Adjective Distribution in Modern Mongolian1
LI Wenchao
University of Zhejiang, China widelia@zju.edu.cn
Abstract
This paper discusses adjective distribution in Mongolian based upon the mereological framework: scale structure. It investigates how adjectival complements are sensitive to the scalar structure of adjectival predicates (APs) in resultative constructions as well as direct perception expressions. The findings reveal that Mongolian only tolerates inherent resultatives; derived resultatives are ruled out. The acceptability of adjectival complements in inherent resultatives runs from 'Totally open-scale/Totally closed-scale' down to 'Lower closed/Upper closed-scale'. On the other hand, adjectival complements in direct perception expressions are of no diverse acceptability, i.e. all layers of APs are licensed. Furthermore, durative verbs are likely to yield open-scale APs whilst punctual verbs seem to favour closed-scale APs.
Keywords: Mongolian; adjective predicates; scale structure
Povzetek
Članek obravnava distribucijo pridevnika v mongolščini po mereološki teoriji skalarnih struktur. Avtor razišče občutljivost pridevniških dopolnil na skalarno strukturo pridevnikov v povedkovni rabi tako v posledičnih strukturah kot tudi v izrazih osebnega mnenja. Rezultati razkrivajo, da mongolščina dopušča samo inherentni vzročno-posledični odnos pridevnikov v povedkovni rabi, kjer pa sprejme pridevniška dopolnila z zelo raznolikim odnosom do pridevnika; od popolnoma odprtega/zaprtega do delno odprtega/zaprtega. Nasprotno je v izrazih osebnega mnenja, kjer so sprejemljiva bolj ali manj vsa pridevniška dopolnila, pri čemer nedovršni glagoli privlačijo odprti tip pridevnikov v povedkovni rabi, dovršni pa zaprti tip.
Ključne besede: mongolščina; pridevniki v povedkovni rabi; skalarna struktura
1 This paper is based upon work supported by National Foundation of Social Science (15CYY002) China to Li Wenchao.
I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers and the editors for their comments, which have helped me sharpen and develop the manuscript a great deal. All remaining errors and shortcomings are entirely mine.
Acta Linguistica Asiatica, 6(2), 2016.
ISSN: 2232-3317, http://revije.ff.uni-lj.si/ala/	[(cc) 0 (§)
DOI: 10.4312/ala.6.2.9-22	ttsäe^^™
1 Introduction
Mongolian, an Altaic language family member, is an exclusively suffixing agglutinative SOP language.2 A salient feature of the language lies in that adjectival complements may directly precede the verbs, as seen in direct perception expression (1a) as well as in a resultative construction (1b).
(1) a. Direct perception expression
HY^^^H 6m TyyHMMr o^^ xapcaH. (well-formed) naked I her.Acc find see-PAST 'I found her naked.'
b. Resultatives construction
T^p xaHaa y^aaH/y^aaHaap	6yAcaH. (well-formed)
she wall red/red.Instr	paint-PAST 'She painted the wall red.'
As far as (1b) is concerned, the adjective ynaaH 'red' is licensed in the resultative construction. However, not all adjectival complements appear to be welcome in Mongolian. The following adjective xamyy 'solid' is ruled out in the resultative construction, c.f. (2).
(2)
*Hyyp xaTyy_6MeT
lake solid 'The lake froze solid.'
freeze-PAST
(ill-formed)
The ungrammaticality of (2) lies in that the adjective xamyy 'solid' is a closed-scale AP whilst the adjective ynaaH 'red' in (1b) is an open-scale AP. It appears then that Mongolian resultatives seem to only license closed-scale APs. This linguistic phenomenon is the opposite of English resultatives. English only tolerates closed-scale APs as resultative complements, with open-scale APs being ruled out.3 (3) provides the illustrations.
(3) a. Bill pounded the metal *long. b. Bill pounded the metal flat.
(Open-scale AP: ill-formed) (Closed-scale AP: well-formed)
The ungrammaticality of (3a) lies in that open-scale adjectives fail to describe certain culmination points (see Beavers, 2008; Wechsler, 2005; and Wyngaerd, 2001 for further discussion).
2	There are three writing systems in Mongolian: Todo Bicig (Xinjiang area), Traditional Mongolian alphabet (Hudum) (Inner Mongolia) and Cyrillic Mongolian (Outer Mongolia). In this study, Cyrillic Mongolian was adopted. A list of Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet is provided at the end of the paper.
