ANNALES • Ser. hist. nat. • 11 • 2001 • 2 (2.5} origina! scientific paper UDC 502/504:574.4(497.4-14) received: 14. 12. 2001 DESERTIFICATION PROCESSES IN THE ADJACENT MEDITERRANEAN HILLY REGION (BRKINI AND CiCARIJA) I idija GLOBEVNIK Water Management IrtslHutt!, SI-1000 t jubfjana, Hajdrihova ¿6 Andrei SOVINC Scrence and Research Centi® of the Republic of Slovenia Koper. Institute of Biodiversity Studies.. SI-6000 Koper, Cari bo Id jeva 18 Mitja KAUGARIC University of Mariboi, Pedagogical Faculty. Si-2000 Maribor, KoroSka 160 Science and Research Centie of the Republic of Slovenia Koper, Institute of B odiversi'ty .Studies 31-6000 Koper, Garibaldi jeva 16 E-mail. mitja.kaligaric^urii-mb s. ABSTRACT The hilly regmn of Brkini and Cicarija (NW Slovenia) is situated along the line that divides the Mediterranean pad of Slovenia from Us more continental part, the changes in its socio-economic conditions, particularly in land-use, as well as its depopulation processes and afforestation have in the last two hunderd years had a strong impact on the structure of bird and plant species of the area, in spile of all these changes, however, the marginal Mediterranean area of Brkini and ('¡¿arija still have a great value in respect of biodiversity and especially regarding the number of endemic and threatened species, as well as species that in this area reach the edge of their range. Key words: A4editerranear., flora, vegetation, forest, avifauna, sustainable development, nature conservation, desertification PROCESSI Di DESERTIFICAZIONE NELLE MONTAGNE MEDITERRANEE HMITANTl (BRKINI E CICERIA, SLOVENIA SUD-OCCIDENTALE) SINTESI La zona di Brkini e della Ciceria (Slovenia sud-occidentale) funge da area limitante tra le parti mediterránea e continental della Slovenia. I cambiamenti delle condition: socio-economiche (soprattutto quelli nell'utilizzo del suolo e i processi di depopolazionej non < hé H rimhosc hi mentó dell'area negli ultimi duecento anni, hanno mtluenzato la struttura e la composizione di iKcelli, piante ed associazioni vegetali. Nonostante tali cambiamenti, I'ava mediterránea limitante di Brkini e della Ciceria mantiene un valore particolare in termini di biodiversity, in partict»fare in mérito al numero di specit- endemiche, minacciate, o specie che in quest'area raggiungono i! limite deil'areale di estennone. Nell'area mediterránea limitante, con fattori climatic i discreti, il potenziale naturale di rigenerazione risulta maggiore che nel Mediterráneo centrale. Alcuni dei processi di deseitificazione, come ad esempio I erosione, gíi incendi boschivi e le attivita antropogeniche tradizionali (es. I'agricoltura) si rivelano necessari e bramad per il mantenimiento di alcune specie sueltamente speciahzzate. L'abbandpno delle attivita di utilizzo del suolo, l'allargamento boschivo e i processi di depopolazione mfluenzano lo sviluppo socio-economico dell'area, l'aspetío naturale e lo particolarita florislii he e faunistiche delta zona. Parole chiave: Mediterráneo, flora, vegotazione, hosco, uccelli, ulilizzo durevofe, tutela del ('ambiente, desertificazione 219 ANNALES - Ser. Iiist. nat. - 11 • 2001 - 2 (25) Udíjs GIOBEVNIK ct at.: DESERTIfiCATION PROCfSSfS IN THE ADJACENT MEDITERRANEAN BILLY REGION (BRKINI AND ČIČARItA). 219-232 INTRODUCTION Edges and transitional geographical regions have an important role in the study of the changes occurring in our environment. Through analyses of the past human involvement in nature phenomena and the socioeconomic characteristics, ecosystem parameters such as vulnerability, recoverability and predictability can be defined and recommendations for sustainable management proposed. On the basis of the study of the northernmost part of the Mediterranean bordering mountainous range in Slovenia we present a description of the boundary state of the Mediterranean basin environment-Climate in the research area, also described as adjacent Mediterranean hilly regions, is not as extreme as in typical Mediterranean mountainous areas, so the interference between nature and humans and disturbances due to