular (sometimes planned) patterns are common. The terraces are usually combined with fields and enclosures, forming a mixed crop system defined by the proximity of settlements and a complex history, such as Stari Grad on the island of Hvar. (B) Wide irregular-pattern terraced fields in landscapes with karst uvalas and large dolines (Figure 1) are associated with moderate-sized karst depressions with pronounced relief and consequently irregular and organic terrace patterns. This type involves various land uses with mixed crops, and is related to small nucleated or scattered settlements and hamlets located above the field. This is a typical rural land pattern in the Adriatic hinterland. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 115 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 115 Goran Andlar, Filip Šrajer, Anita Trojanović, Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia (C) Terraced fields in landscapes with shallow ravines and dry valleys (Figure 2). Sloping, narrow, elon- gated dry valleys and ravines create oases with arable soil that were enclosed by dry walls and terraced in order to preserve soil and control water flow during thunderstorms. Interesting examples can be found on the island of Brač, where narrow, winding valleys up to ten kilometers long with a single row of ter- raced fields with mixed or vineyard use can be observed. A variation of this class is seen on the island of Krk, where scattered terraced enclosures can be found in cultivated gullies. (D) Terraces and terraced fields landscapes on colluvium (Figure 2). A particular type of terraces evolved on very steep colluvium (even exceeding 35o), where consecutive terracing is not common because of its physical characteristics and resistance to erosion. The inclination is unchanged or slightly flattened, and the risers are sporadic. Large, elongated deposit patches are completely cultivated and sometimes enclosed by dry stone walls. The fertile and porous soil is suitable for cultivating quality grape varieties. Such sites are located on southern coastal slopes of the island of Hvar and on the Pelješac Peninsula. The emergence of these terraces is likely to be associated with the first period of karst land reclamation. (E) Unwalled terraced field landscapes (Figure 3). This type of terrace is associated with flysch areas such as »Gray« Istria (the flysch or clay central part of Istria) and the Ravni Kotari region, where built structures are not present (or are negligible) due to the lack of stone on the surface and the physical characteristics of the soil, whereas vegetation risers are common. It is characterized by a curved strip pattern. As opposed to neighboring karst areas, these areas have patches of fertile land, characteristic for mixed use with long continuity. 3.2 Hillside terraced landscapes The following terraced landscape types are associated with consecutive terracing, dry stone wall risers, and narrow to moderate tread width, usually designed for one or several rows of cultivated plants (olives, grapes, lavender, etc.). Ploughing is absent or rare in these areas. Such terraced landscapes are common 116 Figure 1: Irregular- and regular-pattern terraced fields (left to right). A N IT A T R O JA N O V IĆ 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 116 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 117 Figure 2: Terraced fields in a dry valley, terraces and terraced fields on colluvium, and a terraced shallow ravine (left to right). Figure 3: Unwalled terraced fields with and without vegetation risers. A N IT A T R O JA N O V IĆ A N IT A T R O JA N O V IĆ 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 117 Goran Andlar, Filip Šrajer, Anita Trojanović, Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia in remote, steep areas outside settlements and were initially intended to be monocultural due to karst land reclamation. The main types of hillside terraced landscapes are the following: (F) Regular-pattern step-terraced landscapes (Figure 4). They are typical for the upper parts of slopes. The dry stone walls are usually solid and well built, and are sometimes higher than the tread width. The connection between terraces is achieved by steps cut into the riser, protruding from the riser, and/or on the top of piles of stone and walls that run along the slope. The terrace patterns are regular, but can vary, depending on various factors. Groups of terraces are sometimes enclosed by stone walls in various forms. Regular enclosures usually indicate later colonization, with the distribution of land organized among new owners. Very narrow terraces were initially mostly intended for growing grapes. This type can be found in the southern part of the islands of Korčula and Hvar, and in the hinterland of Trogir. (G) Irregular-pattern terraced landscapes (Figure 5). This type is associated with an irregular plot pattern with a non-continuous riser, often containing a ramp that links the upper and lower treads. A poor-qual- ity wall structure is common in this type, which can be found in areas with sparse surface stone or where rock fragments or small pebbles are found in soils. It is also typical for areas with sandy soils; for instance, on the island of Susak, where terrace risers are overgrown with reeds. Various crops may be associated to this type, but, unlike the previous one, grains, vegetables, and mixed use are more common. (H) Pocket-pattern terraced landscapes. This type is associated with semicircular or triangular parcels, either laid out individually or in a series in a honeycomb pattern, which may contain a dry stone wall riser (Figure 6), but the riser may also be completely absent (or »spontaneous«; Figure 7). The latter subtype can be found on slopes with large stone fragments where natural voids in the rocks were slightly reshaped and filled with soil usually in order to grow individual plants (olives or grapes). Individual pocket terraces are intended to grow one cultivar, but larger pockets were probably used for creating small arable plots (e.g., for growing tansy or grains, or for meadows). (I) Off-contour terraced landscapes (Figure 8). These atypical terraces are characterized by supporting walls laid out at an angle, sometimes even perpendicular to the terrain contours, characterized by a narrow pattern. 118 Figure 4: Variations of regular-pattern step terraces: a narrow organic pattern, a narrow vertically intersected pattern, and a wide rectangular pattern (left to right). A N IT A T R O JA N O V IĆ 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 118 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 119 Figure 5: Irregular-pattern terraces with dry stone wall and vegetation risers (left to right). Figure 6: Pocket terraces. A N IT A T R O JA N O V IĆ A N IT A T R O JA N O V IĆ 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 119 Goran Andlar, Filip Šrajer, Anita Trojanović, Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia 120 Figure 7: »Spontaneous« pocket terraces. A N IT A T R O JA N O V IĆ Figure 8: Off-contour terraces. A N IT A T R O JA N O V IĆ 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 120 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 121 Figure 9: Photos of Croatian Adriatic terraced field landscapes; modern terraced and historical dry stone wall landscapes. G O R A N A N D LA R , B R A N K A A N IČ IĆ , I N T E R N E T 2 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:22 Page 121 Goran Andlar, Filip Šrajer, Anita Trojanović, Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia 122 Figure 10: Korčula vineyards on narrow step terraces. Figure 11: Short and wide vineyard terraces in the hinterland of Trogir. G O R A N A N D LA R G O R A N A N D LA R 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 122 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 123 Figure 12: Typical Hvar terraces with vertical intersections. Figure 13: Vineyard pocket terraces on the island of Hvar. G O R A N A N D LA R G O R A N A N D LA R 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 123 Goran Andlar, Filip Šrajer, Anita Trojanović, Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia 124 Figure 14: Vineyards on spontaneous pocket terraces in Kostanje near the Cetina River. Figure 15: Off-contour terraces on the island of Kaprije. G O R A N A N D LA R B R A N K A A N IČ IĆ 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 124 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 125 Figure 16: Irregular and pocket terraces in Duba Konavoska. Figure 17: Abandoned reed-supported terraces on the island of Srakane. TO N I M O S TA H IN IĆ G O R A N A N D LA R 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 125 Goran Andlar, Filip Šrajer, Anita Trojanović, Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia 126 The layout of these terraces might be a consequence of a need for protection from the wind, but also an adaption to the direction of lithological layers. They are very rare and, as far as they are known, abandoned (e.g., small sites in the Senj-Jablanac area and on the islands of Kaprije, Baljenac, and Kakan). Gams (1987, 1991) pointed out an interesting type of the »box-like landscape« with an example of a site near Brusje, Hvar, where the terraced parcel stripes are divided by solid dry stone scarps (or sometimes simply elon- gated heaps of stone) perpendicular to the contours. Although they are visually impressive and similar to the off-contour terraces, these structures could not be classified as such because they are structurally a sec- ondary feature (a boundary, path, or deposit of excess stone) in the otherwise regular horizontal terrace system. 4 Conclusion The main contribution of this article is to present an original typology of terraced landscapes and to show their diversity based on the example of the Croatian Adriatic region, followed by standardized nomen- clature that should facilitate further research. We argue that standardized classifications are necessary for unifying the »language« among the var- ious disciplines that deal with this interdisciplinary subject. They are also important for making possible comparisons between different case studies and for creating databases. We agree with the opinion that sys- tematic quantitative techniques may expand the boundaries of historical landscape research and preservation, and that the typologies have yet to become common practice when studying historical landscapes (Kohr 2008). Using sketches (Figures 1–8) and photos (Figures 9–17), this article promotes the importance of visual presentation. The proposed classification framework is based on landscape pattern dimensions, for which the def- inition of types is primarily based on structure and geomorphology, but includes other biophysical and cultural-historical circumstances. In this regard, this article is also a contribution to sociogeomorphology (Ashmore 2015). In the proposed typology, links between the structure observed and the circumstances of its emergence can be followed up to a certain level. For every type, one can potentially know which crop it was initially intended for, what its biophysical context is, what »micro-cultural« area it belongs to, what its relation to the settlement is, and sometimes even which period or historical event it is part of. Further knowledge is needed to test the applicability of the suggested principle. Such a generalized framework has some deficiencies. For example, certain types of terraced landscapes are sometimes connected with other types of land use. Furthermore, the multidimensional approach of this work points to the fact that additional expertise and research is needed, especially in history and archaeology to support chronological dating and explain the socioeconomic context of the spatial structures observed. Further research in the Croatian Adriatic region should be directed towards identifying representative sites for every terraced landscape; namely, to identify the construction materials, techniques, structures, soil characteristics, lithology, and relief that have formed the terroir (Jamšek Rupnik, Čuš and Šmuc 2016), and other associated local practices, cultures, and cultivars that may have evolved within the unique ter- raced landscape. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The research described in this article uses findings from the research project Mediterranean Landscape as an Element of Croatian Identity, approved by the Croatian Ministry of Science, Education, and Sports. Sincere thanks to Branka Aničić, who headed this project. We also express our grat- itude to Kristina Krklec for comments that greatly improved this article, and to the students at the School of Landscape Architecture (Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb) for their participation in collecting valuable information through term papers, bachelor’s theses, master’s theses, and other activities. Thanks also to Jadran Kale, our colleagues from the association 4 GRADA DRAGODID, and all of the public con- tributors involved in research and development for Suhozid.hr. 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 126 5 References Acovitsióti-Hameau, A. 2008: Terraced territories: technical act and social facts. Terraced landscapes of the Alps – Atlas. Venice. Andlar, G. 2012: Outstanding cultural landscapes of the Croatian Adriatic. Doctoral Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb. Zagreb. Andlar, G., Aničić, B. 2017: Multi-method approaches to cultural landscape assessment in Croatia. Routledge handbook of landscape character assessment: Current approaches to characterisation and assessment. Oxford. Aničić, B., Perica, D. 2003: Structural features of cultural landscape in the karst area. Acta Carsologica 32-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/ac.v32i1.372 ARKOD, 2016. Agencija za plaćanja u poljoprivredi, ribarstvu i ruralnom razvoju. Internet: http://preglednik. arkod.hr/ARKOD-Web (10. 8. 2016). Ashmore, P. 2015: Towards a sociogeomorphology of rivers. Geomorphology 251-15. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.02.020 Asins-Velis, S. 2006: New paradigms in semi-arid Mediterranean terraced landscapes studies. Workshop: I terrazzamenti risorse del territorio. Genova. Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D. 2009: Terraced landscapes in Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 49-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS49101 Barbarić, V. 2010: Gradina Rat kod Ložišća, otok Brač, 2007–2008. Izdanja Hrvatskog arheološkog društva 26. Bognar, A. 1999: Geomorfološka regionalizacija Hrvatske. Acta geographica Croatica 34. Borovičkić, M. 2008: Takale: bakarsko-praputnjarski prezidi. Etnološka istraživanja 12, 13-1. Buble, S. 2009: Agrarni krajolik otoka Visa: problematika očuvanja suhozidnog krajolika. Destinacije čežnje, lokacije samoće: uvidi u kulturu i razvojne mogućnosti hrvatskih otoka. Zagreb. Carter, F. W. 1992: Agriculture on Hvar During the Venetian Occupation: a Study in Historical Geography. Hrvatski geografski glasnik 54-1. Ciglič, R., Hrvatin, M., Komac, B., Perko, D. 2012: Karst as a criterion for defining areas less suitable for agriculture. Acta geographica Slovenica 52-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS52103 CORINE Land Cover Hrvatska, 2016. Agencija za zaštitu okoliša. Internet: http://www.azo.hr/CORINELandCover (10. 8. 2016). Countryman, J. C. 2012: Agricultural terracing and landscape history at Monte Pallano, Abruzzo, Italy. Doctoral Thesis, Oberlin College. Oberlin. Cvijić, J. 1918: Hydrographie souterraine et évolutionmorphologique du karst. Recueil des travaux de l’institut de géographie alpine 6-4. Delort, R., Walter, F. 2002: Povijest europskog okoliša. Zagreb. Dokoza, S. 2009: Dinamika otočnog prostora – društvena i gospodarska povijest Korčule u razvijenom srednjem vijeku. Split. Fairclough, G. 2010: Complexity and contingency: classifying the influence of agriculture on European landscapes. European culture expressed in agricultural landscapes – perspectives from the Eucaland Project. Roma. Filipčić, A. 1998: Climatic regionalization of Croatia according to W. Köppen for the standard period 1961–1990 in relation to the period 1931–1960. Acta geographica Croatica 33-1. Frederick, C., Krahtopoulou, A. 2000: Deconstructing agricultural terraces: examining the influence of construction method on stratigraphy, dating and archaeological visibility. Landscape and land use in postglacial Greece. Sheffield. Freudenreich, A. 1962: Narod gradi na ogoljenom Krasu. Savezni institut za zaštitu spomenika kulture. Zagreb, Beograd. Gadot, Y., Davidovich, U., Avni, G., Avni, Y., Piasetzky, M., Faershtein, G., Golan, D., Porat, N. 2016: The formation of a Mediterranean terraced landscape: Mount Eitan, Judean Highlands, Israel. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 6. Gams, I. 1987: A contribution to the knowledge of the pattern of walls in the Mediterranean karst. A case study on the N. island Hvar, Yugoslavia. Karst and man. Proceedings of the International symposium on human influence in karst. Ljubljana. Gams, I. 1991: Sistemi prilagoditve primorskega dinarskega krasa na kmetijsko rabo tal. Geografski zbornik 31. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 127 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 127 Goran Andlar, Filip Šrajer, Anita Trojanović, Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia Glavina, F. 2008: Dingač – dokumenti, tradicija, predaja. Dingač, priča o velikom hrvatskom vinu. Zagreb. Google Earth, 2016. Internet: https://www.google.com/earth (10. 8. 2016). Gotthardi-Pavlovsky, B. 1972: Inscription in Register of Cultural Goods of Croatia Z-5290. Internet: http://www.min-kulture.hr/default.aspx?id=6212&kdId=249954414 (7. 12. 2016). Grove, A. T., Rackham, O. 2001: The nature of Mediterranean Europe: an ecological history. New Haven. Hughes, D. J. 2005: The Mediterranean: an environmental history. Santa Barbara. Internet 1: http://www.alpter.net (10. 8. 2016). Internet 2: https://ispu.mgipu.hr (10. 8. 2016). Jamšek Rupnik, P., Čuš, F., Šmuc, A. 2016: Geomorphology and wine: the case of Malvasia Istriana in the Vipava Valley. Acta geographica Slovenica 56-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.905 Kale, J. 2006: Kamen po kamen – krajolik. Hrvatska revija – Obnovljeni tečaj 6-2. Kale, J. 2008: Kulturni krajolik otoka Rave. Zbornik radova »Otok Rava«. Zadar. Kale, J. 2010: Prijedlog modela inventarizacije suhozida. Prostor 18-2. Kale, J. 2011: Upravljanje kulturnom resursima krških krajolika. AR: Arhitektura, raziskave/Architecture, Research 3. Kasandrić, I. 1978: Gratia - agrarni odnos na općinskoj zemlji. Prilozi povijesti otoka Hvara 5. Kladnik, D., Ciglič, R., Geršič, M., Komac, B., Perko, D., Zorn, M. 2016a: Diversity of Terraced Landscapes in Slovenia. Annales, Series historia et sociologia 26-3. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.19233/ASHS.2016.38 Kladnik, D., Perko, D. (ed.), Ciglič, R. (ed.), Geršič, M. (ed.) 2016b: Terasirane pokrajine. Ljubljana. Kladnik, D., Šmid Hribar, M., Geršič, M. 2017: Terraced landscapes as protected cultural heritage sites. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4628 Kohr, A. D. 2008: A terrace typology. Exploring the boundaries of historic landscape preservation, Proceeding of the 29th Annual Conference. Clemson. Kovačić, J. 1993: Hvarski ager u srednjem i novom vijeku. Mogućnosti 1-2. Kraljević, R. 1994: Vinogradarski slom i demografski rasap Južne Hrvatske u osvit 20. stoljeća: vinogradarstvo Dalmacije 1850–1904: uspon, procvat, klonuće. Split. Kulušić, S. 1999: Tipska obilježja gradnje »u suho« na kršu Hrvatskog primorja (Na primjeru kornatskih otoka). Hrvatski geografski glasnik 61-1. Kulušić, S. 2006: Knjiga o Kornatima. Murter. Lozić, S., Radoš, D., S Šiljeg, A., Krklec, K. 2013: Geomorfometrijske značajke s šireg područja Velog Rata i njihov utjecaj na tradicionalni kulturni krajobraz suhozida. Veli Rat, Zadar. Marković, M. 2001: Hrvatski gradovi na starim planovima i vedutama. Zagreb. McNeill, J. R. 2003: The mountains of Mediterranean World: An environmental history. Cambridge. Moore, A., Menđušić, M., Smith, J., Zaninović, J., Podrug, E. 2007: Project »Early Farming in Dalmatia«: Pokrovnik 2006 (Preliminary results). Vjesnik Arheološkog muzeja u Zagrebu 40-1. Petrić, N. 2008: Spomenici Velog Grablja. Hvar. Pipan, P., Kokalj, Ž. 2017: Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard terraces. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4629 Price, S., Nixon, L. 2005: Ancient Greek Agricultural terraces: evidence from texts and archaeological survey. American Journal of Archaeology 109-4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3764/aja.109.4.665 Scaramellini, G. 2008: Terraced landscapes in the Alpine area: geohistorical observations and analytical perspectives. Terraced landscapes of the Alps – Atlas. Venice. Slapšak, B., Erič, M., Mušič, B., Plevnik, D. 1998: Landscape structures survey in the Chora of Pharos. Ancient landscapes and rural structures. COST Action G2. Ljubljana. Sluis, T. van der, Kizos, T., Pedroli, B. 2014: Landscape change in Mediterranean farmlands: impacts of land abandonment on cultivation terraces in Portofino (Italy) and Lesvos (Greece). Journal of Landscape Ecology 7-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/jlecol-2014-0008 Suhozid, 2016. Internet: http://suhozid.geof.unizg.hr (7. 12. 2016). Šmid Hribar, M., Geršič, M., Pipan, P., Repolusk, P., Tiran, J., Topole, M., Ciglič, R. 2017: Cultivated ter- races in Slovenian landscapes. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4597 Titl, J. 1965: Socialnogeografski problemi na koprskem podeželju. Koper. Trogrlić, S. 1980: Novija literatura o agrarnim odnosima u Dalmaciji u vrijeme druge austrijske uprave. Journal of the Institute of Croatian History 13-1. 128 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 128 Tudor, A. 2004: Ladanjska izgradnja i formiranje agrarnog krajolika – primjeri zapadnog dijela otoka Hvara. Zbornik I. kongresa hrvatskih povjesničara umjetnosti. Zagreb. Zaninović, M. 2002: Grčke podjele zemljišta na otocima Hvaru, Visu i Korčuli. Grčki utjecaji na istočnoj obali Jadrana. Split. Zupančić, D. 2010: Vidoviči in kultura oblikovanja prostora. AR: Arhitektura, raziskave/Architecture, Research 1. Žuvela-Doda, B. 2008: Preko luških mejah. Luško libro 16. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 129 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 129 130 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 130 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017, 131–148 TERRACED LANDSCAPES AS PROTECTED CULTURAL HERITAGE SITES Drago Kladnik, Mateja Šmid Hribar, Matjaž Geršič Terraced rice paddies in Bali, a UNESCO world heritage site. S H U T T E R S TO C K 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 131 Drago Kladnik, Mateja Šmid Hribar, Matjaž Geršič, Terraced landscapes and protected cultural heritage sites Terraced landscapes and protected cultural heritage sites DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS. 4628 UDC: 911.53:631.613(497.4) COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: This article presents the current state of protection of terraced landscapes as an important type of cultural landscape, both globally and in Slovenia. The UNESCO World Heritage List, the Satoyama Initiative list, and the Slovenian Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage are analyzed. The findings show that terraces rarely appear as a factor justifying protection, even though certain progress has been made in recent years. At least globally, this has clearly been contributed to by the 2010 adoption of the Honghe Declaration. Slovenia shows both a lack of appropriate criteria for identifying terraced landscapes worth protecting and an insufficiently systematic treatment of heritage sites that are already being protected. KEY WORDS: geography, cultural landscape, terraces, UNESCO World Heritage, Satoyama Initiative, Slovenian heritage, Slovenia ADDRESSES: Drago Kladnik, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: drago.kladnik@zrc-sazu.si Mateja Šmid Hribar, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: mateja.smid@zrc-sazu.si Matjaž Geršič, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia E-mail: matjaz.gersic@zrc-sazu.si 132 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 132 1 Introduction Terraced landscapes are cultural landscapes with a special value, in which their aesthetic role is of great importance in addition to ecological, cultural, historical, research, psychological, philosophical, and reli- gious aspects (Kladnik 2016a; Smrekar, Polajnar Horvat and Erhartič 2016). Therefore, it is not surprising that terraced landscapes are among the world’s most picturesque landscapes found online (e.g., Amazing satellite … 2016; Incredible … 2014; Tremendous … 2011). They form a special agricultural and ecolog- ical system that can be found throughout the world. They are formed by diverse agricultural terraces, the main purpose of which is to produce food. However, if they are well maintained, they can have an added value in fighting erosion and the negative effects of natural disasters (Komac and Zorn 2008) and in case of extensively management they also ensure biodiversity (Špulerová et al. 2017). However, if terraces are not maintained, this only exacerbates the effects of natural degradation. Unfortunately, due to the restruc- turing of social strata, maladaptation to mechanized farming, and increasingly pronounced globalization effects, in many places terraces are being abandoned, overgrown, or left to deteriorate in large numbers, while traditional terraced landscapes are becoming neglected (Kladnik 2016a). Only well-maintained terraced landscapes can present an attractive image that not only makes the locals that live with terraces from one generation to the next proud, but can also prove to be an important part of cultural heritage with developmental potential (Kladnik 2016b). This is true both globally and in Slovenia, and accordingly the awareness that terraced landscapes are worth protecting as an invaluable part of cul- tural landscapes is gradually strengthening (Erhartič 2009). Various protective initiatives and strategies (Ažman Momirski and Kladnik 2015) have sprung up, which in and of themselves do not automatically guarantee appropriate further maintenance and conservation of terraced landscapes, but they do clearly play an important role in the perception, awareness, discovery, and evaluation of these landscapes. If pro- tection is well thought out and the values of terraced landscapes are suitably promoted, the protection itself can provide an exceptional developmental impulse (Geršič et al. 2016). Together with their increased profile, this makes possible not only further maintenance of an attractive cultural landscape, but also gen- erates new jobs in activities related to the growing number of incoming tourists (Ažman Momirski and Kladnik 2015). Terraced landscapes belong to cultural landscapes that are the result of the interaction between the natural environment and human life and work in this environment (Urbanc 2002). The expression »cul- tural landscape« was introduced by the American geographer Carl Sauer, who defined it as follows: »The cultural landscape is fashioned out of the natural landscape by a culture group. Culture is the agent, the nat- ural area is the medium, the cultural landscape is the result« (Sauer 1925, 46). Cultural landscapes are already indirectly mentioned in the 1972 UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (Convention … 1972), which defines cultural heritage as monuments, groups of build- ings and sites, which are works of man or the combined works of nature and man, and natural heritage as natural features, geological and physiographical formations and natural sites. Cultural landscapes that have been internationally recognized and protected since 1992 (Cultural land- scapes 2016) are characterized by unique land use adapted to natural conditions and an intangible relationship with nature. An important step towards the recognition of cultural landscapes was made through the 2000 adoption of the European Landscape Convention, which highlights the interaction between natural and human factors, but does not specifically mention terraced landscapes. In the Slovenian legal system, the landscape is mentioned in the Nature Conservation Act (2010), which in principle defines the landscape as a natural value (even though not even a single unit like this can be found in the Register of Natural Values), and in the Cultural Heritage Protection Act (2016), which also covers the Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage (Register … 2016), in which cultural landscapes are included. Landscapes are also discussed in the 2010 Paris Declaration on the Satoyama Initiative, which covers socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes. It conceives of landscapes as »dynamic mosaics of habitats and land uses that have been shaped over the years by the interactions between people and nature in ways that maintain biodiversity and provide humans with goods and services needed for their well-being« (Paris declaration on… 2010, article 1). Satoyama is a Japanese compound term referring to the area between the foothills of a mountain and arable flat land (< sato »arable, fertile« + yama »mountain, hill«). In the broader sense, satoyama landscapes are a mix of forests, paddy fields, plowed fields, pastures, creeks, ponds, and irrigation systems surrounding Japanese villages (Kobori and Primack 2003). Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 133 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 133 Drago Kladnik, Mateja Šmid Hribar, Matjaž Geršič, Terraced landscapes and protected cultural heritage sites As an exceptional landscape system, terraced landscapes were globally recognized at the conference on terraced landscapes that took place in Mengzi, China, in November 2010 and where the Honghe Declaration on the Protection and Development of Terraces was adopted (Peters and Junchao 2012; Kladnik 2016a). That was also when the International Terraced Landscapes Alliance (ITLA) was established (Ažman Momirski and Kladnik 2015). To date, no comprehensive systematic study on the protection and conservation of terraced landscapes as important cultural landscapes and hence cultural heritage deserving protection has been conducted either globally or in Slovenia. The best-known protected terraced landscapes are mentioned in the works of Tarolli, Preti, and Romano (2014), Varotto (2015), Peters (2015) and Andlar, Šrajer in Trojanović (2017) provid- ed a systematic overview on typological diversity of the Croatian Adriatic terraced landscapes This article provides an overview of the current state of protection of the terraced landscapes includ- ed on the UNESCO World Heritage List (World Heritage List 2016) and in the international database of Satoyama landscapes (Satoyama Initiative 2016) and the Slovenian Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage (Register … 2016) in one place, drawing attention to the structural deficiencies of the registers and seeking to further enhance efforts for more planned and systematic protection of terraced landscapes. 2 Methods This study is based on a review of two international lists–the UNESCO World Heritage List (2016) and especially its list of cultural landscapes (Cultural Landscapes 2016), and the Satoyama Initiative list (2016)–and the Slovenian Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage (Register … 2016). Based on the justifications for inclusion on the list and the explanations of the reasons for protection, we identified heritage units (unam- biguously or by making inferences based on knowing the actual conditions) that have been selected as worth protecting due to the important role of agricultural terraces. In this, the role of terraced landscapes can be a decisive factor or quite marginal. Based on the extent of highlighting the significance of terraced landscapes or their role in the justifi- cations for addition to the list, three types were defined at the global level (predominant, highlighted, and marginal) and four among the Slovenian cultural heritage sites (predominant, highlighted, marginal, indi- rectly identified). Even though the criteria for classifying terraced landscapes under individual types are subjective, they are based on the comparison of published justifications. They are illustrated here with four sites from the Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage (2016), which we classified under various types. For a better com- parison, all of the units are from the same Slovenian region: the mesoregion of the Koper Hills (Sln. Koprska brda). The predominant type (Register … 2016): Puče settlement: the cultivated terraces between Krkavče Creek (Krkavški potok) and Supot Creek (Supotski potok): »The preserved traditional system of cultivated terraces was created where the plateau-like level ridges gradually change into the steep slopes above the Dragonja Valley. The villages of Krkavče and Koštabona dom- inate the wider area.