3	A detailed explanation regarding open-scale and closed-scale APs will be given in Section 2.
Intriguingly, in terms of perception expression, on the contrary, English adjectives are of no diverse acceptability, i.e. both open and closed-scale APs are allowed, as illustrated by (4).
(4) a. Bill saw Mary exhausted. b. Bill saw the dog dead.
(Open-scale AP: well-formed) (Closed-scale AP: well-formed)
It is also salient to mention that German language, a relative of English, permits both open-scale and closed-scale APs in resultative constructions, as in (5). On the other hand, German has diverse acceptability of direct perception expressions: the distribution of APs runs from 'Lower closed/Upper closed-scale' down to 'Totally open-scale/Totally closed-scale', as in (6).
(5)	Resultative construction in German
a.	Mary hämmerte das Eisen flach. Mary hammer the metal flat 'Mary pounded the metal flat'
b.	Bill hämmerte das Eisen lang. Bill hammer the metal long 'Bill pounded the metal long'
(6)	Direct perception expression in German a. *Mary sah	ihn müde.
Mary see-PAST him 'Mary saw him tired.'
tired
(Closed-scale AP: well-formed)
(Open-scale AP: well-formed)
(Totally open-scale AP: ill-formed)
At this stage, then, it seems that the distribution of APs in German direct perception expression somehow resembles Modern Mongolian.
Resultative construction has been studied intensively in linguistic typological work. Various frameworks have been raised, intending to achieve a more thorough analysis on the subject. Below is a map of major theories that have contributed to this subject, based on Chomsky's (1965) 'Aspects Model', Levin and Rappaport Hovav's (1995) 'Projection Approach', Goldberg's (1995) 'Construction Grammar Approach', Jackendoff's (1997) 'Adjunct Analysis', Rappaport Hovav and Levin's (1998) 'Event Structure Template', Boas's (2003) 'Dynamic Usage-Based Model', and Kennedy, Christopher and Louise McNally's (2005) 'Scale Structure'.
Aspect Model Lexical-Functional Grammar Projection Approach Construction Grammar Approach, Adjunct Analysis, Event Structure Template A Dynamic Usage-Based Model Scale Structure
The distribution of APs in Mongolian seems to receive far less attention compared to those of European languages. This study tentatively explores how APs show sensitivity to the scalar structure in resultative as well as direct perception constructions.
The paper is mapped out as follows: section 2 sheds light on the framework that is adopted in the analysis, i.e. scalar structure. With this in place, section 3 first examines the scalar properties of Mongolian APs and then delves into APs' distribution in resultative constructions. Section 4 moves on to explore APs in direct perception expressions. Section 5 highlights the results and concludes the paper.
The Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet is adopted in this study and hand-made examples are used. Native speakers checked the examples. Due to numerous dialects in the country, native speakers from the Inner and Outer parts of Mongolia have both been asked to provide judgements. Moreover, a multilingual parallel electronic dictionary is employed: http://asuult.net/dic/.
2 Framework: scalar structure
A scale is constituted of a set of degrees (points or intervals indicating measurement values) on a particular dimension (e.g. cost, depth, height, temperature), with an ordering relation. The dimension represents an attribute of an entity, with the degrees indicating the possible values of this attribute (Kennedy and McNally, 2005). Scale measures the change undergone by the incremental theme, patient or figure participant. The following variations have been established:
(a)	Totally open-scale: a scale may have neither a minimal nor maximal element
(b)	Lower closed-scale: a scale may have a minimal but no maximal element
(c)	Upper closed-scale: a scale may have a maximal but no minimal element
(d)	Totally closed-scale: a scale may have both maximal and minimal elements
Kennedy and McNally (2005)
Scale structure may apply to adjectives4:
(7)	a. Totally open-scale: tired, müde, nervous, nervös, sad, traurig , deep, tief, long, lang
b.	Lower closed-scale: drunk, betrunken, shave, rasiert, pale, blass, flat, flach
c.	Upper closed-scale: pure, rein, naked, nackt, unshaved, unrasiert
d.	Totally closed-scale: dead, tot, empty, leer
Scale structure may apply to verbs:
(8)	a. Totally open-scale: shift, utsuru, ply, kayou
b.	Lower closed-scale: approach, yoru, leave, hanareru, flit, kasumeru
c.	Upper closed-scale: return, modoru, cross, wataru, return, kaeru, pass, heru
d.	Totally closed-scale: arrive, tsuku, reach, todoku, transcend, koeru, descend, oriru, exit
e.	Non-scale change: tumble, korogaru, swim, oyogu, run, hashiru, crawl, hau, dance, odoru
Scale structure may apply to prepositions/postpositions:
(9)	a. Totally open-scale: toward, e
b.	Lower closed-scale: from, kara; yori
c.	Upper closed-scale: e-to^
d.	Totally closed-scale: until, made; along, nisotte
The scalar properties of APs, verbs and (pre) postpositions (PPs) further link to the combinatorial possibilities with verbs. Wechsler (2005, p. 264) indicates that resultative constructions with maximal endpoint adjectives often have durative verbs, e.g. wipe, pull. On the other hand, non-gradable adjectives are more likely to occur with punctual verbs, e.g. shoot, kick. This view is supported by Beavers (2008), who proposes that punctual verbs tend to yield non-gradable de-verbal adjectives while durative verbs tend to yield gradable de-verbal adjectives.