inappropriate management of the area have different consequences on ecological and socio-economic stability. The objectives of the study are thus to give a fair evidence of the past and present the state of the ecological and socio-economical conditions of the Slovenian Mediterranean mountainous region, to identify the relationships between human and natural influences on the region's degradation of natural resources, to assess the future desertification trends, and to propose measures for sustainable management of the area. METHODS The first land-use data were provided by the Austrian Monarchy, whose cartographers divided the Monarchy into cadastral communities and established land-use and ownership data base through maps (1:2880) and tables {Korošec, 1978). The first land-use table data for cadastral units in the research area (Fig. 1) are available for the end of the 18"' century (Območna geodetska uprava Koper, 1 995a). They have been mostly renewed at the beginning of the 20'" century and in the 60's Fig. 1: Geographical position of the research area. 57. 1: Geografski položaj raziskovanega območja. (Republiška geodetska uprava, 1994; Območna geodetska uprava Koper, 1995b). The National Institute of Agriculture has recently carried out a land-use census for cadastral units (Republiška geodetska uprava, Zavod RS za statistiko, 1983), interpreted from aerial photography (Kmetijski inštitut Slovenije, 1995). The two historic maps from 1780 in scale 1: 28,000 (Rajšp & Trpin, 1997) and 1900 in scale 1: 33,000 (retrieved from a private archive; Korošec, 1995), give the oldest geographical information on forest cover. For the 20ll! century, some ample cartographic material is at hand (Korošec, 1995): the Italian army map from 1929, the first Yugoslav Army map from 1955, and the latest national topographic maps on scales of 1: 5,000, 1: 25,000 and I: 50,000. In the analysis, data on forest cover extension, digitalised from maps on a scale of 1: 50,000 {Vodnogospodarski inštitut, 1993) are used. Most data on climate are available from 1951 {Ministrstvo za okolje in prostor, Hidrometeorološki zavod RS. 1988a, J988b, 1995a, 1995b). on hydrology from 1971 (Ministrstvo za okolje in prostor, Hidrometeorološki zavod RS, 1998). Data on demography and socio-economy have been compiled from the national statistical data sources (Zvezni zavod za statistiko, 1953, 1961, 1971, Zavod RS za statistiko, 1981, 1984, 1991) and other studies (Vilfan, 1953, Sav-nik, 1968; Valendč, 1984, 1989, 1994; Bik, 1994; Orožen et a!,, 1995). Geographical descriptions of the area (Vilfan, 1953; Melik, 1960; Savnik, 1968; Roglič, 1987) as well as geological (Zvezni geološki zavod, 1975), climatologi-cai, pedoiogical (Stepandč ef a!., 1980; Vodnogospodarski inštitut, 1990, Zavod za pogozdovanje in melioracijo krasa Sežana, 1990, 1992, 1993a, 1993b}, hy-clrological (Vodnogospodarski inštitut, 1987), floris-tic'vegetational (Kaligarič, 1992a, 1992b), historical (Kos, 1953; Vilfan, 1953; Melik, 1960; Valenčič, 1989; Darovec, 1992) and socio-economic data were collected, integrated and analysed (Globevnik el a I., 1996). Cartographic materia!, national cadastral data and land-use data were georeferenced and integrated into geographical information system. Analysis of land-use and forest cover characteristics was made for four different units of the research area, i.e. Čičarija SVV, Čičarija NE, Brkini W and Brkini F (see figure 2). Comparison of historical data and current, state of the environment was also made to show degradation or improvement of human and natural resources in the area. For the period from 1800 to 1995, land-use characteristics were defined and demographic/economic description of the area made. Flora and vegetation types are described for the three vegetation subunlts in the Čičarija area [Kraški rob (Karst Edge, subunit la), Kraška planota with Mt. Slavnik (Karst plateau with Mt. Slavnik, subunit 1b), Matarsko podolje (subunit 1c)] and for the Brkini area (subunit 2). Refer- GCOGRAPHICAL ENTITIES OF THE RESEARCH AREA i.egenrf: Research ar„c