« The highlighted type: Seča: the Seča Peninsula cultural landscape: »An area transformed by man for agricultural use, with culti- vated terraces and walls built from local stone; dispersed construction, the Forma viva open air sculpture gallery on the promontory. Olive trees, grapevines, and orchards predominate among the cultivars.« The marginal type: Strunjan: Strunjan Nature Park: »The area south of Strunjan Cliff (Strunjanski klif) features a church with a monastery, dispersed tenant farmers’ houses on a slope that has been converted into terraces, a settlement next to the former town harbor, saltpans, and a stone pine avenue.« The indirectly identified type: Čentur: »A special feature of this village is its characteristic architecture, the special structure of its parcels, and the unique way in which its farmland is cultivated. Arable land is divided into small parcels that extend outwards in concentric circles in order to adjust to the terrain.« 134 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 134 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 135 3 Levels of protection around the globe and in Slovenia This section presents the findings of the review of the UNESCO World Heritage List (2016), the Satoyama Initiative (2016) database, and the Slovenian Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage (Register … 2016). 3.1 UNESCO World Heritage List The UNESCO classification uses the following three categories of cultural landscapes (Operational Guide - lines … 2012): • Cultural landscape designed and created intentionally by man; • Organically evolved landscapes, developed as »results from an initial social, economic, administrative, and/or religious imperative and has developed its present form by association with and in response to its natural environment«; divided into two subtypes: a) a relict/fossil landscape and b) a continuing landscape »which retains an active social role in contemporary society closely associated with the traditional way of life, and in which the evolutionary process is still in progress«; and • Associative cultural landscape. Figure 1 presents the UNESCO typology of immovable cultural heritage (The World Heritage … 2004). However, because it is not universal, it is not generally established and applied in individual national leg- islations. In June 2016, there were 8.5% of cultural landscapes among the 1,031 world heritage sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List (Cultural Landscapes 2016). Four of these are listed as transboundary properties, and a German one was removed in 2009 because it did not meet the protection criteria. Twenty are connected with terraced landscapes. Among the rest of the world heritage sites, five are relevant from the viewpoint of terraces. Four are classified under cultural sites and one, the Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, is classified under mixed sites. Thus we identified a total of 25 relevant terraced landscapes on the UNESCO list (Figure 2): in eight cases, they became part of world heritage almost exclusively due to their terraced character, whereby cul- tivated terraces are highlighted as their component part, and in nine cases they are mentioned marginally because they were ascribed a high level of protection primarily due to other landscape elements. The major- ity of the protected sites include a central area measuring several hundred square kilometers(with exceptions over 1,000 km²) and a similarly large or smaller buffer zone. The analysis of 1,641 world heritage sites included on the tentative list (Tentative Lists 2016) showed that only four partly referred also to terraced landscapes (one in France, one in Algeria, and two in Yemen). The first site that mentions a  terraced landscape in the justification, the Natural and Culturo- Historical Region of Kotor, Montenegro, was entered on the UNESCO list as early as 1979 and the second, the Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, Peru, was added to the list in 1983. The first site that refers explic- itly to a cultural landscape and a terraced landscape as part of it was the Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras, which was added to the list in 1995. The graph in Figure 3 shows that the number of these types of world heritage sites is gradually increasing and, what is even more evident, the significance of terraces in the justifications is increasingly more highlighted. 3.2 Satoyama Initiative An important international register of cultural landscapes is being compiled as part of the International Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative (IPSI), which promotes societies in harmony with nature. As part of the Satoyama Initiative, an internet-based portal was established, which among other information pro- vides well-presented case studies of socio-ecological production landscapes around the globe (Satoyama Initiative 2016). Currently more than 80 case studies are presented in the database, including seven terraced landscapes. The significance of terraces is predominant in three, highlighted in two, and marginal in two. All of the entries on the Satoyama Initiative list are of a more recent date, from 2010 onwards. Two sites, both part of the Ifugao terraced landscape on the Philippine island of Luzon, are included on the UNESCO World 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 135 Drago Kladnik, Mateja Šmid Hribar, Matjaž Geršič, Terraced landscapes and protected cultural heritage sites 136 Monuments Groups of uildingsb Places Archaeological heritage: Individual monuments, including earthworks, farms, villas, temples, and other public buildings, defensive works, etc., that are not in use or occupied Settlements (towns, villages), defensive works, etc., that are not in use or occupied Earthworks, burial mounds, cave dwellings, defensive works, cemeteries, routes, etc., that are not in use or occupied Rock–art sites: – – Caves, rock shelters, open surfaces, and comparable sites containing paintings, engravings, carvings, etc. Fossil hominid sites: – – Individual sites and landscapes containing skeletal material and/or evidence of occupation by early hominids Historic buildings and ensembles: Individual monuments, ensembles of monuments, works of art – – Urban and rural settlements / historic towns and villages: – Towns, town centers, villages, and other communal groups of dwellings – Vernacular architecture: Traditionally established building types using traditional construction systems and crafts Groups of traditionally established building types Religious properties: Buildings and structures associated with religious or spiritual values; e.g., churches, monasteries, shrines, sanctuaries, mosques, synagogues, temples, etc. Historic settlements or towns with religious or spiritual associations: sacred cities, etc. Sites with religious or spiritual associations: sanctuaries, sacred landscapes, or landscapes with sacred features, etc. Agricultural, industrial and technological properties: Factories; bridges, water–management systems (dams, irrigation, etc.) Agricultural settlements; industrial settlements Military properties: Castles, forts, citadels, etc. Citadels, town defenses; Defensive systems Cultural landscapes with vernacular settlements Field systems, vineyards, agricultural landscapes; water management systems (dams, irrigation, etc ; mines, mining landscapes, canals, railways, etc. .) Figure 1: UNESCO typology of immovable cultural heritage (The World Heritage … 2004, 15). Green cells contain material related to cultural landscapes. Figure 2: Terraced landscapes identified on the UNESCO World Heritage List (2016) and the Satoyama Initiative list (2016). p 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 136 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 137 # ## # # # M ad e w ith N at ur al E ar th A ut ho rs o f m ap : M an ca V ol k Ba hu n, R ok C ig lič , M at ja ž G er šič © A nt on M el ik G eo gr ap hi ca l I ns tit ut e ZR C S A ZU Le ge nd Si gn i ca nc e of te rr ac es in th e ju st i ca tio n Pr ed om in an t t yp e # Sa to ya m a Te rr ac ed a re a 0 20 00 40 00 60 00 K m H ig hl ig ht ed ty pe M ar gi na l t yp e 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 137 Drago Kladnik, Mateja Šmid Hribar, Matjaž Geršič, Terraced landscapes and protected cultural heritage sites 138 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Predominant type Highlited type Marginal type < 1991 1991–1995 1996–2000 2001–2005 2006–2010 > 2010 Figure 3: The period in which the terraced landscapes identified were entered on the UNESCO World Heritage List (2016) according to the significance of terraces in the justifications for entry on the list. Figure 4: The cultural landscape of the Honghe Hani Rice Terraces in China. JI M M Y T R A N 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 138 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 139 Heritage List. All of the sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List and the Satoyama Initiative list are pre- sented in Figure 6. 3.3 Slovenian Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage In Slovenia, the protection of terraced landscapes is provided for as part of the Cultural Ministry’s Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage (Register nepremične kulturne dediščine) (Register… 2016), which also includes cultural landscapes among the eight defined types of heritage and two non-defined types (unknown and other). In June 2016, the register included 317 sites, among which forty-three terraced landscapes can be identified (Figure 7, Table 1). In two cases, terraces were the decisive reason for addition to the register, in seventeen cases they were a very important reason, in twelve cases they were not mentioned at all because other reasons were more important for the entry, and in twelve cases agricultural terraces were not men- tioned but they can be inferred from the descriptions. Among the total of 50 mesoregions, only 18 include protected terraced landscapes. By far the great- est number of registered terraced cultural landscape sites can be found in the Koper Hills (10) and the Sava Hills (8). Among the nine landscape types, they can be found in six, but not on the Mediterranean plateaus and in the Alpine mountains, where terraced landscapes do not exist anyway. Figure 5: The terraced landscape of the Upper Douro (Alto Douro) Wine Region in Portugal. D R A G O K LA D N IK Figure 6: Terraced landscapes as identified in 2016 on the UNESCO World Heritage List (2016), UNESCO Tentative Lists (2016), and Satoyama Initiative (2016). The names of sites fully recognized by UNESCO are given in plain text, sites on the UNESCO Tentative Lists in italics, and sites on the Satoyama Initiative list in underlined italics. p p. 138 Figure 7: Terraced landscapes identified in the Slovenian Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage (Register … 2016). p p. 139 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 139 140 C o n ti n en t P re d o m in an t H ig h li g h te d M ar g in al A fr ic a • K on so C u lt ur al L an ds ca pe • Su ku r C u lt ur al L an ds ca pe – • B as sa ri C ou nt ry : B as sa ri , F u la , a n d B ed ik C u lt ur al L an ds ca pe s P a rc d e s A u rè s a v e c l e s é ta b li ss e m e n ts oa si en s d es g or ge s d u R h ou fi e t d’ E l K an ta ra A si a • C u lt ur al L an ds ca pe o f H on gh e H an i R ic e Te rr ac es • C u lt ur al L an ds ca pe o f B al i P ro vi n ce • R ic e Te rr ac es o f t he P hi lip pi n e C or di lle ra s A R ic e P ad d y C u lt u ra l L an d sc ap e C on se rv at io n i n a n I n d ig en ou s C om m u n it y, T ai w an »M u yo n g in I fu ga o P ro vi n ce , N or th er n L u zo n I sl an d in t h e P h il ip pi n es « T ow n R ev it al iz at io n M ak in g th e M os t of N at u ra l L an d sc ap e an d T ra d it io n s of K an ak u ra W aj im a C it y, I sh ik aw a P re fe ct u re , J ap an • A fl aj I rr ig at io n S ys te m s of O m an • L an d of O liv es a n d V in es – C u lt ur al L an ds ca pe o f S ou th er n Je ru sa le m , B at ti r G on gl ia o– H oh o– T er ra ce d – P ad d y– F ie ld s, T ai w an • R ol e of T ra di ti on al K n ow le dg e in St re n gt he n in g So ci o– E co lo gi ca l P ro du ct io n L an ds ca pe s • Ji bl a an d it s Su rr ou n di n gs , J ab al H ar az D on g P eo pl e’s R ic e– F is h – D u ck Sy m bi ot ic S ys te m i n C h in a E u ro p e • Po rt ov en er e, C in qu e Te rr e, an d th e Is la n ds ( P al m ar ia , T in o, a n d T in et to ) • C u lt ur al L an ds ca pe o f t he Se rr a de T ra m un ta n a • L av au x, V in ey ar d Te rr ac es • W ac ha u C u lt ur al L an ds ca pe • U pp er M id dl e R hi n e V al le y • To ka j W in e R eg io n H is to ri c C u lt ur al L an ds ca pe • N at ur al a n d C u lt ur o– H is to ri ca l R eg io n o f K ot or • A lt o D ou ro W in e R eg io n • M ad ri u– Pe ra fi ta – C la ro r V al le y • T he C au ss es a n d th e C év en n es , M ed it er ra n ea n A gr o– P as to ra l C u lt u r al L an ds ca pe • C os ti er a A m al fi ta n a • V in ey ar d L an ds ca pe of P ie dm on t: L an gh e– R oe ro a n d M on fe rr at o • L an ds ca pe o f t he P ic o Is la n d V in ey ar d C u lt ur e • P ar c n at io n al d es É cr in s N o rt h A m er ic a – – – O ce an ia w it h A u st ra li a – – – S o u th A m er ic a – • H is to ri c Sa n ct ua ry o f M ac hu P ic ch u • Q ue br ad a de H um ah u ac a • Fu er te d e Sa m ai pa ta • Sp ir it ua l a n d Po lit ic al C en tr e of t he T iw an ak u C u lt ur e T h e A yl lu S ys te m o f th e P ot at o P ar k, C u sc o, P er u ••• • • • • Drago Kladnik, Mateja Šmid Hribar, Matjaž Geršič, Terraced landscapes and protected cultural heritage sites 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 140 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 141 0 10 20 30 40 50 km © A nt on M el ik G eo gr ap hi ca l I ns tit ut e ZR C S A ZU So ur ce o f t he ty po lo gy : P er ko , H rv at in a nd C ig lič 2 01 5 Le ge nd Si gn i ca nc e of te rr ac es in th e ju st i ca tio n La nd sc ap e ty pe s Pr ed om in an t t yp e H ig hl ig ht ed ty pe M ar gi na l t yp e In di re ct ly id en ti# ed ty pe A lp in e m ou nt ai ns A lp in e hi lls A lp in e pl ai ns D in ar ic v al le ys a nd c or ro sio n pl ai ns D in ar ic p la te au s Pa nn on ia n lo w h ill s Pa nn on ia n pl ai ns M ed ite rr an ea n lo w h ill s M ed ite rr an ea n pl at ea us 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 141 Drago Kladnik, Mateja Šmid Hribar, Matjaž Geršič, Terraced landscapes and protected cultural heritage sites 142 Ta ble 1: Se ttl em en ts in th e S lov en ian Re gis ter of Im m ov ab le Cu ltu ral H eri tag e ( Re gis ter … 20 16 ) f or w hic h t he ju sti fic ati on fo r t he ir p rot ec tio n i nc lud es or im pli es va rio us de gr ee s o f s ign ific an ce of te rra ce s, by Sl ov en ian m es ore gio ns an d l an ds ca pe ty pe s. La nd sca pe La nd sca pe M es ore gio n Pre do m ina nt Hi gh lig ht ed M arg ina l Ind ire ctl y Nu m be r o f c as es / typ e g rou p typ e ide nt ifie d se ttl em en ts wi th te rra ce s M ed ite rra ne an M ed ite rra ne an Ko pe r H ills ( K op rsk a b rd a) Pu če Izo la, Ja go dje , M ov raž , Ko rte , S tru nja n Če nt ur 11 lan ds ca pe s low hi lls Pir an , S eč a, Str un jan , Sv eti Pe ter Vip av a V all ey (V ipa vs ka do lin a) – – – Ze m on o 1 M ed ite rra ne an pl ate au s – – – – – 0 Di na ric Di na ric Go rja nc i H ills (G or jan ci) – Jav oro vic a, Ve lik i C ero ve c – – 2 lan ds ca pe s pla tea us Ka m br eš ko H ills an d B an jši ce Pl ate au – Lo ko ve c – – 1 Kr im H ills ( K rim sk o h rib ov je) – – – Go ren ja Br ez ov ica 1 an d M en iši ja Pla tea u ( M en iši ja) Ko če vje Li ttl e M ou nt ( K oč ev sk a m ala go ra) , – – La ze pr i P red gr ad u – 1 Ko če vje Ro g ( Ko če vs ki ro g) , a nd M ou nt Po lja ne (P olj an sk a g or a) Ra du lja H ills (R ad ulj sk o h rib ov je) – Hm elj čič – – 1 Dr y C arn iol a ( Su ha kr aji na ) a nd Šm ihe l p ri – – – 1 Do br ep olj e K ars t p olj e ( Do br ep olj e) Žu že m be rku Big M ou nt ain ( V eli ka go ra) , M ou nt Sto jna (S