As such, scale structure should be a great help in detecting the syntactic distribution of APs in Mongolian.
3 The distribution of adjectives in resultative constructions
With the classifications of adjective highlighted, this section proceeds by looking into: (a) the scalar property of Mongolian APs; and (b) their distributions in resultative constructions. (10) provides a list of the most-used adjectives.
4	In (7)-(9), English lexicons are in normal font; the corresponding lexicons of other languages are in italic. (7) are German adjectives; (8) and (9) are Japanese adjectives.
5	e-to is between direction e and delimitation made.
(10) ^^c^H (tired) / ryH (deep) / ypT (long) / xaTyy (hard) / HY^^^H (naked) / Yxc^H (dead) / gbmmh (sick) / MMMr (wet) / xaBTraM (flat) / c^p■^^H (awake) / xoocoH (empty)
An examination in terms of the modifiers muHX^H^ 'very' and xa^ac 'half' is carried out. Three Mongolian native speakers provided their judgements. The results are given in (11).
^UHx^H^ (very)		
«MHX^H^ ^uua	(very wet)	[natural]
«MHX^H^ ^^c^H	(very tied)	[natural]
«MHX^H^ BYH	(very deep)	[natural]
«MHX^H^ ypm	(very long)	[natural]
«MHX^H^ xamyy	(very hard)	[natural]
* «MHX^H^ ee^uH	(very sick)	[unacceptable]
? «MHX^H^ xaemaau	(very flat)	[unnatural]
? «MHX^H^ HYU,aBH	(very naked)	[unnatural]
«MHX^H^ YxcsH	(very dead)	[natural]
«MHX^H^ cspYYH	(very awake)	[natural]
«MHX^H^xoocoH	(very empty)	[natural]
xa^ac (half)		
xarac HMMr	(half wet)	[unnatural]
? xarac ^^c^H	(half tied)	[unnatural]
xarac aYH	(half deep)	[natural]
? xarac ypm	(half long)	[unnatural]
? xarac xamyy	(half hard)	[unnatural]
? xarac ee^uH	(half sick)	[unnatural]
? xarac xaemaau	(half flat)	[unnatural]
? xarac HYU,aBH	(half naked)	[unnatural]
? xarac yxcbh	(half dead)	[unnatural]
xarac cspYYH	(half awake)	[natural]
? xarac xoocoH	(half empty)	[unnatural]
Based upon the test, we may arrive at the following classification of Mongolian APs:
(12) a. Totally open-scale: ^^c^H (tied), ypm (long), byh (deep)
b.	Lower closed-scale: ^uua (wet), ee^uH (sick), e^ecc^HMM^ (hungry), xycyrcaHMMr (shaved)
c.	Upper closed-scale: xamyy (hard), capYYH (awake), MaMcaHMMr (pale)
d.	Totally closed-scale: HY^^^H (naked), yxcbh (dead), xoocoH (empty), xaemaau (flat)
In light of the classification, we move onto inquiring as to how APs are distributed in resultative constructions. Tests along with the four different scalar structures of APs are provided in (13) to (16). Native speakers again assessed the examples.