V//A («torijo 4 Brkini} x*el*?orolaqlco! stolon — M u i'. .aadu - . Noífoí-.cl bonndaiy P Kytírtfoqfcal Etolior. o l Pwicí Wl. S'ovnifc. (lOMm) 220 ANNAI.ES ■ Ser. hist. nat. 11 2001 • 2 (25) lidija ClO«6VNIK ?! a/.: OESERTIflCAITON PROCESSES IN* THE ADJACENT MEDITERRANEAN Hll i.Y RECSON {BRKINI AND iiCARSJAi, 2I3-M2 ence map for the vegetation subuniis is shown in figure 2. The importance of tire vegetalion (flora) of the areas is described with the use of natural value parameters, such as endemic species (L), rare spec ¡es (R), endangered species (En), species in their range border (BA) and special indicator species (51). The ornithofauna was chosen as the main ecological indicator. Basic information on the avifauna of the area was collected through available data from literature (Vallo, 1885; Skornik ef a/., 1990; Tome, 1991, 1992; Ceister, 1995; Sovinc, 1995) and some field excursions. The recent as well as historic data on birds were collected for the period of some last 200 years. Study area The research area is part of the Dinaric mountain range bordering the Adriatic Sea on i!s eastern side. It is divided into two subregions, CiCarija and Brkini. Brkini is a border region of the Mediterranean water catchment basin to the Black Sea water basin and is a kind of tran-t itiona! area between the Mediterranean geo region and the inland. It is aiso a buffer zone for the Mediterranean to Central Europe with interesting nature and social indicators of both. Brkini (233.75 km-') is a hilly, rural area with well-developed water network. The area of Brkini was further divided into Brkini West and Brkini East. Prom Brkini to the coast spreads a karst region of the littoral NW edge of the Dinaric range (108.9 km2) named Cicarija with ihe highest peak of Mt. Slavnik (1028 m). The region (Matarsko podolje) between Brkini and Cicarija is a flat area, with the main transit road between Rijeka (Croatia) and Triesle. For a more detailed analyses, CiCarija was further divided into two subareas, i.e. Cicarija South-West (CiCarija SW) and Cicarija Noith-East (Cicarija NE). Geology, relief: Brkini is mostly composed of Eocene flysch (sandstone, niarlstone, breccia), while Cicarija consists of Cretaceous limestone and dolomite, with its mountainous region on the south-western part consisting of Pataeocene limestone. The northern part of Brkini is made up of limestone as well. The karst phenomena are clearly present in all limestone and dolomite areas. The Brkini area is extremely varied in its relief, due to its well-developed water network. Valleys are deep and narrow, while hill ridges are flat The higher mountainous region of Cicarija extends in NVV-SF. direction. Climate: The climate of ¡he research area is sub-Mediterranean in CiCarija, but with a great continental influence in Brkini. The highest annual rainfall goes to llirska Bistrica, situated in the easternmost (inland) pari of the area. The lowest precipitation was recorded at Kubed and Movrai, the westernmost (coastal) part of the area. The average annual precipitation is 1400 mm on the western side and 1 500 mm on the eastern side of the research area. In the wettest year ot the study period Research oreo - Sijb-*oreos of Cifiaoju or>d Brkini = — - Prof«[e tine Vegetation ur km-). The minimal discharge in the 1958-1994 period is 0.010 m3/s, yearly average 1.03 m3/s. The highest measured peak was 74.5 m Vs. Linear (rends of the annual average and maximum peak discharges are negative (y ~ -0.0094 x +1.2059, y « -0.6521 x +40.166), whereas the trend of minimum peak discharges is slightly positive (y ' 0.001 x+0.028. J). The trend of annual precipitation quantities is negative (Tatre: y - -13.626 x 11778). The trend analysis of frequency of appearance reveals that the number of days of drought water flow (0.0 - 0.125 m!