to jna ), an d M ou nt G ot en ica (G ot en išk a g or a) – – – Dr ag a 1 Di na ric va lle y s ys tem s Lo we r C arn iol a L ow lan d – Sp od nja Sl ivn ica , M ali Vr h – 3 an d c or ros ion pl ain s (D ole njs ko po do lje ) Te m en ica (n ea r M irn a P eč ) Ve lik e L aš če Re gio n – – Kn ej – 1 (V eli ko laš ča ns ka po kra jin a) 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 142 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 143 Al pin e Al pin e m ou nt ain s – – – – – 0 lan ds ca pe s Al pin e h ills Ce rkn o H ills ( C erk lja ns ko hr ibo vje ), – – – Go ren ja Že tin a, Sp od nje 4 Šk ofj a L ok a H ills (Š ko fje loš ko hr ibo vje ), Da nje , T op olj e, Ve lik e Po lho v G rad ec H ills (P olh og raj sk o h rib ov je) , Gr ah ov še an d R ov te Hi lls (R ov tar sk o h rib ov je) Sa va H ills ( P os av sk o h rib ov je) – Se lo pr i P an ca h, Ga br je pr i J an ča h, Ja vo rje pr i G ab rov ki, 10 Še nt go tar d, Vo lav lje Go lče r, J av or Te pe , V inj e p ri M ora vč ah , Zg or nja Ja vo rši ca Al pin e p lai ns Lju blj an a M ars h ( Lju blj an sk o b arj e) – – Gu m niš če – 1 Sa va Pl ain (S av sk a r av an ) – – – Le še 1 Pa nn on ian Pa nn on ian lo w hil ls Bo č H ill an d M ac elj H ill (B oč in M ac elj ) – – Do na čk a G or a – 1 lan ds ca pe s Kr šk o H ills ( K ršk o g rič ev je) – – – Do len ja va s p ri R ak i 1 Slo ve nia n H ills (S lov en sk e g or ice ) – Je ru za lem – – 1 Pa nn on ian pl ain s – – – – – 0 2 17 10 14 43 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 143 Drago Kladnik, Mateja Šmid Hribar, Matjaž Geršič, Terraced landscapes and protected cultural heritage sites 144 Figure 8: Land surrounding Šmihel pri Žužemberku in Dry Carniola was included in the register precisely because of its well-known terraced landscape. Figure 9: Like all other terraced areas in the Brkini Hills, the land surrounding the village of Ostrožno Brdo has not yet been recognized by conservationists as deserving protection. M AT E V Ž L E N A R Č IČ M AT E V Ž L E N A R Č IČ 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 144 4 Discussion Terraced landscapes account for 22.7% of cultural landscape sites and 2.4% of all sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List (2016), for which the listing is legally binding and is considered a great prestige con- sidering that it has established itself as a successful brand (Erhartič 2014). We determined that the significance of terraces in the justifications for entering individual sites on the list is becoming increasingly more high- lighted. This may have been contributed to by the 2010 adoption of the Honghe Declaration on the Protection and Development of Terraces (Peters and Junchao 2012), which among other things emphasizes the role and significance of intangible heritage, which comes especially to the fore in Third World countries, where collectiveness in work, free time, and rituals is still an important value. In the international Satoyama Initiative (2016) database–which has just begun to be compiled and the main point of which is high-quality and systematic descriptions of the sites included, the protection of which is, however, not legally binding–there is a notable predominance of Asian and African landscapes. Terraced landscapes account for 8.8% of all cultural landscapes described in this database. We determined that in the »cultural landscape« category of the Slovenian Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage (Register … 2016), terraces appear as a protection factor only in 13.7% of cases, and that among the total of 29,893 Slovenian immovable cultural heritage sites terraced landscapes account for only 0.14%. Knowing the actual conditions in the field, it can be arrgued that, despite seemingly suitable coverage of terraced landscapes in Slovenia, the existing range of protected sites included in the register is deficient. In this regard, deficient criteria for the inclusion and the occasionally terminologically deficient descrip- tions in the justifications for the sites’ protection can be established (see, e.g., the description for Jeruzalem, reg. no. 7867; Register … 2016). This points to a considerable lack of awareness and poor identification of terraced landscapes’ values among the responsible experts in the majority of regional units that pre- pare the protection strategy and plans and the expert bases justifying the inclusion of individual sites in the register. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 145 Figure 10: Terracing a slope in Rwanda as part of public works. S A M T H O M P S O N , F LI C K R 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 145 Drago Kladnik, Mateja Šmid Hribar, Matjaž Geršič, Terraced landscapes and protected cultural heritage sites In Slovenia cultural landscapes and terraced landscapes as parts of them have not yet been officially recognized as part of intangible heritage, even though certain practices and skills of cultivating terraced land definitely form part of such heritage (Ažman Momirski et al. 2008). Due to farming organized by fam- ilies in the areas of Slovenian terraced landscapes, we haven’t identified any organization of labor, celebrations, and rituals connected with the cultivation and maintenance of terraces within the wider village commu- nity so far. The Digital Encyclopedia of Slovenian Natural and Cultural Heritage (DEDI, 2016) among the 468 units also includes a description of the terraced landscape in the Upper Gorizia Hills (Zgornja Goriška brda) (Kladnik 2010). Just like any other area in most distinctly terraced Slovenian region of the Gorizia Hills (Goriška brda), the presented site has not yet been officially registered as a cultural heritage site. However, the author believes that considering its significance as a cultural value the site deserves to be protected against the possible deterioration that threatens the demographically endangered northern part of the region. The review of the world and Slovenian heritage lists raises certain questions: which terraced landscapes are worth protecting and why, is their function or external appearance more important, when did they become heritage, in which cases do they deserve to be protected, and so on. Since only selected sites can be protected it is first necessary to inventory various terraced landscapes and create the criteria for their protection. Here (Table 2) we list a few possible criteria that were identified as part of the project Terraced Landscapes in Slovenia as Cultural Values. Table 2: Criteria, identified for evaluating of terraced landscapes in Slovenia. Criteria Type of criteria A large contiguous area of terraced land Spatial The method of terrace construction Spatial and time related The shape of terrace treads Spatial The height of terrace slopes Spatial Time of construction Time-related Planned construction (whether the terraces were planned or created Time-related spontaneously with slope processes caused by man) Rarity Spatial and time related State of conservation Legislative Any other accompanying features – Habitats of endangered plant and animal species Natural/ecological 5 Conclusion Based on the reviews performed, the following findings can be highlighted: • Terraced landscapes and cultivated terraces began to be classified under heritage sites fairly late, or only after a special category of »cultural landscapes« was established in general; • Terraced landscapes are a significantly more important element of protection than is evident from the descriptions because those that protected them did not realize the significance of cultivated terraces, and in Slovenia no uniform criteria were in place then, and still are not; • Intangible aspects of terraced landscapes (e.g., group work, celebrations, rituals, etc.) are already being recognized around the globe, but this does not apply to Slovenia; • In Slovenia, terraced landscapes could start being regarded as a special subtype of cultural landscape that deserves special treatment due to the complexity of treating it effectively. The protection of terraced landscapes must definitely be connected with active survival strategies and the farmers for whom work in a terraced landscape represents an important source of food and an impor- tant level of subsistence or even market surplus production. To achieve all of this, it is necessary to maintain a vital cultural landscape with a sufficient number of people that are able to work and ready to contribute their share to further maintaining an attractive terraced landscape. If this landscape manages to be added to world protection lists, such as the UNESCO World Heritage List, this provides new tourism-based devel- opment prospects, which can generate many new jobs not only in the hospitality sector and accompanying activities, but also in secondary activities on farms. 146 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 146 6 References 11 Incredible Terrace Fields. Internet: http://www.touropia.com/incredible-terrace-fields/ (20. 6. 2016). 17 Tremendous Terraced Rice Fields. Internet: http://www.lovethesepics.com/2011/02/17-tremendous- terraced-rice-fields/ (20. 6. 2016). Amazing satellite images from around the world. Benjamin Grant, Caters News. Internet: http://news.yahoo.com/ photos/amazing-satellite-images-from-around-the-world-slideshow/ (20. 6. 2016). Andlar, G., Šrajer, F., Trojanović, A. 2017: Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: The case of Adriatic Croatia. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4673 Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D., Komac, B., Petek, F., Repolusk, P., Zorn. M. 2008: Terasirana pokrajina Goriški brd. Geografija Slovenije 17. Ljubljana. Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D. 2015: The terraced landscape in the Brkini Hills. Acta geographica Slovenica 55-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS49101 Convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural heritage. UNESCO. Paris, 1972. Internet: http://whc.unesco.org/archive/convention-en.pdf (2. 4. 2016). Cultural Heritage Protection Act. Official Gazette RS 16/2008, 123/2008, 8/2011, 90/2012, 111/2013, 32/16. Ljubljana. Cultural Landscapes. UNESCO. Paris. Internet: http://whc.unesco.org/en/culturallandscape/ (2. 4. 2016). Digital Encyclopedia of Slovenian Natural and Cultural Heritage – DEDI. Internet: http://www.dedi.si (23. 6. 2016) Erhartič, B. 2009: Terase Jeruzalemskih goric kot krajinska vrednota. Pomurje: 20th Congress of Slovenian geographers. Ljutomer, Murska Sobota. Erhartič, B. 2014: Vloga Unesca pri ohranjanju kulturne dediščine. CAPACities 2. Ljubljana. European landscape convention. Council of Europe. Internet: http://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/ full-list/-/conventions/rms/0900001680080621 (23. 6. 2016) Geršič, M., Pipan, P., Repolusk, P., Šmid Hribar, M., Tiran, J., Topole, M. 2016: Vzorčni primeri terasiranih pokrajin. Terasirane pokrajine. Ljubljana. Kladnik, D. 2010: Zgornja Goriška brda. DEDI – digitalna enciklopedija naravne in kulturne dediščine na Slovenskem. Internet: http://www.dedi.si/dediscina/86-zgornja-goriska-brda (23. 6. 2016). Kladnik, D. 2016a: Terasirane pokrajine in Honghejska deklaracija. Terasirane pokrajine. Ljubljana. Kladnik, D. 2016b: Terasirane pokrajine v Sloveniji. Terasirane pokrajine. Ljubljana. Kobori, H., Primack, R. B. 2003: Participatory Conservation Approaches for Satoyama, the Traditional Forest and Agricultural Landscape of Japan. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment 32- 4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-32.4.307 Komac, B., Zorn, M. 2008: Plazovitost Goriških brd. Terasirana pokrajina Goriških brd. Geografija Slovenije 17. Ljubljana. Nature Conservation Act. Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia 96/2004, 61/2006, 63/2007, 32/2008, 8/2010, 46/14. Ljubljana. Operational guidelines for the implementation of the World Heritage Convention. UNESCO. Paris. Internet: http://whc.unesco.org/archive/opguide12-en.pdf (20. 6. 2016). Paris declaration on the Satoyama Initiative. Internet: http://satoyama-initiative.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/ 2011/09/Paris_Declaration_EN_april2010_revised03_low.pdf (15. 5. 2016). Perko, D., Hrvatin M., Ciglič, R. 2015: A methodology for natural landscape typification of Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 55-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1938 Peters, H. 2015: Disappearing terraces: can international tools support safeguarding terraced landscapes and their traditional knowledge? Peters, A. H., Junchao, S. (eds.) 2012: First terraced landscapes conference (Honghe – China) paper collec- tion. Kunming. II Congreso Internacional de Terrazas: encuentro de culturas y saberes de terrazas del mundo, Cusco, mayo de 2014. Cusco, Lima. Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage. Ministrstvo za kulturo. Ljubljana. Internet: http://giskd6s.situ- la.org/giskd/ (1. 3. 2016). Satoyama Initiative. Case studies. Internet: http://satoyama-initiative.org (22. 3. 2016). Sauer, C. O. 1925: The morphology of landscape. Berkeley. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 147 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 147 Drago Kladnik, Mateja Šmid Hribar, Matjaž Geršič, Terraced landscapes and protected cultural heritage sites Smrekar, A., Polajnar Horvat, K., Erhartič, B. 2016: The beauty of landforms. Acta geographica Slovenica 56-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.3039 Špulerová, J., Dobrovodská, M., Štefunková, D., Kenderessy, P., Izsóff, M. 2017: The features of terraced landscapes in Slovakia. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4674 Tarolli, P., Preti, F., Romano, N. 2014: Terraced landscapes: From an old best practice to a potential hazard for soil degradation due to land abandonment. Anthropocene 6. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.ancene.2014.03.002 Tentative Lists. UNESCO. Paris. Internet: http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/ (6. 5. 2016). The World Heritage List: filling the gaps – an action plan for the future. ICOMOS – International Council on monuments and sites. Paris. Internet: http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/ activity-590-1.pdf (30. 6. 2016). Urbanc, M. 2002: Kulturne pokrajine v Sloveniji. Geografija Slovenije 5. Ljubljana. Varotto, M. 2015: Terraced landscapes of the Alps: Decay, rediscovery, revitalization. II Congreso Internacional de Terrazas: encuentro de culturas y saberes de terrazas del mundo, Cusco, mayo de 2014. Cusco, Lima. World Heritage List. UNESCO. Paris. Internet: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/ (15. 4. 2016). 148 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 148 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017, 149–162 TRANSFORMATION OF THE JERUZALEM HILLS CULTURAL LANDSCAPE WITH MODERN VINEYARD TERRACES Primož Pipan, Žiga Kokalj The dimensions, form, and inclination of terrace platforms and slopes are completely adapted to the terrain, steepness, and lithological and pedological conditions. Terrace access also depends on these. M AT E V Ž L E N A R Č IČ 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 149 Primož Pipan, Žiga Kokalj, Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard terraces Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard terraces DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4629 UDC: 911.53:631.613(497.412) COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT: The terraced landscape in the Jeruzalem Hills is the result of specific socioeconomic condi- tions under communism, and now its appearance is drastically changing for the second time in the last fifty years. This article examines the creation of the new landscape layer of modern cultivated terraces and studies their disappearance and the return to a condition similar to the original state. The analysis is based on interviews and visual interpretation of aerial laser scanning (lidar) data. It focuses on the state of the landscape before terracing, the creation of terraces and formation of a terraced landscape, and its most recent transformation into slopes without terraces. It is determined that, despite the recognized aesthet- ic value of terraces, legal protection in the form of a nature park has not impacted their preservation because 56% of them have already been leveled. With the conversion of vineyards to vertical plantations, a new challenge is arising: increased erosion. KEY WORDS: geography, terraces, terraced landscape, transformation of cultural landscape, visual inter- pretation of lidar, Jeruzalem Hills, Slovenia The article was submitted for publication on July 19th, 2016. ADDRESSES: Primož Pipan, Ph.D. Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana E-mail: primoz.pipan@zrc-sazu.si Žiga Kokalj, Ph.D. Institute of Anthropological and Spatial Studies Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Novi trg 2, SI – 1000 Ljubljana E-mail: ziga.kokalj@zrc-sazu.si 150 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 150 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 151 1 Introduction The abandonment of farming on traditional agricultural terraces that were created for manual cultivation and are thus less suitable for mechanical cultivation is connected with migration to urban areas. At the global level, terraced landscapes with permanently abandoned terraces are especially common in the Andes in South America (Guillet et al. 1987; Denevan 1988; Goodman Elgar 2008) and in the European Mediterranean area (García-Ruiz and Lana-Renault 2011; Stanchi et al. 2012; Lasanta et al. 2013). In tra- ditional terraced landscapes there is no need to build new terraces because enough abandoned ones are available (Kendall 2012). There are also examples of construction of modern terraces. Near the Kenyan town of Machakos, many terraces have been created since the mid-1980s, so that now approximately 70% of the cultivatable land is terraced (Thornton 1999). In Europe, newly terraced areas include the countryside around Kaiserstuhl, Germany. Because of the exceptionally erosion-prone soil, after 1950 it was necessary to terrace the slopes for intensive vineyard and orchard cultivation. When this was done, they were also adapted to mechani- cal cultivation (Kladnik et al. 2016). In Slovenia, the first detailed analyses of cultivated terraces are relatively new. Ažman Momirski et al. (2008) studied the Gorizia Hills in detail, and Ažman Momirski and Kladnik (2015) presented the terraced land- scape in the Brkini Hills. Terracing across all of Slovenia was studied by Ažman Momirski and Kladnik (2009), Križaj Smrdel (2010), and Kladnik et al. (2016). The creation of the modern cultivated terraces in the Jeruzalem Hills, which are part of the Slovenian Hills, is connected with the development of viticulture. In comparison with other agricultural terraces in Slovenia, these are among the newest because they started being created only fifty years ago, under the communist social arrangement, when agricultural production there was oriented toward collective farms. None of the detailed regional descriptions of the Slovenian Hills (Belec 1968; Luskovič and Sakelšek 1994; Kert 1998), studies focusing on viticulture (Bračič 1976; Ramšak 1996; Karba 2001; Simonič Roškar 2003), Figure 1: Terraces with individual rows of vineyards on the south and east slope below Our Lady of Sorrows Church in Jeruzalem. B O JA N E R H A R T IČ 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 151 Primož Pipan, Žiga Kokalj, Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard terraces 152 or articles about the history of the former collective farms (Oblak 2005) and land use (Žiberna 2015) have dealt in detail with the creation of the modern cultivated terraces there, nor with their transformation fol- lowing denationalization, which started when Slovenia became independent in 1991. The area near the settlement of Vinski Vrh was mentioned with regard to the conversion of terraced vineyards back into ver- tical vineyards only by Urbanc (2002), and Erhartič (2009) evaluated the Jeruzalem terraces only from the aesthetic point of view (Figure 1). This article provides an overview of the history of how the modern cultivated terraces were created in the Jeruzalem Hills, and it sheds light on their disappearance through the unplanned change of the ter- raced landscape into a state similar to its original configuration. 2 Methods The study area was limited to Ljutomer Ponds–Jeruzalem Hills Nature Park (Odlok … 1976), which lies in the Municipality of Ljutomer and covers 1,346 hectares, and the neighboring Jeruzalem–Ormož Hills Nature Park (Odlok … 1992), which lies in the Municipality of Ormož and covers 1,911 hectares. No research has previously dealt with this topic, and so we made use of fieldwork based on observa- tions and four structured interviews that we carried out in the Jeruzalem Hills area with two local residents that own terraced land and with two non-owners. The questionnaire for owners contained twenty-two questions about the influence of terraces on the settlement, and their use, significance, and preservation. The non-owners were asked about the same issues, but questions about cultivating and maintaining the terraces were omitted. Two non-structured interviews were also carried out with the managers of a former 0 50 m Authors: Žiga Kokalj and Primož Pipan Data source: ARSO 2016 © ZRC SAZU 2016 Figure 2: Lidar data make it possible to map existing terraces in detail (lower left, upper middle), including those being overgrown (upper right), and determination of the former presence of terraces where they can hardly be seen (center). 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 152 collective farm, and information was also obtained from two experts in cultural heritage and local history. The audio recordings and transcribed interviews are kept at the Archives of the ZRC SAZU Anton Melik Geographical Institute. The areas of the current and potentially greatest extent of modern cultivated terraces were determined through visual interpretation of information from aerial laser scanning (lidar) data, which was acquired between March 31st and June 10th, 2014 as part of the project Laser Scanning of Slovenia. The original point cloud has a sufficient density of ground points (3.0 points/m² without repeated points) so that it was pos- sible to rasterize it into an elevation model with a spatial resolution of 0.5 m and prepare an overview presentation with a combination of techniques of openness, sky-view factor, slope, and analytical hillshading (Figure 2). Such a presentation makes it possible to identify landforms, to separate between natural and anthropogenic landforms (Breg Valjavec 2014) and draw conclusions about their preservation regardless of the direction that they extend in (Kokalj, Zakšek and Oštir 2011). The pits in the terrain model (black dots in Figures 2 and 7) are a result of errors in the original data and they have not been removed. Because of the great correspondence between the extent of existing and removed modern agricultural terraces and the areas of current vineyards, the graphic extent of vineyards from Actual Use of Agricultural Land (Dejanska … 2012) was used for the initial stage of digitization. Based on the lidar data and recent orthophotos, the areas were then corrected, some were removed and new ones were added, and they were categorized among areas with modern terraces that still exist or potential former terrace areas (Figure 6). Determining existing terraces using lidar data is not difficult because even overgrown or damaged ter- races are clearly visible (Figures 2, 7B, 7D). Delimiting leveled terrace areas is significantly more difficult and was based on the information on the general geomorphological configuration of the terrain, land use, proximity of terraces still preserved, and ratio between preserved terraces, potential areas of leveled terraces, and their current use. For exam- ple, slopes that are covered by woods and have no visible terraces today were not categorized among potentially leveled land because it was concluded that the financial outlay for leveling a terrace would have been too great to simply allow it to become overgrown soon thereafter. The areas marked on the Vineyard Location Map at the Ljutomer Parish Archive were examined in detail. Potentially leveled areas were also checked on aerial orthophotos from 1997, which are already available for this period in digital form. It was antic- ipated that they predate the beginning of the most intensive leveling of terraces. 3 Terracing the landscape This section analyzes the construction of modern vineyard terraces as a new landscape layer in the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape. It focuses on the situation before terracing, the process of creating terraces, and the most recent transformation of the terraced landscape into slopes without terraces. The section is based on the authors’ own work, especially on visual interpretation of aerial laser scanning (lidar) data and inter- views. 3.1 The landscape before terracing The traditional division of the land into vineyards varied and was primarily adapted to the terrain, which man had little influence on until the modern creation of terraced vineyards. Vineyards that were accessi- ble only for manual labor had narrow boundaries between them adapted to the inclination and individual drainage ditches for precipitation. Each vineyard tended to make the greatest use of available land, which meant not only the optimum number of grapevines planted, but also the best use of water, sun, accessi- bility, traversability, and ease of manual cultivation. Only old illustrations make it possible to form an idea of the variety of what were in fact vertical plantations of vines, but which today one would hardly term as such based on their appearance (Pavličič 2016). Belec (1968, 168) refers to them as »traditional staked vine- yards« (Figure 3) because each vine was tied to its own stake and not connected to others with a wire support and did not form rows, so that such a vineyard differed significantly from a modern vertical vineyard, in which the vines are planted in rows with wire supports (Figure 5). Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 153 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 153 Primož Pipan, Žiga Kokalj, Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard terraces 154 3.2 Transforming the landscape by creating terraces After 1945, the former vineyard workforce sought more long-term and better-paid employment in indus- trialized towns. In the spirit of communist policy, factories were also built in Ljutomer, which had had an agrarian character until then, and they employed several thousand people until Slovenian independence in 1991. After the Second World War, many reforms transformed viticulture into an activity of small pri- vate vineyard owners and large viticultural cooperatives (Pavličič 2016). In Jeruzalem there was a border between two collective farms because the vineyards north of the church belonged to what later became the Ljutomer Viticultural and Livestock Collective Farm (VŽK Ljutomer) and those south of it belonged to what became the Ormož-based Jeruzalem–Ormož Collective Farm. The amalgamation of viticultural activity with regard to estates, wineries, and wine sales made a new approach possible, the most promi- nent aspect of which was terracing the slopes. Two decisive factors for terracing were the lack of a labor force for manual cultivation and the limi- tation of agricultural mechanization at the time, which was still unable to be used on steep slopes. Thus the relatively steep slopes had to be adapted to the capacities of the machinery at that time and reshaped into terraces. Štrakl and Žličar (2016) describe in detail the beginnings of creating the terraces. VŽK Ljutomer start- ed preparations for terracing vineyards in 1960, when Yugoslavia was promoting agricultural development with extremely favorable bank loans; the condition for receiving a loan for the Ljutomer area was at least sixty-five hectares of territory envisaged for terracing. The expert basis for large-scale terracing was expe- rience from the settlement of Globoka, where a terraced vineyard had already been created before the Second World War, and with vineyards on Vardovščak Hill, where terracing had been used since 1953. Targeted aerial photography was followed by planning at Agrobiro, a Ljubljana company. The engi- neers Sluga and Leonardi designed the plans for terracing the Jeruzalem Hills. They started being put into Figure 3: Around 1960 traditional staked vineyards still stood near the church in Jeruzalem (photographer unknown; kept by the Ljutomer General Library as part of its Local History Collection). 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 154 effect in 1965 in the settlements of Slamnjak, Ilovci, and Železne Dveri, from which the terraces expand- ed toward the south and west, towards Jeruzalem. Because of the loan conditions from the Belgrade bank Poljobanka, the work for this phase of terracing had to be completed by 1969. The processes for consoli- dating the land and the financial part of the terracing were headed by Franc Štrakl, and the terracing at the site by Franc Žličar, both from VŽK Ljutomer. For the initial work at the site, measurements were made by a local surveyor named Mursa. The construction was carried out by the companies Obnova Maribor and Agrotransport Ptuj because VŽK Ljutomer did not have its own machinery for creating terraces. The terrain to be terraced was first leveled, excess vegetation was removed, and hollows and ridges were smoothed out (Figure 4). This was followed by staking out individual terraces; due to microlocation adaptation to soil quality, this did not completely follow the plan in places. Namely, problems with soil creep could occur during plowing, trenching, or leveling depending on the marl or loam content of the soil. The terrain was then worked with deep and heavy plowing, followed by the creation of variously sloped banks and leveling of platforms. An inclination of 2° outwards was ensured with a three-meter batten. Some of the paths between the terraces were also adapted to actual conditions at the site. The situation was sim- ilar for the terrace banks, which were originally intended to have a 45° slope but were increased to as much as 80° in order to avoid losing arable land. Calculations show that the terraced land in VŽK Ljutomer’s production area yielded one-third less per hectare, although individual grapevines produced much more as a result of the introduction of new cul- tivars. The yield was therefore quantitatively greater than before. Similar terracing was carried out by the Jeruzalem–Ormož collective farm (Štrakl and Žličar 2016), only that the terracing was even more intense and continued until the end of the 1980s. All available land, including the former vinedressers’ private gardens, were used to create terraces. In Jeruzalem the terraces therefore extend all the way to the houses at the top of the ridges (Brenholc 2014; Vočanec 2014). Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 155 Figure 4: A bulldozer with equipment for creating terraces; Železne Dveri Mansion in the background (photographer unknown, Ptuj Historical Archives, collection: SI_ZAP/0255 Agrotransport Ptuj 1957–1997, box: 18). 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 155 156 Primož Pipan, Žiga Kokalj, Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard terraces 3.3 The latest transformation of the terraced landscape In the 1990s the appearance of the landscape in the Jeruzalem Hills started fundamentally changing again because of the conversion of terraced vineyards into vertical vineyards. Urbanc (2002, 173) determined that »among the older terraced vineyards there are appearing new or renovated ones with leveled terraces and rows of grapevines running down the slope. This arrangement allows more vines per unit area and makes mechanical cultivation of the vineyard easier.« Modern agricultural mechanization also makes possible the mechanical cultivation of steeper slopes. In comparison to terraces, vertical plantations have up to 60% more vines per unit area, which, in addition to easier and cheaper cultivation, also results in a greater prof- it due to both a more abundant yield and agricultural subsidies (Herga 2014; Prapotnik 2014). Leveling terraces is most intense in Jeruzalem–Ormož Hills Nature Park, where only 190 hectares (or about 33%) of terraces remain from their greatest extent of 570 hectares. In Ljutomer Ponds–Jeruzalem Hills Nature Park, 220 hectares (61%) remain from their greatest extent of 363 hectares. In the southern part of the park, terraces comprise 10% of the land, and in the northern part somewhat more than 16%, whereas at the time of their greatest extent they comprised 30% and 27%, respectively. In the heart of the study area, terracing in the settlement of Jeruzalem is being preserved by the landowners whose vineyards were restored to them through denationalization and by the successors of both collective farms (Šmid Hribar et al. 2017). 