(13)	Totally open-scale AP
a.	«aH caH: TeMep Taar gaega^t ypT 6o^ra6. Zhang san metal stick pound long PAST 'Zhang san pounded the metal long.'
b.	«aHcaH: epeeH ecepM ngapa6. Zhang san himself dance tired-PAST 'Zhang san danced himself tired.'
(14)	Lower closed-scale AP
a.	«aH caH: epeeH MHMec^^p 6aM«t 66HMTaM 60^06. Zhang san himself laugh PROG sick PAST 'Zhang san laughed himself sick.'
b.	?«aH caH: e6ecT ra3ap ycy^«t HMMr 6o^ra6. Zhang san garden water wet PAST 'Zhang san watered the garden wet.'
(15)	Upper-closed scale AP
a.	*«aH caH: yc x06 ^g^^«t xaTyy 6o^ra6. Zhang san water Ba freeze solid PAST 'Zhang san froze the water solid.'
b.	«aH caH: cMMr ca«M^a«t C3pr336. Zhang san Li si shake awake PAST 'Zhang san shook Li si awake.'
(natural)
(natural)
(natural)
(unnatural)
(ill-formed)
(natural)
(16) Totally closed-scale AP
a.
b.
?«aH caH: TeMep Taar ga6ga«t Zhang san metal stick pound 'Zhang san pounded the metal flat.'
*Hyyp xaTyy_6MeT xe^g«^^. lake solid	freeze-PAST
'The lake froze solid.'
xa6TaraM
flat
6o^ra6. PAST
(natural)
l-formed)
We now have several layers illustrating the acceptability thresholds of Mongolian APs in resultatives, running from 'Totally open-scale AP' down to 'Lower closed-scale AP, Upper-closed scale AP, Totally closed-scale AP'.
Note that (13) are inherenet resultatives.7 It seems that Mongolian lacks derived resultative constructions. All layers of APs appear to be ruled out.
6	x0 is a co-verb.
7	The terminology used to describe the two types of resultative constructions varies: Kageyama (1996) labels them as 'inherent resultatives' vs. 'derived resultatives'; Washio (1997) refers to them as 'strong resultatives' vs. 'weak resultatives'; Iwata (2006) uses the terms 'argument resultatives' vs. 'adjunct resultatives'; and in Levin & Rappaport Hovav (1995) and Kennedy's (1999) works,
(17)	Mongolian derivedresultatives	(unnatural)
? «aH caH: apux yy^t xoroc^a6a 6a. Zhang san pub drink empty PAST 'Zhang san drank the pub empty.'
Another Altaic language, Japanese, also lacks derived resultative constructions, as shown in (18):
(18)	a. Japanese inherent resultatives	(well-formed)
Taro wa kabe o siroku	nutta.
Taroo TOP wall ACC white	paint-PAST 'Taro painted the wall white.'
b. Japanese derived resultatives	(ill-formed)
*Kanojo wa sakana o zerii joo ni tataita. She TOP fish ACC jelly into pound-PAST 'She pounded the fish into a jelly.'
We might contend that Altaic languages are likely to miss derived resultative constructions. This feature is shared with Romance languages; Italian and French do not tolerate derived resultative constructions, as seen in (19) and (20).
(19)	a. Italian inherent resultatives	(well-formed)
Ho	taglito la carne in piccolo pezzi.
have.1stSg cut.PPT the meat in small pieces 'I cut the meat into small pieces.'
b. Italian derived resultatives (ill-formed) *Gianni ha martellato il metallo piatto. Gianni has hammer-PPT the metal flat 'Gianni hammered the metal flat.' (Napoli, 1992, p. 65)
(20)	a. French inherent resultatives	(well-formed)
Je coupe la viande en morceaux. I cut the meat PREP pieces 'I cut the meat into pieces.'
'control resultatives' vs. 'exceptional case-marking resultatives' is used. Moreover, Dimitrova-Vulchanova (2002) employs 'connected resultatives' vs. 'disconnected resultatives' to describe resultatives. All these terms differ slightly but ultimately refer to the same thing. The current paper follows Washio (1997).
b. French derived resultatives	(ill-formed)
?Elle a battu le poisson en gelee. She pounded the fish PREP jelly.' 'She pounded the fish into jelly.'