/s) is decreasing, but that the number of days with discharges between 0.125 to 0.50 mVs is increasing. Duration of higher water flows (0.5 - 20.0 m3/s) is decreasing. The reason might be the forest cover expansion in the last 30 years (from 40% to 70% of the area), where water storage capacity and use is higher than in grassland areas. We may thus conclude that water is distributed more equally over the year today as it was decades ago. There are less drought days and less days with high water peaks. Water pollution risk is high in the entire area, moreover, drinking water supply for all Slovenian coast regions is under high risk due to the highly fissured area of the karst (Krarijc ef ai, 1991). Water of the Reka river is also under risk of pollution, due to the uncontrolled waste water seepage into the river, wild dump sites and residuals of the past chemical pollution in the river bottom (KogovSek, 1988). The ecological state of underground habitats (karst caves) is degraded and vulnerable as well (Globevnik eta!., 1996). I and-us«, Brkini ■ F0KES1 COVER 223 ČIČARIJA XD BRKlNi dry grassland & culluro! IwidsCJQD species (SIX) Fig. 3: Changes in land use (forest, arable, grassland and other areas) and characteristics bird species of cultural landscape (1795-1995). St. 3: Spremembe v rabi tal (delež gozda, obdelanih, travniških in drugih površin) ter značilnih ptičjih vrst kulturne krajine (1795-1995). Flora and vegetation cover Flora and vegetation types are given in table 9 for the Kraški rob (Čičarija, subunit 1 a), Karst plateau, Mt. Slavnik and Matarsko podolje (Čičarija, subunits 1b and 1c) and Brkini (unit 2). 225 ANNAI.ES ■ Ser. hist. nat. 11 2001 • 2 (25) Lidija GLQBEVNIK et nt ■ DE.SEKTIHCATÍON PROCESSES IK THE. ADJACENT MtWTSRRANEAN HIUY RlClON <8ftWNl AND OCARHA). 213-2.32 Tab. 9: List of plant species ofspecial value. Tab. 9: Seznam florističnib vrst posebne vrednosti. ČIČAfiljA, subunit la CICARIJA, subunit 1 h, le BRKINI, unit 2 (1) Quercus ilex - R, En, BA, SI Phyllirea latifolia - R, En, BA Laurus nobilis - R, En, BA Pistacia terebirithus - R, SI Smilax aspera - R, BA, SI Rubia peregrina - R, BA, SI (2) Cleistogenes serótina -R Onobrychis arenaria tom-masinii - R, En Trigoneíia giadiata - R, 6A Teucrium flavum - R, BA Hyssopus officinalis - R (3) Quercus ilex - R, E, BA Moehringia tommasinii -R, En, E, SI Sedum maximum - SI Teucrium flavum - R, BA Campanula pyramidalis -St Cephalaria ieucantlia - R, SI Sempervivum tectorum -SI Iris illyrica - S! (4) Genista sericea - SI Athamantha turbith - SI Scorzonera austríaca - SI Ruta divaricata - SI Iris illyrica - En, SI Globularia cordifolia - SI Daphne alpina - SI (1) jurinea moflís - R, S! Gentiana lútea symphiandra - R, En, SI Narcissus radiiflorus -- SI Linum narbonense.....SI Laserpitium siler ~ SI Lilium carniolicum -R, En, SI Asphodelus albus - SI Eryngium amethystinum - SI Satureja subspicata fiburnica - SI Gentiana tergestina - E Stipa eriocaulis - SI Eehiriops ritro rutenicus - R, SI Centaurea rupestris - SI Carex humijis - SI Serratula radiata - S!, R, BA Pulsatilla montana - SI Crepis chondrilloides - S! Astragalus carniolicus - R, SI, E Pedicularis frederici-augusti - R, E, E, BA iris crrerhiza - (Kojriik locus class.) - R, E (2) Serratula lycopifolia - R, E, SI (IUCN Globally threatened species in Europe). Scorzonera villosa - SI, Knautia illyrica - SI Senecio lanatus - En, Senecio doronicum - R Gladiolus itlvricus - R, En, Scorzonera hispanica - R, Nepeta pannonica - R Danthonia alpina SI, (3) Heileborus muitifidus istriacus - SI, E Quercus pubescens - St, Sorbus domestica (4) Heileborus muitifidus istriacus - SI, E, Digitalis laevigata - SI, R, BA Paeonia officinalis - SI, Ostrya carpinifolia - (5) Fagus sylvatica • S,Sesleria autumnalis • (6) Fagus sylvatica - SI, Lamium orvala - SI, Hacquetia epipactis - Si, Vicia oroboides - SI, Dentaria spec. - SI, Epimedium alpinum - SI R -SI SI (1) Quercus petraea - SI Melampyrum vulgatum - SI Castanea sativa - SI Quercus cerris - SI (2) Fagus sylvatica - SI, Luzula albida - SI Quercus petraea - SI, Carstanea sativa - SI (3) Carpirius betulus - SI, Orriithogallum pyrenaicum - SI, Gaianthus nivalis - an example of carpinental mesophilous species Melittis melisophyllum - an example of submediterranean thermo-philous species Lamium orvaia - an example of non-acid