4 Discussion The terracing process, and especially the conversion of terraces back into level slopes, which was carried out over the last fifty years, shows that the landscape is dynamic and is constantly changing. Legal pro- tection has no impact on the preservation of cultivated terraces because, based on our measurements, 56% of them have already been leveled in the study area. We feel that that the greatest extent of terraces may Figure 5: Relevelling the slopes with vertical vineyards with wire supports, adapted to modern mechanized farming. Remnants of terraces are visible at the lower left, and terraces were recently removed from the slope in the background. P R IM O Ž P IP A N 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 156 157 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 have been somewhat overestimated because of uncertainty in determining former terraces in certain parts, and so it would be necessary to confirm this through analysis of aerial photos from the period shortly after the terraces were created. It is interesting that the abandonment, but not destruction, of new vineyard terraces Jeruzalem LJUTOMER 0 1 km Authors of map: Žiga Kokalj, Primož Pipan Data source: ARSO 2016, GURS 2013, MKGP 2015 © ZRC SAZU 2016 Existing terraces Potential former terrace area Borders of nature parks Figure 6: A large-scale map of areas where terraces still exist (green) and potential areas of former terraces (yellow). The borders of Ljutomer Ponds–Jeruzalem Hills Nature Park (northern part) and Jeruzalem–Ormož Hills Nature Park (southern part) are also shown. 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 157 158 Primož Pipan, Žiga Kokalj, Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard terraces has also been ascertained in Slovakia (Špulerová et al. 2017). After 1990, 28% of the terraces that had been created in the second half of the twentieth century in the Little Carpathians and in south-central Slovakia on slopes steeper than 6° were abandoned and overgrown. Ten years after the terraces were created, the Municipality of Ljutomer established a nature park in its part of the Jeruzalem Hills, and sixteen years later the same was done by the Municipality of Ormož. Both of these protected areas were established without an expert basis, and today they still do not have a des- ignated manager and exist on paper only. We agree with Erhartič (2009), who argues that both nature parks were established to protect the area from construction of detached homes and vacation houses in attrac- tive locations. Nonetheless, the terraced vineyards have become such an important element of the cultural landscape that it was due to them that the Jeruzalem Hills area has been protected as an exceptional cul- tural landscape (Kladnik, Šmid Hribar and Geršič 2017). The area was registered as unit number 7867 in the national Register of Immovable Cultural Heritage (Register nepremične … 2015) with an establish- ment date of 1996 (Informacijsko … 2016). When the register was revised in 2003, there was a change in protection status for this heritage unit. The category »active protection« was changed to »other,« which in practice means only documentary or archival protection without any active protection measures (Informacijsko … 2016; Štajnbaher 2016). The cultivated terraces in the Jeruzalem Hills are a recent manmade landscape element barely fifty years old. They initially helped people cultivate the steeper-than-average slopes, and now they are also (or pri- marily) valued because of their aesthetic merit. We agree with the opinion of Erhartič et al. that the general value of the landscape beauty (Smrekar, Polajnar Horvat and Erhartič 2016; Smrekar, Zorn and Komac 2016) of vineyard terraces is the main tourism asset for the Jeruzalem Hills (Erhartič 2009). The vineyard terraces of the Jeruzalem Hills are among the main photo motifs used by the Slovenian tourism industry in many of its media campaigns to market Slovenia as a tourism destination. The pro- file of the Jeruzalem Hills has been enhanced precisely because of its terraces, which have become a synonym for terraced vineyards. Consequently, this area is difficult to imagine without them. Similarly to what Šmid Hribar and Ledinek Lozej (2013) determine for cultural values in Črni Vrh, we believe that in terms of cultural heritage the development potential of modern cultivated terraces can be turned into a success- ful product through a combination of knowledge, political will, and capable people. This is reflected, for example, in the designation of wine because in 2003 one of the wine producers used the name Terase (Terraces) for a blend of four varieties (Sauvignon, Riesling, Welschriesling, and Chardonnay). It is inter- esting that a wine was named after vineyard terraces in a time when these terraces have already started being leveled. According to the interviewees, the main reasons for removing the terraces – in addition to modern agricultural mechanization, which also makes it possible to cultivate steep slopes – are denationalization and inheritance, together with the division of land connected with this. If there are several denational- ization or inheritance beneficiaries, the division is simpler if the terraces are leveled because an individual parcel can be divided into several new ones. Vertical vineyards are generally planted on them because the new parcels are too narrow to set up functional terraces. In rare cases of division of terraced vineyards, the beneficiaries have divided individual terraces between themselves so that they could each cultivate their own. Terraces are also leveled in order to increase yields and the profit connected with this. According to the informants, the attractiveness of vineyard terraces is also recognized by those that leveled their for- mer terraced vineyards and converted them into vertical plantations. With the conversion of terraces into vertical vineyards, new challenges arose connected with increased erosion risk (Figures 7A, 7B, and 7C). There was even a case of a new owner creating completely new ter- races on a slope where there had never been a vineyard in the past. Because of a lack of knowledge and experience, he unfortunately created them on unsuitable damp land, and so this soon triggered a landslip (Brenholc 2014; Vočanec 2014; Figure 7D). Modern vertical vineyards are a new layer in the cultural landscape because this is not a return to the original configuration, before terraces were created, but a new layer on the palimpsest of the Jeruzalem Hills (Komac 2009). Namely, traditional staked vineyards (Figure 3) were characterized by a completely different arrangement of individual grapevines and drainage ditches on the slope, and by manual culti- vation of the soil. Even though Antrop (2005) classifies the landscape of the Jeruzalem Hills among new European postmodern landscapes, its appearance is already fundamentally changing for a second time in 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 158 half a century. The fact that, from the perspective of the traditional landscape these recent terraces are becom- ing an object of aesthetic valuation of landscape forms, despite their current disappearance, is confirmed by the findings of Urbanc et al. (2004) that preserved visible landscape elements in new circumstances can acquire new meaning for future generations. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 159 BA 0 50 m Authors of maps: Žiga Kokalj, Primož Pipan Data source: ARSO 2016 © ZRC SAZU 2016 DC Figure 7: The removal and insufficient maintenance of terraces accelerates erosion processes such as landslides, landslips, and soil erosion, which also occur on terraced slopes. 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 159 Primož Pipan, Žiga Kokalj, Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard terraces 5 Conclusion The creation of modern cultivated terraces in the Jeruzalem Hills goes back to the communist social order, which made it possible to concentrate land in two collective farms through the nationalization of farm- land. The creation of this layer of the cultural landscape lasted for a quarter century – from 1965 to 1991. The extent of modern cultivated terraces was at its greatest before the transition from communism to a mar- ket economy. This is a very brief layer that has nonetheless left a very striking aesthetic impression in the landscape. This terraced landscape, which was created at a certain point in time due to a need for greater func- tionality, went beyond this during its quarter century of existence and also became important because of its aesthetic value. The aesthetic aspect became more important especially after the collapse of commu- nism, when people had become used to its new appearance after a quarter century. Because of their outstanding aesthetic value, the terraces in the Jeruzalem Hills were also recognized by the state as worthy of protection. After the collapse of communism and the subsequent denationaliza- tion of collective farms and the restitution of farmland to its former owners, the erasure of this landscape layer of modern cultivated terraces began. Nowadays, the appearance of the landscape is drastically chang- ing for the second time in the past fifty years. Market forces and processes have already deconstructed over half of the terraced landscape, and this trend is still continuing. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The authors would like to thank Srečko Pavličič from the Ljutomer General Library and to Anton Luskovič from Kog, director of the former Ljutomer–Ormož Collective Farm, for pro- viding valuable information. 6 References Antrop, M. 2005: Why landscapes of the past are important for the future? Landscape and Urban Planning 70-1/2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2003.10.002 Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D., Komac, B., Petek, F., Repolusk, P., Zorn, M. 2008: Terasirana pokrajna Goriških brd. Geografija Slovenije 17. Ljubljana. Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D. 2009: Terraced landscapes in Slovenia. Acta geographica Slovenica 49-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS49101 Ažman Momirski, L., Kladnik, D. 2015: The terraced landscape in the Brkini Hills. Acta geographica Slovenica 55-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1627 Belec, B. 1968: Ljutomersko Ormoške gorice. Maribor. Bračič, V. 1976: Viničarstvo. Gorice in vino. Ptuj. Brenholc, V. 2014: Vincenc Brenholc, Jeruzalem (p.c.: 3. 4. 2014). Breg Valjavec, M. 2014. Detection of former landfills in gravel plain using geomorphometric analysis and High-Resolution LiDAR DTM. Acta geographica Slovenica 54-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/ AGS54106 Dejanska raba kmetijskih zemljišč. Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in prehrano Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana, 2012. Denevan, W. M. 1988: Measurement of abandoned terracing from air photos: Colca Valley, Peru. Yearbook, Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers 14. Austin. Erhartič, B. 2009: Terase Jeruzalemskih goric kot krajinska vrednota, Pomurje – Trajnostni regionalni razvoj ob reki Muri, 20. zborovanje slovenskih geografov. Ljubljana, Murska Sobota. García-Ruiz, J. M., Lana-Renault, N. 2011: Hydrological and erosive consequences of farmland abandonment in Europe, with special reference to the Mediterranean region: A review. Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment 140-3/4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2011.01.003 Goodman Elgar, M. 2008: Evaluating soil resilience in long-term cultivation: a study of pre-Columbian terraces from the Paca Valley, Peru. Journal of Archaeological Science 35-12. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/J.JAS.2008.06.003 160 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 160 Guillet, D., Browman, D. L., D’Altroy, T. N., Hunt, R. C., Knapp, G. W., Lynch, T. F., Mitchell, W. P., Oliver- Smith, A., Parsons, J. R., Quilter, J., Sherbondy, J. E.,Treacy, J. 1987: Terracing and Irrigation in the Peruvian Highlands. Current Antrophology 28-4. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/203546 Herga, M. 2014: Mitja Herga, manager of the companies Puklavec & Friends Jeruzalem Ormož in Puklavec & Friends Jeruzalem Ljutomer (p.c.: 2. 4. 2014). Informacijsko dokumentacijski center za dediščino. Direktorat za kulturno dediščino. Ministrstvo za kul- turo (1. 7. 2016). Karba, K. 2001: Viničarstvo na Kogu. Zgodovinski listi 10-1. Kendall, A. 2012: The importance and implications of the pre-hispanic terrace systems in the highlands of Peru: A way to food support and adaptation to climate changes. First terraced landscapes conference (Honghe – China). Kunming. Kert, B. 1998: Slovenske gorice. Slovenija – pokrajine in ljudje. Ljubljana. Kladnik, D., Perko, D. (ed.), Ciglič, R. (ed.), Geršič, M. (ed.) 2016: Terasirane pokrajine. Ljubljana. Kladnik, D., Šmid Hribar, M., Geršič, M. 2017: Terraced landscapes as protected cultural heritage sites. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4628 Kokalj, Ž., Zakšek, K., Oštir, K. 2011: Application of sky-view factor for the visualization of historic land- scape features in lidar-derived relief models. Antiquity 85-327. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ S0003598X00067594 Komac, B. 2009: Social memory and geographical memory of natural disasters. Acta Geographica Slovenica 49-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS49107 Križaj Smrdel, H. 2010: Kulturne terase v slovenskih pokrajinah. Dela 34. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/ dela.34.3.39-60 Lasanta, T., Arnaéz, J., Ruiz Flaño, P., Lana-Renault Monreal, N. 2013: Agricultural terraces in the Spanish mountains: an abandoned landscape and a potential resource. Boletín de la Asociación de Geógrafos Españoles 63. Luskovič, T., Sakelšek, C. 1994: Ljutomersko-Ormoške gorice. Vodnik po slovenskih vinorodnih okoliših. Ljubljana. Oblak, B. 2005: Nastanek in razvoj Kmetijskega kombinata Jeruzalem Ormož do združitve s Slovinom. Ormož skozi stoletja 5. Ormož. Odlok o razglasitvi in zavarovanju naravnih območij in spomenikov narave na območju občine Ljutomer. Uradne objave 14. Ljutomer, 1976. Odlok o razglasitvi naravnih znamenitosti v občini Ormož. Uradni vestnik občin Ormož in Ptuj 37. Ptuj, 1992. Pavličič, S. 2016: Srečko Pavličič, head librarian at the Ljutomer General Library (p.c.: 6. 1. 2016). Prapotnik, S. 2014: Slavko Prapotnik, Kog (p.c.: 3. 4. 2014). Ramšak, M. 1996: Življenjski pogoji viničarjev v Svečinskih goricah pred 2. svetovno vojno. Etnolog 6. Register nepremične kulturne dediščine. Ministrstvo za kulturo. Ljubljana. Internet: http://giskd6s.situla.org/ giskd/ (1. 3. 2015). Simonič Roškar, M. 2003: Viničarstvo v Halozah in Slovenskih goricah v drugi polovici 19. stol. do prenehanja viničarstva v letih po koncu druge svetovne vojne. Zbornik Pokrajinskega muzeja Ptuj 1. Smrekar, A., Polajnar Horvat, K., Erhartič, B. 2016: The beauty of landforms. Acta geographica Slovenica 56-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.3039 Smrekar, A., Zorn, M., Komac, B. 2016: Bojan Erhartič’s contribution to geography. Acta geographica Slovenica 56-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.3633 Stanchi, S., Freppaz, M., Agnelli, A., Reinsch, T., Zanini, E. 2012: Properties, best management practices and conservation of terraced soils in Southern Europe (from Mediterranean areas to the Alps): A review. Quaternary International 265. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.015 Šmid Hribar, M., Geršič, M., Pipan, P., Repolusk, P., Tiran, J., Topole, M., Ciglič, R. 2017: Cultivated ter- races in Slovenian landscapes. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4597 Šmid Hribar, M., Ledinek Lozej, Š. 2013: The role of identifying and managing cultural values in rural devel- opment. Acta Geographica Slovenica 53-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS53402 Špulerová, J., Dobrovodská, M., Štefunková, D., Kenderessy, P., Izsóff, M. 2017: Terraced landscapes in Slovakia. Acta geographica Slovenica 57-2. DOI: https//dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.4674 Štajnbaher, S. 2016: head of the Maribor branch office of the Slovenian Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage (Območna enota Maribor Zavoda za varstvo kulturne dediščine Slovenije) (p.c.: 1. 