Moreover, another character of French resultatives is worth highlighting, namely, that only prepositional complements are permitted to denote the result, c.f. (21):
(21)	a. J'ai peint le mur en rouge.	(well-formed)
b.	Jean a casse le vase en morceaux.	(well-formed)
c.f.	c. *J'ai peint le mur rouge.	(ill-formed)
Germanic languages, on the other hand, license both inherent and derived resultative constructions.
(22)	a. German inherent resultatives
Bill fror	das Wasser hart.
Bill freez-PAST the water hard 'Bill froze the water hard.'
b. German derived resultatives
Bill trank	die Kneipe leer.
Bill drink-PAST the pub empty 'Bill drank the pub empty.'
(23)	a. English inherent resultatives Mary wiped the table clean.
b. English derived resultatives She pounded the fish into a jelly.
4 The distribution of adjectives in direct perception expressions
Having drawn a picture of the sensitivity of APs in resultatives, we are in a better position to engage in the analysis of direct perception expression. Tests along with the four various scalar structures of Mongolian APs are carried out. Once more, native speakers provided the judgements.
(24) Totally open-scale AP
^aH caH n-h gmmh flgaparcaHMMr 7336.	(natural)
Zhang san Li si tired	see-PAST
'Zhang san saw Li si tired.'
(25)	Totally closed-scale AP
a.	«aH caH hoxomh YxY^c^HMM^ Y3^6.	(natural) Zhang san dog dead see-PAST
'Zhang san saw the dog dead.'
b.	«aH caH n-h cmmh HY^^^H Hb o^^t Y3^6. (natural) Zhang san Li si naked	see-PAST 'Zhang san saw Li si naked.'
(26)	Upper closed-scale AP
«aH caH n- cmmh naMcaHMMr Y3^6.	(natural)
Zhang san Li si pale	see-PAST
'Zhang san saw Li si pale.'
(27)	Lower closed-scale AP
a. «aH caH n- cmmh e^ecc^HMM^ Y3^6.	(natural)
Zhang san Li si hungry see-PAST 'Zhang san saw Li si hungry.'
?b.«aH caH nh cmmh xycyrcaHMMr Y3^6.	(ill-formed)
Zhang san Li si shaved	see-PAST
'Zhang san saw Li si shaved.'
The oddness of xycyrcaHMMr 'shaved' (c.f. 27b) might have revealed that a Mongolian perception verb only denotes a direct perception report. It does not contribute to a potential indirect perception, describing the observer's conceptualisation of the perceived event. Nonetheless, Mongolian seems to welcome all layers of adjectival complements in direct perception expressions.
5 Conclusion
This paper has delved into the adjective distribution in resultative constructions as well as direct perception expressions. The findings show that Mongolian only tolerates inherent resultatives; derived resultatives are ruled out. The acceptability of adjectival complements in inherent resultatives runs from 'Totally open-scale/Totally closed-scale' down to 'Lower closed/Upper closed-scale'. On the other hand, adjectival complements in direct perception expressions are of no diverse acceptability, i.e. all layers of APs appear licensed. The foregoing discussion is summarised in Table 1.
Table 1: The distribution of Mongolian adjectives in resultative and direct perception constructions
Scalar property	Inherent resultatives	Derived resultatives	Direct perception expression
Totally open scale	high	all ruled out	all licensed
Lower closed scale			
Upper closed scale			
Totally closed scale	low		
The scalar properties of APs further link to the combinatorial possibilities with verbs. Durative verbs are likely to yield open-scale APs whilst punctual verbs seem to favour closed-scale APs. Moreover, the scalar properties can be a syntactic diagnostic for split intransitivity, i.e. unergative verbs are likely to yield closed-scale postpositions while unaccusative verbs tend to occur with open-scale postpositions.
Table 2: Scalar properties of APs along with the combinatorial possibilities with verbs and postpositions
Durative verbs ^ Open-scale AP	Open-scale postpositions ^ Unaccusative verb
Punctual verbs ^ Closed-scale AP	Closed-scale postpositions ^ Unergative verbs
Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet
a a	6 b	B v	r g	g d	e ye	e yo	^ j	3 dz	u i	M y	K k
A l	M m	H n	o o	e ö	n p	P r	C s	T t	y u	Y ü	^ f
X kh	u, ts	M ch	m sh	^ shch	-b "	N i	b '	^ e	ro yu	fl ya	
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