iliiric. species (4) Anacamptis pyramidalis - SI, Linum flavum, SI, R, Nepeta pannonica - R (5) Arrhenatherum elatius. (St) (6) Gladiolus iilyricus (SA) As C'iCarija and Brkini spread along the border of the Mediterranean area and Central Europe, they constitute a kind of a climate border. This implies specific vegetation cover. Climax vegetation is not evergreen but deciduous thermophilous vegetation. Oak, black beech and beech forest includes in its bottom layer (herb vegetation) many Mediterranean species, which are giving this area its Mediterranean character. This type of vegetation is called sub-Mediterranean. In CiCarija and Brkini, different profiles of this environment are followed. The vegetationai particuiation of this relatively small territory is large and distinct due to human/nature interference, such as forest cutting and changing landscape to mosaic structure of dry meadows, stony pastures and bush fences. The contrasts in the areas of Brkini and CiCarija resemble natural factors (Cicarija: warm climate, low precipitation, limestone substratum, Brkini: harsh climate, high precipitation, flysch substratum) and diverse land-use (Cicarija: small population density, pastures, Brkini: greater population density, livestock agronomy, agriculture) as explained in previous chapters. The natural value indexes (NVI), such as endemity, rarity, threat status and species on the border of the range (E, R, En, BA), show that Kraški rob with Kraška planota, Mt. Slavnik and Matarsko podolje are of great natural importance. There are 16 plant species at Kraški rob and 26 at Kraška planota reported as important. Some species have more than one value of natural importance. In Brkini, there are 2 rare species (national level). Because the area exerts a strong continental climatic influence, there are numerous miscellaneous 226 ANNA LES • Ser. hist. nat. 11 2001 ■ 2 (25) Lidija GLOSEVNIK eta!.: OCSfRTIflCATlON PROCESSES iN THE ADJACENT MEDITERRANEAN HILLY KLGlON (BRKINI ANDClČARIJA», 219-232 vegetation communities o* lllyrian, Central-European and sub-Mediterranean character lhe area acts as an important buffer zone between Hie inland and the Adriatic. The natural value importance c onesponds with the percentage of grassland area this fact is further discussed in the following chapters Forest 'Hie forest exploitation began in the Neolithic, but the forests had not been overexploited until the Roman times. Due to the extensive use of wood, clear cutting (ship building and deforestation for grazing), the karst area became bare in the Middle Ages. It stayed deforested until the previous century. The fores! of Brkini was also overexploited by farmers and wood traders (Olo-bevnlk et al.r 1996). Probably the land has never been completely bare, but the percentage of the forest cover has fallen under 10% in the Middle and New Ages. In the mid-twentieth, an extensive afforestation programme began with the black pine (Pinus nigra), which is a norslndigenous species, but was best suited to the ecological conditions there. In the 20"' century, some large spruce plantations were introduced to Brkini due to their important economic value. The non-deciduous forest is nonindigenous in the area. At the beginning of the 19th century, less than 10% of the area was covered with forests in CiCarija and less than 20% in Brkini. The use of forest as an energy source was very intensive. The majority of land had been cleared in the past and used for grazing at the end of the 19lh century The extensive overgrowing began in the first decades of the 20'h century, following the depopulation trends The extreme progression of the forest landscape is characteristic of the last two decades due to the changes in the socioeconomic conditions in Slovenis and to the different life style. Today the forest landscape is typical of almost 70% of Brkini and more than 60% of Gtarija. Ownership characteristics Most of the forest cover in Brkini area is private, but the opposite is true of the karst Cicarija Cicarija is traditionally scarcely populated area, the forest has