7. 2016). Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 161 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 161 Primož Pipan, Žiga Kokalj, Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard terraces Štrakl, F., Žličar, F. 2016: Franc Štrakl in Franc Žličar, managers of the former company VŽK Ljutomer (p.c.: 6. 1. 2016). Thornton, J. 1999: Sourcebook of alternative technologies for freshwater augmentation in Africa. Internet: http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/TechPublications/TechPub-8a/ (5. 5. 2016). Urbanc, M. 2002: Kulturne pokrajine v Sloveniji. Geografija Slovenije 5. Ljubljana. Urbanc, M., Printsmann, A., Palang, H., Skowronek, E., Woloszyn, W., Konkoly Gyuró, É. 2004: Comprehension of rapidly transforming landscapes of Central and Eastern Europe in the 20th century = Razumevanje hitro spreminjajočih se pokrajin v sreednji in vzhodni Evropi v 20. stoletju. Acta geographica Slovenica 44-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS44204 Vočanec, J. 2014: Janko Vočanec, Jeruzalem (p.c.: 3. 4. 2014). Žiberna, I. 2015: Spreminjanje rabe tal v Vzhodnih Ljutomersko-Ormoških goricah v obdobju 2000–2015 v povezavi z izbranimi fizično geografskimi značilnostmi. Revija za geografijo 10-2. 162 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 162 Guidelines for contributing authors in Acta geographica Slovenica EDITORIAL POLICIES 1 Focus and scope The Slovenian geographical journal Acta geographica Slovenica (print version: ISSN: 1581-6613, digital ver- sion: ISSN: 1581-8314) is published by the Anton Melik Geographical Institute of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Research Center. Acta geographica Slovenica publishes original research papers from all fields of geography and related disciplines, and provides a forum for discussing new aspects of theory, methods, issues, and research find- ings, especially in central and southeast Europe. We accept original research papers and review papers. Papers presenting new developments and innovative methods in geography are welcome. Submissions should address current research gaps and explore state-of-the-art issues. Research based on case studies should have the added value of transnational comparison and should be integrated into established or new theoretical and conceptual frameworks. The target readership is researchers, policymakers, and university students studying or applying geog- raphy at various levels. Submissions are accepted in English or Slovenian. The journal is indexed in the following bibliographic databases: SCIE (Science Citation Index Expanded), Scopus, JCR (Journal Citation Report, Science Edition), ERIH PLUS, GEOBASE Journals, Current Geographical Publications, EBSCOhost, Geoscience e-Journals, Georef, FRANCIS, SJR (SCImago Journal & Country Rank), OCLC WorldCat, and Google Scholar. The journal’s publisher is a member of CrossRef. 2 Types of articles Unsolicited or invited original research papers and review papers are accepted. papers and materials or sections of them should not have been previously published elsewhere. The papers should cover subjects of current interest within the journal’s scope. 3 Special issues The journal also publishes special issues (thematic supplements). Special issues usually consist of invited papers and present a special topic, with an introduction by the (guest) editors. The introduction briefly presents the topic, summarizes the papers, and provides important implications. 4 Peer-review process All papers are examined by the editor-in-chief. This includes fact-checking the content, spelling and gram- mar, writing style, and figures. Papers that appear to be plagiarized, are ghost-written, have been published elsewhere, are outside the scope of journal, or are of little interest to readers of Acta geographica Slovenica may be rejected. If the article exceeds the maximum length, the author(s) must correct this before the article is reviewed. The paper is then sent to responsible editors, who check the relevance, significance, originality, clarity, and quality of the paper. If accepted for consideration, the papers are then sent to peer reviewer(s) for double-blind review. Paper are rejected or accepted based on the peer reviews and editorial board’s decision. 5 Publication frequency Acta geographica Slovenica is published twice a year. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 163 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 163 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 6 Open-access policy This journal provides immediate free open access to its content and supports greater global exchange of knowledge by making research freely available. The papers in Acta geographica Slovenica and its prede- cessors Acta geographica / Geografski zbornik and Geographica Slovenica are available online free of charge. The author(s) receive a free print copy. The journal’s publication ethics and publication malpractice statement is available online, as well as information on subscriptions and prices for print copies. AUTHOR GUIDELINES Before submitting a paper, please read the details on the journal’s focus and scope, peer-review process, pub- lication frequency, history, and open-access policy. This information is available in the editorial policies. 1 The articles Research papers must be prepared using the journal’s template and contain the following elements: – Title: this should be clear, short, and simple. – Information about author(s): submit names (without academic titles), institutions, and e-mail address- es through the online submission system. – Abstract: introduce the topic clearly so that readers can relate it to other work by presenting the back- ground, why the topic was selected, how it was studied, and what was discovered. It should contain one or two sentences about each section (introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions). The maximum length is 800 characters including spaces. – Key words: include up to seven informative key words. Start with the research field and end with the place and country. – Main text: limit the text of the paper to 20,000 characters including spaces and without the reference list, and tables. Do not use footnotes or endnotes. Divide the paper into sections with short, clear titles marked with numbers without final dots: 1 Section title. Use only one level of subsections: 1.1 Subsection title. Research papers should have the following structure: • Introduction: present the background of the research problem (trends and new perspectives), state of the art (current international discussion in the field), research gap, motivation, aim, and research questions. • Methods: describe the study area, equipment, tools, models, programs, data collection, and analysis, define the variables, and justify the methods. • Results: follow the research questions as presented in the introduction and briefly present the results. • Discussion: interpret the results, generalize from them, and present related broader principles and relationships between the study and previous research. Critically assess the methods and their lim- itations, and discuss important implications of the results. Clarify unexpected results or lacking correlations. • Conclusion: present the main implications of the findings, your interpretations, and unresolved ques- tions, offering a short take-home message. Review papers (narratives, best-practice examples, systematic approaches, etc.) should have the follow- ing structure: • Introduction: include 1) the background; 2) the problem: trends, new perspectives, gaps, and conflicts; and 3) the motivation/justification. • Material and methods: provide information such as data sources (e.g., bibliographic databases), search terms and search strategies, selection criteria (inclusion/exclusion of studies), the number of studies screened and included, and statistical methods of meta-analysis. 164 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 164 • Literature review: use subheadings to indicate the content of the various subsections. Possible struc- ture: methodological approaches, models or theories, extent of support for a given thesis, studies that agree with one another versus studies that disagree, chronological order, and geographical location. • Conclusions: provide implications of the findings and your interpretations (separate from facts), iden- tify unresolved questions, summarize, and draw conclusions. – Acknowledgement: use when relevant. – Reference list: see the guidelines below. 2 Article submission 2.1 Open journal system Author(s) must submit their contributions through the Acta geographica Slovenica Open Journal System (OJS) using the Word document template. Enter all necessary information into the OJS. Any addition, deletion, or rearrangement of names of the author(s) in the authorship list should be made and confirmed by all coauthors before the manuscript has been accepted, and is only possible if approved by the journal editor. To make anonymous peer review possible, the paper text and figures should not include names of author(s). Do not use contractions or excessive abbreviations. Use plain text, with sparing use of bold and italics. Do not use auto-formatting, such as section or list numbering and bullets. If a text is unsatisfactory, the editorial board may return it to the author(s) for professional copyediting or reject the paper. See the section on the peer-review process for details. Author(s) may suggest reviewers when submitting a paper. 2.2 Language Papers are published in English. Papers are submitted in English or Slovenian and copyedited/translated after acceptance by a profes- sional chosen by the editorial board. The translation or copyediting costs are borne by the author(s) (translation €500, copyediting €200) and must be paid before layout editing. All papers should have English and Slovenian abstracts. 2.3 Supplementary file submission Supplementary files (figures) can be submitted to the OJS packed in one zip file not exceeding 50 MB. 2.4 Submission date The journal publishes the submission date of papers. Please contact the editor, Blaž Komac, with any questions. 3 Citations Examples for citing publications are given below. Using “gray literature” is highly discouraged. 3.1 Citing articles • Fridl, J., Urbanc, M., Pipan, P. 2009: The importance of teachers’ perception of space in education. Acta geographica Slovenica 49-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS49205 • Perko, D. 1998: The regionalization of Slovenia. Geografski zbornik 38. • Gams, I. 1994a: Types of contact karst. Geografia fisica e dinamica quaternaria 17. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 165 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 165 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 • Gams, I. 1994b: Changes of the Triglav glacier in the 1955-94 period in the light of climatic indicators. Geografski zbornik 34. • de Kerk, G. V., Manuel, A. R. 2008: A comprehensive index for a sustainable society: The SSI – the Sustainable Society Index. Ecological Economics 66-2,3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.01.029 • van Hall, R. L., Cammeraat, L. H., Keesstra, S. D., Zorn, M. 2016: Impact of secondary vegetation suc- cession on soil quality in a humid Mediterranean landscape. Catena, In press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.catena.2016.05.021 (25. 11. 2016). 3.2 Citing books • Cohen, J. 1988: Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York. • Nared, J., Razpotnik Visković, N. (eds.) 2014: Managing cultural heritage sites in Southeastern Europe. Ljubljana. • Fridl, J., Kladnik, D., Perko, D., Orožen Adamič, M. (eds.) 1998: Geografski atlas Slovenije. Ljubljana. • Luc, M., Somorowska, U., Szmańda, J. B. (eds.) 2015: Landscape analysis and planning. Heidelberg. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13527-4 3.3 Citing parts of books or proceedings • Zorn, M., Komac, B. 2013: Land degradation. Encyclopedia of Natural Hazards. Dordrecht. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4399-4_207 • Hrvatin, M., Perko, D., Komac, B., Zorn, M. 2006: Slovenia. Soil Erosion in Europe. Chichester. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/0470859202.ch25 • Gams, I. 1987: A contribution to the knowledge of the pattern of walls in the Mediterranean karst: a case study on the N. island Hvar, Yugoslavia. Karst and man, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Human Influence in Karst. Ljubljana. • Komac, B., Zorn, M. 2010: Statistično modeliranje plazovitosti v državnem merilu. Od razumevanja do upravljanja, Naravne nesreče 1. Ljubljana. 3.4 Citing expert reports, theses, and dissertations • Breg Valjavec, M. 2012: Geoinformatic methods for the detection of former waste disposal sites in karstic and nonkarstic regions (case study of dolines and gravel pits). Ph.D. thesis, University of Nova Gorica. Nova Gorica. • Hrvatin, M. 2016: Morfometrične značilnosti površja na različnih kamninah v Sloveniji. Ph.D. thesis, Univerza na Primorskem. Koper. • Holmes, R. L., Adams, R. K., Fritts, H. C. 1986: Tree-ring chronologies of North America: California, Eastern Oregon and Northern Great Basin with procedures used in the chronology development work including user manual for computer program COFECHA and ARSTAN. Chronology Series 6. University of Arizona, Laboratory of tree-ring research. Tucson. • Šifrer, M. 1997: Površje v Sloveniji. Elaborat, Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU. Ljubljana. 3.5 Citing online material with authors and titles • Bender, O., Borsdorf, A., Heinrich, K. 2010: The interactive alpine information system GALPIS. Challenges for mountain regions, Tackling complexity. Internet: http://www.mountainresearch.at/images/Publikationen/ Sonderband/bender-borsdorf-heinrich.pdf (4. 8. 2014). 3.6 Citing online material without authors • Internet: http://giam.zrc-sazu.si (18. 11. 2016). • Internet 1: http://giam.zrc-sazu.si/ (22. 7. 2012). • Internet 2: http://ags.zrc-sazu.si (23. 7. 2012). 166 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 166 3.7 Citing sources without authors • WCED – World commission on environmental and development: Our common future – Brundtland report. Oxford, 1987. • Popis prebivalstva, gospodinjstev, stanovanj in kmečkih gospodarstev v Republiki Sloveniji, 1991 – končni podatki. Zavod Republike Slovenije za statistiko. Ljubljana, 1993. 3.8 Citing cartographic sources • Državna topografska karta Republike Slovenije 1 :25.000, list Brežice. Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana, 1998. • Franciscejski kataster za Kranjsko, k. o. Sv. Agata, list A02. Arhiv Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana, 1823–1869. • Buser, S. 1986: Osnovna geološka karta SFRJ 1 : 100.000, list Tolmin in Videm (Udine). Savezni geološki zavod. Beograd. • The vegetation map of forest communities of Slovenia 1 : 400,000. Biološki inštitut Jovana Hadžija ZRC SAZU. Ljubljana, 2002. • Digitalni model višin 12,5. Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana, 2005. 3.9 Citing official gazettes • Zakon o kmetijskih zemljiščih. Uradni list Republike Slovenije 59/1996. Ljubljana. • Zakon o varstvu pred naravnimi in drugimi nesrečami. Uradni list Republike Slovenije 64/1994, 33/2000, 87/2001, 41/2004, 28/2006 in 51/2006. Ljubljana. • 1999/847/EC: Council Decision of 9 December 1999 establishing a Community action programme in the field of civil protection. Official Journal 327, 21. 12. 1999. 3.10 In-text citations Please ensure that every reference cited in the text is also in the reference list (and vice versa). In-text cita- tions should state the last name of the author(s) and the year, separate individual citations with semicolons, order the quotes according to year, and separate the page information from the name of the author(s) and year information with a comma; for example: (Melik 1955), (Melik, Ilešič and Vrišer 1963; Kokole 1974, 7–8; Gams 1982a; Gams 1982b). For sources with more than three authors, list only the first followed by et al.: (Melik et al. 1956). Cite page numbers only for direct citations: Perko (2016, 25) states: »Hotspots are …« To cite online material with authors, cite the name: (Zorn 2010). To cite online material without authors, cite only Internet fol- lowed by a number: (Internet 2). 