never been economically interesting due to unfavourable ecological conditions. These are the reasons why the state owns the majority of the forest land. Ecological state of forest communities Past distinctive management practn es in the forest have led to the vulnerable ecological conditions of the forest today (Cehovin, 1992). There are many different development stages of areas under forest cover, such as young forest cover, pole fores! cover, trunk forest cover, coppice forest cover, bush cover, plantage forest cover (Zavod za pogozdovanje in melioracijo krasa Sežana, 1990, 1992, 1993a, 1993b). in Brkini, the forest is mostly coppice and bush forest. The coppice forest is old, ecologically unstable and very SLisceptlble to severe climatologic events. In Čičarija, the bush arid poles forest cover spread with pine plantation islands. There is almost 11% of the entire area covered with non-deciduous forest (17"/. of forest cover), whereas on the karst plateau 50% of the forest is black pine. Avifauna Altogether, 8 of the so-called dry-grassland species were typical of the study area. Melanocorypha calandra, Calandrella brachydaciyla, Oenanthe oenanthe and O. hispanica have become extinct (or nearly so) in the period of intensive afforestation with pine and changes in land-use and agricultural practices. The remaining four dry grasslands species are also declining. The most important rac.t is that it was only in this sub-Mediterranean region of Slovenia that these dry grassland species have had suitable conditions needed for their survival. For some of them (AT calandra, C. brachydaciyla, O. hispanica), this region was, of course, also on the northernmost edge of their breeding range (Harrison, 1982). After the period of dominating dry grasslands, the so-called traditional cultural landscape has become typical of the study area, still offering conditions for some dry grassland species, but at the same time very attractive for another group of endangered birds. These are species favouring mixture of grasslands, small fields and scattered settlements in a mosaic manner. Typical representatives are: Upupa epops, Otus scops, Circaeetus galiicus, iulluta arborea, Hippolais polyglotta, Emberiza spp., etc. The historic data for the last decades of the 19'" century (dominating traditional cultural landscape) have shown that the abundance of the traditional cul tural landscape species was much higher than nowadays. Besides the great decline of almost all those species, at least 3 species have become extinct (or nearly so). For two of them, namely Sylvia hortensis and Emberiza meianocephala, the study area was the only breeding area for this region and on the edge of their global range. The main reasons for the disappearance of these species and large decline in the populations of other "cultural landscape" species is the overgrowing of the area. On the other hand, a comparison of the historic data shows that the number of species as well as populations of some woodland species have dramatically increased within the last 200 years. Among them, the following species could be outlined: Dendrocopus major, Dryo-copus martius, Cerlhia brachydaciyla, Sitta europaea, Parus ater, Parus palustris, Parus crista ¿us, Regulus regulus, Turdus philomelos, Erithacus rubecula (Schia-vuzzi, 1883). Some of these species, Regulus regulus, 227 ANNALFS ■ Ser. hist. nat. 11 • 2001 2 (25) lidija GLOBiVN'.K el ai: DCSERTIRCATlOM PROCESSES Iii TUE ADJACPNT MfOITtRKANSAN HILlV REGION ÎBPK1N» AND ČlCARIlA). 219-232 IUSSF.ARCH AftEA PROFILE WITH SUB-UNITS ( jec Figure z) ČIČAKJJA NISMBER OF ri-OrUSTIC SPECIES OF SPECIAL NATURAL VALUE S Endemie ; S Endangered j 8 Areal Brader i O Kare | -jlESEL... DHL 2 Sub Units (Distance ftoci (he Cuasi NUMBER OF BIRD SPECIES OF SPECIAL NATURAL VALUE 0 No. of Spacios P Rur; 0 Threatened P Range edge S PorutMiotl 1300 1900 1S95 16Q0 1900 1995 NUMBER OF INHABITANTS. ClCARUA (IBS.» krail 1GOOO 14000 • 12000 ■ 10000 NUMBER OF INHABITANTS, BRKINI (111.» W) Fig. 4: Floristic and bird natural value index along the research area as per land-use and population census. SI. 4: Indeks naravne vrednosti florističnih in ptičjih vrst vzdolž profila razskovanega območja glede na rabo taI in popis prebivalstva. 228 ANISALES • Ser. hist. nat. 11 2001 2 (25) Lidija Gt-OBEVNIK er 3h DESERTIFICATION PROCESSES IN THE AÜJAC£NT MEDITERRANEAN HILLY REGION (BRKINI AND ČlCARIJA), 519-232 Parus ater, Parus crista tus (Geister, 1994), have inhabited the study area onSy after the period of intensive afforestation with pine. The great majority of these "newcomers" are not endangered species (IUCN, 1994; Tucker & Heath, 1994) CONCLUSIONS 1 he area was --(most deserted two hundred years ago. due to the extensive exploitation of natural resources by humans that had started ir-, the Middle Arcs. When man began to artificially afforestate the area with introduced species (mostly black pine) at the end of the 19"' century, the economic value of natural resources (wood product/on) began to increase and erosion declined. After some time, the spreading of black pirie continued in a natural way. The depopulation processes, which started at the beginning of the 20"' century, consequently caused additional overgrowing of the agricultura! land. The benefit of this recovering process for the natural value of the area is questionable. With the increase of overgrown land and related changes in land-use (Fig. 3), the proportion of dry grassland and cultural landscape species in relation to woodland bird species has changed. Nowadays, the number and abundance of forest species is higher (they constitute almost 40% of the selected characteristic bird species from the area), while 200 years ago this percentage was lower, reaching only 16%. Though the number of bird species and their population have increased, the "quality of species" decreased. Highly sensitive and specialised birds, especially dry grassland and cultural landscape species (Tucker et a!.. 1991; Man:eta, 1993; Bračko e( at.. 1994), are decreasing or have even become extinct and replaced by more common, mainly woodland species. The special natural value, the species endemity, threat status, rarity or biogeographical particularities (species on their range edge) show that Kraški rob, with its Kraška planota, Mt. Slavnik and Malarsko podolje, is ol a great natural importance There are 16 plant species on Kraški rob and 26 on Kraška planota with high natural value index (NVI). In the Brkini area, there are 2 species that are tare at the national level. The sanie counts for the bird species. On the Kiaški rob, there are almost 80 different, bird species of special natural value (NVI 140), 40 on Kraška planota with Mt. Siavnik (NVI 100) and 35 in Brkini (NVI 60',. The area is of a special conservation value as it includes the northernmost edge of the global range of many Mediterranean species. Populations on their range edge are of special importance for theii global survival. The described natural character of the area is also supported by human activities that in fact sustain ecological conditions lor many flora and bird species. Due' to the socio-economic reasons, such as recent depopulation and decline in traditional agriculture, degradation of cultural landscape is present in the area. Once traditional farm character of households in the area is changing to the post-industriai/non-farm character that implies land-use changes. Pastures are being abandoned in Cicarija and meadows, orchards and more remote fields in Bikini. The rate of overgrowing processes by bush, pioneer tree species and aggressive nonindigenous tree species (progression of forest, regression of cultivated land! is high, which is also discussed herewith (Cehovin, 1992; Kosicek, 1993). The forest in Brkini is degraded due to the prolonged exploitation practices in the past The sociological potential, sex, age and education structures of the people of Brkini and Cicarija are not in favour of progress, though the depopulation almost stopped (Globevmk el a!., 1996). The development potential is concentrated along the main, central road in Matarsko podolje, where