3.11 Works cited list Arrange references alphabetically and then chronologically if necessary. Identify more than one reference by the same author(s) in the same year with the letters a, b, c, etc., after the year of publication: (1999a, 1999b). Use this format for indirect citations: (Gunn 2002, cited in Matei et al. 2014). Include the Digital Object Identifier (DOI) in the reference if available. Format the DOI as follows: https://doi.org/… (for example: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1812). 4 Tables and figures Number all tables in the paper uniformly with their own titles. The number and the text are separated by a colon, and the caption ends with a period. Example: Table 1: Number of inhabitants of Ljubljana. Table 2: Changes in average air temperature in Ljubljana (Velkavrh 2009). Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 167 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 167 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 Tables should contain no formatting and should not be too large; it is recommended that tables not exceed one page. Upload figures to the OJS as separate supplementary files in digital form. If the graphic supplements prepared cannot be uploaded using these programs, consult the editorial board in advance. Number all figures (maps, graphs, photographs) in the paper uniformly with their own titles. Example: Figure 1: Location of measurement points along the glacier. All graphic materials must be adapted to the journal’s format. Illustrations should be exactly 134 mm wide (one page) or 64 mm wide (half page, one column), and the height limit is 200 mm. To make anonymous peer review possible, include the name of the author(s) with the title of the illus- tration in the supplementary file metadata, but not in the paper text. Maps should be made in digital vector form with Corel Draw, Adobe Illustrator, or a similar program, espe- cially if they contain text. They can exceptionally be produced in digital raster form with at least 300 dpi resolution, preferably in TIFF or JPG format. For maps made with CorelDraw or Adobe Illustrator, two separate files should be prepared; the original file (.cdr or .ai format) and an image file (.jpg format). For maps made with ArcGIS with raster layers used next to vector layers (e.g., .tif of relief, airborne or satellite image), three files should be submitted: the first with a vector image without transparency togeth- er with a legend and colophon (export in .ai format), the second with a raster background (export in .tif format), and the third with all of the content (vector and raster elements) together showing the final ver- sion of the map (export in .jpg format). Do not print titles on maps; they should appear in a caption. Save colors in CMYK, not in RGB or other formats. Use Times New Roman for the legend (size 8) and colophon (size 6). List the author(s), scale, source, and copyright in the colophon. Write the colophon in English (and Slovenian, if applicable). Example: Scale / merilo: 1 : 1,000,000 Content by / avtor vsebine: Drago Perko Map by / avtorica zemljevida: Jerneja Fridl Source / vir: Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, 2002 © 2005, ZRC SAZU Anton Melik Geographical Institute Graphs should be made in digital form using Excel on separate sheets and accompanied by data. Photos must be in raster format with a resolution of 240 dots per cm or 600 dpi, preferably in .tif or .jpg formats; that is, about 3,200 dots per page width of the journal. Figures containing a screenshot should be prepared at the highest possible screen resolution (Control Panel\All Control Panel Items\Display\Screen Resolution). The figure is made using Print Screen, and the captured screen is pasted to the selected graphic program (e.g., Paint) and saved as .tif. The size of the image or its resolution must not be changed. Examples of appropriate graphic data forms: see the templates of maps in cdr and mxd files for a whole- page map in landscape view and an example of correct file structure for submitting a map made with ESRI ArcGIS. SUBMISSION PREPARATION CHECKLIST As part of the submission process, check your submission’s compliance with the following items. Submissions may be returned to author(s) that do not follow these guidelines. 1. The journal policies have been reviewed. 2. The submission has not been previously published and is not being considered for publication else- where (or an explanation has been provided in comments to the editor). 3. The metadata (title, abstract, key words, full address, etc.) are provided in English and Slovenian, when applicable. 4. The submission is in Microsoft Word format and the document template was used (single-spaced text, 12-point font, no formatting except italics and bold). 168 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 168 5. The manuscript has been checked for spelling and grammar. 6. All figure locations in the text are marked. Figures are not in the text and are provided as supplementary files: cdr, .ai for maps and illustrations; .tif for photographs; xlsx for graphs. 7. Tables are placed in the text at the appropriate place. 8. The reference list was prepared following the guidelines. 9. All references in the reference list are cited in the text, and vice versa. 10. Where available, URLs and DOI numbers for references are provided. 11. Supplementary files are in one .zip file not exceeding 50 MB. 12. I agree for this article to be translated or copyedited at my expense AFTER the article is accepted for publication (see guidelines for details). 13. Permission has been obtained for the use of copyrighted material from other sources, including online sources; see the copyright notice below. 14. The instructions for ensuring a double-blind review have been followed. ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA EDITORIAL REVIEW FORM Acta geographica Slovenica editorial review form 1 The paper is an original scientific one – the paper follows the standard IMRAD scheme and is original and the first presentation of research results with the focus on methods, theoretical aspects or case study.) Yes No 2 The paper's content is suitable for publishing in the AGS journal – the paper is from the field of geog- raphy or related fields of interest, the presented topic is interesting and well presented. In case of negative answer add comments below.) Yes No 3 Editorial notes regarding the paper's content. 4 Length of the paper is acceptable for further processing (20.000 characters including space). If longer, the paper has to be shortened by the author and resubmitted. • The paper has less than 20.000 characters. • The paper has more than 20.000 characters, but less than 25.000. • The paper has more than 25.000 characters. 5 The style and formatting of the paper is according to the AGS guidelines – the paper is prepared in plain text, no other text formatting is used than bold and italic. See the Guidelines of AGS journal for details.) Yes No 6 Notes regarding style and formatting. 7 Citing in the paper is according to the AGS guidelines and style, including DOI identificators. Yes No 8 The reference list is suitable (the author cites previously published papers with similar topic from other relevant scientific journal). Yes, the author cited previously published papers on similar topic. No, the author did not cite previously published papers on similar topic. 9 Scientific language of the paper is appropriate and understandable. Yes No Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 169 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 169 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 10 Supplementary files (ai, cdr, pdf, tif, jpg, xlsx etc.) that were added to the paper are in proper format and resolution (including the introductory photo), maps are prepared according to the AGS Guidelines. (In this step contact the technical editor [rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si] for assistance if needed). • Supplementary files are correct. • Supplementary files are not appropriate and need a major correction. • Some supplementary files need corrections. 11 Describe the possible deficiencies of the supplementary files: 12 DECISION OF THE RESPONSIBLE EDITOR The paper is accepted for further processing and may be sent to the reviewer. The paper is accepted for further processing but needs technical improvements (see notes). The paper is accepted for further processing but its content needs additional improvements (see notes). The paper is not accepted for publication because: • It is more suitable for a specialized journal. • Does not fit the aims and scopes of the AGS journal. • Is not an original scientific paper. • The presentation of the results is poor. • The paper is of very low quality. • The paper has already been published elsewhere. • Other (see comments below). • Other reasons for rejection of the paper. ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA REVIEW FORM 1 RELEVANCE 1a) Are the findings original and the paper is therefore a significant one? yes no partly 1b) Is the paper suitable for the subject focus of the AGS journal? yes no 2 SIGNIFICANCE 2a Does the paper discuss an important problem in geography or related fields? yes no partly 2b Does it bring relevant results for contemporary geography? yes no partly 2c What is the level of the novelty of research presented in the paper? high middle low 170 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 170 3 ORIGINALITY 3a Has the paper been already published or is too similar to work already published? yes no 3b Does the paper discuss a new issue? yes no 3c Are the methods presented sound and adequate? yes no partly 3d Do the presented data support the conclusions? yes no partly 4 CLARITY 4a Is the paper clear, logical and understandable? yes no 4b If necessary, add comments and recommendations to improve the clarity of the title, abstract, keywords, introduction, methods or conclusion: 5 QUALITY 5a Is the paper technically sound? (If no, the author should discuss technical editor [rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si] for assistance.) yes no 5b Does the paper take into account relevant current and past research on the topic? yes no Propose amendments, if no is selected: 5d Is the references list the end of the paper adequate? yes no Propose amendments, if no is selected: 5e Is the quoting in the text appropriate? yes no partly Propose amendments, if no is selected: 5f Which tables are not necessary? 5g Which figures are not necessary? Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 171 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 171 Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 6 COMMENTS OF THE REVIEWER Comments of the reviewer on the contents of the paper: Comments of the reviewer on the methods used in the paper: 7 RECOMMENDATION OF THE REVIEWER TO THE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF My recommendation is: Please rate the paper from 1 [low] to 100 [high]: Personal notes of the reviewer to editor-in-chief. COPYRIGHT NOTICE The Acta geographica Slovenica editorial board and the publisher, the ZRC SAZU Anton Melik Geographical Institute, are committed to ensuring ethics in publication and the quality of published books and jour- nals by following the Acta Geographica Slovenica Publication Ethics and Publication Malpractice Statement. Authors must respect the copyright rules of data owners; for example, the rules of the Slovenian Surveying and Mapping Authority are available at its webpage. For paper sent to Acta geographica Slovenica, authors agree that all moral rights of the authors remain with the authors; material rights to reproduction and distribution in Slovenia and other countries are exclusively ceded to the publisher for no fee, for all time, for all cases, for unlimited editions, and for all media; and mate- rial rights to the paper figures (maps, photos, graphs, etc.) are ceded to the publisher on a non-exclusive basis. Authors allow publication of the paper or its components on the internet. Authors give permission to the publisher to modify the paper to conform to its guidelines, including the length of the paper. Authors shall provide a professional translation of papers not originally in English. The name of the translator must be reported to the editor. No honoraria are paid for papers in Acta geographica Slovenica or for the reviews. The first author of the paper shall receive one free copy of the publication. FAQ Some common questions and answers are available on the journal webpage: ags.zrc-sazu.si. PRIVACY STATEMENT The names and e-mail addresses provided to this journal site will be used exclusively for the stated purposes of this journal and will not be made available for any other purpose or to any other party. PUBLISHER Anton Melik Geographical Institute Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts PO Box 306 SI–1001 Ljubljana Slovenia SOURCES OF SUPPORT Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Slovenian Research Agency 172 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 172 JOURNAL HISTORY Acta geographica Slovenica (print version: ISSN: 1581-6613, digital version: ISSN: 1581-8314) was founded in 1952. It was originally named Geografski zbornik / Acta geographica (ISSN 0373-4498). Altogether 42 volumes were published. In 2002 Geographica Slovenica (ISSN 0351-1731, founded in 1971, 35 volumes) was merged with the journal. Since 2003 (from volume 43 onward) the name of the joint journal has been Acta geographica Slovenica. The journal continues the numbering system of the journal Geografski zbornik / Acta geographica. Those interested in the history of the journal are invited to read the paper “The History of Acta geo- graphica Slovenica.” All published issues of Acta geographica Slovenica are available free of charge at http://ags.zrc-sazu.si or http://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/ags. Acta geographica Slovenica, 57-2, 2017 173 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 173 ISSN: 1581-6613 UDC – UDK: 91 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 57-2 2017 © Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2017 Print/tisk: Collegium Graphicum d. o. o. Ljubljana 2017 57-2_Special issue_acta49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:23 Page 174 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKIZBORNIK 2017 57 2 0101661851779 ISSN 1581-6613 A C TA G E O G R A P H IC A S LO V E N IC A • G E O G R A FS K I Z B O R N IK • 57 -2 • 20 17ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 57-2 • 2017 Contents – Vsebina Janez NARED, David BOLE, Mateja BREG VALJAVEC, Rok CIGLIČ, Maruša GOLUŽA, Jani KOZINA, Nika RAZPOTNIK VISKOVIĆ, Peter REPOLUSK, Petra RUS, Jernej TIRAN, Majda ČERNIČ ISTENIČ Central settlements in Slovenia in 2016 7 Centralna naselja v Sloveniji leta 2016 24 Grzegorz URBAN Air temperature trends at Mount Śnieżka (Polish Sudetes) and solar activity, 1881–2012 33 Jiří RYPL, Karel KIRCHNER, Martin BLAŽEK The spatial distribution of rock landforms in the Pohořská Mountains (Pohořská hornatina), Czech Republic 45 Vladimir N. MARKOVIĆ, Djordjije A. VASILJEVIĆ, Tamara JOVANOVIĆ, Tin LUKIĆ, Miroslav D. VUJIČIĆ, Milutin KOVAČEVIĆ, Zoran A. RISTIĆ, Slobodan B. MARKOVIĆ, Branko RISTANOVIĆ, Dušan SAKULSKI The effect of natural and human-induced habitat conditions on number of roe deer: case study of Vojvodina, Serbia 57 Spe cial issue – Terraced landscapes Drago KLADNIK, Alexandra KRUSE, Blaž KOMAC Terraced landscapes: an increasingly prominent cultural landscape type 73 Mateja ŠMID HRIBAR, Matjaž GERŠIČ, Primož PIPAN, Peter REPOLUSK, Jernej TIRAN, Maja TOPOLE, Rok CIGLIČ Cultivated terraces in Slovenian landscapes 83 Jana ŠPULEROVÁ, Marta DOBROVODSKÁ, Dagmar ŠTEFUNKOVÁ, Pavol KENDERESSY, Martin IZSÓFF Terraced landscapes in Slovakia 99 Goran ANDLAR, Filip ŠRAJER, Anita TROJANOVIĆ Classifying the Mediterranean terraced landscape: the case of Adriatic Croatia 111 Drago KLADNIK, Mateja ŠMID HRIBAR, Matjaž GERŠIČ Terraced landscapes and protected cultural heritage sites 131 Primož PIPAN, Žiga KOKALJ Transformation of the Jeruzalem Hills cultural landscape with modern vineyard terraces 149 naslovnica 57-2_naslovnica 49-1.qxd 5.5.2017 10:20 Page 1