industrial, marketing, educational, social and cultural centres of the area are concentrated. Details regarding flora, bird natu ral value, land-use and population are shown in Fig. 4 Uncultivated areas exposed to erosion (bare substratum and solid limestone rocks} constitute an extremely important habitat for wildlife. Desertification phenomena, such as erosion and wildfires, are therefore desired to a certain degree. Erosion (water, wind), wildfires, slow regeneration of the substratum in connection with dry and warm climate on the limestone basis gen erate conditions for some highly ecologically specialised species, once commonly distributed over the research area. Without regular maintenance (grazing, moving) and possible managed nature reserves, the future of these important habitats is uncertain. We conclude that desertification processes, shown as land abandonment, overgrowing and human resources decline, have had, in general, impacts on the socio-economic development of the area, landscape character and on the wildlife and habitats. Recommendations for sustainable development On the basis of our study, the following general recommendation for sustainable development are proposed; (a) to initiate modern farm products market network, (b) to support traditional fruit production (apple, plum) in Brkini, (c) to support sustainable sheep breeding in Cicarija, (d) to organise better employment opportunities for no-farmers, (e) to prevent further abandoning of agricultural land, (f) keep remote pastures and fields to sustain natural and, landscape diversity), (g) to follow sustainable forest management measures (diverse structure, non-leaf picking, indigenous species...), (h) to promote clean environment (keep waste dumping under control, solid waste and waste water neutralisation, modern concept industry/manufacture), (i) to develop programmes to support sustainable use of natural resources (soft tourism, bio-agriculture, traditional craft), 229 ANNALES - Ser. Iiist. nat. - 11 • 2001 - 2 (25) Cidiii! CtOMVNIK er ah. DESERTIFICATION PROCESSES IM THf ADIACCNT MEDITERRANEAN HILLY REGION (8RK1NI AND OCARIJA). 219-1U (j) to protect natural monuments and nature conserva- within the region, and (k) to promote the entire area as a tion important areas and declare more nature reserves landscape protected area. DEZERTIFIKAClJSKi PROCES! V ROBNEM SREDOZEMSKEM HRIBOVJU (BRKINI IN Čl ČARI j A, JZ SLOVENIJA) Lidija GLOBEVNIK Vodnogospodarski inštitul, Sl-1000 Ljubljana, Hajrfriiiova 26 Andrej SOVINC Znanstveno raziskovalno središče Republike Slovenije Koper, inštitut za biodiverzitetne Študije, SI-6000 Koper, Garibalefijeva 18 Mitja KAL1GARIČ Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Maribotu, Sl-2000 Maribor. Koroška IGO Znanstveno raziskovalno srediSCe Republike Slovenije Koper, Inštitut za biodiverzit.etnr- študije, Sl-6000 Koper, Garibaldijeva ] S £-mail: mitia.kaligaric@uni-tnb.si POVZETEK Območje Brkinov in Čičarije (¡Z Slovenija) leži na ločnici med sredozemskim in celinskim delom Slovenije. Z.aiadi sprememb v socio-ekonomskib razmerah (predvsem sprememb v rabi tal in depopulacijskih procesov) in pogozdovanja območja v* zadnjih dvesto letih sta se med drugim spremenila tudi vrstna sestava in zastopanost ptic, združb in rastlinskih vrst. Kljub tem spremembam ima robno sredozemsko območje Brkinov in Čičarije Se vedno posebno vrednost v pogledu biodiverzitete, predvsem po številu eridemičnih, ogroženih vrst ali pa vrst, ki tu dosežejo rob areala razširjenosti. Na robnem sredozemskem območju z zmernimi klimatskimi dejavniki je naravni regeneracijski potencial višji kot v osrednjem Sredozemlju. Nekateri dezertifikacijski procesi, kot npr. erozija in gozdni požari pa tudi tradicionalne človekove dejavnosti (npr. kmetijstvo), so potrebni in zaželeni za obstoj nekaterih ozko specializiranih vrst. Opuščanje rabe tal, zaraščanje z gozdom in depopulacijski procesi vplivajo na soclo-ekonomski razvoj območja, krajinsko sliko ter floristične in favn ¡stične posebnosti območja. 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